








<'!'' 










^°-v 



^V 't* • " * vx° V, • • • " ,V^ °^ '•■' ■fP "ft. 



'.\. /.',; 



fc -'0/ .>>-"'■• "' ' ■■■"'-ft -.0/ .f "*"■•■ '*-< : 



THE BOOK OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE 



A CYCLOPEDIA 

OF SIX THOUSAND 

PKACTICAL KECEIPTS, 



AND 



COLLATERAL INFORMATION 



ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND TRADES, 



INCLUDING 



iHeirirint, JJIjarmac^, anir JDomestk €conomg. 



DESIGNED AS A COMPENDIOUS 

BOOK OP REFERENCE 

FOB THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, AMATEUR, AND HEADS 

OF FAMILIES. 



BY ARNOLD JAMES COOLEY, 

PRACTICAL CHEMIST. 
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVIWaS. 



NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 

1851. 



A 



'X 






PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 



The " Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts" being now completed, it is pre per to 
offer to the reader a few preliminary remarks, concerning the nature and contents of 
the work to which his attention is directed. From the Author's Preface to the 
second edition of his Cyclopaedia, recently issued in London, — from which this 
volume has been reprinted, — we extract the ensuing paragraphs, comprising nearly 
the whole of his original Preface. 

" The design of this work is to present an accurate and compendious collection 
of formulae and processes, with a variety of information suitable to the general 
reader, and practical purposes. 

" In the performance of the laborious task of compilation, the principal aim has 
been, to render this work as extensively useful as possible, as well as a correct, 
comprehensive, and conveniently arranged manual of reference on the subjects on 
which it treats. It will be found to contain directions for the preparation of several 
thousand articles of interest and utility, together with their properties, uses, and 
doses, and the means of ascertaining their purity, and detecting their presence in 
other compounds. In most cases, the derivations of the names, and a short histori- 
cal notice of the more important substances have been appended ; and the various 
scientific and technical terms that occur have been generally defined, for the purpose 
of rendering the work as self-explanatory as possible. As the names of substances, 
especially those employed in chemistry, pharmacy, and medicine, have undergone 
repeated alterations, and even at the present day frequently vary as applied by dif- 
ferent individuals, the old and new names, and the usual synonymes, English, Latin 
and Continental, have been introduced, for the purpose of preventing mistakes, and 
facilitating reference to more elaborate works. A general, rather than a scientific 
arrangement has been adopted, because the object of the work is popular and univer- 
sal ; and though useful to men of science, it is more especially addressed to practical 
persons and the public at large. Theoretical reasonings have been avoided, except 
'n some instances, where a slight knowledge of scientific principles seemed neces- 
sary to the proper application of practical detail. The whole book will form a com- 
pendious Dictionary of Reference for the manufacturer, tradesman, and amateur, as 
well as the heads of families ; and there are few persons who will not find, on 
looking over its pages, some article that will interest them. 

'' The sources from which the materials of the present work have been derived, 
render it deserving of the utmost confidence. The best and latest authorities have 
been invariably resorted to, and innumerable volumes, both British and Continental, 
have been consulted and compared. A large portion of the work has been derived 
from the personal experience of the Editor, and the processes of various laboratories 



PREFACE. 



and manufactories, many of which he can highly recommend, from having inspected 
their application on an extensive scale. The indiscriminate adoption of matter, 
WITHOUT EXAMINATION, has been uniformly avoided ; and in no instance has any 
process been admitted, unless it rested upon some well-known fact of science, or 
came recommended on good authority. In the majority of cases, the sources of in- 
formation have been indicated, for the purpose of ejiabling the reader to form a 
proper estimation of their value. Wherever this is not the case, in reference to 
borrowed formulae or facts, the omission has arisen from the impossibility of accu- 
rately determining to whom the merit is due. The individual names that appear in 
the work, are those of the persons to whom the immediately attached information or 
formulae are usually attributed, or on whose recommendation or authority they have 
been taken. 

" It has been endeavored to avoid confusion of the medicinal weights and meas- 
ures, with those commonly used in trade and commerce. For this purpose, it was 
deemed advisable to employ the usual signs or characters to indicate those denomi- 
nations of either, that do not correspond in value. The quantities would have been 
gladly brought to one uniform standard, had such an attempt been practicable. The 
method adopted in this particular, will be found both simple and accurate. 

" The nature of a condensed alphabetical arrangement not permitting numerous 
individual articles to come under distinct heads, the casual reader may often be led 
to suppose this work most deficient, where in reality it is most copious. Thus, on 
searching for Hydrocyanic Acid under H, or Picric Acid under P, such an article 
will not be found : but on reference to the heads Prussic Acid, and Carbazotic Acid, 
other names for those articles, much valuable matter on those subjects will be met 
with. In like manner, a vest number of pharmaceutical preparations, as Pills, Lo- 
tions, Ointments, &;c., will be found mentioned in the remarks that follow the notice 
of their principax ingredients. Many extensive subjects are also necessarily dis- 
persed under several distinct heads. Thus, information on the manufacture of 
LIQUEURS will be found under the heads. Cordials, Cremes, Balms, Oils, Anisette de 
Bordeaux, Sighs of Love, Parfait Amour, Noyeau, Ratafia, &c. ; on perfumery, 
under the heads, Eaux, Esprits, Essences, Extracts, Pommades, Poudres, &c. ; on 
DYEING, under the heads. Calico-printing, Dyeing, Archil, Annotto ; Blue, Brown, 
Black, and other Dyes ; Alumina, Tin, Mordants, Chloride of Tin, Brazil-wood, and 
Indigo. By a little attention, such divisions may be referred to, and readily com- 
pared. Sufficient directions are appended to the various processes, to enable even 
those who are unacquainted with chemical manipulations, to apply them with 
success." 

The work has been reprinted exactly from the last London edition, with one 
exception, which must be stated. After the volume was begun, it was discovered 
that there was a large number of references to articles which are not comprised in 
the miscellany. It appears that the compilation was entered upon \vithout any dis- 
tinct survey of the multifarious materials appertaining to such a Cyclopiedia ; and 
therefore, constant directions were superadded to the same or analogous substances 
or preparations, which it was designed should be embodied in subsequent portions 
of the alphabetic classification. Early, however, in the progress of the volume, it 
must have been a8(U'riain(;d that, by following out that unrestricted introduction of 
•ubjects, the Cyclopaedia would have been a book, " de omnibus rebus, et quibusdam 



PREFACE 



aliis ;" and whether it could have been completed to the word Finis, during the 
life-time of the Author, is very problematical. Those supernumerary explanations, 
consequently, were omitted. Hence it became necessary to subject the book to a 
close examination, that all those fictitious references might be excluded, and the 
reader thus be saved the trouble of turning over the volume for expected information, 
which the work does not contain in the form specified, but which is really included 
in the primary articles. Among the continual variety of those irrelevant references, 
it is possible that a few of them may have been unwittingly overlooked ; otherwise, 
they have been erased ; and thus the reader has been saved indefinite perplexity, in 
not obtaining, as might be supposed, the requisite intelligence upon the subject 
which he was investigating. 

The Publishers, therefore, now present to the mistresses and managers of 
domestic economy, and to the various classes of experimental artisans, and men of 
business, both operatives and traders, a volume which is universally admitted to be 
very superior to every preceding collection of receipts, for general utility. The 
whole series is the result of actual scientific tests, and presented in a very lucid 
manner ; combining the utmost economy and utility, with elegance and easiness of 
attaining the object desired. 

Moreover, while it constitutes the best manual that exists, for family use, for the 
culinary and the other departments of household life, the " Cyclopaedia of Practical 
Receipts" will be of peculiar advantage to the dairyman and the farmer ; and for all 
the manufacturers and mechanics to whomUre's Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences 
is a hand-book, Cooley's " Practical Receipts" is an essential accompaniment, as 
developing the minute, familiar processes inculcated in that large and profound de- 
velopment of modern discovery and science. 

New York, November 19, 1845 



ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS 



USED IN THIS WORK. 



Ale. Alchemical. 

Am. H. American Hospital. 

Ant. Antidote. 

Arab. Arabic. 

Aust. Ph. Austrian Pharmacop<Eia. 

Bat. Ph. Batavian do. 

Co. Compound. 

Comp. Do. 

Comp. Composition. 

Dan. Danish. 

Dan. Ph. Danish Pharmacopoeia. 

Def. Defiirition. 

Der. Derivation. 

Dim. Diminutive. 

Dut. Dutch. 

E. H. Royal Edinburgh Hospital 
Eq. Equivalent. 

Eqiiiv. Do. 
Estim. Estimation. 
Exter. Extermination. 
Fr. French. 

F. H. French Hospital. 
Fr. H. Do. 

For. H. Foreign Hospital. 

Ger. H. German do. 

Ger. German. 

Guy's H. Guy's Hospital. 

Hist. History. 

Hos. F. Hospital Formulary. 

Ing. Ingredients. 

It. Ital. Italian. 

Ital. H. Italian Hospital. 

Linn. Linnaeus 

M. Mix. 

Maj. Majendie's FoKnulary. 

No. Number. 

O. Old Pharmacopoeia. 

Ohs. Obsolete. 



P. C. Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica. 
P. Cod. Paris Codex, or French Pharmaco- 
poeia. 

P. D. Dublin Pharmacopoeia 

P. E. Edinburgh do. 

P. L. London do. 

P. U. S. United States do. 

p. 8B. Equal parts. 

Pf. Proof. 

Port. Portuguese. 

pp. Prepared. 

Prep. Preparation. 

Pres. Preservation. 

Proc. Process. 

Prod. Product. 

Prop. Properties. 

Prus. Ph. Prussian Pharmacopoe'a. 

Pur. Purity. 

Purif. Purification. 

q. p. As much as you please. 

q. s. As much as sufRcient. 

R. Recipe, take 

Rest. Restoration. 

Rus. Ph. Russian Pharmacopoeia. 

S, A. According to art. 

Sour. Sources. 

Sp. Span. Spanish. 

Span. Ph. Spanish Pharmacopceia. 

sp. Spirit. 

Bs. One-half. 

St. B. H. St. Bartholomew's Hospital. 

St. Geo. H. Saint George's do. 

S. V. Spirit of wine. 

S. V. R. Rectified spirit of wine. 

Swed. Swedish. 

Swed. Ph. Swedish Pharmacopoeia. 

Syn. Synonymes. 

U. C. H. University College Hospital. 



C. An imperial gallon. 

Cong. Do. 

gall. Do. 

qt. An imperial quart. 

O. An imperial pint. 

pt. Do. 

cwt. A hundred-weight of 112 lbs. avoirdupois. 

qr. A quarter of a lumdrcd- weight, of 28 lbs. 
avoirdupois. 

lb. When preceded by Arabic figures, a pound. 
Avoirdupois, of 7000 grains. 

lb. When followed by Roman numerals, a 
pound, Troy, of 5600 graiuf. 



5 A Troy ounce, of 480 grains. 

f^ A fluid ounce, or l-20th of an imperial pint 

oz. An avoirdupois ounce, of 437^ grains. 

dr. A drachm, or the l-8th of an ounce. 

3 A Troy drachm. 

dwt. A pennyweight, or 24 grs. 

f3 A fluid drachm, or the l-8th of a fluid 
ounce. 

3 A scruple, or 20 grains. 

"I A minim, or drop, of (50 to the fluid drachm. 

Drop Wherever this word occurs, a minim is 
intended. 

gr. grs. A grain, or grains Troy. 



CYCLOPEDIA 



OF 



PRACTICAL EECEIPTS, 



ABO 



ABR 



ABERNETHY MEDICINES. These origi- 
nally consisted of a three-grain mercurial pill, ad- 
ministered over-night, followed by an aromatized 
black draught in the morning. Finding, however, 
that when frequently taken they produced saliva- 
tion, which proved injurious to their sale, the pro- 
prietor lessened the quantity of blue pill, and adde-d 
a proportionate weight of compound extract of 
colocynth. Two grains of the former, and three 
grains of the latter, are the quantities generally 
adopted for an adult, followed by about an ounce 
of the draught, as above mentioned. When this 
is not agreeable, a dose of castor oil, or any mild 
purgative medicine that the patient may fancy, 
will prove equally efficacious. 

ABIETIC ACID. M. Baup has given this 
name to an acid principle which he found in the 
resin of the pinus abies. Caillot has applied the 
same name to a resinous acid which he discovered 
in Strasburg turpentine and common frankincense. 
Berzelius regards it as a mixture of the resins al- 
pha and beta of the above turpentine. 

Prep. Digest the resin of the pinus abies, first 
in weak and afterwards in strong alcohol, mix the 
two liquors, filter and evaporate ; dissolve the resi- 
duum in strong alcohol, filter and again evaporate. 
It may be further purified by resolution, forming 
a salt of copper by adding a solution of verdigris, 
and afterwards decomposing it, by the addition of 
hydrochloric acid. 

Remarks. In its purest state it crystallizes in 
square plates, dissolves in alcohol, and forms salts 
with the alkalis. It is probably a mixture of the 
pinic and sylvic acids. 

ABIETINA. Syn. Abietin, Abietine. A 
crystallizable resin found in Strasburg turpentine. 
(Caillot.) Berzelius says it is the resin gamma of 
the same turpentine. (Jour, de Pharm. xvi. 436.) 

ABORTION. The expulsion of the human 
foetus, after the sixth week, and before the sixth 
month of pregnancy. In its most extended sense, 
the term has been applied synonymously with 
miscarriage. The latter term, however, has been 
generally restricted to the first six weeks after 
2 



conception. The expulsion of the fcetus after the 
sixth but before the ninth month, is termed pre- 
mature labor. 

Causes. Nervous irritability, plethora, advanced 
age, scurvy, syphilitic, scrofulous, or mercurial 
taints, malfo]fination of spine or pelvis, luxurious 
and indolent habits of living, excessive indulgence 
of the passions, extreme terror, anger, joy, &c. ; 
falls, blows, violent exercise, vomiting, coughing, 
and rough purgatives ; hot baths, stimulating U- 
quors, and other excitants generally. 

Treat. I. Prevention. Avoid all the above- 
mentioned exciting causes, and immediately on 
the appearance of any suspicious symptoms seek 
a recumbent posture, and repose in every shape 
practicable. A dose of castor oil, confection of 
senna, or other mild aperient should be taken, and 
should there be much haemorrhage, injections of 
cold water, or cold infusion of black tea, must be 
had recourse to. A cold hipbath, or sponging the 
lower part of the body with water and vinegar, 
often proves successful. Should the symptoms 
continue unabated, medical assistance should be 
sought. 

II. Recovery. Should the preceding measures 
prove ineffectual, and no violent symptoms super- 
vene, the remaining treatment may consist in 
continuing the recumbent posture, keeping the 
bowels regular, taking a light nutritious diet, and 
avoiding exposure to draughts of cold air. This 
treatment may be gradually abandoned by the 
patient for her usual course of life, in proportion 
as she feels herself able to do so. In many cases, 
however, the only treatment required throughout, 
is simply the adoption for a few days of the re- 
cumbent posture, gentle laxatives, and a light nu- 
tritious diet. Various formulse for medicines suit- 
able to the above will be found in the body of this 
work. 

ABRACADABRA. A word supposed by the 
Cabalists, and by other weak-minded and super- 
stitious persons, to possess great virtue in prevent- 
ing and curing fevers, especially intermitteuts, 
(ague,) of which the kind called semi-tertian was 



ABS 



10 



ABS 



believed to be most easily removed by its incanta- 
tion. The formula has been preserved by Serenus 
Samonicus, and its application as an amul<^ may 
be seen described in Defoe's ' History of the Plague 
in London.' A paper with the -Abracadabra writ- 
ten on it, and worn round the neck, was thought 
to propitiate a Syrian deity of that name. The 
words Abrabax, Abrasax. Abraxas, and abraca- 
dabra, are doubtless closely connected together in 
their origin and import, but tracing them back 
into the confusion and superstition of the past, 
would occupy more space than can be devoted to 
the subject here, and be of too theoretical and 
speculative a character for a practical work. 

Formula from Serenus Samonicus. 

ABRACADABRA. 

ABRACADABR 

ABRACAUAB 

ABRACADA 

ABRACAD 

ABRACA 

ABRAC 

ABRA 

ABR 

AB 



ABRASION. A superficial injury of the skin, 
resulting from the partial removal of the cuticle 
by friction. 

Treat. When the injured surface is small, and 
unexposed, no application is generally required, 
but when the reverse is the case, it is proper to 
protect the unsound part from dirt and further in- 
jury, by applying a piece of lint or soft linen rag, 
covered with spermaceti or some other simple un- 
guent ; a piece of strapping, or bandage of any 
sort, may then be placed over it, to keep it on. 
In most cases, however, a simple piece of strap- 
ping, or sticking-plaster, will be found quite suf- 
ficient. 

ABSCESS. A tumor or swelling in the mem- 
branous or fleshy parts of the body, resulting 
from inflammatory action, and the consequent 
formation of purulent matter. 

Symp. I. Acute Abscess, Active inflamma- 
tion rapidly terminating in the production of pus 
or matter and the increase of the tumor. The 
latter may be felt fluctuating within the part, if 
near the surface ; an uneasy sensation of weight 
follows, the swellizig assumes a conical shape, and 
what is popularly known as a head or point ; the 
skin reddens, and gradually becomes thinner, until 
at last it breaks, and the imprisoned matter es- 
capes. In favorable cases, healthy action follows, 
the injury is repaired, and the wound heals. In 
some cases instead of the tumor bursting, the 
whole of the matter is absorbed into the blood, 
and the swelling disappears, whence somctiuics 
disagreeable consequences have resulted, but as 
frequently without any perceptible derangemeift 
of the general health. 

II. C /ironic Ahsress. This generally occurs in 
BcrofiilouH constitutions, and is usually confined to 
the lytnphatic glands and cellular tissue. The 
symplonis up to the period ol' llie discharge of the 
matter aic of a similar kind to those' just de- 
scribed, but with a much less degree of inilauniui- 
tioii. At tluH point, however, the latter increases, 



fever is excited, and the discharge continues, pro- 
ducing debility and sometimes fatal results. In 
favorable cases, the healing and reparative pro- 
cesses are similar to those of the acute variety, 
but much more tedious, the curative action often 
barely keeping pace with the injurious effects of 
the ulcer, even in its improving condition. 

Treat. Cooling applications, friction, and con- 
tinued gentle pressure may be tried in the early 
stages, and, if ineffectual, suppuration should then 
be promoted by warm poultices and fomenta- 
tions, accompanied by a liberal diet until the 
rupture of the tumor; when this takes place, the 
ulcer must be regularly dressed twice a day with 
siinple ointment, and kept perfectly clean ; a 
light nutritious diet should now be adopted, and 
the bowels kept gently open with mild aperients. 
When the abscess is a'tuate in the head, chest, 
joints, near the eye, or other part where its pres- 
ence may be productive of serious injury from 
pressure or diffusion, it should be opened with a 
lancet as soon as mature, but this operation had 
better be performed by a surgeon. Chronic ab- 
scesses require to be opened earlier than acute 
ones, but in other respects their treatment is sim- 
ilar. 

ABSINTHIC ACID. A peculiar acid found 
by Braconnot in the artemisia absinthium, or com- 
mon wormwood, where it exists in combination 
v/ith potash. 

Prep. Add a solution of acetate of lead to a 
watery infusion of common wormwood, wash the 
precipitate in cold distilled water, then suspend it 
in water contained in a tall vessel of glass, and 
pass sulphureted hydrogen gas through the liquor, 
until all the lead is precipitated ; lastly, decant the 
clear liquid and evaporate. 

Prop. Sour, uncrystallizable, deliquescent, solid, 
forming salts with the bases, called absinthates. 
These may be procured by double decomposition 
from a mixture of absinthate of ammonia, and a 
solution of the metallic oxides. Some of these 
salts are crystallizable. 

Remarks. It has lately been asserted that this 
acid is similar to the succinic, if it be not actually 
the same. 

ABSINTHINE. Syn. Absinthin, Absinthi- 
NA, Absintiiia. The proximate bitter principle of 
the artemisia absinthium, or common wormwood, 
discovered by Caventou in the watery infusion of 
the tops and flowers, and called by him the " pure 
bitter principle." 

Prep. Precipitate an infusion of wormwood with 
another of acetate of lead, pass sulphureted hy- 
drogen gas through the filtered liquor, until the 
excess of lead is thrown down, then filter and 
evaporate to dryness ; digest the residuum in a 
mixture of alcohol and ether, and abandon the 
solution to spontaneous evaporation. Collect the 
ramified brown product, redissolve it in alcohol, 
treat it with charcoal, filter and again evaporate, 
and repef.t this operation until the absinthine is 
rendered quite white. 

Prop., Uses, tj-r. When quite pure, white, semi- 
crystalline, and very soluble in alcohol. Its phy- 
siological elleets, as far as known, are similar to 
the extract of wormwood. It flavors the milk 
and flesh of animals in the same way as the plant 
from which it is procured. It has been proposed 



ABS 



11 



ACE 



as a remedy for dyspepsia, and as a substitute 
for quinine in intermittents. Dose. Unascer- 
tained. 

ABSORBENT, ALKALINE. Prep. Mix 4 
oz. of lime water with 1 oz. each of liquor of po- 
tassa and sirup of orange peel. Dose. One table- 
spoonful in a cup of water or broth, in dyspepsia 
and heartburn. 

ABSORBENT, AROMATIC VOLATILE. 
Prep. I. Carbonate of ammonia 2 dr., pure water 
5 oz., sirup of orange peel 1 oz., mix, for a six- 
ounce mixture. 

II. Sal volatile 1 oz., water 4 oz., orange sirup 
1 oz., mix, and keep it in a well-corked bottle. 
Dose. As last. 

Remarks. This preparation is much esteemed 
as a mild antacid by persons laboring under dys- 
pepsia, heartburn, or acidity of the stomach, arising 
from excessive indulgence in spirituous or ferment- 
ed liquors. It also possesses considerable stimula- 
ting properties, and will partially remove the fit 
of drunkenness. 

ABSORBENTS (in Chemistry.) Substances 
that possess the property of withdrawing moisture 
from the atmosphere that surrounds them. Ab- 
sorbents are distinguished from deliquescent salts. 
The latter attract moisture and dissolve therein, 
while the former merely absorb or suck it up into 
their pores, in the same way as a sponge does 
water. 

Process of ascertaining the absorbent power 
of different substances. Thoroughly dry the ar- 
ticle by the suitable application of heat, and trans- 
fer it, wliile still hot, into a clean dry vial fur- 
nished with a perfectly tight ground-glass stopper. 
When quite cold, place the substance in a pre- 
pared large wide-mouthed glass bottle, which must 
then be closed, and kept so for some time. A 
delicate hygrometer being then introduced, will 
indicate on its scale the degree of drjmess of the 
enclosed air. The atmosphere in the large bottle 
should be rendered as damp as possible, by sus- 
pending moistened rag or filtering paper within it, 
previously to the introduction ^■^' the substance to 
be examined. 

Remarks. Experhnents of this nature are only 
relatively correct, and must be performed under 
exactly similar circumstances, to furnish even cor- 
rect comparative results. In the examination of 
soils, for instance, not»only must the heat employed 
be the same, but the duration of the drying, as 
well as the method of saturating the air in the 
large bottle, must also be the same ; in fact, the 
whole process in each case must be as similar as 
careful manipulation can possibly make them. 

ABSORBENTS (in Pharmacy.) Substances 
that remove acidity in the stomach and bowels. 

List. Magnesia and carbonate of magnesia, pre- 
pared chalk, and the carbonates and bicarbonates 
of soda, potassa, and ammonia, are the principal 
medicines of this class. The first three are called 
earthy, and the others alkaline absorbents. 

Prop., ^'C. They neutralize acidity, and fre- 
quently possess the power of stopping diarrhcEa, 
(especially chalk,) and relieving heartburn and 
dyspepsia, particularly w^hen the latter depends 
on the presence of acidity in the primje viae. 
Dose. One teaspoonful of either of the powders 
(except the last) in a cup of water, forms an ex- 



cellent antacid draught. The dose of ammonia 
is 10 to 15 grains. 

Remarks. Prepared chalk is most suitable to 
diarrhoea ; potash, soda, or magnesia, to heartburn 
and dyspepsia ; and ammonia, when nervous oi 
hysterical affections are present. The latter, be- 
sides being absorbent, is stimulant and diaphoretic, 
and, in large doses, emetic. 

ABSORPTION (IN Agriculture.) The pow- 
er possessed by soils of absorbing moisture. 

Remarks. The more a soil is divided by labor 
and vegetation, the greater is its absorbent power, 
and consequently its fertility. The latter chiefly 
depends on its capacity for imbibing moisture, and 
may be illustrated by reference to recent and dis- 
integrated lava. (Leslie.) The finely divided state* 
most penetrable by the delicate fibres of plants, 
appears to derive its superior power of acting on 
atmospheric vapor from the augmentation of its 
surface and the multiplication of its points of con- 
tact. (Ure.) This method of increasing the fer- 
tility of a soil is well known to scientific farmers, 
and seldom neglected by them. (Loudon.) The 
I method of ascertaining the absorbent power of soils, 
is described under absorbent in chemistry, to 
I which the reader is referred. That soil must be 
regarded as the most fertile, which possesses this 
power in the greatest degree. Garden-mould has 
the highest absorbent power of any mineral sub- 
stance. (Leslie.) 

ACCIDENTS. Syn. Casualties. The read- 
er is referred to the separate articles Drowning, 
Fires, &c. &c., for the best means of either pre- 
venting or meeting accidents. The following re- 
marks are, however, so valuable, that they deserve 
general attention, being equally applicable to every 
description of casualty and misfortune. 

" There is no situation or condition in human 
life that is not liable to a great variety of serious 
accidents, against which it is not always possible 
to guard by the greatest care and foresight. It is 
of the utmost importance, therefore, to remember 
that in every accident, one of the greatest and 
most powerful assistants in remedying it, is pres- 
ence of mind. For want of this desirable self- 
possession, many a person has lost his life, and the 
mischiefs arising from unforeseen accidents have 
become irretrievable. If the mind be overwhelmed 
by fear, or astounded by alarm, it is utterly impos- 
sible that deliberate measures can be taken to 
secure either our own safety or the safety of those 
who happen to be about us, and in the same pre- 
dicament with ourselves. We repeat, therefore, 
that it is a proof of the truest wisdom to cultivate, 
and endeavor to preserve as much as possible, in 
all extraordinary and unexpected situations, either 
of body or mind, or both, that chief requisite in 
every accident, for acting with coolness, judgment, 
and effect — presence of miiid." 

ACERIC ACID. Syn. Maple Acid. An 
acid discovered by Scherer in the milky sap of the 
acer caiypestre or common maple tree, where it 
exists in combination with lime. 

Prep. Place the juice of the maple in a warm 
situation for about a fortnight, that it may ferment 
and lose its acidity ; then filter and add a solution 
of acetate of lead to the clear liquor, separate the 
precipitate on a filter, and wash it with very cold 
water. Then pour a large quantity of boiling wa- 



ACE 



12 



ACE 



ter on the filter, and receive it in glass vessels. 
On cooling, brilliant crystals of acerate of lead will 
be deposited. After washing the latter with cold 
water, reduce them to fine powder and suspend it 
in hot water in a tall glass jar, then pass sulphu- 
reted hydrogen gas through the liquid, until all 
the lead is thrown down ; filter, boil for a few 
minutes to expel the adhering sulphurous gas, 
then gently evaporate and crystallize. 

Prop. These resemble the malic acid. With 
the bases it forms salts called acerates. 

Remarks. From the recent researches of Gme- 
lin and others, it appears probable that the aceric 
and malic acids are the same, and consequently 
their salts must be also similar. 

ACETAL. Syn. Oxygen Ether. A fluid 
discovered by Dobeireiner, and by him called oxy- 
gen ether. 

Prep. Pour alcohol, to the depth of one inch, 
into a tall wide-mouthed glass bottle, and suspend 
three or four watch-glasses or capsules containing 
platinum powder, to the depth of two lines, close 
to the surface of the spirit. Moisten the powder 
with water, and place the apparatus in a warm 
situation for some months. Acetal, aldehyde, and 
acetic acid and ether will be formed. The liquor 
must be then neutralized by adding chalk, and 
carefully distilled. The product treated with pow- 
dered chloride of calcium, until the latter is no 
longer moistened, decanted, and redistilled, yields 
pure acetal, as soon as the boiling point reaches 
202'^ Fahr. (Liebig.) 

Prop. Liquid, colorless, resembles alcohol, smells 
somewhat like the Hungary wines ; boils at 204° 
F. ; miscible with alcohol ; decomposed by strong 
alkalis and acids. Probabh'" a compound of alde- 
hyde and oxide of ethule. (Liebig.) 

ACETATE. Syn. Acetas (Lat.) ; Acetate 
(Fr.) ; EssiGSAURE (G^erm.) A salt formed by the 
union of the acetic acid with an alkali, earth, or 
metallic oxide. 

Prop. The majority of the acetates are very 
soluble in water, and by destructive distillation 
either yield acetone and water, or acetone and 
acetic acid. The aqueous solutions of the alkaline 
acetates turn mouldy and are decomposed by 
keeping. Care should therefore be taken to dis- 
solve no more at once than is wanted for imme- 
diate use. 

Prep. Most of the acetates may be formed by 
direct solution of the hydrate or oxide of the base 
in the diluted acid, or by double decomposition. 

Use. Some of the acetates are employed in 
medicine, and others are used extensively in the 
arts. 

Tests. The acetates are characterized by the 
following properties, by wliich they may be easily 
detected : — 1 . The fumes of acetic acid evolved on 
the addition of sulphuric acid. 2. Striking a deep 
red when added to solutions of the sesqui-salfs of 
iron. 3. The white lamellar and pearly precipi- 
tates they produce with the nitrates of mercury 
and wilvcr. '1. TIk! production of acetone by e.xpo- 
Burc lo a dull red heat in close vessels. 

ACylO'l'Ry ACUI). ^7///. Acetous Acii). Acr- 
rvLic Aoii). Glacial acetic Acid. Radical 
ViNKOAR. Concentrated Vinegar. Pure i'yro- 
LioNEous Acid. Acidum ackticum, P. L. IH.'JG. 
Acidum aceticum fortius, p. L. Id24. Acidum 



acetosum, p. L. 1788. Acid acetique {Ft.) Es- 
siGSAURE (Ger.) Acido acetico (Ital.) Aztn- 
zuuR, (Dut.) The pure sour principle contained 
in vinegar, where it exists in a dilute state, and 
usually in combination with mucilage, sugar, color- 
ing matter, and extractive. 

Hist. Acetic acid, in the shape of vinegar, ap- 
pears to have been known even to remote anti- 
quity. It is mentioned by Moses, nearly 1500 
years before the birth of Christ, (Numb. vi. 3,) and 
was extensively used by the Israelites, as well as 
by the Greeks and Romans. Hippocrates era- 
ployed it medicinally, and, according to Livy, 
Hannibal the Carthaginian general is fabled to 
have softened the rocks of the Alps by fire and 
vinegar. Geber purified common vinegar by dis- 
tillation, and Stahl, at the commencement of the 
eighteenth century, obtained concentrated acetic 
acid by decomposing the acetates by oil of vitriol. 
At the present day acetic acid or vinegar is em- 
ployed either as an antiseptic, a condiment, or a 
medicine, in every portion of the civilized world. 

Sources. It is found ready formed in several 
products of the vegetable kingdom, and is gene- 
rated by the fermentation of saccharine fluids, and 
the destructive distillation of wood, and other vege- 
table matter. By the latter process it is procured 
in combination with empyreumatic matter. (See 
Pyroligneous Acid.) Vauquelin found the ace- 
tates of potash and lime in elm sap, and Morin 
detected acetate of ammonia in the juice of the 
areca catechu. Gmelin says acetic acid has been 
found in some mineral waters, and Geiger states 
the same respecting the acetate of potassa. The 
sambucus nigra, the rhus typhinus, and the phoe- 
nix dactalifera contain a large quantity of vine- 
gar. 

Var. The acetic acid of commerce is obtained 
from vinegar, of which there exist four varieties, 
usually named after the materials from which t,hey 
are procured, viz.: 1, Malt Vinegar; 2, Wine 
Vinegar ; 3, Sugar Vinegar; 4, Wood Vinegar. 
(See Vinegar.) The first three are formed by the 
acetous fermentation, which converts the alcohol 
of the wine, beer, or fermented sugar into acetic 
acid, by the absorption of oxygen ; the latter, by 
the destructive distillation of wood in iron retorts. 
By a proper process of purification, each of them 
may be made to yield an equally pure and con- 
centrated acid. (See Acetification.) 

Prep. In the present article I shall confine my- 
self to the pure acetic acid of the chemist, reserv- 
ing the consideration of vinegar and pyroligneous 
acid for separate articles. 

There are three different processes employed for 
'he manufacture of pure concentrated acetic acid, 
viz. : I. The decomposition of a dry acetate by 
oil of vitriol; II. The decomposition of the ace- 
tate of copper or lead by dry distillation ; and« 
IIL The decomposition of the acetate of lead by 
sulphate of iron or soda, in the dry way. I shall 
describe each, as well as some others less frequent- 
ly adopted. 

I. By decomposing the acetates by sulphuric 
acid. 

a. By decomposing the acetate of soda. 

1. (Acidum aceticum, P. L.) fug. Acetate of 
soda lb. ij. sulphuric acid '^ix. water f Jix. Proc. 
Mix the acid with the water and pour it on the 



ACE 



13 



ACE 



acetate, previoujly put into a glass retort, then 
distil in a sand-bath, taking care not to augment 
tho heat towards the end of the process. 

Remarks. The proportions in this process are 
nearly equal to one equivalent of each of the in- 
gredients, and the result is 51 parts of real acetic 
acid, and ll-i-5 parts of water, or 165-5 parts of 
acetic acid of SU-S^; orsp.gr. 1*048 for every equiv- 
alent, or 137 parts of crystallized acetate of soda i 
employed, being within 1 i § of the estimated pro- 
duct. 100 gr. of this acid exactly saturate 87 gr. 
of crystalhzed carbonate of soda. 15 parts added 
to So parts of distilled water is equal in strength to i 
the distilled vinegar of the London Pharmacopoeia, ' 
or, under common circumstances, 1 part of acid to ' 
7 parts of water is sufficiently accurate. 

Prop. The acetic acid P. L. crystallizes at 28° j 
F., and even at 45° if a crystal of acid be dropped [ 
into it ; melts ag^in under 60° ; crystallizes beau- ! 
tifully under a pressure of 1100 atmospheres. I 
(Phil. Trans. 1826.) Is not strong enough to dis- '] 
solve camphor, resin, or essential oils, in any ; 
quantity. j 

2. (Pure glacial acid. Liebig^s Process.) Ing. j 
Three parts of acetate of soda, thoroughly dried 
and finely powdered ; 9-7 parts of pure sulphuric 
acid. Proc. Pour the acid on the powder, pre- 
viously put into a capacious retort. A sufficient 
heat will be developed by the reaction of the in- 
gredients to cause | of the acetic acid to pass over 
without a fire ; heat must be then applied, until 
the mass in the retort becomes quite liquid. Rec- 
tify the product, when two parts of pure acid will 
be obtained, containing only 20 per cent, of water. 
The latter portion which comes over, exposed in a 
close vessel to a temperature below 40° F., depos- j 
ites crj'stals of hydrated acetic acid. The weaker, ' 
or liquid portion, being poured off, the crystals may ; 
be again melted and crystallized by cooling. The 
crystals of the last operation, separated from the 
liquid, are perfectly pure. 

li. Bu decomposing the acetate of potassa by 
sulphu -c acid. 

1. {Process of the Dub. Ph.) Ing. 52 parts of 
sulphuric acid ; 100 parts of acetate of potassa. 
Proc. Similar to that of the London College ; . 
carefully distil to dryness. Prod. 50 to 51 parts j 
of liquid acid of 1-074. (P. D.) 

2. Ing. 2 parts of fused and powdered acetate 
of potassa ; 1 part of strongest oil of vitriol. Proc. 
Similar to the above. To remove a slight contami- 
nation of sulphurous acid, it may be redrawn, put- 
ting a little dried acetate of lead mto the retort. | 



c. By decomposing acetate of lead by sulphuric 
acid. 

1. (Process of the Ed. Ph.) Ing. Acetate of 
lead, fused, and in fine powder, ^vj, pure strong 
sulphuric acid, fSixss. Proc. Heat the dried and 
powdered acetate of lead to 320°, in a porcelain 
basin, placed in a bath of oil or fusible metal, and 
continue stirring until the powder ceases to con- 
crete ; it must then be weighed, mixed with the 
acid, and distilled to drjuiess, at a heat of 320°. 
Agitate the product with 1 or 2 gr. of oxide of lead, 
decant the clear portion, and re-distil. 

Prop. The sp. gr. of this acid is 1-065. (P. E.) con- 
taining, by Mohr s table, 98-5 p. c. of glacial acid. 

2. Ing. 4 parts of thoroughly dried acetate of 
lead, in powder ; 1 part of the strongest oil of vit- 
riol. Proc. Distil to dryness. 

Remarks. The above yields a ver)' strong acid, 
nearly equal to that prepared by the Ed. formula. 
The quality and quantity of the product are im- 
proved if a little peroxide of manganese be put into 
the retort before distilling. (Baup.) Liebig recom- 
mends the proportions to be 3 parts of the acetate 
to 8 parts of the acid. Dollfuss's concentrated 
acetic acid was prepared by a similar process, by 
drawing over 7 oz. of acid from a mixture of 12 oz. 
of sugar of lead with 6 oz. of oil of vitriol. 

IL By submitting the acetate of copper or lead 
to dry distillation. Acetic acid, thus prepared, 
has been called spirit of verdigris ; esprit de Ve- 
nus ; spiritus veneris, ^c. 

a. (From binacetute of copper, or distilled ver- 
digris.) Proc. Carefully dry the binacetate by a 
very gentle heat, then introduce it into a stone- 
ware retort, the bottom of which has been previ- 
ously coated with a mixture of fire clay and horse- 
dung, to render it more capable of standing the 
heat. It must then be placed in a suitable fiu-- 
nace, and connected by an adopter tube, with 3 
or 4* double tubulated globes, the last of which 
must be furnished with a vertical tubulature, to 
which a double Welter's safety tube should be 
connected, the other end being immersed in a basin 
half filled with distilled vinegar, while the funnel 
portion communicates with the atmosphere. Each 
globe is placed in a basin of water, which is kept 
cool by a stream continually passing through it ; 
the upper portion is also covered with cloths, which 
are kept wetted with cold water. The distillation 
is not commenced until 15 or 20 hours after the 
apparatus is luted together, to allow the luting 
time to dry and harden. Fire must then be ap- 
plied, and so regulated that the drops follow each 




./?, Furnace. 

B B B B, Glass receivers. 

C, Stoneware retort. 

D, Bottle containing vineo:ar. 

E E E E, Basins containing water. 
FFFF, Supports for basins. 



G, Welter safety-tube. 

H, Supply-pipe of cold water. 

/ I II, Cocks to supply water to the basins. 

J, Water main. f 

L, Adopter connecting retort and globes. 



ACE 



14 



ACE 



other with considerable rapidity from the end of 
the adopter tube at the same time that the bub- 
bles of air succeed each other, in no inconvenient 
quantity, from the other end of the apparatus. 
Should the process proceed too rapidly, the fire 
should be damped. The operation is continued, 
,and the fire gradually increased until vapor ceases 
to come over, which is known by the globes cool- 
ing, notwithstanding the greater heat of the fur- 
nace. The operation is now concluded, and the 
fire may be allowed to expire. When the whole 
has cooled, the acid must be collected and rectified 
in glass vessels before it is fit for sale. The recti- 
fying apparatus may be similarly arranged to the 
above, with the exception of the whole being 
formed of glass. The operation must now be very 
carefully conducted and discontinued before barely 
the whole of the acid has distilled over, as the last 
portion is apt to injure the flavor and color. The 
foregoing diagram represents the form of the ap- 
paratus usually employed in this manufacture. 

Remarks. This process is similar to that of P. L. 
of 1787. The acid obtained is nearly equal to half 
the weight of the verdigris employed. The strong- 
est acid is found in the third receiver, and the 
weakest in the first, that of the second being inter- 
mediate between the two. It is always accompa- 
nied by a slight odor of fragrant pyroacetic spirit, 
for which reason it has generally received the pref- 
erence for making aromatic vinegar and perfumery. 
I am informed by a friend that good binacetate of 
copper will yield by careful management full half 
its weight of an acid of the sp. gr. 1-050. It dis- 
solves camphor, resins, and essential oils with fa- 
cility. This is one of the oldest methods of pro- 
ciiring glacial acetic acid, and still continues to be 
preferred for many purposes. 

Caution. The cupreous residuum of the distilla- 
tion is pyrophoric, and frequently inflames as soon 
as it is exposed to the air. It consists of metallic 
copper in a state of minute division along with a 
little charcoal. 

h. {From acetate of lead.) Instead of acetate of 
copper use dried acetate of lead, and proceed as in 
the last tocess, taking especial care to avoid over- 
firing, as the quantity obtained is thereby lessened, 
while the quality is also inferior. 

III. By acting on a mixture of an acetate and 
sulphate by heat. 

a. Tng. 2 parts of gently-calcined sulphate of 
iron ; 5 parts of dried acetate of lead. Proc. Mix 
them together in fine powder, and cautiously distil 
into a large and well-cooled receiver. 

Remarks. This is a good and economical pro- 
cess. Badollier's strong acetous acid was made in 
this way from 1 ih of green vitriol and 10 oz. of 
sugar of lead. 

b. Ing. Sulphate of potassa 12 oz. ; oil of vitriol 
6 oz. ; water 18 oz. ; acetate of soda 9 oz. (dried ;) 
oxide of manganese ^ oz. Proc. Dissolve the sul- 
phate in the acid and water, evaporate to dryness, 
then nkix it with the acetate of soda and manga- 
nese, and distil from a glass retort in a sand-bath. 
The product has been called Lowitz's acetic acid. 

Other metJiods of making acetic acid, cither not 
generally adopted, or but partially known. 

I. Elegant method of making pure acetic acid. 
(From the German.) Proc. Take a long glass 
case and arrange Bhelves in it, u few inches apart, 



one above another, on which place small flat dishes 
of earthenware or wood ; then fill these dishes with 
alcohol, and suspend over each a portion of the 
black powder of platina, (see -Platinum ;) hang 
strips of porous paper in the case, with their bottom 
edges immersed in the spirit to promote evapora- 
tion. Set the apparatus in a light place at a tem- 
perature of from 68° to 86° F., for which purpose 
the sunshine will be found convenient. In a short 
time the formation of vinegar will commence, and 
the condensed acid vapors will be seen trickling 
dit)wn the sides of the glass, and collecting at the 
bottom. We shall find that during this process, 
produced by the mutual action of the platina and 
the vapor of alcohol, there will be an increase of 
temperature, which will continue till all the oxy- 
gen contained in the air enclosed in the case is 
consumed, when the acc, !fication will stop ; the 
case must be then opened for a short time to admit 
of a fresh supply of air, when the operation will 
recommence. 

Prod. A case of 12 cubic feet contents, with 7 
or 8 oz. of platina powder, will produce 1^ lb. of 
absolute acetic acid from 1 lb. of absolute alcohol ; 
and if we reckon the product at the commercial 
strength of vinegar, the increase will of course be 
very great. From 25 lb. of platina powder and 
300 lb. of alcohol may be produced daily nearly 
350 lb. of pure acid. It is proper to state that the 
platina powder does not waste, and that the most 
inferior spirit may be employed. 

Remarks. The revenue laws of this country un- 
fortunately forbid the adoption of this beautiful 
process, but there is no statute that prevents any 
individual employing it on the small scale for pri- 
vate consumption. In Germany, vinegar is man- 
ufactured on this plan, and from the price of crude 
alcohol, it must prove very profitable. In the United 
States of America, where alcohol may be pur- 
chased for less than a dollar a gallon, as well as 
in other parts where spirit is equally cheap, this 
process will no doubt ultimately prove to be the 
cheapest source of pure acetic acid. 

II. An excellent acetic acid of considerable 
strength may be made by soaking perfectly dry 
charcoal in common vinegar, and then subjecting 
it to distillation. The water comes over first, and 
on increasing the heat, the acid follows. Vinegar- 
bottoms will answer for this purpose. 

III. If vinegar or dilute acetic acid be exposed 
to the air in very cold weather, or to freezing mix- 
tures, the water will separate in the form of ice, 
and the strong acetic acid may be obtained by 
draining it into suitable glass vessels, observing to 
do so at a temperature sufficiently low to keep the 
water solid. 

IV. An acetic acid sufficiently strong for all 
ordinary purposes may be obtained without distil- 
lation, by pouring 60 parts of strong sulphuric acid, 
diluted with 5 parts of water, on 100 parts of well- 
dried acetate of lime, digesting with occasional agi- 
tation in a close vessel, decanting the clear liquid 
and straining the remainder. 

Geneual Commentary. The preceding pages 
present a brief synopsis of the manufacture of pure 
acetic acid. On the large scale it is principally 
mamifactured from acetate of soda, which yields 
a sufficiently strong and pure acid for connnercial 
purposes, without the trouble of rectification. In 



ACE 



15 



ACE 



this process, shallow copper vessels formed without 
rivets or solder in those parts exposed to the action 
of the acid, are employed for the purpose of the dis- 
tillation. A coil of drawn copper pipe, heated by 
steam, having a pressure of 3U to 35 lbs. to the 
mch, traverses the bottom of the apparatus. The 
refrigeratory consists of well-cooled earthenware 
vessels, and the adopter or pipe connecting the still 
with the receivers, is also of the same materials. 
SiiWs of earthenware are also frequently employed, 
and even worms and condensers of silver are some- 
times used. The principal supply of crude acetate 
of soda at the present tifne is obtained from Amer- 
ica, Norway, and Sweden. This is purified by the 
chemist and sent to the distiller, who, after ex- 
tracting the acetic acid, returns the resulting sul- 
phate of soda to the chemist, who employs it in the 
decomposition of acetate of lime. This ingenious 
method of mutual assistance and application of 
chemical science otFers some explanation of the low 
price at which this article may now be purchased. 
I have seen a very pure acetic acid of sp. gr. 1-050 
lately bought in quantity at the extraordinary low 
price of 5^d. per pound. In preparing the acid on 
the small scale, glass retorts are usually directed 
to be used, but glass alembics are much more con- 
venient and safe, as the product is less hkely to be 
contaminated by the spirting of the ingredients, 
or the liquor boiling over the brim of the vessel. In 
preparing the pure acid, care should be taken that 
the acetate of soda does not contain common salt, 
as the carbonate of soda, prepared by calcination-, 
and frequently used to form the acetate, is gener- 
ally contaminated with it, and yields up its muri- 
atic acid during the process of distillation, thus 
vitiating the product. The formula of the Loudon 
College produces a beautiful acid of 1"048 ; that 
of the Dublin College another acid of 1-074; and 
that of the Edinburgh a • still stronger acid ; but 
the process of the latter is so mmecessarily minute 
and complicated, that it is never employed except 
for experhnents. In all these methods the product 
becomes more concentrated in proportion to the 
drj'ness of the materials and' the strength of the oil 
of vitriol usee' The process of Liebig is unexcep- 
tionable, and ^lilds a very strong and pure acid by 
the first distillation, which may be afterwards 
I further concentrated if required, as is directed in 
that formula. Acid containing 20^ of water, yields 
a good deal of its superfluous water to dry sulphate 
of soda, by standing over it. (Liebig.) 

In all these processes the acetic acid exists ready 
formed in the acetate, and is set free by the supe- 
'rior affinity of the sulphuric acid for the base ; and 
from its volatility, passes over into the receiver on 
the application of heat ; when, being again cooled, 
it is condensed. In the distillation of verdigris, 
heat may be said to perform a similar part to that 
of the acid. (See Acetification and Vinegar.) 
I Prop. Pure a etic acid (glacial) is liquid above 
1 62°, but below that temperature forms brilliant, 
colorless, transparent scales and tabular crystals. 
In the liquid state its sp. gr. is 1-063. It possesses 
a powerful odor, and acid taste, dissolves camphor 



and resins, and mixes with alcohol, ether, essential 
oils, and water. In its pure state it is a corrosive 
and an acrid poison. It unites with the basis, 
forming salts called acetates. It should be kept in 
Stoppered glass bottles. 



Uses. In the arts. (Dilute under the form of 
vinegar.) As an antiseptic in pickling and pre- 
serving animal and vegetable food, and anatomi- 
cal preparations; in dyeing and calico prriting^ 
the manufacture of tinctures and other pharma- 
ceutical preparations. A^ a viedicine. A little 
added to water forms a useful febrile drink, em- 
ployed also for _scun'^y, and as a palliative in 
phthisis. Added to clysters, it has been used in 
obstinate constipation ; mixed with honey it forms 
a common gargle in ulcerated sore-throat ; a few 
drops mixed with water make an excellent coUy- 
rium for chronic ophthalmia, and for removing 
lime-dust from the eye ; in sprains and bruises it 
forms a useful fomentation. Strong acetic acid 
(P. L.) applied by means of a piece of rag tied to 
the end of a small stick, is a certain cure for ring- 
worm or scaldhead — one or two applications gen- 
erally efi:ect a cure ; as a caustic, it is used to re- 
move warts and corns ; a piece of lint or blotting- 
paper wetted with it and applied to the skin, and 
evaporation prevented by a piece of strapping, 
I forms a common extemporaneous blister ; it was 
I once employed as a disinfectant, but is now only 
i used as a fumigation, to remove the unpleasant 
i smell of the sick room or crowded assemblies. As ' 
I a condiment, it promotes the appetite and digestion, 
but its habitual use is said to produce emaciation 
It also forms a popular refreshing scent in faint- 
ings, asphyxia, and nervous headache ; and is also 
; frequently used as a rubefacient, astringent, and 
I local stimulant. The strong acid taken internally 
' acts, however, as a violent poison, dissolving the 
animal tissues, and by destroying the organization, 
causing death. Orfila has recorded a fatal case 
arising even from its application to the surface of 
the body. Dose, ^-c. As a refrigerant, water 
soured with acetic acid or viiiegar may be taken 
ad libitum. In enemas, 1 to 2 oz. of distilled vine- 
gar is the proper quantity ; for a lotion, 3 oz. of the 
latter to 5 or 6 oz. of water : and for a collyrium, 
1 oz. of ditto to 1 pint of distilled water. 

Purity. Acetic acid or vinegar is frequently 
adulterated with oil of vitriol, nitric or muriatic 
acid, as well as various other acrid substances, for 
the purpose of giving it a spurious acidity. It also 
frequently contains copper, which it derives from 
the vessels in which it has been kept or measured. 
The following table, which I have arranged for the 
purpose, exhibits an easy method of ascertaining 
its purity. 

In addition to this, it may be remarked that sul- 
phurous acid may be recognised by yielding a 
white precipitate on the addition of a small quan- 
tity of peroxide of lead, or by drawing the fumes 
into the lungs ; acrid vegetable matter, as pepper, 
capsicum, horseradish, &c., by neutralizing the 
acid with an alkah, when it may be easily discov- 
ered by tasting. 

Excise Laws. Vinegar is allowed by law to 
contain ^^^-^ part by weight of sulphuric acid, it will 
therefore give a trifling precipitate with the tests 
mentioned in the table, but this will in no case ex- 
ceed the ri5 gr. (when dried and weighed) for a 
fluid ounce. The manufacture of acetic acid of 
any kind comes under the excise laws, and re- 
quires a license, which costs lOOZ. (Collyer.) The 
duty is at the rate of 2d. on everj^ gallon of proof 
or No. 24 vinegar, until the strength reaches 35 



ACE 



16 



ACE 



0. p. or over proof, or equal to an acid of 402., when 
it is charged in a different manner. (See Aceti- 

METRY.) 



Tests. These are the same as for the acetates 
Estim. (See Acetimetry.) 







Acetic 
Acid 
quite 
pure. 


Acetic Acid 


Acetic Acid 


Acetic Acid 


Acetic Acid 




Names of Tests. 


containing 


containing 


containing 


containing 






■Oil of Vitriol. 


Nitric Acid. 


Muriatic Acid. 


Metals. 




' Solution of chloride of ' 




r White precip- 
\ itate insoluble 
[ in nitric acid. 










barium, nitrate of ba- 
ryta, or chloride of 
calcium' , 


... 




. 






Powdered chalk (short ) 
of saturation) ) 




Ditto. 




















Muriatic acid, added to" 






r White curdy 








the sample previous- 






1 precipitate. 








ly boiled with a little 


... 


... 


soluble in am- 
l monia. 








silver-leaf 












Dilute sokition of indi- ) 
go (boiled) ii 






Decolored. 




















Gold-leaf wetted with' 












?3 


muriatic acid, and 






{Partially dis- 
t solved. 






|> 


digested with heat in 




... 






rt 


a watch-glass 












> 


Gold-leaf moistened i 
with nitric acid ... \ 






« 


« Partially dis- 
( solved. 




-g 


... 


... 


... 




■| 


Dilute solution of ni- i 
trate of silver ) 




f Pearly- ] 
< white pre- > 




f Curdy-white 
J precipitate, 




S 


... 


... 


j soluble in am- 




H 

«*-< 






[ cipitate. J 




l monia. 




o 


Weak solution of iodide ^ 
of potassium S 


... 


... 


... 


... 


r Yellow preci« 
I pitate,iflead 
[ be present. 


1 


Solution of acetate of i 
lead i 

Sulphureted hydrogen i 
gas or vater ) 




( Whitish 1 
i precipitate. J 




Tnrbidness. 


'Black or 
dark-colored 
precipitate. 
(If this be 
dissolved in 
nitric acid. 




... 


... 


*** 




and ammo- 














nia added, it 














will give a 














blue color 














if copper be 














present. 



ACETIFICATION. The oxidation of alco- 
hol in the process of making vinegar. To be 
capable of acetification or conversion into vinegar 
it is necessary that the liquid should contain alco- 
hol in some state or other, or some substance, as 
sugar, which, by the process of fermentation, is ca- 
pable of producing it. The presence of a ferment 
or vegetable matter, and a temperature between 
70° and 100° ¥., facilitates the operation. In the 
conversion of wines, beer, wort, &c. into vinegar, 
the sugar is first transformed by fermentation into 
alcohol, and in this state becomes oxidized or 
acidified by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen. 
ManiifactiinMS kIioiiIjI always rcuK-mber that such 
is tiic true natiin^ of this process. (See Acms, 
Acetic Acid, and Pvrolionkous, and Vinegar.) 

ACIOTIMETER. %//. Acktometkr. An in- 
struiuent or apparatus for ascertaining the strength 
of ac(Uic acid. (See the next article.) 



ACETIMETRY. ^yn. Acetometry. The art 
or process of determining, the strength of vinejXHr 
or acetic acid. Various r^*^thods have been pro- 
posed for this purpose, amt, • which may be men- 
tioned the following: 

I. {The plan adopted by the Excise.) Hydrate 
of lime is added gradually to a sample of the vino- 
gar, until it is saturated, and the sp. gr. of the re- 
sulting clear solution of acetate of lime is taken 
by the acetometer, invented by Messi-s. J. and P. 
Taylor. This instrument in construction resem- 
bles the connnon hydrometer, and stands at llie 
mark on the stem called proof in a solution con- 
taining .'))[ of real acid, which is the strength of 
No. 'M vinegar, or an acid which will saturate ex- 
actly 1-1 J grains of crystallized carbonate of sodu 
When tlie vinegar is stronger than proof, the in- 
strument must be loaded witli oiu> or more of the 
small weights which are supplied with it, each of 



ACE 



17 



ACE 



which will indicate an additional 50 up to 35§, 
which is the greatest strength at which tlie duty 
is levied by the gallon. To ascertain the per cent- 
age of real acid, 5§ must tlierefore be added to 
the number indicated by the acetometer. Thus : 
without being loaded, the instrument, on floating 
to a given mark, indicates a proof vinegar or one 
of 5§ ; with one weight, a vinegar of 10§ ; with 
two weights, 15§ ; with three weights, 2u§, &c., 
&c. Tlie reason of this is, that the starting point, 
or proof, is an acid of 5%. In the tecimical lan- 
guage of trade, each 5§ is called a vinegar. Thus : 
acid of 1G§ is said to contain two vinegars ; one 
of 15§, three vinegars, &c. A more common 
method is, however, to speak of the degrees of the 
acetometer as proof or overproof. Thus : No. 24 
vinegar is said to be proof ; one measuring 5 ace- 
tometer degrees — 5 overproof or o. p. ; one 10 de- 
grees — 10 0. p., &.C. In malt and wine vinegars, 
which usually contain gluten or mucilage, this 
method is not strictly accurate, as these substances 
alter the specific gravity. A small weight marked 
M is supplied by Mr. Bate with the acetometers 
made by him, and is used in trying such vinegar. 

Remarks. This plan, though sufficiently cor- 
rect for commercial purposes, is liable to a small 
error, especially in vinegar containing much vege- 
table matter. If it be pure or very nearly so, the 
decimal fraction of the sp. gr. will be doubled by 
conversion into acetate of lime. Thus : 1*0085 in 
vinegar becomes 1*0170 when converted into a 
solution of acetate of lime. In malt vinegar, how- 
ever, 0-005 may fairly be deducted from its~^p. gr. 
as produced by the presence of mucilage and gluten. 
The quantity of foreign matter present in vinegar, 
may thus be approximatively ascertained, by de- 
ducting the decimal of the sp. gr. of the solution 
of acetate of lime, from double that of the decimal 
part of the sp. gr. of the vinegar. Thus : I find 
the sp. gr. of a sample of vinegar to be 1-014, and 
after saturating it with hydrate of lime, I again 
try it and find it to be 1-023, what is the sp. gr. 
of the pure vinegar, and what is due to foreign 
matter — 

Decimal of sp. gr. of vinegar, doubled '028 
Decimal of sp. gr. of solution of ace- 
tate of lime 



-023 



Quantity of foreign matter equal to 
the difference 



•005 



Specific gravity of vinegar .... 1-014 
Deduct: sp. gr. r'ue to foreign matter . -005 

Sp. gr. of a lution of acetic acid or 1 
pure vinfgar of equal strength to > 1.009 
sample ) 

II, Dissolve 200 grains of pure crystallized bi- 
carbonate of potash in a little water, and then add 
enough water to make it up to exactly 1000 parts 
by measure ; as for instance, 1000 minims. A 
solution is thus formed, which, when added to a 
sample containing 100 measures of acetic acid or 
vinegar, until the latter be saturated, will indicate 
the exact amount of real acetic acid present. The 
test liquor should be made and measured in a long 
glass tube, capable of holding the whole 1000 
measures, and graduated into 100 parts, every one 
of which will represent 1§ of dry acid. A conve- 
3 



^9 
li ^ 



nient instrument for this purpose, is the pouret of 
Gay Lussac, which consists of a double tube of 
the shape of the following figure. 

Remarks. Any other method of 
measuring or ascertaining the exact 
quantity of test liquor employed, may 
be used, as convenience or circumstan- 
ces may suggest ; but however this is 
done, it is necessary to do it in such a 
manner as to ensure the greatest ac- 
curacy. 

III. Dissolve 200 grains of crystal- 
lized bicarbonate of potassa in 800 grains 
of distilled water, contained in a suit- 
able shaped bottle, previously care- 
fully weighed ; when dissolved, weigh 
it again, and see that it is exactly equal 
to 1000 grs. This test liquor, like the 
last, is used to neutralize the acid in 
the sample for examination, but in this 
case the quantity must be 100 grs. instead of 
100 measures. Every grain of the test liquor 
consumed will, therefore, indicate 1 tenth of a 
grain of real acetic acid, and every 10 grs. will 
be equal to 1§. A very convenient shaped 
bottle for this pur ase is that known as Schus- 
ter's Alkalimeter, Av^hich consists of a very light 
stoppered glass bottle, having a neck drawn out 
to the one side, and furnished with a very fine 
orifice, which admits of the liquid being poured 




out in small quantities with greater ease, and 
without the risk of an accident. The weight of 
the bottle and solution, after the process of neu- 
tralizing the acid of the sample, deducted from its 
previous weight, gives the exact weight of the test 
liquor consumed, and consequently the quantity 
of acetic acid that has been saturated by it. 

Remarks. This method admits of great accu- 
racy, and is preferable to the previous process, 
(No. II,) as it is much easier to weigh than to 
measure correctly, especially when the quantity- 
is small. 

IV. Instead of bicarbonate of potash, in Nos. II 
and III, either of the following salts may be used. 

104 grs. dry carbonate of soda. 

135 " " carbonate of potash. 

283 " crj'stallized carbonate of soda. 

Remarks. The dry carbonates of potassa and 
soda should be prepared by submitting the cr)'stal- 
lized carbonate to a dull red heat in a crucible, 
when, after cooling, the proper quantity may be 
weighed. 

V. By taking the specific gravity of the saraplft, 
(see Specific Gravity,) and seeking if. in the fol- 
lowing Tables, the per centage of at»id may be 
ascertained sufficiently correct for most purposes. 



ACE 



18 



ACH 



Table I. The following Table is given by Messrs. 
Taylor, as the basis of their Acetometer. 

Revenue Proof Acid, called by the manufacturer 
No. 24. 
sp. gr. 

1-0085 contains real or anhydrous acid in 100, 5 

1-0170 " " 10 

10257 " " 15 

1-03-20 " " 20 

1-0470 " " 30 

1-0580 " » 40 

Table II. The following Table, from the Pharm. 
Central Blatt fiir 1839, drawn up by M. Mohr, 
exhibits the sp. gr. of pure Acetic Acid of almost 
every strength. 



Per cent. 




Per cent. 




Per cent. 




of Glacial 




of Glacial 




of Glacial 




Acid, 


Sp.Gr. 


Acid, 


Sp.Gr. 


Acid, 


Sp.Gr. 


(C.4,H.3, 




(C.4, H.3, 




(C. 4, H. 3, 




0.3+Aq.) 




0. 3+Aq.) 




0.3+Aq.) 




100 


1-0635 


66 


1-069 


32 


1-0424 


99 


1-0635 


65 


1-068 


31 


1-041 


98 


1-067 


64 


1-068 


30 


1-040 


97 


1-0680 


63 


1-068 


29 


1-0.39 


96 


1-069 


62 


1-067 


28 


1-038 


95 


1-070 


61 


1-067 


27 


1-036 


94 


1-0706 


60 


1-067 


26 


1-035 


93 


1-0708 


59 


1-066 


25 


1-034 


92 


1-0716 


58 


1-066 


24 


1-033 


91 


1-0721 


57 


1-065 


23 


1-032 


90 


1-0730 


56 


1-064 


22 


1-031 


89 


1-0730 


55 


1-064 


21 


1-029 


88 


1-0730 


54 


1-063 


20 


1-027 


87 


1-0730 


53 


1-063 


19 


1-026 


86 


1-0730 


52 


1-062 


18 


1-025 


85 


1-0730 


51 


1-061 


17 


1-024 


84 


1-0730 


50 


1-060 


16 


1-023 


83 


1-0730 


49 


1-059 


15 


1-022 


82 


1-0730 


48 


1-058 


14 


1-020 


81 


1 -0732 


47 


1-056 


13 


1-018 


80 


1 -0735 


46 


1-055 


12 


1-017 


79 


1-0732 


45 


1-0.55 


11 


1-016 


78 


1-0732 


44 


1-054 


10 


1-015 


77 


1-073 


43 


1-053 


9 


1-013 


76 


1-072 


42 


1-052 


8 


1-012 


75 


1-072 


41 


1-0515 


7 


1-010 


74 


1-072 


40 


1-0513 


6 


1-008 


73 


1-071 


39 


1-050 


5 


1-0067 


72 


1-071 


38 


1-049 


4 


1-0065 


71 


1-071 


37 


1-048 


3 


1-004 


70 


1-070 


36 


1-047 


2 


1-002 


69 


1-070 


35 


1-046 


1 


1-001 


68 


1-070 


34 


1-045 





1-0000 


67 


1-069 


33 


1-044 


1 





Remarks. Table I is adapted to commercial 
vinegar, and is sufficiently accurate for all com- 
mon purposes. Table II is intended for pure 
acetic acid. It will be seen that above a certain 
per centage, the specific gravity retrogrades ; it 
is, therefore, better in trying very strong acid, to 
dilute it first with a given weight of distilled water, 
and to allow for it afterwards. The weight of gla- 
cial acetic acid, multiplied by *8512, gives the 
weight of dry acid which it contains, and anhy- 
drous acid, nuiltiplied by 1-1748, will give a num- 
ber representing an equivalent weight of glacial 
acid. 

Caution. As a spurious acidify is frequently 
given to vinegar by adding other acids to it, which 
would thus give it a false appearance of strength, 
it is, tlKTcforc, better first to ascertain whether it 
be adiill( rated. (See Acr/nc Acid.) The most 
correct, and, in many respects, the easiest method 
of acotirnetry, is No. Ill or IV. The acetic acid 



of the L. P. has a sp. gr. of 1-048, and contains 
30-8g of dry acid.* That of the Dublin College is 
1-074, and that of the Edinburgh College 1-065.1 
(See SrEciFic Gravity, and Acidimetry.) 

ACETULE. The hypothetical radical of the 
acetule series ; neither itself nor oxide ha^s been 
obtained alone. Its hydrated oxide is aldehyde. 
The chloride of acetule is formed by the length- 
ened exposure of chloride of ethule to the action 
of chlorine and light. The oxychloride, by satu- 
rating anhydrous ether with perfectly dry chlorine 
gas, exposing to external cold, and afterwards to a 
gentle heat. Both this and the preceding are 
transparent colorless fluids. Svhoxy chloride of 
acetule is a gas formed by heating the last article 
in contact with potassium. Oxysulphuret of 
acetule is made by passing sulphureted hydrogen 
gEis through the oxychloride, until an oily liquid is 
formed, which, by exposure, becomes semi-crystal- 
line. This is dissolved in hot alcohol, and is ob- 
tained in crystals on its cooling. 

Remarks. For a knowledge of the preceding 
substances we are indebted to the researches of 
Malaguti and Regnault. The compounds of ace- 
tule offer beautiful examples of chemical substitu- 
tion, but the nature of the prese work will not 
permit their being enlarged on htre. 

ACHROMATIC. Free from color, (from the 
Gr. a, without, and xpw/ia, color,) from which also 
is derived the word 

ACHROMATISM. The destruction of the 
colored rings, which accompany the image of an 
object seen through a lens or prism. 

Causes, <^c. Light is not homogeneous, but 
decomposable into colored rays, either by refrac- 
tion, absorption, or reflection. The colors of the 
prismatic spectrum are formed out of a ray of 
white light, by passing it through a glasS prism, 
and a similar effect is produced if a lens or othei 
refracting media be used instead. It has been ob- 
served, that when this production of color takes 
place, some of the colored portions of the spectra 
are more bent or refracted than others, and that 
the refracting or dispersive power varies with the 
nature of the refracting medium. A beam of light 
thrown on a simple converging lens, not only suf- 
fers refraction at the spherical surface, (called 
spherical aberration,) but the different colored rays, 
forming the beam of light, being unequally bent 
or refracted, diverge from their original course, 
»nd, consequently, fall separately instead of to- 
gether, on the eye or object that receives them. 
Hence arise the colored rings or halos that sur- 
round objects viewed through ordinary glasses 
This eftect is called chromatic aberration by opti- 
cians, and forms the greatest impediment to the 
construction of a perfect refracting telescope. It 
is the object of achromatism to remove this imped- 
iment. The subject, theoreticully considered, is 
not less fraught with difficulty than with practical 
in)portancc, and has engaged the attention of the 
first mathematicians and artists up to the present 
time. 



* Dr. A. T.Thompson says (p. 8)9 of his Dispensatory, 
10th I'd.) " that it contains 307 J real acid by woicht ;" yet, 
on lh(< next |)a^o ho says. " that of the L. C. contains 372 
of real acid and (i3S of watrr." 

t In Olio place, in the E. P. it Is stated to he 1-065, and in 
anothur, 1-0685. 



ACl 



19 



ACI 



Correction. It has been endeavored to correct 
the chromatic aberration of lenses, by combining 
two or more made of different materials, possess- 
ing different dispersive powers. Thus the spec- 
trum formed by flint glass, or glass containing 
lead, is longer than that formed by crown glass, 
for the same deviation ; and when combined, tlie 
one tends to diminish the dispersion of the other. 
On this principle the achromatic object glasses of 
telescopes are generally formed in this country. A 
convex lens of crown glass is combined with a 
weaker concave lens of flint glass, the latter coun- 
teracting the dispersion of the former, without ma- 
terially interfering with its refraction. A still 
better plan is, to place a concave lens of flint glass 
between two convex lenses of crown glass. 

Remarks. All the larger object glasses lately 
manufactured are said to consist of only two 
lenses ; the resulting achromatism proving suffi- 
ciently exact for all useful purposes. The princi- 
pal achromatic glasses and telescopes recently 
made, have been manufactured by Dolland of 
London, and some of the opticians of Bavaria and 
Switzerland. The achromatism of prisms depends 
upon the same principles, and is determined and 
corrected in the same manner as lenses, but pre- 
sents less difficulty on account of the spherical 
aberration of the latter. (See Lenses, Tele- 
scope, Microscope.) 

ACIDS. In common language, any substance 
possessing sourness or acidity ; iii chemistry, any 
electro-negative compound, capable of combining 
with bases to form salts. Most of the liquid^ acids 
possess a sour taste, and redden litmus paper. 

Hist. The chemical theory of the acids is still 
undecided, and the laws which regulate their com- 
binations with the bases, as well as the precise na- 
ture of the resulting salts, are involved in considera- 
ble obscurity. Lavoisier and the associated French 
chemists conceived that acidity resulted from the 
union of a peculiar combustible base, called a rad- 
ical, with a common principle of acidification, 
called oxygen. The inaccuracy of this hasty gen- 
eralization was disproved by Berthollet, who main- 
tained that it was " carrying the limits of analogy^ 
too far to presume that all acidity arises from oxy- 
gen." The early opinion of Sir H. Davy, after 
revised and modified by Murray, was, that inti- 
mately combined water was the real " acidifying 
principle.'' In 1810, however, this celebrated 
chemist published a series of dissertations in the 
Philosophical Transactions, which fully overthrew 
the hypothesis of Lavoisier. It was soon estab- 
lished that both oxygen and hydrogen were capa- 
ble of producing acids, of which the sulphuric and 
muriatic acids may be taken as examples. It is 
now generally acknowledged that no one substance 
or element can be regarded as the general " acid- 
ifying principle." The more recent theory of the 
acids, elaborated out of the researches of Graham, 
Liebig, Dumas, Clark, Fremy, Thalow, Dulong, 
Peligot, and others, is affirmed by its supporters, 
to establish the views first suggested by Sir H. 
Davy, respecting the chloric and Iodic acids and 
their salts. In this scheme, all the acids are uni- 
ted into one series, and all the salts into another, 
both being so closely connected, that it is said, 
" that these two series may be considered as one." 
The existence of hydrogen in the oxygen acids, m 



the free or active state, is here deemed an essen- 
tial part of their constitution, and hence the name 
of liydracids has been given to them. This prin- 
ciple has been extended to all the acids, even the 
organic. Those acids that contain 1 eq. of hydro- 
gen, are called monobasic ; with 2 eq., bibasic ; 
with 3 eq., tribasic, and so on ; the general term 
polybasic, being applied to those which combine 
with two or more eq. of hydrogen. The muriatic 
may be taken as the type of the first ; the tartaric 
that of the second ; and the citric acid that of the 
third. This view of the acids presents the advan- 
tages of simplicity and unity of classification. In 
the union of the acids with the bases forming salts, 
it presumes that the hydrogen of the acid is re- 
placed by the base, it having previously played the 
part of a base itself. Consequently acids may be 
viewed as the hydrogen salts of their radicals, and 
acids and salts, with regard to their constitution, 
form but one class. " The neutralizing power of 
an acid depends entirely on the nimiber of eq. of 
hydrogen replaceable by the bases." (Liebig.) 
Other hypotheses have arisen respecting the acids, 
but have possessed little merit and obtained little 
notoriety. 

Class. The acids have been variously classed 
by different writers, as into organic imd inorganic; 
metallic and non-rnetallic ; oxygen acids, hydro- 
gen acids, and acids destitute of either of these 
elements; the names being applied according to 
the kingdom of nature, or class of bodies to which 
the radical b^onged, or after the element which 
was presumed to be the acidifying principle. 

Nomen. The names of the acids end either in 
ic or ous; the former being given to that contain- 
ing the larger portion of the electro-negative ele- 
ment, or oxygen, and the latter to that containing 
tiie smaller quantity. As sulphuric acid, an acid 
of sulphur, containing 3 atoms of oxygen ; sulphur- 
ous acid, another sulphur acid, containing only 
2 atoms of oxygen. When a base forms more than 
2 acid compounds with oxygen, the Greek prepo- 
sition hypo is added to that containing the smaller 
portion, as hyposulphuric and hyposulphurous acids. 
This system of nomenclature was originally adopt- 
ed under the idea that all acids contained oxygen, 
but the same terms are now applied, regardless of 
the acidifying principle, as hydrochloric acid, hy- 
drofluoric acid, &,c. The prepositions per, hyper, 
and the syllable oxy are also prefixed to the names 
of acids, when it is intended to denote an increase 
of oxygen, as hypernitrous acid, perchloric acid, 
oxymuriatic acid, &c. 

Cautions. All the strong liquid acids should be 
kept in glass bottles, furnished with perfectly tight 
ground-glass stoppers ; glass vessels should be used 
in measuring them, and they should be dispensed 
in stoppered vials. 

ACIDS, OXYGENIZED. These are com- 
pounds to which an apparent surcharge of oxygen 
is given by means of deutoxide of barium. They 
were first discovered by M. Thernard, and de- 
scribed by him in the Ann. de Chim. et Phys. viiL 
306. 

Proc. 1. Nitrate of baryta should first be ob- 
tained perfectly pure, and, above all, free from 
iron and manganese. The most certain means of. 
procuring it is to dissolve the nitrate in water, to 
add to the solution a small excess of baryta water, 



ACI 



20 



ACI 



to filter and crystallize. 2. The pure nitrate is to 
be decomposed by heat. This ought not to be 
done in a common earthenware retort, because it 
contains too much of the oxides of iron and manga- 
nese, but in a perfectly white porcelain retort. 
Four or five pounds of nitrate of baryta may be 
decomposed at once, and the process will require 
about three hours. The baryta thus procured will 
contain a considerable quantity of silex and alumi- 
na ; but it will have only very minute traces of 
manganese and iron, a circumstance of essential 
importance. 3. The baryta, divided by a knife 
into pieces as large as the end of the thumb, should 
then be placed in a luted tube of glass. This tube 
should be long and large enough to contain from 
2i to 3^ lbs. It is to be surrounded with fire, and 
heated to dull redness, and then a current of dry 
oxygen gas is to be passed through it. However 
rapid the current, the gas is completely absorbed ; 
eo that when it passes by the small tube, which 
ou^ht to terminate the larger one, it may be con- 
cluded that the operation is completed. It is, 
however, right to continue the current for seven or 
eight minutes more. Then the tube being nearly 
cold, the deutoxide, which is of a light gray color, 
is taken out and preserved in stoppered bottles. 
When this is moistened it falls to powder, without 
much increase of temperature. If in this state it 
be mixed with seven or eight times its weight of 
water, and a dilute acid be poured in, it dissolves 
gradually by agitation, without the evolution of 
any^as. The solution is neutral, or has no action 
on turnsole or turmeric. When we add to this so- 
lution the requisite quantity of sulphuric acid, a 
copious precipitate of baryta falls, and the filtered 
liquor is merely water, holding in solution the oxy- 
genized acid, or deutoxide of hydrogen, combined 
with the acid itself. 

ACIDIMETER. An instrument or apparatus 
wherewith to ascertain the strength of acids. (See 
Hydrometer.) 

ACIDIMETRY. The estimation of the strength 
of acids. 

Memo. This operation must be understood to 
refer to the relative strengths of the same acids, 
(viz. quantity of real acid of the same kind con- 
tained in the solutions examined,) and not to the 
comparative strengths of acids of different compo- 
sitions or names. Theoretically, capacity of satu- 
ration is no proof of sti^ength of affinity, or acid 
power in different acids in opposition to the views 
propounded by Berthollet. Thus, it takes 50 grs. 
of chalk, or 54 grs. of dry carbonate of soda to neu- 
tralize 37 grs. of real muriatic acid, but the same 
quantity is enough to neutralize 49 ^t:s. of the strong- 



est od of vitriol, containing 40 grs. of real acid. 
It thus appears that a less quantity of muriatic 
than sulphuric acid is equivalent to any given 
weight of base, and according to Berthollet's the- 
ory, the former should be considered the stronger 
acid. The reverse is however the case, as oil of 
vitriol will take lime from its solution in hydro- 
chloric acid. No absolute criterion of the scale of 
power, among the different acids, has as yet been 
discovered. The present article will be confined 
to methods of acidimetry applicable to the acids 
generally, but directions more especially adapted 
to the principal acids will be found under their par- 
ticular heads. (See Acetimetry, Muriatic Acid, 
Sulphuric Acid, «&c.) 

Acidimetrical Processes. These are founded 
on the capacity of the acids to saturate the bases. 

I. Place a weighed sample, say 100 grs. of the 
acid to be examined in a glass tube or other suita- 
ble vessel, and, if it be a strong acid, it is better to 
dilute it with six or eight times its weight of pure 
water, and if solid or crystallized, as citric or tar- 
taric acid, to dissolve it in a like qua:jtity. A 
weighed portion of dry powdered carbonate of so- 
da or potassa prepared from the crystallized car- 
bonate by exposing it to a red heat, is then grad- 
ually and carefully added, until the acid is satu- 
rated, which is known by its ceasing to effervesce, 
and to redden htmus paper. Great care must be 
taken not to exceed the quantity necessary for this 
purpose. After adding each portion of soda the 
solution should be well stirred up, and as soon as 
the effervescence becomes languid the greatest 
caution must be observed in adding fresh portions 
of the alkali. The proper point is arrived at when 
the liquid ceases to redden litmus, and does not 
alter the color of turmeric paper; if it turns the 
latter brown, too much soda has been added, and 
the operation becomes useless. As soon as the 
point of saturation or neutralization is arrived at, 
the remaining carbonate of soda is weighed, and 
its present deducted from its former weight will 
give the quantity consumed, every 53^ grs. of 
which will represent an equivalent of real acid, ac- 
cording to the following table, which I have ar- 
ranged for the purpose. 

Remarks. This method is sufficiently accurate 
for common purposes, butwhwi greater exactness 
is required, the following plan is preferable : The 
reason for the adoption of the carbonate of potassa 
or soda is, that they have a uniform constitution 
when prepared in the way described as above. 
Either of the other articles mentioned in th-^ table 
may, however, be used instead, if at baud, and 
known to be pure. 



ACI 



21 



ACI 



Tabi.k representing the quantities of the Carbonates of Soda, Potassa, Lime, Carbonic Acid, and 
Hydrate of Lime, equivalent to the given weights of some of the Acids, together with the compo- 
sition of the latter, hydrogen being considered equal to 1. 



53i grs. of dry carbonate of soda, 



]434 „ crystallized ditto, 37i 

84i „ bic;irbonate of ditto, 444: 

69i „ dry carbonate of potassa, 

lOOi „ crysUiliized bicarbonate of ditto, 

are equivalent to 



50i grs. pure chalk. 



of hydrate of lime, (fresh,) 
of dry carbonic acid, (when the bicarbo- 
nate of potassa or soda is used for test- 
ing in the process of Fresenius and Will.) 



Acid, Acetic (anhydrous) 
(crystallized or glacial) 



Arsenious (dry) 

Benzoic (dry) 

Boracic (dry) 
(crystalUzed) 



Carbonic (dry 
Citric (dry) 
(crystallized) 



Gallic ... 

Hydriodic (dry) 
Hydrocyanic (dry) 
Hydrochloric (dry) 

Nitric (dry) 

(hquid, sp. gr. 1'5) .. 



OxaHc (dry) 
■ (crystallized) 



Phosphoric (dry) 

Succinic (dry, or anhydrous crj^stals) 

Sulphuric (dry) 

■ (liquid, sp. gr. 1-845) 



Tartaric (dry) 
(crystallized) 



Tannic 



4 Carbon 
3 Oxygen 
3 Hydrogen 
1 Dry Acid 

1 Water 

2 Arsenic 

3 Oxygen 
14 Carbon 

3 Oxygen 
Hydrogen 
Boron 
Oxygen 
Dry Acid 
Water 

1 Carbon 

2 Oxygen 

4 Carbon 

4 Oxygen 

2 Hydrogen 
L Dry Acid 

2 Water 
7 Carbon 

3 Hydrogen 

5 Oxygen 



6-12X4) 

(8X3) 



(6-12x14) 

(8X3) 



(8X3) 

(9X2) 

(8X2) 
(6-12X4) 

(8X4) 



(9X2) = 



24-48 

24 
3 

51-48 
9 

75-4 

24 

85-68 

24 
= 5 
= 10-9 



= 34-9 



= 6-12 



10- 
24 
34- 

18 

6- 
16 

24-48 
32 

2 

58-48 
18 
42-84 

3 
40 



1 Iodine 


=126-3 


1 Hydrogen ... 


= 1 


1 Cyanogen ... 


= 26-39 


1 Hydrogen ... 


= 1 


1 Chlorine 


= 35-42 


1 Hydrogen ... 


= 1 


1 Nitrogen 


= 14-15 


5 Oxygen 


(8X5) = 40 


1 Dry Acid ... 


= 54-15 


2 Water 


(9X2) = 18 


2 Carbon 


(6-12x2) = 12-24 


3 Oxygen 


(8X3) = 24 


1 Dry Acid ... 


= 36-24 


3 Water 


(9X3) = 27 


2 Phosphorus ... 


= 31-4 


5 Oxygen 


= 40 


4 Carbon 


(6-12x4) = 24-48 


3 Oxygen 


(8X3) = 24 


2 Hydrogen ... 


= 2 


1 Sulphur 


= 16-1 


3 Oxygen 


. (8X3) = 24 


1 Dry Acid ... 


= 40-1 


1 Water 


= 9 


4 Carbon 


(6-12X4) = 24-48 


5 Oxygen 


(8X5) = 40 


2 Hydrogen ... 


= 2 


1 Dry Acid ... 


= 66-48 


1 Water 


= 9 


18 Carbon 


=110-16 


9 Hydrogen ... 


= 9 


12 Oxygen 


= 96 



ACI 



22 



ACI 



II. Dissolve 100 grs. of the carbonate of soda 
or potassa, prepared as above, in 700 or 800 mea- 
sures of boiling water, and when cold make the 
quantity up to exactly 1000 measures ; this forms 
a test liquor, every 10 measures of which repre- 
sent 1 gr. of the dry carbonate, and every single 
measure 1 tenth of a grain. A convenient grad- 
uated glass tube for this purpose is Gay Lussac's 
pouret, described under the article Acetimetry. 
This liquid must be applied to neutralize the acid, 
as described in the* last process, and the quantity 
consumed for that purpose may be read off on the 
graduated tube. 

Remarks. This plan allows of the alkali being 
added with greater ease and in smaller quantities 
than can possibly be done with a powder. If the 
graduated portion of the pouret be divided into 
100 parts, each of them will represent exactly one 
grain of the carbonate. 

III. Dissolve 100 grs. of the dry carbonate of 
soda or potassa before described in 900 grs. of hot 
water, and when cold make it up to exactly 1000 
grs. This forms a test liquor, capable of being 
applied with great accuracy, every grain of which 
will represent 1 tenth of a grain of alkali, and ev- 
ery 10 grs. will be equal to 1 gr., from which the 
real quantity of acid present may be ascertained 
from the preceding table, and by the simple rule 
of proportion the per centage may be found. 

Remarks. The solution is best made and used 
in a bottle known as Schuster's Alkalimeter, de- 
scribed under the article Acetimetry. The ope- 
ration is conducted thus : The sample of acid, 
being accurately weighed, is diluted or dissolved in 
6 or 7 parts of water, and the bottle containing 
the test liquor is then carefully balanced in the 
scales and the weight noted. The contents of the 
latter are then added in small and successive por- 
tions to the acid until the point of saturation is 
approached, when great care must be observed 
lest too much be added. As soon as the exact 
point of saturation is arrived at, the bottle holding 
the test solution must be again accurately weighed, 
when its loss of weight, divided by 10, will give 
the number of grains of the carbonate consumed. 

IV. {Method of Drs. Will and Fresenius, of 
Giessen.) Explan. This method depends upon the 
quantity of carbonic acid gas which a given weight 
of acid is capable of expelling from the bicarbo- 
nate of soda or potassa, which is estimated by the 
loss of weight in the apparatus, after the gas, ren- 
dered perfectly dry by passing through sulphuric 
acid, has escaped into the air, from which the 
quantity of acid present in the sample is found by 
a simple calculation. 

Oper. A determinate amount of the acid under 
examinatiou is accurately weighed into the flask 
A, fig. p. 22 ; and if it be a concentrated acid or a 
solid, it is mixed with or dissolved in G or 8 times 
as much water. The little glass tube e is then 
nearly filled to the l)rim with pure bicarbonate of 
soda in powder, and a i\iw, silk thread is tied round 
the neck of the tube, by means of which it is 
lowered down into the flask A, so as to remain 
per[)cndienl;»rly Huspended when the cork is placed 
in the. latter, the cord being held between the cork 
and I he mouth of the llasU. The flask B is about 
half (illed with oil of vitriol, and the tubes being 
arrang(!d in their p'accs, as represented in the en- 



graving, the whole apparatus is accurately weighed, 
time having been allowed for the mixture of aci4 
and water to cool completely, should it have bst 
come hot by mixing. The cork in the flask A is 
then slightly loosened, so as to allow the little tube 
containing the bicarbonate of soda to fall into the 
acid, and is again immediately fixed air-tight in 
its place. The evolution of carbonic acid now 
commences, and continues until the acid in the 
flask A is neutralized. When this takes place, 
which is easily seen by no bubbles being emitted 
on shaking the apparatus, the flask A is put into 
hot water, and kept there with occasional agita- 
tion until the renewed evolution of gas has com- 
pletely ceased. The little wax stopper is then 
taken off the tube a, the apparatus taken out of 
the hot water, wiped dry, and suction applied by 
means of the mouth to the end of the tube d, until 
the sucked air no longer tastes of carbonic acid. 
The whole is then allowed to become quite cold, 
when it is replaced in the balance (the other scale 
still containing the original weights) and weights 
added to restore the equilibrium, which will thus 
give the exact weight of the dry carbonic acid gas 
that has been expelled from the bicarbonate of 
soda, by the action of the sarhple examined, from 
whence the quantity of real acid it contained is 
deduced by the following calculation: — Two mea- 
sures of carbonic acid bear the same proportion 
to one ineasure of the anhydrous acid in question, 
as the amount of the carbonic acid expelled, does 
to the amount sought of anhydrous acid. Thus, 
let us suppose, for instance, we had examined di- 
lute sulphuric acid, and obtained 3 grs. of carbonic 
acid, the arrangement would be (22-12x2) : 40 :: 
3 : 2-72. The amount of sulphuric acid operated 
upon, consequently, would contain 2-72 grs. of an- 
hydrous acid. Let us suppose the weight of this 
amount to have been 15 grs., the sulphuric acid 




.z?, A wido-nionthed flask, capable of holding 3^ to 3 ofr 
coiU:tiiiinR sample tor trial,/. 

li, Diiti), c ipablc of hi)lding lA to 2 oz., partly filled with 
oil of vitriol, tr. 

a c <i Tubes fitting air-tipht in the flasks by means of 
Iho corks I and ;. 

b, I'iete of wax fitting air-tipht on the end of a. 

r, Sniiill lube capable of holding about 1 drachm of pow- 
dered bicarboniite of potash. 

A, (Ipen end of the tul)e d. 

k, Silk cord fastened to the tube e. 



ACI 



23 



AGO 



under examination would contain 18*13 per cent, 
of real acid; for 15 : 2-72 :: lUO : 18-13. The 
quantity of acid in the sample may also be found 
from the preceding table, where it will be seen 
that 44^ grs. of dry carbonic acid are equal to the 
respective quantities of the ditTerent acids, men- 
tioned in the first and second columns, which by 
% the simple rule of three may be converted into the 
strength per cent. The foregoing engraving is a 
sketch of the apparatus employed in this opera- 
tion. 

Remarks. This operation, though perhaps ap- 
parently complicated, is in reality very simple and 
easy to perform, when once understood. It is not 
absolutely necessary that the bicarbonate of soda 
be perfectly pure, so long as it does not contain any 
neutral carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda. The 
absence of these salts is absolutely necessary, for 
which reason Mes.srs. Fresenius and Will direct the 
bicarbonate of commerce to be purified in the fol- 
lowing manner : — For this purpose, half a pound 
to one pound of it is reduced to a uniform powder, 
and a portion of it first tested with perchloride of 
mercury ; if the result be satisfactory, the powder 
is put into a glass jar, and covered with the same 
amount of cold rain water ; it is then allowed to 
stand for twenty-four hours, with frequent stirring ; 
the salt is then placed upon a funnel, the tube of 
which is stopped with loose cotton, so as to allow 
the ley to drop off; the salt is then w^ashed several 
times with small quantities of cold rain water. The 
bicarbonate of soda, after this operation, is ge-ner- 
ally pure, and adapted for acidimetrical purposes. 
It is dried between some sheets of blotting-paper, 
without the aid of heat, and kept for use in a well- 
closed glass bottle. Before use, it may be again 
tested to ascertain its purity. The application of 
heat after the completion of the operation is indis- 
pensable, as, if it were neglected, from 25 to 30 
milligrammes less of carbonic acid would be ob- 
tained. The bicarbonate of potassa may be used 
in this method of acidimetry with equal advantage 
as that of soda, provided it be pure ; but in either 
case it is always proper to use an excess, so as to 
leave some undecomposed after the operation is 
concluded. A piece of litmus paper plunged into 
the liquid in A will not be reddened if the process 
has been properly managed. 

General Commentary. The preceding sketch 
of the principal methods of acidimetry will, it is 
hoped, be found sufficiently explicit to be generally 
understood by workmen in laboratories, and by 
tradesmen and others to whom it may be an ob- 
ject to be able accurately and expeditiously to test 
the acids that pass through their hands. The 
methods Nos. II. and III., and especially the lat- 
ter, combine the above requisites in an eminent 
degree, and if a quantity of the test solution of the 
proper strength be prepared as there described, it 
may be kept unharmed for any length of time, in 
a stoppered bottle, and will be always ready for 
application wherever a good pair of scales or a 
graduated measure is to be found. The only dan- 
ger to be dreaded is over-saturation, and this may 
be avoided by care and attention. A good method 
is to tint the acid sample with a few drops of lit- 
mus, as described under Alkalimetry, when it 
will assume a reddish shade, which will gradually 
osepen into purple eis the point of saturation is ap- 



proached, and recover its blue color as soon as this 
point is arrived at. To see. that this point is not 
passed, a piece of turmeric paper may be dipped 
into the solution, which will retain its color if nei- 
ther acid nor alkali predominate, but if the latter 
be in excess, will become brown, as before de- 
scribed. The ingenious and elegant iTiethod of 
Fresenius and Will, for which the English reader 
is indebted to Mr. Bullock, though admirable in the 
hands of a person accustomed to chemical manipu- 
lations, appears somewhat difficult to mere piacti^ 
cal men, and is liable to failure in their hands. 
The results, however, if the process be properly 
conducted, are unimpeachable. 

In commerce, the strength of acids is frequently 
reckoned with reference to a standard, termed 
100 acidimetric degrees. This is taken from the 
circumstance that 91 grs. of commercial oil of vi- 
triol, of a sp. gr. of 1-845, exactly saturate 100 grs. 
of dried carbonate of soda, and hence is said to be 
of 100 acidimetrical degrees. Any other acid re- 
quiring only 35, 50, or any other number of grains 
of the carbonate to saturate it, would in like man« 
ner be termed so many degrees strong, the num- 
ber of grains representing in every case an equal 
number of degrees. This method of testing acids 
is a modification of that introduced by the French 
chemists, and though of course onh- conventional, 
and principally confined to commercial purposes, 
is especially adapted to practical men but ittie con- 
versant with chemistry, yet very ready in retaining 
or calculating any thing on the centesimal scale, 
from its similarity to monetary language and reck- 
oning. 

All the liquid acids admit of being tested, with 
more or less accuracy, by ascertaining their sp. gr., 
and where this plan is applicable, it will be de- 
scribed in its alphabetical order. 

In conclusion, it may be remarked, that when 
the acid is costly or scarce, a small quantity may 
be examined as easily as a larger one. Thus, in- 
stead of 91 grs. mentioned above, (when speaking 
of acidimetric degrees,) any fractional portion of 
that weight may be employed instead : 13, 26, 39, 
or 52 grs. will yield similar results, by merely mul- 
tiplying the quantity of dried carbonate of soda by 
7 .^ .^ or 1^, accordingly as 13 grs. or any of the fol- 
lowing numbers have been used ; in either case 
the product will be in acidimetrical degrees. The 
centesimal method of calculation admits of various 
useful applications, by means of the Simple Rule 
of Three. 

ACONITE. Syn. Wolfsbane, Monkshood, 
AcoNiTUM napellus. Caution. As several arti- 
cles which follow are made from this plant, it may 
be necessary to caution parties against the dan- 
gerous character of itself and preparations. A fa- 
tal case of poisoning by eating the root instead of 
horseradish is recorded by Dr. Pereira, and more 
recently twelve persons were poisoned by swallow- 
ing ninety grains each of extract of aconite, in- 
stead of ext. cochleariae, three of whom died, and 
the rest barely escaped losing their lives. (Memo- 
riale della Medicina contemporanea.) Officinal 
portions of the plant. The root and leaves (of the 
aconitum paniculatum) are the parts ordered to be 
used by the London college, while the Dublin col- 
lege orders only the leaves. The aconitum na- 
pellus, an equally active species of aconite, is the 



AGO 



24 



AGO 



one employed for medical purposes in England, the 
aconitum paniculatum not being procurable in any 
quantity. (Pereira, Thompson.) The leaves should 
be gathered as soon as the flowers appear. The 
root should be taken up in autumn. When the 
whole plant is employed, it should be gathered as 
soon as the flowers begin to open. Herb collectors 
should be particular as to the period at which they 
gather ilie several parts of this plant, as its strength 
(quantity of aconitina) varies considerably with the 
time of the year. 

ACONITE, EXTRACT OF. Syn. Ext. of 
Wolfsbane, Inspissated Juice of Aconite. 

I. {Extractum Aconiti, P. L.) Proc. Bruise 
the fresh leaves of aconite, previously sprinkled 
with water, in a marble mortar, then express the 
juice, and without depuration, evaporate to the 
consistence of an extract 

II. (Ed. Ph.) Beat the fresh leaves of aconite 
to a pulp, and express the juice ; then subject the 
residuum to percolation with rectified spirit, until 
the latter passes through without being materially 
colored; unite the expressed juice and the perco- 
lated tincture, filter, distil off the spirit, and evap- 
orate in a vapor or water bath. 

Remarks. A variable and uncertain prepara- 
tion. Numbness and tingling should follow its 
application to the lips or tongue, if it be of good 
quality. The extract of the Ed. Ph. is stronger 
than that of either the London or Dublin. The 
two latter are prepared in the same manner. 
Prod. 1 cwt. of fresh leaves yield 5 lb. or 6 lb. of 
extract. Prop. Anodyne, sudorific, and narcotic ; 
very poisonous. Dose. ^ gr. to 4 grs. once or 
twice a day, in neuralgic pains, &c. 

ACONITE, EXTRACT OF, (Alcoholic.) 
Make a tincture by macerating the fresh leaves 
of aconite in twice their weight of rectified spirit, 
for 14 days ; express, filter, and evaporate in a 
water bath. 

Prop. Similar to the last, but much more pow- 
erful. It has been exhibited internally in the form 
of pills, and used externally combined with oint- 
ment or plaster. Dose. One-twelfth to one-sixth 
of a grain every three hours. 

ACONITE, PILLS OF EXTRACT OF, 
(Alcoholic.) Prep. Alcoholic extract of aconite, 
1 gr. ; liquorice powder, 12 gr. ; simple sirup or 
mucilage, q. s. Proc. Mix the first two articles 
with enough sirup to form a mass, then divide 
into six pills. Dose. One pill every three or four 
hours. 

Remarks. The utmost care must be taken in 
weighing and mixing the ingredients accurately. 

ACONITE, PLASTER OF, (Spread.) Cur- 
tis. Prep. Gently evaporate the tincture of aco- 
nite to the consistence of a soft extract, then 
spread a very small portion over the surface of a 
common adhesive plaster. Use. Mr. Curtis of 
Camdcn-town has strongly recommended this plas- 
ter in neuralgia. Remarks. A little of the alco- 
holic extract may be employed with equal success 
to that obtained frcHh from the tincture. 

ACONITE, OINTMKNT OF. (Dr. Turn- 
bull.) Mix one part of the alcoholic extract with 
two })artH of lard. Employed in neuralgia, «!tc. 

ACONITF, POWDKR OF. Prep. Dry the 
leaveH cautiously by meuns of a ciurent of wiirm 
dry uir, and at onco roduco tiieni to powder ; pUico 



the product in dry vials, which must be well 
corked, and kept in an obscure place. 

Use, Dose, <J-c. It has been given in doses of 
1 to 2 grs. in neuralgia, rheumatism, gout, scrof- 
ula, syphilis, &c., but its employment requires 
great caution. 

Remarks. This powder is very liable to spoil 
by keeping, and unless recently and carefully pre- 
pared, can hardly be depended upon. If the 
quality be good, a numbness and tingling of the 
tongue and lips will follow soon after tastinp- it. 

ACONITE, SOLUTION OF. Prep. Dis- 
solve 4 scr. of extract of aconite in 30 scr. of anti- 
monial wine. 

Remarks. This preparation is highly extolled 
by Drs. Richter and Busse in rheumatic affections, 
especially of a chronic kind, as well as .dental 
pains of a similar nature. Dose. 15 to 25 drops 
every two hours, gradually raised to 40 or 60 
drops, in chronic rheumatic pains, toothache, cramp 
of the stomach, &c. (Hufeland's Journal.) 1 dr. 
of the extract to §j of the wine would be more 
convenient proportions, and but very slightly vary 
from the above. 

ACONITE, TINCTURE OF. L (Pereira.) 
Prep. Reduce lb. i of newly dried root of aconite 
to a coarse powder, and digest it in 1^ pint of rec- 
tified spirit of wine for 14 days ; then express the 
tincture and filter. Dose. 2 to 5 drops three times 
daily (carefully watching its effects) in rheuma- 
tism, gout, syphilis, &c:, where a narcotic sedative 
•is indicated. Remarks. Diluted with water it 
forms an excellent embrocation in rheumatism, 
neuralgia, &c. Applied by means of a small 
sponge, tied to the end of a stick or glass rod. 
This formula is nearly the same as Dr. TurnbuU's. 

II. (A. T. Thompson.) Prep. §ij of the leaves 
or root to 1 pint of rectified spirits of wine. As 
above. Dose. 5 drops, gradually increased to 10 
and upwards to 30 or 40. 

III. (Kempf. & Pol. Ph.) Prep. Dried leaves 
of aconite §j, proof spirit §viij. As above. Dose. 
5 to 10 drops and upwards. 

IV. (P. Codex.) Prep. Dried leaves of aconite 
5j, proof spirit §iv. As before. 

ACONITIC ACID. An acid, discovered by 
Peschier in the aconitum napellus, and by Bracon- 
not in the equisetum fluviatile. It exists in the 
juice of the aconite combined with lime. 

Prep. Express the juice from the aconitum na- 
pellus, previously bruised and sprinkled with wa- 
ter, filter, and add a solution of acetate of lead ; 
collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it well with 
cold distilled water, then place it in a glass vessel 
with pure water, and pass sulphureted hydrogen 
gas through the vessel until the whole of the lead 
is thrown down ; lastly, filter and evaporate. It 
may be purified by resolution in ether. 

Prop. A white, odorless, semi -crystal line mass ; 
it tastes sour, dissoly^s in alcohol, ether, and wa- 
ter, and unites with the alkalis to form soluble 
aconitates, and with the metallic oxides, salts that 
are wholly or nearly insoluble in water. 

Remarks. It appears to be identical with the 
true pyroeitric acid obtained by BerzeiiUs and 
Dahlstroom from citric acid. 

ACONITINA. Syn. AcoNiTix. Aconita. Aco- 
NiTiN Aconitine. One of the new vegeto-alka- 
linc bodies to which chemists have given tlie 



AGO 



25 



AGO 



generic name of alkaloid, discovered by Gieger 
and Hesse in 1833. It exists in a greater or less 
quantity in every species of the genus aconitum, 
but the aconitum napellus is that usually employed 
in England. The alkali is found in every part of 
the plant, but more especially in the roots, where 
it is combined with a peculiar acid, (aconitic.) 

Prep. [^Process of the London Ph.) Ing. Root 
of aconite, dried and pounded, lbs. ij ; rectified spi- 
rit 3 gals. ; dilute sulphuric acid, solution of am- 
monia, purified animal charcoal, of each a suffi- 
cient quantity. Proc. Boil the aconite with a 
gallon of the spirit for an hour in a retort to which 
d receiver is annexed ; pour off the liquor, and 
what remains again boil with another gallon of the 
spirit and the recently distilled spirit, and pour off 
this liquor. Let the same thing be done a third 
time. Then express the aconite ; and all the 
liquors being mixed and strained, let the spirit 
distil : evaporate what remains to the consistence 
of an extract. Dissolve this in water, and filter. 
Evaporate the liquor by a gentle heat, so that it 
may acquire the consistence of a sirup. To this 
add of dilute sulphuric acid mixed with distilled 
water, a sufficient quantity to dissolve the aconi- 
tine. Next drop into it the solution of ammonia, 
and dissolve the precipitated aconitine in dilute 
sulphuric acid, mixed with water as before. Then 
add the animal charcoal, thoroughly shaking the 
vessel every quarter of an hour ; lastly, strain and 
again drop in the solution of %mmonia, in order to 
throw down the aconitine ; wash and dry. 

II. M. Hesse has obtained this alkaloid by add- 
ing hydrate of magnesia to the decoction of the 
dried leaves of the aconitum napellus, washing the 
precipitate thus formed with water,^ drying, and 
then treating it with boiling alcohol, which dis- 
solves out the aconitina, and deposites greater part 
of it again on cooling, and the remainder by gen- 
tle evaporation. 

Prop. Pure aconitina is generally in the fonn 
of a white odorless powder, syluble in»150 times its 
weight of water at 60°, and in 50 parts at 212°. 
It dissolves freely in hot alcohol and ether, and in 
the dilute acids forming salts. By the formation 
and decomposition of the latter, it may be obtained 
very pure, when it will crystallize from its alco- 
holic solution submitted to spontaneous evapora- 
tion. In this process much, however, is left 
behind in the mother liquor, and suffers decompo- 
sition. 

Uses. Dr. Turnbull is the only practitioner who 
has employed this substance as a medicine in Eng- 
land. He recommended it in very minute doses, 
in the form of pills, for neuralgic affections, and 
externally made into an embrocation and an oint- 
ment. The danger attending its internal exhibi- 
tion, from the slightest error or want of skill in 
dispensing it, has lately induced even Dr. Turn- 
bull to cease to employ it in that way. 

Pur. There is a spurious article imported under 
the name of aconitina, which sells for about 3d. a 
grain, but possesses none of the properties of that 
prepared by Mr. Morson. It has a yellowish gray 
color, is only partially soluble in alcohol and ether, 
and leaves a white calcareous ash, when burnt in 
a capsule of glass or platina. The London Col- 
lege say that it should be " largely soluble in sul- 
phuric ether, less so in alcohol, and nearly insoluble 



in water." " It is totally destroyed by heat, leav- 
ing no salt of lime." 

Remarks. This is one of the most poisonous 
substances with which we are acquainted. Too 
much caution cannot, *herefore, be taken in every 
thing that concerns it. It is stated that so sma'.? 
a portion as the o'ne-fiftieth of a grain of Mr. M jr- 
son's aconitina has endangered the life of an indi- 
vidual. (Pereira, Thompson.) The young dispenser 
should be very careful to satisfy himself as to the 
nature of the tennination of the Latin word, when 
dispensing this subtile article. The word aconiti, 
in loose writing, may greatly resemble the name 
of the alkaloid, to the unaccustomed eye ; but the 
adoption of the latter article for the former would 
certainly doom the patient to an untimely grave, 
and subject the dispenser to all the inconvenience 
of legal proceedings. It is scarcely necessary to 
caution the inexpert and careless to avoid this arti- 
cle altogether. There is but one maker in Eng- 
land, and that is Mr. Morson ; and the price at 
which he sells his preparation (3s. 6d. a grain) will 
give some idea of the danger and difficulties at- 
tending its manufacture. This alkaloid is said to 
possess " extraordinary power in some affections, 
and would doubtless be very extensively employed, 
were it not for its extreme costliness." The rea- 
son for introducing this article into the L. P. when 
so mamj others, in general use among practition- 
ers, are omitted, remains a problem which it has 
been attempted in vain to solve. 

ACONITINA OINTMENT. (Turnbull.) 
Prep. Aconitina, 16 grs. ; alcohol, 12 drops ; olive 
oil, 3ss ; lard, §j. Proc. Rub the alkaloid with 
the spirit, then add the oil by drops, and after it is 
thoroughly mixed, pour in the lard rendered nearly 
liquid hy h.e?ii \ stir well until cold. Use. A small 
portion is applied by the tips of the fingers and 
gentle friction, in neuralgic and rheumatic affec- 
tions. &c. 

ACONITINA, SOLUTION OF. Syn. Em- 
brocation OF Aconitina. (Turnbull.) Prep. 
Dissolve 8 grs. of aconitina in f §ij of spirit of 
wine. Use. As an embrocation in the above cases. 
It should be applied by means of a sponge fastened 
to the end of a stick or glass rod. 

Caution. Neither this nor the preceding article, 
nor any similar preparation of the alcoholic ex- 
tract, should be used if the skin 'be abraded. 

ACORUS. Syn. Sweet Flag. Calamus aro- 

MATICUS. Ac. VERUS. Ac. AsiATICUS. Ac. CALA- 
MUS. The root of this plant has been employed 
in medicine ever since the days of Hippocrates. 
It has been recommended in ague, and combined 
with bitters in dyspepsia, &c. It is generally 
taken in the form of infusion or powder. The 
former is made by digesting 1 oz. of the bruised 
root in 1 pint of boiling water for an hour in a cov- 
ered vessel. The dose is a teacupful. The poio- 
der is given in doses of 9j to 3j once or twice a 
day. 

Remarks. By distillation with water, the fresh 
root yields a fragrant essential oil, used in per- 
fumery and for flavoring spirit. It is sometimes 
given in stomach complaints : 1 drop on a piece of 
sugar. A fragrant water, also used for similar 
purposes to the infusion and oil, is made by distil- 
ling 1 lb. of the root along with 2 gallons of water, 
drawing over only 1 gallon. 



ADU 



26 



AGR 



-ACROLEINE. When fixed oils are exposed 
to a heat sufficient to produce ebuUition, acroleine, 
mixed with carbureted hydrogen, is given ofE By- 
passing the vapor through a series of well-cooled 
bottles, partly filled with water ; and by redistilling 
the contents of the second and third bottles, this 
substance will be obtained in the form of an oily 
liquid, possessing a very disagreeable odor. It has 
neve4- been obtained in an isolated state, and little 
is known concerning its precise composition. 

ADIPIC ACID. One of a series of new acids 
discovered by Laurent, among the products qf the 
oxidation of oleic acid, by means of pure colorless 
nitric acid. 

Prep. Gently evaporate the mother liquor, left 
from the process of preparing pimelic acid, set it 
as^ide for some days, and then collect the crystals 
deposited ; repeat this operation until the liquor 
ceases to yield crystals. Then dissolve them in 
hot water, skim off the oil, filter, evaporate, and 
crystallize. Dissolve in ether, and evaporate to 
one half ; collect the crystals and repeat the pro- 
cess a second time ; next dissolve the two crops of 
crystals separately in alcohol, when adipic acid, 
in roundish crystalline grains, and dipic acid, in 
plates, will be obtained. 

Prop. Color brown, soluble in hot water, vola- 
tile above 266°. It unites with the bases, forming 
salts called adipates, which are mostly soluble. 

ADIPOCERE. Syn. Adipocera. (Adeps Fat, 
and Cera Wax.) Grave Wax. Hist. On the 
removal of the bodies from the Cimetiere des In- 
nocens in Paris, in 1786, it was found that they 
were for the most part converted into a substance 
resembling spermaceti, to which the name of adi- 
pocere was given. Fourcroy was the first who 
submitted this substance to a scientific examina- 
tion, though it is said to have been previously 
known to grave-diggers, and that it is even men- 
tioned by Lord Bacon. 

App. It was proposed by Lavoisier to produce 
this substance artificially, for the purposes of the 
arts. Dr. Gibbs of Oxford found that lean beef, 
suspended in running water, was converted into 
fat (adipocere) at the end of a month. Three 
pieces of lean mutton were immersed in each of 
the three mineral acids, in separate vessels. At 
the end of three days, that in the nitric acid had 
changed into a soft fatty matter; that in the mu- 
riatic was less altered ; while that immersed in the 
sulphuric had become black and carbonized. x4Lt- 
tempts have been made to convert the dead bodies 
of cattle (carrion) into adipocere, for the purposes 
of the candlemaker and the soap-boiler, but with- 
out success. From the experiments of Von Hark- 
hol, extending over a period of 25 years, it appears 
that the carcasses of mammalia, inmiersed in run- 
ning water, are after a lapse of three years con- 
verted into a pure, hard, scentless fat, resembling 
white wax, perfectly fit for the manufacture of 
soap and candles. Exposure to stagnant water 
gives more fat, but of an inipurer kind. For fur- 
ther information on this siibjc^ct, the reader is re- 
ferred to ' lire's Chemical Dictionary,' and to the 
* Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,' 
by tin; sanje author. 

ADULTERATION. The fraudulent corrup- 
tion of pure articles, by admixture with otiiors of 
less valuo, for tlie sake of greater gain. The 



means of detecting the adulterations generally met 
with in trade, will be found explained, under each 
article of importance, in its alphabetical order. 

JEGIRINON. A once popular ointment, made 
by macerating the fruit of the poplar, in six time.s 
its weight of melted lard, and straining. It is much 
employed in some parts of the Continent. 

JESCULINE. A new alkaline substance, said 
to have been found in the horse-chestnut. It is 
probably extractive matter combined with lime. 

^THIOPS. Syn. Ethiops. A name give 
by the older chemists to several black powdert 
on account of their color. (See the following ar- 
ticles.) 

JETHIOPS, ANIMAL. This was a powder 
obtained by burning various animals, as the hedge- 
hog, mole, sparrow, «Stc., to a cinder. 

JETHIOPS, ANTIMONIAL. Syn. Ethi- 
ops OF Antimony. Ethiops antimonialis. Prep. 
Sulphuret of antimony, two parts ; quicksilver, one 
part. Proc. Triturate until the globules are ex- 
tinguished. Dose. 3 to 5 grs., gradually raised to 
a scruple, in some cutaneous diseases. 

iETHIOPS, GOLDEN. Syn. Ethiops au- 
RipiGMENTUM. This aethiops is made by triturating 
together the red sulphuret of arsenic and metallic 
mercury. It is poisonous, and is never employed 
in medicine at the present day. 

ETHIOPS, JOVIALIS. Prepared by rub- 
bing together equal parts of tin, quicksilver, and 
sulphur. It was once given in skin diseases. 

iETHOGEN. A compound of nitrogen with 
boron, named from its combinations with the met- 
als, producing a phosphorescent light, in the oxi- 
dating flame of the blovtr-pipe. 

Prep. Mix seven parts of powdered anhydrous 
boracic acid, with nine parts of melon, place the 
mixture in a crucible lined with charcoal, and ap- 
ply heat, then transfer the product into a well- 
stopped vial. (Balmain.) 

Prop. A light powder, resembling magnesia, 
infusible, and nearly insoluble in water. It forms 
compounds with the metals, called sethonides 
These may be prepared by either exposing a mix- 
ture of the metal and aethogen to heat, or a mix- 
ture of the cyanide of the metal with boracic acid 

AGRICULTURE. (From ager, a field, ami 
colo, 1 till.) The art or business of the farmer ; 
the cultivation of the soil in large quantities, for 
the purpose of raising crops and live stock. In its 
more extended sense, it includes road-making, 
embanking, draining, planting, cj-c. It is one of 
the most important of the useful arts, and when 
combined with <^hemistry is not unworthy of the 
name of science. The following short sketch of 
the history and princi;>les of agriculture is from the 
pen of J. C. LouDON, F. L. S., H. IS., «fcc. 

Hist. " The origin of agriculture may be 
traced to remote antiquity, and was doubtless co- 
eval with that of fixed property. In the primeval 
state of society, the sole riches of the husbandman 
consisted of flocks and herds, which were kept in 
a state of movement from one point to another, iu 
search of pasturage and water; but as population 
increased, mankind adopted a fixed abode ; this 
could only be done by bestowing on the site a cer- 
tain degree of labor and care, which became as it 
were the price paid for constituting it private 
property. At tliis point in the progress o{ civiliza- 



AGR 



27 



AGK 



tlon, agriculture may be said to have commenced. 
Previously, the natural products of the soil were 
merely consumed where they were found, but now 
men sought to increase them by culture. 

" The culture of land will be found to have de- 
pended in every country principally on its climate 
and civilization ; though partly also on its govern- 
ment and population. In the warmer climates, 
where nature produces fruits in the greatest abun- 
dance, for the food of both men and animals, and 
where very little care is required to procure shelter 
or clothing, agriculture has made but little prog- 
ress ; because it is comparatively unnecessary for 
the prosperity of the inhabitants. In climates of 
a directly opposite character, agriculture has made 
equally slight progress, from the natural obstacles 
opposed to it. In such countries, for example, as 
Greenland and Kamschatka, only one or two kinds 
of corn crops can be cultivated, and perennial 
gi-asses can scarcely exist ; because the ground is 
covered with snow for eight months of the year ; 
and in these countries agriculture is but little prac- 
tised, as the chief resources of the inhabitants for 
food are found in the sea and forest. In interme- 
diate climates, such as those of South Britain, the 
middle of France, and the North of Italy, the soil 
may be labored by man throughout the whole 
year, and there is scarcely any limit to the kind 
of crops which may be raised on it. In such cli- 
mates, agriculture is calculated to attain the high- 
est degree of perfection ; and comparing different 
parts of the zones of this description of climate in 
both hemispheres, perhaps it may be asserted, that 
the best agriculture in the world is to he found in 
Britain and the North of Italy ; viz., in East Lo- 
thian and Norfolk, in the Vale of Arno and on 
the banks of the Po. The kind of agriculture prac- 
tised in different countries is also of course adapted 
to the difference of climate. Thus, towards the 
North Pole, the great art of the cultivator would 
be to increase the heat ; or, rather, in adopting 
such measures as would best guard plants and an- 
unals against cold, rains, and the vicissitudes of 
the weather. Towards the south, on the other 
hand, the art of the cultivator would be chiefly di- 
rected to moderating the extreme heat and supply- 
ing moisture. It thus appears that the agriculture 
of any country depends on its latitude ; and that 
in high and low latitudes, where there are greater 
extremes of climate and temperature to contend 
with, agriculture must be of a more difficult and 
hazardous description than in intermediate or more 
temperate climates, such as that of Syria, where 
the art is supposed to have originated, or in Eu- 
rope, where it maybe considered as having attain- 
ed its highest degree of perfection. 

" In tracing the progress of this art in civilized 
countries, we have only to follow the chronology 
of general history. As the Greeks and Romans 
appear to have arrived at as great a degree of per- 
fection in legislation as the moderns, so they ap- 
pear to have attained nearly equal excellence in 
the practice of agriculture. Till within the pres- 
ent centiir)^ very little difference existed between 
the most approved agriculture of climates analo- 
gous to that of Italy, and the agriculture of the 
Romans as described by Cato, Columella, and 
other ancient writers. The chief superiority of 
the moderns consists in their machinery, and in 



their knowledge of the science of the art ; the last 
being of very recent date, and by no means general 
among practitioners, (farmers.) By science, im- 
proved breeds both of plants and animals have 
been originated, and by modern machinery a more 
perfect tillage has been produced, and also a more 
complete separation of the produce from the soil, 
from the refuse of the plants which bore it, and 
from all impurities. 

" The history of British agriculture begins with 
the Roman Conquest. Julius Caesar found the in- 
habitants in a state of semi -barbarism ; but Agri- 
cola left them in possession of all the arts of civili- 
zation then known. Agriculture declined with the 
invasion of the Saxons ; but was preserved through 
the dark ages after the establishment of Christi- 
anity by the intelligence of the religious establish- 
ments, who gradually became possessed of the 
greater portion of the landed property of the coun- 
try. Agriculture revived in the reign of Henry 
VIII., and in that of Elizabeth, during the long 
peace which then prevailed, and the consequent 
security of property ; and it afterwards declined 
during the civil wars ; it again revived during the 
reigns of William and Mary, Queen Anne, and 
George I., in consequence of the introduction of 
the Flemish husbandr}^, which included the cul- 
ture of turnips and clover. A still greater stimu- 
lus to the art was given during the reign of George 
III., by the introduction of ploughs drawn by tico 
horses, instead of four or six ; of the drill system, 
and its application to the culture of turnips and 
potatoes ; and by the improvements made in the 
breeding and rearing live stock, by Bakewell and 
Culley. Early in the present centur}', the thresh- 
ing-machine was an important addition to agricul- 
tural machinery ; the reaping-machine, the fre- 
quent drain system, and the subsoil plough, are 
improvements just coming into use ; and the next 
grand attempt will probably be the general appli- 
cation of steam, instead of horses and cattle, in 
tillage and other field operations. 

" The principles of agriculture are derived from 
a knowledge of the nature of plants and animals, 
of soils and manures, and of the climate, the sea- 
sons, and the weather. Plants are organized be- 
ings, which take up their food by means of roots, 
from the interior of the soil ;* animals are organ- 
ized beings, which select their food from vegetables 
growing on the surface of the soil, or from other 
animals, and this food is prepared before being ab- 
sorbed into their system, by means of a stomach. 
The climate of a country determines both the 
plants and the animals which can be produced in 
it ; and the seasons and the weather, the times 
when the plants and animals of the given climates 
are in particular states of vigor or torpidity : and 
when certain operations of culture can be per- 
formed on them or on the soil. 

" The nature of these elementary materials be- 
ing understood, even though imperfectly, certain 
improv^ements can be effected in them by art, 
which are greatly conducive to the increase of ag- 
ricultural produce. The kinds of plants and ani- 
mals suitable to any given climate, soil, or season, 
are determined by the laws of nature ; but from 
among these kinds it is in the power of man to 

* And by means of their leaves from the atmosphere.— 
A. J. C. 



AGR 



28 



AGR 



make a selection ; and with the plants and ani- 
mals so selected, to originate others, adapted to his 
purposes in a superior degree. Hence the impor- 
tance of selecting certain breeds of animals, rather 
than others, and of making choice not merely of 
one kind of bread corn rather than another, but of 
particular varieties of that corn. Thus, in the 
case of wheat, there are some kinds, the grains of 
which, under no circumstances, weigh more than 
from 50 to 55 lbs. per bushel ; while there are oth- 
ers which never weigh less than 60 lbs. a bushel. 
The nourishment of plants has been found to de- 
pend chiefly on organized matter contained in the 
soil, and produced chiefly by the decay of other 
plants. This is a law of nature, which, followed 
up by man, has led to the use of manures ; as the 
fact everywhere observed, that no plant can live 
without water, has led to irrigation ; and, as the 
observation that the excess of water is injurious, 
has led to surface and under-draining. The in- 
fluence of temperature and shelter over the growth 
of plants, and the thriving of animals, is every- 
where observable in wild nature ; and though the 
temperature of a climate cannot be changed, yet 
that of most localities may be improved by shelter 
from cold winds, and by diminishing evaporation 
from the surface, by means of surface and under- 
draining, to draw off the superfluous water. The 
most important principles in the theory of agricul- 
ture are those which relate to the improvements 
of plants and animals, and of the soil. 

" The improvement of the soil may be comprised 
under two heads, — the improvement of its earthy 
part; and the increase of the organized matter 
added to the earth. The improvement of the soil, 
considered as a mixture of aifferent earths, consists 
in rendering it more or less retentive of water, by 
diminishing or increasing the size of the particles 
of which it is composed : for example, by the ad- 
dition of clay in some cases, and of sand in others ; 
and by improving the earthy condition of the soil, 
by the addition of such earths as may be in too 
small quantities, or absent altogether. It has been 
found, from experience, that those soils which are 
composed of several primitive earths are naturally 
more productive than those that consist of only 
one earth, all other circumstances being the same ; 
and it has also been found that no soil will maintain 
its fertility, for any length of time, that does not 
contain a certain portion of calcareous earth in its 
composition. Hence, one of the most common 
plans of improving all soils not calcareous, is by 
the addition of lime ; and of all other soils by mix- 
mg them with such as are of an opposite descrip- 
tion. 

" All soils are rendered more productive by the 
addition of organized matter, or what are called 
manures. Manures may be either composed of 
animal or vegetable matter ; and these may be 
either applied separately or together, and in a iresh 
state or in a state of decay. It has been found 
from experience, and explained from chemical ex- 
periments, that every description of nninure is 
rendered more effective by being made to undergo 
the putrefactive fermentation before it is applied ; 
and this process is carried on wilh solid numures, 
in heaps or dunghills, and with licpiid nuiniire in 
tanks or wells. In the applicalion of niiinnre to 
soils, the {Treat object of tlio cultivator is to apply 



enough for the ensuing crop, and as little more 
as possible; because all that is applied and not 
immediately used, is hable, to a certain extent, 
to have its particles carried off by evaporation 
(volatilization) into the atmosphere, or by rain into 
rivers or the sea. But even if this were not the 
case, to apply manure to a soil where it would not 
be immediately turned into a crop, would be an 
expenditure of capital without interest." 

Draining, or "the operation of freeing a soil 
from superfluous water, is of equal or perhaps moro 
importance than supplying it with manure ; be- 
cause, though without manure, plants will not grow 
with great luxuriance and vigor, yet with too 
much water, they will not grow at all, or will 6e- 
come sickly. The excess of watti may proceed 
from three causes : an extremely moist climate, 
the only alleviation to which is arranging the sur- 
face with frequent furrows, and short slopes be- 
tween them, so as to carry off" the rain as soon as 
it falls ; a soil very retentive of moisture, so as to 
hold it like a sponge, in which frequent under- 
drains, as near together as the surface furrows, are 
required ; and, lastly, a soil lying over a subsoil 
abounding in springs, or, in other words, which hzis 
the substrata charged with water, which is contin- 
ually oozing out through the surface soil. TIim 
remedy for this last evil is, by under-drains of con- 
siderable depth, so arranged as to collect the water 
from the substrata, and carry it off before it reaches 
the surface soil." 

Comjuinution and labor tend considerably to 
promote the fertility of soils. " After draining, and 
being rendered of a proper texture and composi- 
tion, by the admixture of such earthy ingredients 
as may be wanting, a soil requires, to render it fit 
to be easily penetrated by the roots of plants, to be 
frequently stirred and comminuted. This is done 
by the mechanical operations of ploughing, har- 
rowing, &c., which, aided by the alternate action 
of droughts and rains, frosts and thaws, and sum- 
mer and winter, have the effect of pulverizing the 
soil. To maintain a soil in a fertile state, it is not 
only necessary to supply it with manure, in pro- 
portion to the crops which have been carried from 
it, but to vary the crops which it is made to pro- 
duce. It has been found, from experience, that 
crops of plants belonging to the same natural fam- 
ily do not succeed so well after each other, as 
when crops of a different family are made to in- 
tervene. Thus, the several grasses alternate bet- 
ter with root or herbage crops, than with one 
another ; or, one of those grasses of which the 
seed is ripened will alternate better with another 
in which the herbage only constitutes the crop, 
than with one of the same kind as itself. Some- 
thing analogous to the succession of crops takes 
place also with regard to the pasturage of animals, 
and it is found advantageous to put cattle in a 
field that has been grazed by horses, rather than 
to put horses after h»rses, or cattle after cattle. 

" Thus, the principles of agriculture may be 
comprised under the selection of breeds of plants 
and animals ; the improvement of the soil and 
subsoil; the culture or movement of the soil; the 
improvement of the local climate by shelter and 
drying ; and the succession of crops. All these 
princij)les have been derived from experience ; and 
they are only partly accounted for by chemistry 



AGR 



29 



AGR 



or natural philosophy. They are not, however, on 
that account, the less true and useful. It is singu- 
lar that they should all have been known to the 
Romans, and, to all appearance, as fully as to 
modem cultivators. 

" The practice of agriculture, in Britain, may 
be included under the heads of the choice, hiring, 
and stocking a farm ; and its general, culture 
AND iMANAGEMENT. In the choicc of a farm, in any 
given county, the soil is of the greatest importance ; 
because, though this may be so improved by art and 
expense, as almost to render a bad soil equal to a 
good one, yet in practice this would be so expen- 
sive as by no means to answer the purpose of the 
farmer. It may be thought that the vicinity of good 
roads, of a canal, a river, or a market town, are ob- 
jects of more importance than the nature of the soil ; 
but this is not the case, because, supposing the roads 
to be bad and the markets at a distance, it is only 
necessary' to change the system of cultivation and 
management, and to turn the produce of the farm 
into some description of live stock, which may be 
driven to any distance, even over a country with- 
out roads. If it be alleged that the nature of the 
climate is of paramount importance to the soil, in 
the choice of a farm, we allow that in an extended 
sense it is ; for example, if a cultivator had the 
choice of any part of Europe, there are doubtless 
many districts where the climate is far more favor- 
able for all the operations and products of agricul- 
ture than others ; and if even he had the choice 
af every part of Britain, he might find some local- 
ities much more favorable than others. In general, 
iiowever, the actual choice of any cultivator lies 
ivithin a given locality, where the climate, in a 
practical point of view, is everywhere the same. 
Next to soil and climate in the choice of a farm, 
;he state of the buildings and fences on it, the 
Uate of the roads, and the distance frojn a mar- 
ket town, a canal, or a seaport, are of importance. 
Without buildings of sufficient extent, and prop- 
erly situated, and of the proper kinds, the business 
jf a farm cannot be carried on ; and though some 
farms and some kinds of farming may be conduct- 
ed without fences, yet, in general, fences are as 
accessary as roads. The last circumstance which 
we shall notice in this cursory glance, is the na- 
ture of the, TENURE by which the farm is to be 
aeld, and on the covenants and conditions of the 
ease. No cultivator who calculates on the em- 
jloyment of considerable capital, will risk it on 
ands of another, without some security for having 
t returned ; and this security is a lease for a fixed 
lumber of years. On the other hand, no proprie- 
;or of lands will delegate the possession of them to 
mother, for a fixed number of years, without a 
valuable consideration ; and this he reserves to 
limself in the lease, under the denomination of 
•ent. As lands in a state of cultivation, and build- 
ngs and fences in a state of repair, are liable to be 
njured and deteriorated in value by bad manage- 
nent or neglect, the proprietor guards against 
;hese accidents by certain conditions in the lease. 
" The culture and management of a farm de- 
)end jointly on the soil and climate, and on the 
dnd of produce most in demand and reckoned 
Host profitable. In the mountainous districts of 
3reat Britain, where the climate is cold, almost 
;he only kind of farming practised is that of breed- 



ing and rearing different kinds of live stock, Biicl| 
as sheep or cattle, which are sold for being fattened 
in more favorable districts ; or horses, in order to 
supply the demand for these animals for the pur- 
poses of draught or saddle. The mountainous dis- 
tricts of Scotland and Wales are chietly devoted 
to the breeding and rearing of sheep and black 
cattle, which are sold to the farmers of the low 
countries, in both kingdoms, in order to be fattened 
for the shambles. The hilly districts of Yorkshire 
and Lancashire are chiefly employed in breeding 
and rearing of horses. In the low country of the 
east coast of Great Britain, the climate being dry, 
is favorable to the culture of corn ; while on the 
west coast, and in Ireland generally, the climate 
being moist, is more favorable to pasture. 

" The farm products most universallv in de- 
mand are corn and butchers' meat, and these may 
be produced on every farm, the soil of whicti ad- 
mits of being kept alternately in tillage and in 
grass. Butchers' meat may be producer ji much 
greater abundance on such soils as admit of the 
culture of root and herbage crops, such as turnips, 
potatoes, and clover ; while corn may be produced 
most abundantly in strong, loamy soils, within 
reach of extensive sources of manure. The most 
pi-ofitable description of crop will frequently be found 
to be different from that which is in most general 
demand ; for example, in the neighborhood of a 
large town, the culture of culinary vegetables, on 
a large scale, in what are called farm gardens, is 
generally far more profitable than the raising of 
corn or butchers' meat. Even the raising of food 
for cattle, in such situations, is found to yield more 
profit than ordinary farming. There are also par- 
ticular crops which maybe occasionally cultivated, 
which yield extraordinary profits ; such as drugs 
used in dyeing, or in some manufacture not 
common ; plants of some new and improved va- 
riety of the kinds in general cultivation, for their 
seed, &.C, 

" The agriculture of Britain, and especially 
that of the low countries of Scotland, excels that 
of most other countries having similar climates, 
from the superior skill, intelligence, and capital of 
the farmer ; the considerable length of the lease 
which is granted by the landlord ; the superiority 
of the implements and machines employed ; and 
the improved breeds of animals and plants which 
are reared or cultivated. Perhaps the nearest ap- 
proach to perfection in the culture of arable land, 
in any part of Britain, is made in some parts of 
East Lothian ; where, in consequence of deep- 
ploughing, substituting under-drains for furrows, 
regularly supplying manure, and alternating r/ean- 
ing and restoring crops with exhausting crops, as 
great an amount of produce is obtained as can 
stand on the surface at one time. The agriculture 
of Britain is most defective in the ^southern dis- 
tricts of the is' and, in consequence of the farmers 
being the very opposite of those in the northern 
districts, the want or the shortness of the leases, 
and the restrictive clauses of those leases, by which 
the tenant is prevented exercising his own judg- 
ment, and is obliged to follow the routine prescribed 
in the leases of a former age." 

For further information on this important sub- 
ject the reader is referred to the ' Cyclopaedia of 
Agriculture,' which contains the best system of 



AGU 



30 



ALA 



practical agriculture extant. The scientific agri- 
culturist is also especially advised to peruse the 
' Agricultural Chemistry' of Liebig, which explains 
the application of chemical science to the purposes 
of the farmer, and the improvement of the soil, 
and contains much that is valuable of a scientific 
description connected with agriculture. The prin- 
ciples and practice laid down in these important 
works, if applied with only moderate skill and in- 
dustry, cannot fail to produce a degree of success, 
unattainable by mere unassisted experience. Seve- 
ral articles will also be found in this Cyclopaedia, 
containing information respecting farming. (See 
the heads Farming, Manures.) 

AGRIMONY. Syn. Agrimonia. Agrimonia 
EUPATORiA. A common field plant flowering in 
June and July, It is frequently given in the form 
of infusion or powder, in certain skin diseases, 
especially the itch. It is tonic and stomachic. 

AGRIMONY TEA. Syn. Infusion of Agri- 
mony. Prep. Pour 1 pint of boiling water on 1 oz. 
of the fresh tops of agrimony (gathered before the 
flowers are formed) and 1 oz. of liquorice root, 
(sliced,) macerate for one hour in a close vessel 
and a warm situation, then strain for use. Dose. 
A teacupful or more two or three times a day. 

AGUE. Syn- Intermittent Fever. A spe- 
cies of fever which comes on only at stated inter- 
vals, (hence called intermittent,) leaving the patient 
between the periods of attack, in apparently good 
health. The attacks of this disease usually return 
with great regularity, and have in consequence 
been distinguished by names having reference to 
the periods of their visits. From this charac- 
teristic nosologists have divided them into the 
Quotidian, returning after a lapse of 24 hours. 

Tertian 48 do. 

Quartan 72 do. 

and so on until the interval extends to nine or ten 
days, as in the nonanus and decimanus. 

Symp. 1. The cold stage, marked by debility, 
paleness, coldness, drowsiness, and general rigors 
throughout the body, impaired respiration, nausea, 
vomiting, &lc. These symptoms gradually abate, 
and are followed by — 11. The hot stage, distin- 
guished by the usual marks of fever, and, in some 
cases, violent deli/'um, &c. After a certain time 
the disease passes into — III. The sweating stage, 
marked by a copious perspiration breaking out, and 
a gradual return of most of the functions of the 
body to their ordinary state. In many cases, how- 
ever, not only do the symptoms, but the succession 
of ti|e stages and their duration also vary. 

Causes. Exposure to the miasmata of marshes 
and stagnant water, putrefying animal and vege- 
table matter, &c., poor diet, exposure to cold and 
damps, damp bed-chamber or linen ; excessive 
grief, fatigue, &-c. 

Ke/ncdial measures. I. Palliative. An emetic 
or a full dose of opium or laudanum has been re- 
commended at the eouMiiencciucnt of the fit, fol- 
lowed by a warm foot, hip, or full bath. Stimulants, 
as ether, spirits, «fcc., are also used, but when they 
fail to relieve they tend to aggravate the distetn- 

Eer. When any given method succeeds it should 
e again had recourrfo to on the approach of an- 
other fit. 

II. Curative. Thi.s consists in the administration 
•f febrifuge medicine during the interinission of the 



paroxysm. The principal of these are hark and ita 
preparations and liquor of arsenic. The stomach 
and bowels having been well cleaned out, by the 
administration of two or three doses of purgative 
medicine, 2 to 5 grs. of the disulphate of quinine 
may be given three or four times daily ; or when 
this cannot be obtained, 1 to 2 dr. of powdered 
cinchona bark may be used instead. When the 
stomach cannot bear the powder, the infusion, 
decoction, or extract may be employed. Quinine, 
properly administered, generally cures ague. The 
solution of arsenite of potassa (liquor arsenicalis, 
P. L.) is also a valuable medicine in ague, but its 
use requires great care and attention. Under the 
name of " tasteless ague drop," it has cured thou- 
sands. The dose should be at first five drops twice 
a day, gradually raised to 20 drops. This is the 
common ague medicine of the fen counties of Eng- 
land. In a certain book of travels through Eng- 
land it is said to be " a common practice for the 
farmers in the marshy parts of Essex to fetch 
their wives from the uplands, who seldom live long 
in tRe low countries ; so that most of the farmers 
there have had several wives, and many make 
much money by this system of wifeing." Does 
this mortality arise from the ague or the ague 
remedy ? It may be further remarked, that warm 
clothing, and a light nutritious diet should be adopt- 
ed during the curative course, and if the patient 
reside in a swampy or marshy district, he should 
remove as quickly as possible to one of a drier and 
opposite description. 

AUGUSTINE. Syn. Augustina. Tromsdorf 
gave this name to a substance found by him in the 
Saxon beryl, which he conceived to be a base ca- 
pable of neutralizing the acids. Vauquelin has 
since shown it to be a phosphate of lime, (which 
see.) 

ALABASTER. A white calcareous or gyp- 
seous kind of soft stone, used by sculptors, and for 
casting. The variety employed for the latter pur- 
pose is that most generally known, and when burnt, 
forms the substance called plaster of Paris. 

ALABASTER, OR PLASTER, TO 
BRONZE. I. Prepare the surface by sizing it 
over once or twice, and when dry touch the promi- 
nent parts of the figure with the bronze No. 1, and 
the remainder with No. 2. Then soften down the 
lines of mixture of the two paints with a badger's 
hair tool. 

Bronze 1. Grind equal parts of Dutch metal 
and the following paint together, and thin the mix- 
ture with a little oil or turpentine. 

Bronze 2. Grind Prussian blue, verdigris, and 
ochre separately with oil, then mix them together 
in such proportions as will produce a bronze green 
color. 

II. Touch over the prominent parts of tlie fig- 
ure with Bessimer's gold paint, or instead thereof 
ase gold or Dutch leaf, then cover the remainder 
of the figure as before, with the paint No. 2. 

Remarks. When the lights are managed wuli 
taste, especially on the prominent parts of the fea- 
tures in a statue, it produces a grand ellect. (See 
Bronzing.) 

ALABASTER, TO CLEAN. Proc. Wash 
the article with warm soap and water, then riuso 
in (^lean water. If the surface is polished it must 
bo finished by touching it over with shave-grass, 



ALA 



31 



ALC 



and afterwards with French chalk, or talc, as di- 
rected under the article on Polishing Alabaster, 
Grease spots may be removed with a little clean 
oil of turpentine. 

ALABASTER,- TO ETCH. Proc. Cover 
every part of the surface of the model or cast, ex- 
cept the portion to be etched, with a mixture of one 
part of white wax, dissolved in four parts of oil of 
turpentine, thickened with finely powdered white- 
lead. When this coating has set, immerse the 
article in pure water, and allow it to remain for 
from 20 to 50 hours, according to the effect in- 
tended to be produced. Then take it out, remove 
the superfluous water, wash off the varnish with 
oil of turpentine, and carefully brush the etched 
parts over with powdered gypsum. 

ALABASTER, TO HARDEN. Proc. L 
Mix up the plaster of Paris with a weak solution 
of gum Arabic, (1 oz. to 1 pint of water,) or, for 
common purposes, a weak solution of size. Re- 
marks. This not only renders the plaster harder, 
but gives the surface a pleasing smoothness. (See 
also Keexe's Marble Cement.) 

II. Expose the pieces in a baker's oven for 24 
hours or longer, according to their thickness, then 
R'ithdraw them, and when cool, dip them twice 
into pure river water, letting them remain im- 
mersed each time from 2 to 5 minutes ; lastly, ex- 
pose them to the air for 3 or 4 days before polish- 
ing. (M. Tissot.) Remarks. This plan is followed 
for pieces of statuar)', &c. worked out of the solid 
g^'psum. It is not adapted so well to plaster casts^ 

ALABASTER, TO JOIN. Ornaments of 
alabaster or plaster may be joined together by 
means of a little white of egg, thickened with 
Buely-powdered quickhme, or by a mixture of 
aewly-baked and finely-powdered plaster of Paris, 
mixed up with the least possible quantity of water. 

ALABASTER, TO POLISH. Proc. I. The 
Dbject, received in the rough state from the hands 
of the sculptor or turner, is rubbed with finely- 
powdered pumice-stone, or dried shave-grass (equi- 
setum) and water, and afterwards with a paste 
formed of finely-powdered and sifted slaked lime 
and water. The rough polish thus produced is 
then brought up and finished off by friction with 
finely-powdered talc, or French chalk, until a 
satiny lustre is produced. 

II. Dip the cast or model, previously warmed, 
and suspended by a fine silken cord or wire, into 
the purest wiiite wax, melted in any suitable ves- 
sel. The operation should be repeated until the 
liquid wax begins to rest unabsorbed on the surface 
of the plaster, when the article must be placed 
aside (suspended; until the next day, when it may 
be polished with a clean brush. Remarks. None 
but the hardest, purest, and whitest wax will do 
for the above purpose. That commonly sold is 
mixed with spermaceti, stearine, or tallow, and 
not unfrequently with potato starch. 
I III. Suspend the article, well cleaned from 
dust, by means of a silk cord or wire, in a wooden 
trough or other suitably-shaped vessel, of glass or 
earthenware ; then cover it with a strong and per- 
jfectly clear solution of alum. Let it remain until 
a sufficient quantity of the salt has crystallized on 
:he surface, when it should be withdrawn and pol- 
jshed with a wet cloth. Remarks. I have seen 
oeautiful imitations of marble produced in this 



manner, but the process requires great care and 
address. 

ALABASTER, TO STAIN OR COLOR. 

Proc. I. Mix various colored powders or solutions 
with the plaster, at the time of mixing it up with 
water. Remarks. A little terra de Sienna, in very 
fine powder, or ground with water, added to the 
water employed to mix up the plaster, imparts a 
pleasing color to busts, statues, medallions, <fcc. 

II. Objects formed from the solid alabaster may 
be stained in the same way, and with the same 
materials as marble. (See Marble.) 

ALAQUECA STYPTIC. A stone used by 
the Indians to stop local bleeding. It is iron py- 
rites. 

ALBUM RHASIS. An ointment composed 
of white-lead and lard, invented by and named 
after the Arabian physician Rhazes. 

ALBUMEN. Syn. Albumen (Lat.) The white 
of egg and the serum of the blood contain this sub- 
stance in a sufficiently pure state for all the pur- 
poses of the .-^rts. Prop. Th« acids, metallic salts, 
alcohol, and heat, coagulate albumen ; hence it is 
incompatible with solutions containing them. 
Strong oil of vitriol turns it black in the cold, but 
on applying a gentle heat, a gorgeous red-colored 
solution is produced. (Dr. Hope.) Strong muriatic 
acid gives it a violet tinge. Uses. As a glaze, or 
species of varnish, and as a clarifier for wines, 
sirups, &c. 

ALBUMEN, PURE or SOLID. Prep. Agi- 
tate the white of egg with 10 or 12 times its weight 
of alcohol, and collect the precipitated flocculi on 
a muslin filter. Prop. Insoluble in pure water, 
unless it be heated to 150° C. or 302° F. (Wohler 
and Vogel.) 

ALBUMEN POWDER. Syn. Flake Albu- 
men. Soluble solid Albumen. Prep. Expose the 
strained white of egg, in a thin stratum, to a cur- 
rent of dry air, until it concretes into a solid trans- 
parent substance, resembling horn. In this state it 
may be kept any length of time, or it may be 
further dried until brittle, and then powdered. 

II. Substitute the serum of bullock's blood for 
the white of egg in the last formula. 

Prop., i^-c. Soluble in cold water, forming a so- 
lution possessing all the properties of fresh albu- 
men. Use. As a clarifier ; exported in quantity 
to the sugar plantations of the West Indies. It is 
prepared for use by stirring it with cold water un- 
til it is dissolved, when it is whisked to a froth in 
the usual way, before adding it to the liquid to be 
clarified. 

ALBUMEN, TESTS FOR. I. A solution 
of bichloride of mercury dropped into a fluid con- 
taining albumen, occasions a white precipitate. 
Sensibility, -j—-^. (Bostock.) 

II. Tannin or tincture of galls gives a yellow, 
pitchy precipitate. 

ALCAHEST. Syn. Alkahest. A word of 
uncertain meaning, frequently applied by the al- 
chemists to liquids which they thought to possess 
great solvent powers. 

ALCAHEST OF GLAUBER. Syn. Alca- 
HEST Glauberl Obtained by detonating nitre on 
hot coals, and then exposing it in a damp place 
until it runs into an oily-looking fluid. It thus be- 
comes oil of tartar. 

ALCAHEST RESPURIL Obtained by de- 



ALC 



32 



ALC 



tonating a mixture of nitre and zinc filings, pow- 
dering the resulting scoriae, agitating it with wa- 
ter, and filtering. The filtered liquor contains 

ALCAHEST ZWELFERI. Acetic acid ob- 
tained by the dry distillation of verdigris. 

ALCARRAZAS. A species of porous pottery, 
made in Spain, for the purpose of cooling water, by 
its transudation and copious evaporation from the 
sides of the vessel. Vessels made in either of the 
following ways possess similar properties. 

Prep. I. Well mix, in the dry state, equal parts 
of silicious sand and good clay, then bring it to a 
proper consistence with brine, adding afterwards a 
considerable quantity of common salt, which must 
be well incorporated with the clay by beating. The 
vessels formed of this mixture must be only half 
baked. 

II. Mix up your clay with twice its weight of 
charcoal, in powder, and bake it until the latter 
substance is perfectly burnt out. 

ALCOHOL. Syn. Alkohol. Alkahol. Al- 
CAHOL. HocHST Rectifizirter Weingeist (Ger.) 
Alcohol {Fr.) Alcoole (Ital.) Alchool. Al- 
cooL. Algol. Alkol (obs.) From the Arabic 
al the, and kohol antimony. A term originally 
applied to several chemical preparations, presumed 
to be very subtile, or brought to the highest state 
of tenuity, but at the present day restricted to pure 
spirit of wine, of the strongest class. 

Hist. Fermented liquors were known to an- 
tiquity. " Noah planted a vineyard ; and he drank 
of the wine, and was drunken ;" an event supposed 
to have happened 2348 years before the birth of 
Christ. Wine and fermented liquors are also men- 
tioned by the earlier profane historians ; but the 
period at which they were first submitted to distil- 



lation is undecided. By some, the Chinese are 
thought to have possessed the earliest knowledge 
of this process; others think that the northern na- 
tions of Europe were the first who were acquainted 
with the art of distillation. Herodotus, however, 
mentions date spirit as an article of commerce in 
Babylonia (b. c. 445.) Albucacis, in the 12th 
century, taught the method of procuring spirit from 
wine ; but the process was doubtless known long 
before that time. Raymond LuUy, in the 13th 
century, showed the way to concentrate it, by 
means of carbonate of potassa ; after which time 
it gradually rose into note as an article of trade and 
commerce. At the present day, more capital is, 
perhaps, embarked in the various processes of dis- 
tillation than in any similar branch of business. 

Sources. Alcohol is a product of the fermenta- 
tion of vegetable juices or solutions containing sac- 
charine matter, or some substance (as starch) ca- 
pable of conversion into sugar. In this state, it 
forms but a small portion of the fermented liquor, 
(as in wine, beer, brewer's wash, &c.,) and is 
obtained in an isolated form by the process of dis- 
tillation. It is a component part of nearly all 
intoxicating beverages, and gives them their pe- 
culiar properties. Brandy, gin, and rum con- 
tain about half their bulk of alcohol. Dilute 
alcohol may be procured, by the ordinary process 
of distillation, from all fermented liquors ; when 
drawn from wine, (as in France,) it constitutes 
brandy ; when from the juice of the sugar-cane, it 
is called rum ; and when from malt, grain, or mo- 
lasses, (as in England,) it is called malt, grain, or 
molasses spirit. The following table of the 
sources of spirit will no doubt prove interesting to 
the reader : 



Table of the Sources of the various Spirits of Commerce, by Dr. A. T. Thompson. 



Names. 



Agua ardiente • • 

Arrack 

Var. Mahwah .^r rack- 
Tuba 

Araka 

Araki 

Arika 

Brandy 

Var. Lau 
Rafcin 
Rossolio ' • 
Trostcr • . 
Sckis-hnyavodka 
Geneva. HuUands . 
Far. Gin 
GoldwHsscr 
Kirchwasser • • 
Maraschino * • • 

Rum 

Pit to 

Var. Slatkaia trava 

Show-choo 

Whiskey . 

DiUo .. 

Y-wer a . . 

Vino increiiel • • 



Materials from which they are distilled. 



Pulque, the fermented juice of the agave 

i Coarse palm sugar, named jaggery, fermented with the bark of) 

< the mimosa leucophlea ; also from rice and the fermented juice > 
( of the palm ) 

Flowers of the Madhuca tree, bassia butyracea 

Palm wine 

Koumis, fermented mare's milk 

Dates 

Fermented cow's milk, a variety of koumis 

< Wine, figs, peaches, Persimmon apple, mulberries, and sometimes ) 
\ other fruits J 

Rice 

Husks of grapes, mixed with aromatics 

A compound of brandy, ros-solis, and other plants 

Husks of grapes, fermented with barley and rye 

Lees of wine and fruit 

Malted barley and rye, rectified on juniper berries 

Malted barley, rye, potatoes, rectified with turpentine 

\ Wheat, barley, and rye, rectilied with aniseeds, cinnamon, and > 

( other spices • . J 

Machaleb cherry 

Macarska cherry 



Cane sugar and molasses 

Maple sug.ir .. •• •• 

A sweet grass •. .. 

The Ices of mandarin, a wine made from boiled rice 

Malted and raw barley, rye, oats, and potiitocs 

Sloes 

The root of the tee-root, baked, pounded, and fermented 

Distilled from pulque, the fermented juice of the agave americana' 



Countries ^ 

producing them. 



Mexico. 
India 

India. 

Philippine Islands. 

Tartary. 

Egypt. 

TiirtMry, Iceland. 
( Europe, Asia, N. and 
< S. America ; wherev 
( er wine is made. 

Siam. 

Dalmatia. 

Dantzic. 

On the Rhine. 

Scio. 

Holland. i 

England. ) 

Dantzic. ' 

Switzerland. 

J Zara, capital of Dalma- 

( tia. 

j West Indies and Soutb 

( America. j 

North America. < 

Kamschatka. « 

China. 

Scotland and Ireland. 
South of France. » 

Sandwich Islands. 
Mexico. 



ALC 



33 



ALC 



Remarks. All the different varieties of spirit I 
mentioned in the preceding table, consist of dilute 
alcohol, holding in solution various quantities of j 
essential oils and coloring matter, and frequently i 
a little ether and extractive. It is the presence 
and different proportions of these ingredients which , 
give them their d stinguishing characters. By j 
subsequent rectification, alcohol of equal purity j 
and strength may be procured from all of them, j 
In the present article, I shall confine myself to a j 
notice of the preparation of pure spirit, or alcohol ' 
of the chemist, referring the reader to the heads j 
Distillation, Spirit, Still, Rum, Brandy, Gin, 
Whiskey, &c. for further information. 

Prep. I. [Alcohol of the L. Ph.) Rectified 
spirit (sp. gr. 0-S38) 1 gallon ; chloride of calcium 
(dried) lb. j. Proc. Dissolve the chloride in the 
spirit, and let 7 pints and 5 fluid ounces distil over. 
Remarks, The sp. gr. of this spirit is 0-815, and 
as it contains about 7§ of water, it would be 
more appropriately called htghly rectified spirit. 
The process of the Dublin College is of a similar 
description, except that in addition to the chloride 
of calcium, 3^ lbs. of dried pearl-ashes (still hot) 
are used, and the distillation continued until the 
residuum begins to thicken. Alcohol of the D. P. 
has the sp. gr. 0-810. 

II. {Alcohol of the E. Ph.) Rectified spirit, 1 
pint ; lime, 18 oz. Proc. Break the lime into 
small fragments, pour on the spirit, and heat the 
mixture gently in a glass matrass (closed) until 
the lime begins to slake, then withdraw the heat, 
and presers'e the upper part of the vessel cool with 
damp cloths, until the slaking has finished ; next 
attach a proper refrigeratory, and carefully distil 
off 17 fluid ounces. Remarks. The sp. gr. of the 
product should be 0-796, in wiiich case it would be 
very nearly free from water. Should the density 
exceed -796, the College states that the distillation 
musi have been begun before the slaking of the 
lime was finished. 

III. {Absolute Alcohol.) a. Saturate alcohol of 
90^, or sp. gr. 0-835 to 0-840, with dried chloride 
of calcium in powder, and then draw it over in a 
water bath, with a gentle heat. (Liebig.) 

h. Place alcohol of 90§ under the exhausted re- 
ceiver of an air-pump, near a vessel containing 
quicklime. After the lapse of 3 or 4 days, if the 
vacuum be well kept up, the spirit will have en- 
tirely lost its water. (Graham.) Remarks. The 
best means of operating is to use two shallow cir- 
cular vessels, of different sizes, and to place the 
one containing the spirit in the other holding the 
lime, care being taken to prevent the latter falling 
over the side of the small vessel into the spirit, as 
it swells. 

IV. {Varnish-maker's Alcohol.) Take the blad- 
der of an ox or calf, soak it for some time in 
water^ then inflate it and carefully free it from 
the attached fat and vessels ; this must be done 
on both sides. After it is again inflated and dried, 
smear over the outer surface twice, and the inner 
surface four times, with a solution of isinglass. 
Then nearly fill it with the spirit to be concen- 
trated, leaving only a small space vacant ; it is 
then to be securely fastened, and suspended in a 
warm situation, at a temperature of about 122° 
Fahr., over a sand bath, or in the neighborhood of 
an oven or fire. In six to twelve hours, if the 

5 



heat be properly conducted, the spirit will be con- 
centrated, and in a little time longer may be ren- 
dered nearly free from water (anhydrous) or of 
the strength of 97 or 98 per cent. (Soemmering.) 
Remarks. This alcohol will be sufficiently pure 
for all the common purposes of the manufactures, 
and is an excellent spirit for making varnishes, «Scc. 
The same bladder will serve more than one 
hundred times ; and in fact a common bladder, 
thoroughly cleansed from fat, and washed and 
dried, may be used without any further prepara- 
tion. The bladder should be kept full, or else a 
portion of the spirit will escape through the empty 
part. To prevent this accident, I have adopted a 
bottle with a double neck, of the shape of A, (see 
engraving,) by which means I am always able, 
not only to keep the bladder full, but to empty it 
and to refill it without any trouble. After the 
first or second time of using the bladder, I find it 
gives alcohol sufficiently pure for most experimen- 
tal purposes. Before hanging the apparatus up, it 
is better to enclose it in a coarse potato ^letting, 
and to suspend it by means of the latter, which 
v.'ill prevent any accident arising from the strain 
on the neck of the bladder. Should weaker spirit 
than that directed in the preceding formula be 
used, to procure alcohol by either method, it must 
be preAnously concentrated, or the operation re- 
peated a second time. 

Prop. Light, transparent, colorless, volatile, in- 
flammable ; mixes in all proportions with water ; 
dissolves resins, essential oils, camphor, bitumen, 
soaps, sugar, the alkaloids, wax, spermaceti, and 
various other substances. Boils at 172° : curdles 
milk ; coagulates albumen, and separates both 
starch and gum from their mucilages ; uncongeal- 
able by cold ; powerfully antiseptic to animal or 
vegetable substances immersed in it ; with acids it 
forms ethers. 

Use. It is used to dissolve resins by the varnish 
maker ; essential oils, by the perfumer ; and by 
the pharmaceutist, to prepare tinctures and many 




..8, A bottle with two necks, the upper furnished with a 
ground-glass stopper. 

B, Loop of cord to hang the apparatus up by. 

C, Bladder containing spirit, filled by means of the hot 
tie A. 

D, Neck of bladder accurately secured to the under 
neck of the bottle A. 



ALC 



34 



ALC 



other valuable medicines. It is used to fill the 
tubes of thermometers required to register extreme 
degrees of cold ; it is frequently burnt in lamps ; 
and, where it is inexpensive, it is used for the man- 
ufacture of vinegar. It is employed in medicine, 
and as a beverage, in a diluted state, (brandy, gin, 
&c. ;) but it is powerfully poisonous when undi- 
luted with water. Largely diluted with water, it 
has been given as a tonic and stimulant, in some 
cases of colic, &c. ; but for this purpose, it is not 
equal to good brandy or malt spirit, while it is far 
less agreeable. The properties and uses of the 
various articles into the composition of which alco- 
hol enters, will be described under their respective 
heads. 

Pur. The presence of water is best known by 
its specific gravity, (see Alcoholometry,) and the 
absence of other foreign matter, by the following 
tests: — The London College states, in the notes 
to the Pharmacopoeia, that it should be ." color- 
less ; evaporate entirely by heat ; combine with 
water a,nd with ether, retaining its transparency ; 
taste and smell vinous." It should be neutral to 
test paper. Absolute alcohol has a sp. gr. of 
0-792-0-791 at 68° Fahr., and 0-7947 at 60° Fahr. 

Tests. I. Add colorless oil of vitriol to the spi- 
rit ; a red tinge will be produced if essential oil be 
present. (Liebig.) II. A solution of nitrate of sil- 
ver added to pure alcohol, does not alter its color 
or transparency. If it turns red, it contains oil or 
other organic matter. (Vogel.) Remarks. This 
test is very delicate, and is equally applicable to 
dilute as strong alcohol. 

ALCOHOL DE BRUCINE. Syn. Tincture 
OF Brucia (Majendie.) Prep. Brucine, 15 grs. ; 
rectified spirit of wine, f ^j ; dissolve. Remarks. 
The action of brucine is similar to strychnine, but 
in a milder degree. This tincture is given in doses 
of 5 to 25 drops in paralysis, (without fever,) in 
dyspepsia, pyrosis, impotence, and various other 
cases, where strychnine has been prescribed. It 
is an active poison. 

ALCOHOL DE CINCHONINE. Syn. Tinc- 
ture OF CiNCHONlNE. AlCOOL DE ClNCHONINE. 

{Majendie.j Prep. Sulphate of cinchonine, 8 grs. ; 
rectified spirit, f §j ; dissolve Dose. 15 to 50 drops 
us a febrifuge, (in intermittents.) 

ALCOHOL DE QUININE. Syn. Alcool 
DE Quinine. Tincture of Quinine. (Majendie.) 
Prep. Dissolve 6 grs. of sulphate of quinine in f §j 
of rectified spirit. Dose, ^c. As the last. This 
tincture is principally used to prepare the wine of 
quinine. 

ALCOHOL DE STRYCHNINE. Syn. 
Tincture of Strychnine. (Majendie.) Prep. 
Strychnine, 3 grs. ; rectified spirit, f ^iss ; dissolve. 
Uses, Doses, t^c. This tincture is given in para- 
lysis, impotence, &-c., in doses of 5 to 20 drops. It 
is a violent poison. (See Strychnine.) 

ALCOHOL DE VERATRINE. Syn. Tinc- 
TURK OK Veratria. I. (Majcndic.) Veratria, 4 grs. ; 
rectified spirit, f ^j ; dissolve. Dose. 10 to 25 drops. 

II. {Turnbnll.) For external use. Veratria, 
3j ; rectified spirit, f ^ij : dissolve. 

Remarks. The first is given instead of oolchi- 
cum, in gout, rh(!Uinatisni. &-c. ; the second has 
been cuiploycd externally in neuralgia, as well as 
in gout and riieumatisni, us a substitute for the 
ointment 



ALCOHOLATES. Salts, in which alcohol 
appears to replace the water of crystallization. 
Prep. Some of them may be formed by simple 
solution and crystallization in alcohol. (Graham.) 

ALCOHOLOMETER. An hydrometer or 
instrument for ascertaining the quantity of alcohol 
in any given mixture of spirit and water. 

ALCOHOLOMETRY. The process or meth- 
od of determining the strength of spirits. 

General Remarks on the nature of Alcoholom- 
etry, and the Excise Regulations of Great Brit- 
ain. — The great importance of being able accu- 
rately to determine the strength of spirits, in the 
United Kingdom, on account of the high duties 
levied thereon, has induced the government au- 
thorities, at various times, to fully investigate the 
subject. Towards the end of the last century, 
Sir C. Blagden instituted a series of very minute 
and accurate experiments to determine the real 
specific gravity of different mixtures of alcohol and 
water. The results of this investigation were 
published in the Phil. Trans, for 1790, and have 
formed the data from which the government have 
since made their calculations for the purposes of 
the Excise and Customs. More recently the Lords 
of her Majesty's Treasury requested the Royal 
Society to examine into the accuracy of these ta- 
bles, and the construction and application of the 
instrument (Sike's hydrometer) now used by the 
revenue officers, and based thereon. The Com- 
mittee of the Royal Society reported favorably of 
the accuracy of the numbers contained in Gilpin's 
Tables, employed by the government, which they 
declared far surpassed, in this particular, what 
could reasonably be expected, and that they were 
sufficiently perfect for all practical and scientific 
purposes. The experiments went to show, that the 
error introduced into calculations respecting the 
strength of spirits, by these tables, was quite unim- 
portant in practice, and did not, in any one instance, 
amount to unity in the fourth place of decimals. 
This method, which I shall presently describe, 
adopts the sp. gr. as a test of the strength in alco- 
hol, and is founded on the fact that the latter fluid 
is considerably lighter than water, and that (with 
proper corrections for condensation) the sp. gr. 
regularly increases or decreases, according to 
the relative proportions in which the two are 
mixed. 

Several other methods of alcoholometry have 
been proposed, founded upon the temperature of 
the vapor ; the heat evolved by the admixture with 
water ; the insolubility of the carbonate of potassa 
in alcohol ; the volatility of alcohol, &-c. &.c. ; some 
of which I shall notice farther on. The method 
adapted by the Excise and Customs should be 
that employed in trade and commerce in England, 
not only on account of its superior simplicity and 
correctness, but for the purpose of exactly coinci' 
ding with the survey of these authorities. 

The duties on spirits are charged on the num- 
ber of proof gallons they contain, which is ascer- 
tained by first *^ gauging" or ^' ullaging" the 
liquor, and then taking its specific gravity, by 
Sike's hydrometer, the number indicated by which, 
on reference to the tables, gives the percentage of 
spirit it may contaiu over prool', or its deliciency 
percent, under \nooi' ; and the real content per 
centage of proof, multiplied by the " gauge" or 



ALC 



35 



ALC 



'* ullage," gives the net amount of proof spirit in 
the quantity surveyed. 

The proof strength is an arbitrary standard, 
adopted for the purpose of facilitating calculations, 
for which it is well suited. The sp. gr. of proof 
spirit, as defined by Act of Parliament, is -920 at 
60° F., and contains, in 100 parts, by weight, 49 
parts of alcohol of -791, and 51 parts of water. At 
51° F., 13 volumes of proof spirit weigh exactly 
equal to 12 volumes of distilled water. It is of 
great advantage to the spirit-dealer to be acquaint- 
ed with the method of estimating the correct num- 
ber of proof gallons in any sample or quantity of 
his commodities ; and I have known many disa- 
greeable errors result from ignorance on this point. 
Calculations of this kind are very simple and 
straiglitforward. Thus, when we find by the hy- 
drometer that a given sample of spirits is 10 over- 
proof, or " o.p." as it is t^hnically called, it means 
that 10 gallons of water added to 100 gallons of 
such a spirit, would produce 110 gallons of proof 
spirit ; or, in other words, that 100 gallons of such 
a spirit contain exactly as much alcohol as is con- 
tained in 110 gallons of proof. In over proof spirit, 
the per centage overproof always represents the 
quantity of water it will take to reduce it to proof. 
By adding its per centage overproof to 100, we 
obtain a number, which, multiplied by any num- 
ber of gallons, and divided by 100, will give the 
exact number of proof gallons which is contained 
in the given quantity of spirit of that strength. 
For example, I have a puncheon of rum, holding 
91 gallons of spirit, which I find to be 21 o. p. How 
many proof gallons does it contain ? 



Per centage overproof 21, 

100, equal to . 
Number of gallons 



added to 



121 
91 



Divide by 100 ] 11011 
No. of gallons of proof spirit . 110-11 

(To divide by 100, is only to point off the last two 
figures.) To ascertain how much water I must 
add to reduce it to the proof strength, I have only 
to deduct the number of gallons of 21 o. p. from 
its 'content in proof; in the above case this would 
be- 
No. of proof gallons . . . 110-11 
No. of gallons of the o. p. spirit . 91 



Gallons of water to be added 



19-11 



Or as nearly as possible 19 gallons and 1 pint. 
When we say a spirit is 11 u. p. or underproof, we 
mean that 100 gallons of such spirit contains 11 
gallons of water and 89 gallons of proof spirit ; and 
BO of other strengths. By deducting the per cent- 
age underproof from 100, we not only obtain the 
number of proof gallons contained in 100 gallons 
of such a spirit, but as in the last case a factor 
which multiplied by any number of gallons, and 
divided by 100, gives the exact number of proof 
' gallons contained in such a quantity of the given 
strength Thus, I have an ullage brandy piece, 
containing 45 gallons of spirit, which I find by the 
hydrometer to be 10 u. p. How many gallons of 
proof does it contain ? 



Deduct 10 from 100, and we have 90 
Multiply it by the No. of gallons 45 

Divide by 100 | 4050 

Quantity of proof spirit 40*50 

Or exactly 40^ gallons. 

On the same plan we may ascertain how much 
water it will take to reduce one strength to another, 
of any weaker degree. Thus, I have a puncheon 
of rum, as before, containing 91 gallons of spirit 
21 o. p., which I wish to reduce with water to 10 
u. p. I have already found that this quantity con- 
tains a little more than 110 proof gallons ; I have 
therefore only to reckon how many gallons of spi- 
rit 10 u. p. it would take to contain an equal quan- 
tity of that strength. I find this by the simple rule 
of proportion. I know that 100 gallons are only 
equal to 90 of proof; therefore, if 90 are equal to 
100, how many are equal to 110, which I find to 
be as nearly as possible 122:^ gallons. I have then 
only to deduct the number of gallons of 21 o. p. 
from 122^ gallons to find the quantity of water I 
must add to make 122^ gallons of spirit 10 u. p. 
By a little practice such calculations become ex- 
cessively easy. In all these cases a knowledge of 
the four first rules of decimal fractions is advan- 
tageous, as the Excise calculate their proof to two 
figures of decimals or -pi^yths. Their plan is to 
reject the third figure when less than 5, but to 
carry 1 to the preceding if it exceeds it ; thus, 
5-432 would be put down as only 5-43 ; but 5-437 
would be written 5-44. 

Forinerly, spirit was said to be 1 fo 3, 1 fo 4, 
&c., overproof, by which it was meant that 1 gal- 
lon of water added to 3 or 4 gallons of such spirit 
would reduce it to proof. On the contrarj^, 1 in 3 
or 1 in 4 underproof meant that the 3 or 4 gallons, 
as the case may be, contained 1 gallon of water 
and the remaining quantity of proof spirit. This 
method of calculation has now, however, given 
way to the centesimal system, which not only ad- 
mits of greater accuracy, but is quite as simple, 
and should be adopted by every spirit-dealer in 
England, from being the plan followed by the Ex- 
cise, with whose estimate it is absolutely necessary 
they should agree. 

The stocks of " dealers'^ (who are not permit- 
ted to sell less than 2 gallons) are always taken 
by the proof ; but the spirits sold by the retailers are 
only tested on being admitted into stock, and then 
afterwards taken according to their gross quantity, 
(ullage or gauge.) The Excise can, however, try 
the strength of any sample they choose, even in 
the stock of a retailer, when, if it be altered from 
the strength at which it was ^^ permitted" into 
stock more than 3§, or if it be otherwise of an ille- 
gal strength, it becomes seizahle. A surplus, how- 
ever small, of more than 2 gallons over the quantity 
that should remain in hand of any one " quality^* 
of spirit, after deducting the amount sent out by 
permits from the last stock, is also seizable ; and 
even if an increase frequently occurs, though it be 
*' less than two gallons," it immediately attracts 
the notice of the Excise, and frequently leads to 
inquiries and inconvenience to the dealer. 

By the Reiienue Laws of Great Britain, spirit 
of greater strength than 43 o. p., or sp. gr. 0-8597, 
is designated spirit of wine, and marked S. W. by 



ALC 



36 



ALC 



the officers. Distillers of British spirits are not al- 
lowed to send out spirit at other strengths than 25 
or 11 per cent. o. p. and 10 u. p. British compounds 
(gin, British brandy, &c.) are not allowed to be 
kept in stock or sent out stronger than 17 u. p. ; 
but gin, as usually sold by the wholesale dealer, is 
22 to 24 u. p. ; and when sweetened as in cordial, 
gin is frequently 35 u. p. or even weaker. Un- 
sweetened foreign and colonial spirits must not be 
kept or sent out weaker than 17 u. p. The fol- 
lowing table, drawn up from personal examination 
of the stocks of several retailers and dealers, and 
of the books of the Excise, will no doubt interest 
the reader. 

The strength of spirits that are sweetened can- 
not be determined by the hydrometer or their spe- 
cific gravity. The revenue authorities, aware of 
this fact, merely require a verbal declaration of the 
strength of British and other compounds that con- 
tain sugar. Thus, gin, cordials, and liqueurs are 
never tested for their strength, but brandy, rum, 
&c., are always so. The method of determining 
the quantity of alcohol in sweetened or fermented 
liquors is by separating it in a pure form from the 
sample, by distillation or the addition of carbonate 
of potassa. 

Methods of Alcoholometry. I. (Revenue Sys- 
tem.) The figure in the margin represents Sike's 
hydrometer, as made by Mr. Bate, under the di- 
rection of the Commissioners of the Excise. It 
consists of a stem about 4 inches long, divided into 
100 parts, and furnished with 9 weights of differ- 
ent sizes, by which it acquires a range over 900 
divisions. The instrument is so formed as to give 
the sp. gr. with almost perfect accuracy, at 62° F. 
It is fitted up in a neat rnahog'any case, accom- 
panied with a thermometer and a book of tables, 
containing corrections as to temperature, &.c. 
Oper, A glass tube of the form of the following 
figure is filled to the mark a with the sample for 
examination, the thermometer is then immersed 
therein, and stirred about for 2 or 3 minutes, (ob- 
serving not to breathe upon the glass nor hold it in 
the hand,) when it is withdrawn and the temper- 



ature noted. The hydrometer is then immersed, 
and pressed down in the liquor to the on the 
stem with the finger, having been previously load- 
ed with any one of the nine weights that will make 
it float with the surface of the spirit at any point 
on the graduated part of the stem. The indication 







^^-3 



on the scale, at the point where the surface of the 

liquor cuts it, added to the weight with which the 
float is loaded, gives a number which must be 
sought in the book of tables. The latter at the 
page headed by " The given Temperature as ob- 
served by the Thermometer," and against the part 
of the column appropriated to the given indication, 
(weight,) will be found the strength. 

Remarks. Other makers, besides Bate, produce 
very accurate nydrometers, (Sike's ;) but in an 
instrument requiring so much care and skill in its 
manufacture, the purchaser should beware that he 
procures a perfect one. A very slight blow, fric- 
tion from continual wiping with a rough cloth, and 
other trivial causes, tend to injure so delicate an 
instrument. The shape of the weights varies occa- 
sionally, (which is a mere matter of fancy,) as in 
h and c, fig. p. 36 ; but in either case they are at- 
tached to the hydrometer, at the bottom of the 
spindle, and thus tend to make it float with greater 
steadiness. 



ALC 



37 



ALC 



Table of the principal Spirituous Liquors sold in England, with their usual Strengths, &c 

By Mr. Coolev. 





Excise Mark. 


Import 
Strength. 


Limits 

to the 

strength by 

the Excise. 


Usual selling strength. 


Specific 

Gravity at 

COO. 


Denomination. 


By Permit, 


contains 
Alcohol .. 
of 0-825. 


contains 
absolute 
' Alcohol. 


*Gin (strongest) . . . 


X (17 u. p.) 


... 


Not 
stronger 

than 
17 u. p. 


17 U. p. 




40§ 


0-9395 


*Do 


X (22 u. p.) 


... 


do. 


22 u. p. 


... 


37§ 


0-9445 


+ Do. (cordial) . . . 


X (22 u. p.) 


... 


do. 


22 u. p. 


... 


do. 


iro 


tDo 


X (24 u. p.) 


... 


do. 


24 u. p. 


... 


36'5§ 


iro 


t Peppermint .... 


X mint. 




do. 


60 u. p. 


... 


21§ 


iro- 


tDo 


do. 


... 


do. 


64 u. p. 


... 


18§ 


iro- 


J Cloves ..... 1 


















t Bitters 


















t Raspberry . . . 


















i Noyeau .... 


















t Cinnamon. . . . 


















tTent 

t Aniseed .... 


■ 


X (64 u. p.) 


... 


do. 


64 u. p. 


... 


do. 


iro- 


t Caraway .... 










, 








t Lovage .... 






"^ 












1 Usquebaugh . . . 


















t Orange cordial . . 


















t Citron do. • • J 


















§Rum 


R. 


About 10 
0. p. to 43 
0. p. 


From 

17 u. p. to 

43 0. p. 


11 u. p. 


... 


43§ 


0.9329 


1 Rum Shrub . . . ■ . 


R. Sb. 




do. 


64 u. p. 


... 


18§ 


iro- 


t Do. .... 


do. 




do. 


60 u. p. 


... 


21g 


iro- 


§ French Brandy . ^ . 


F. 


About 5 
0. p. to 8 
or 10 u. p. 


do. 


10 u. p. 


... 


44« 


0-9318 


11 Spirit of Wine . . . 


S. W. 


" 


43 0. p. & 

upwards 


54 to 
64 0. p. 








Do. (P. L.) .... 


do. 


... 


do. 


56 0. p. 


... 


84§ 


0-838 


Alcohol (P. L.) . . . 


... 


... 




... 


... 


93§ 


0-815 


Malt, grain, or mo- 




... 


25*or 










lasses spirit (sent out 






11 0. p. to 










by British distillers) 






10 u. p. 










Hollands 


... 


... 


not under 
17 u. p. 


... 


51-60§ 


47-77§ 


0-9385 


Whiskey (Irish) . . 


... 


... 


... 


... 


54§ 


50fi 




Do. (Scotcl) . . 




... 




... 


54-3a 


50-2§ 





To convert the strength of the spirit, as found 
hy Sike's hydrometer, into the real specific gravity, 



* Frequently retailed at 25 to 35 u. p. 

t Though " permitted" at 22 or 24, are generally from 25 
to 35 u. p., or even weaker. 

t These though " permitted" at 60 or 64 u. p. are gener- 
ally 75 or 80 u. p. 



and vice versa, the following table will be found 
convenient : — 



$ Generally retailed as low as the Excise Laws allow, 
viz. 17 u. p. 

II Usual strength 54 o. p. 

IT The specific gravity is no guide when sugar is present 
as in compounds. 



ALC 



38 



ALC 



Table exhibiting the relations between the Indi- 
cations of Sike's Hydrometer and the real Spe- 
cific Gravity. By Mr. Gutteridge. 



Over Proof. 


Specific Gra- 
vity at 60° F. 


Under Proof. 


Specific Gra- 
vity at 60° F. 


70 per centum. 


0.8095 


(Proof) 


0-9200 


64 


0-8221 


5 per centum. 


0-9259 


631 " 


0-8238 


10 


0-9318 


62 


0-8259 


11 


0-9329 


611 " 


0-8277 


1,5-3 " 


0-9376 


60 


0-8298 


17-1 " 


0-9396 


59-1 " 


0-8315 


20 


0-9426 


58 


0-8336 


22-3 " 


0-9448 


571 " 


0-8354 


23-1 " 


0-9456 


56 


0-8376 


25-1 " 


0-9476 


55-9 " 


0.8379 


30-1 » 


0-9522 


55-7 " 


0-8383 


40-1 " 


0-9603 


55 


0-8396 


50-3 " 


0-9673 


541 " 


0-8413 


60-4 " 


0-9734 


501 " 


0-8482 


70-1 " 


0-9790 


431 " 


0-8597 


80-4 " 


0-9854 


25 


0-8869 


90-2 " 


0-9922 


111 " 


0-9060 


100 (water.) 


1-0000 



Other instruments of a similar nature to Sike*s 
hydrometer (but less complicated) have been con- 
structed, which at once give the per centage o^ 
alcohol in a given sample. Thus, the areometer 
of Gay Lussac, and the alcoholometer of Tralles, 
at once float to a figure on the stem, which indi- 
cates the per centage of alcohol, hy volume, in 
the liquor in which they are placed ; while the 
alcoholometer of Richter gives at once the per 
centage by weight. 

II. From the specific gravity to find the per 
centage of pure Alcohol, by volume. Proc. The 
sp. gr. at 60°, having been ascertained by any of 
the usual methods, (see Specific Gravity,) must 
be sought for in the second column of the follow- 
ing table, against which will be found, in the first 
column, a number representing its per centage of 
alcohol of 0-7939. 



Table exhibiting the per centage by volume of Alcohol, corresponding to any given Specific Gravity. 

By Tralles. 





Alcohol in 
100 


Specific 


Difference 
of 


Alcohol in 
100 


Specific 


Difference 
of 


Alcohol in 
100 


Specific 


Difference 
of 






Measures 


Gravity at 
60° F. 


Silecific 


Measures 


Gravity at 
60° F. 


Specific 


Measures 


Gravity at 
60° F. 


Specific 






of Spirit. 


Gravity. 


of Spirit. 


Gravity. 


of Spirit. 


Gravity. 






Pure water 


9991 


00 


34 


9596 


13 


68 


8941 


24 






1 


9976 


15 


35 


9583 


13 


69 


8917 


24 






3 


9961 


15 


36 


9570 


13 


70 


8892 


25 






3 


9947 


14 


37 


9556 


14 


71 


8867 


25 






4 


9933 


14 


38 


9541 


15 


72 


8842 


25 






5 


9919 


14 


39 


9526 


15 


73 


8817 


25 






6 


9906 


13 


40 


9510 


16 


74 


8791 


36 






7 


9893 


13 


41 


9494 


16 


75 


8765 


26 






8 


9881 


12 


42 


9478 


16 


76 


8739 


26 






9 


9869 


12 


43 


9461 


17 


77 


8712 


27 






10 


9857 


12 


44 


9444 


17 


78 


8685 


27 






11 


9845 


12 


45 


9427 


17 


79 


8658 


27 






12 


9834 


11 


46 


9409 


18 


80 


8631 


27 






13 


9823 


11 


47 


9391 


18 


81 


8603 


28 






14 


9812 


11 


48 


9373 


18 


82 


8575 


28 






]5 


9802 


10 


49 


9354 


19 


83 


8547 


28 






16 


0791 


11 


50 


9335 


19 


84 • 


8518 


29 






17 


9781 


10 


51 


9315 


20 


85 


8488 


30 






18 


9771 


10 


52 


9295 


20 


86 


8458 


30 






19 


9761 


10 


53 


9275 


20 


87 


8428 


30 






20 


9751 


10 


54 


9254 


21 


88 


8397 


31 






21 


9741 


10 


55 


9234 


20 


89 


8365 


32 






22 


9731 


10 


56 


9213 


21 


90 


8332 


33 






23 


9720 


11 


57 


9192 


21 


91 


8299 


33 






24 


9710 


10 


58 


9170 


22 


92 


8;]65 


34 






25 


9700 


10 


59 


9148 


22 


93 


8230 


35 






26 


9689 


11 


60 


9126 


22 


94 


8194 


36 






27 


9679 


10 


61 


9104 


22 


95 


8157 


37 






28 


ywis 


11 


62 


9082 


22 


96 


8118 


39 






29 


9657 


11 


63 


9059 


23 


97 


8077 


41 






30 


9646 


11 


64 


9036 


23 


98 


8034 


43 






31 


9634 


12 


65 


9013 


23 


99 


7988 


46 






32 


9622 


12 


66 


8989 


24 


Pure ) 
Alcohol \ 


7939 


49 






33 


9009 


13 


67 


8965 


24 





Use of the preceding Table. When the tem- 
perature of the spirit is 60° F., the first column 
of the table gives at onte the per centage of alco- 
hol by measure ; when the temperature is below 
60° an addition must be made of 1 measure per 
cciil. for every .'> dcgreeH of the thermometer ; 
and when above 60° ii lik(« (juautity niiust be de- 
ducted. This correction will an)ount to the frac- 
tion ] or the deciniul -2 for every single degree, 
and id very easily made. If the specific gravity 
■ought cann t be found exactly in the table, the 



difference between it and the next greater specific 
gravity in the table must be taken, wliich will 
give the numerator of a fraction, having for its 
dcnominafor the number found in the third col- 
mnn against the next greater number just em- 
ployed. This fraction, added to the per centage 
of alcohol in the first column of the table against 
the said sj)erific gravity, will give the true per 
centage sought. Thus : " if the specific gravity 
of a spirituous liqiior is 9605, what is its alcoholic 
content?" Here 9605 is not in the table, but the 



ALC 



39 



ALC 



next greater number is 9609 ; I therefore deduct 
the former from the latter, and put the difference 
(4) as the numerator of the fraction, having for its 
denominator (13), the number in the column of 
differences against 9609 ; I then add tlie fraction 
y^ so found to the ^r centage against 9609 in 
the first column, which gives SSy\j as the true per 
centage of alcohol in the given sample. 

The per centage hy loeight may be found in an 
equally simple way: multiply the number of vol- 
umes per cent, by '7939, (the specific gravity of 
pure alcohol,) and divide the product by the spe- 
cific gravity of the sample, the quotient will give 
the number of pounds of alcohol in 100 lbs. of the 
given spirit. Thus : in spirit of 9609 I find there 
are 33 volumes of alcohol per cent., what is its 



per-centage by weight ? Example 

Sp. gr. alcohol .... 7939 
Volumes of alcohol per \ qo 



cent, in sample 



Sp. gr. of sample 9609 | 261987 product. ' 

'. i or27ilbs. 
27-28 } of alcohol 
( per cent. 

III. From the specific gravity to ascertain the 
per centage of alcohol by weight. When it may 
be inconvenient to perform the short calculation 
just explained, the per centage by weight may be 
ascertained by mere inspection of the following 
table. 



Table by Lowitz, showing the Acoliolic Content, by weight, of Spirits of different Specific 
Gravities, from pure Alcohol to pure Water, at 60° and 68° F. 



100 parts. 


Specific 


Gravity. 


100 


parts. 


Specific Gravity. 


100 parts. 


Specific 


Gravity, 


Ale. 


Wat. 


At 68° 


At 60° • 


Ale. 


Wat. 


At 68° 


At 60° 


Ale. 


Wat. 


At 68° 


At 60° 


100 





0-791 


0-796 


66 


34 


0-877 


0-881 


32 


68 


0-952 


0-955 


99 


1 


0-794 


0-798 


65 


35 


0-880 


0-883 


31 


69 


0-954 





•957 


98 


2 


0-797 


0-801 


64 


36 


0-882 


0-886 


30 


70 


0-956 





•958 


97 


3 


0-800 


0-804 


63 


37 


0-885 


0-889 


29 


71 


0-957 





•960 


96 


4 


0-803 


0-807 


62 


38 


0-887 


0-891 


28 


72 


0-959 





-962 


95 


5 


0-805 


0-809 


61 


39 


0-889 


0-893 


27 


73 


0-961 





-963 


94 


6 


0-808 


0-812 


60 


40 


~ 0-892 


0-896 


26 


74 


0-963 





965 


93 


7 


0-811 


0-815* 


59 


41 


0-894 


0-898 


25 


75 


0-965 





967 


92 


8 


0-813 


0-817 


58 


42 


0-896 


0-900 


24 


76 


0-966 





968 


91 


9 


0-816 


0-820 


57 


43 


0-899 


0-902 


23 


77 


0-968 





970 


90 


10 


0-818 


0-822 


56 


44 


0-901 


0-904 


22 


78 


0-970 





972 


89 


11 


0-821 


0-825 


55 


45 


0-903 


0-906 


21 


79 


0-971 





973 


88 


12 


0-823 


0-827 


54 


46 


0-905 


0-908 


20 


80 


0-973 





974 


87 


13 


0-826 


0-830 


53 


47 


0-907 


0-910 


19 


81 


0-974 





975 


86 


14 


0-828 


0-832 


52 


48 


0-909 


0-912 


18 


82 


0-976 





977 


85 


15 


0-831 


0-835 


51 


49 


0-912 


0-915 


17 


83 


0-977 





978 


84 


16 


0-834 


0-838t 


50 


50 


0-914 


0-917 


16 


84 


0-978 





979 


83 


17 


0-836 


0-840 


49 


51 


0-917 


0-920,t 


15 


85 


0-980 





981 


82 


18 


0-839 


0-843 


48 


52 


0-919 


0-922 


14 


86 


0-981 





982 


81 


19 


0-842 


0-846 


47 


53 


0-921 


0-924 


13 


87 


0-983 





984 


80 


20 


0-844 


0-848 


46 


54 


923 


0-926 


12 


88 


0-985 





986 


79 


21 


0-847 


0-851 


45 


55 


0-925 


0-928 


11 


89 


0-986 





987 


78 


22 


0-849 


0-853 


44 


56 


0-927 


0-930 


10 


90 


0-987 





988 


77 


23 


0-851 


0-855 


43 


57 


p-930 


0-933 


9 


91 


0-988 





989 


76 


24 


0-853 


0-857 


42 


58 


0-932 


0-935 


8 


92 


0-989 





990 


75 


25 


0-856 


0-860 


41 


59 


0-934 


0-937 


7 


93 


0-991 





991 


74 


26 


0-859 


0-863 


40 


60 


0-936 


0-939 


6 


94 


0-992 


0- 


992 


73 


27 


0-861 


0-865 


39 


61 


0-938 


0-941 


5 


95 


0-994 




72 


28 


0-863 


0-867 


38 


62 


0-940 


0-943 


4 


96 


0-995 




71 


29 


0-866 


0-870 


37 


63 


0-942 


0-945 


3 


97 


0-997 




70 


30 


0-868 


0-872 


36 


64 


0-944 


0-947 


2 


98 


0-998 




69 


31 


0-870 


0-874 


35 


65 


0-946 


0-949 


1 


99 


0-999 




68 


32 


872 


?-878 


34 


66 


0-948 


0-951 





100 


1-000 




67 


33 


0-875 


0-879 


33 


67 


0-950 


0-953 













Remarks. This table is exceedingly useful in 
chemical calculations, and in purchasing spirit of 
high strength, which is usually sold by weight. 

IV. From the temperature of the vapor to de- 



means of approximating to the strength of the 
spirit passing over, at everj'- part of the process of 
distillation, as well as the value of the wash left la 
the still. Oper, Thrust the bulb of a thermome- 



termine its alcoholic contents. This method has ter through a cork inserted in a tube fixed in the 
been proposed by Groning, and offers a ready head, of the still, or other vessel, and note tha 



* Alcohol of the Lend, and Dub. Ph. 



t Rectified spirit of the L. Ph. 



t Proof soirit. 



ALC 



40 



ALC 



temperature of the vapor in which it is thus im- 
mersed. Against this number in the following 
table, will be found the alcoholic contents of the 
vapor, and in the next column tliat of the boiling 
liquid from which it has arisen. 

Table, by Groning, of the Alcoholic Content of 
the vapor from mixtures of alcohol and water, 
and also of the boiling liquid from which they 
have been disengaged. 



Temperature of 


Alcoholic Content 


Alcoholic Content 


Vapor. 


of Vapor by volume 


of boiling liquid 


Fahrenheit. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


170 


93 


92 


171-8 


92 


90 


172-0 


91 


85 


172-8 


91i 


80 


174-0 


90 


70 


174-6 


89 


70 


176-0 


87 


65 


178-3 


85 


50 


180-8 


82 


40 


183-0 


80 


35 


185-0 


78 


30 


187-4 


76 


25 


189-8 


71 


20 


192-0 


68 


18 


194-0 


66 


15 


196-4 


61 


12 


198-6 


55 


10 


201-0 


50 


7 


203-0 


• 42 


5 


205-4 


36 


3 


207-7 


28 


2 


210-0 


13 


1 


212-0 









V. To determine the alcoholic contents of wine, 
heer, ^c. Proc. a. Half fill a graduated tube 
with the liquor to be tried, and add' thereto about 
12§ or 15§ of solution of diacetate of lead, (see 
below,) then agitate the mixture until the color be 
nearly removed ; powdered dry carbonate of po- 
tassa must be nex^ ^.dded until it falls down un- 
dissolved, on shaking the liquid ; after which, on 
allowing the tube to repose for a short time, the 
alcohol will be seen floating on the top of tlie 
aqueous portion in a well-marked stratum, and its 
quantity may be read off by means of the gradua- 
tions on the tube. 

The solution of lead. Ing. Powdered litharge, 
2 oz. ; sugar of lead, 3 oz. ; water, 1 pint. Proc. 
Boil to one half in a glass or lead vessel, then put 
it into a bottle, and cork it close. 

b. The same may be effected by agitating a 
little powdered litharge with the sample until it 
becomes discolored and limpid, when it may be 
saturated with carbonate of potassa as before. 

c. Another good way to determine the quantity 
of alcohol contained in a given Kanq)lo of wine, is 
to sei)arate it from the non-vohitilo constituents 
by distillation. A very neat apparatus for experi- 
menlK of this nature has been contrived by M. 
Gay LuHsac ; but any species of small still or re- 
tort may bo employed for the purpose. You luko 



three hundred parts of the liquor to be tried, mea- 
sured in a graduated glass tube. The operation is 
equally adapted for wines, beer, gin, and all kinds 
of spirituous liquors. Having inserted the liquor 
into the still, you carefully and slowly distil over 
one hundred parts, or one third of the liquor in the 
still, making use of a graduated t^be as the reci- . 
pient, and stopping the operation when the distilled 
liquor reaches the hundredth degree. You then 
ascertain the alcoholic strength of the distilled 
liquor by means of the hydrometer, and dividing 
the result by three, you have at once the per 
centage of alcohol of the liquor submitted to ex- 
amination. If, for example, the hundred parts of 
distilled liquor contain thirty parts of alcohol, the 
wine submitted to distillation contains ten per 
cent, of alcohol. But if, from want of attention, 
you distil over more than one hundred parts of 
the liquor, it will not do to divide the alcoholic 
strength of the product by three, to obtain the per 
centage of alcohol of the liquor submitted to dis- 
tillation : you must employ as the divisor, the 
number which expresses the relation of the vol- 
ume of the distilled product to the bulk of the 
wine. If, for example, you have one hundred 
and six parts of distilled liquor, containing (as as- 
certained by the hydrometer) thirty-three parts of 
alcohol, you divide three hundred by one hundred 
and six, which gives 2-83, and then divide thirty- 
three by 2-83, which gives 11-66. The last num- 
ber expresses the per centage of alcohol of the 
liquor submitted to examination. 

Remarks. It was at one time maintained by 
Fabroni and others, that alcohol does not exist in 
the fermented liquors from which it is procured by 
distillation, but is, like the essential oils of almond 
and mustard, formed during that process. The 
first two of the above processes will, however, 
clearly demonstrate that such is not the case. 
The process a was first employed by Brande ; the 
process h by M. Gay Lussac. The latter chemist 
has also distilled wine in vacuo at 59° F., and 
alcohol came over. 

Concluding Remarks. Several other methods 
of alcoholometry have been adopted at various 
times, besides those just noticed, but the majority 
have little merit for accuracy, and are therefore 
quite inapplicable to the purposes of trade in this 
country. Formerly the strength of spirit was es- 
timated by what was called the " jiroof." A little 
of the spirit was poured upon a small quantity of 
gunpowder, in a spoon or saucer, and intiamed ; 
if explosion of the powder followed the combus- 
tion of the spirit the sample was said to be above 
or over proof, but if the contrary, it was declared 
below or under proof/ Hence arose the words 
pr6of and proof spirit, which have since been ap- 
plied to spirit of particular strength by Act of 
l'arliain(Mit. Another method, is the " preuve 
d'Hollautl" of the French, or the bead still fre- 
quently employed by persons unacquainted with 
the use of the hydrometer. It consists in shaking 
the spirit in a vial, and observing the size, rju/n- 
brr, and duration of the bubbles or " beads," aa 
they are called. The larger and more numerous 
these are, and the more rapidly they break and 
disappear, the stronger is deenuul the spirit. This 
method, like the last, can but at best afford a 
mere upproximuto idea of the strength of'spiribS) 



ALC 



41 



ALC 



while it is liable to be influenced by circum- 
stances, which will affect the sp. gr. in only a 
very trifling degree. Thus the addition of a little 
sugar to the spirit, barely sufficient to lower the 
hydrometer one degree, will sometimes give to a 
weak sample the appearance of one many degrees 
stronger. The gunpowder test is even more fal- 
lacious, for if one spoonful of a given spirit be just 
sufficient to fire the powder, double the quantity 
of a spirit 20§ stronger will fail to do so. Love's 
beads are often employed to ascertain the strength 
of spirit. (See Spec. Gray.) The sudden in- 
crease of temperature produced by mixing a given 
weight of the spi?tt with a given weight of pure 
water being observed by a thermometer has also 
been proposed for the same purpose, but neither 
this nor the last method is capable of great accu- 



racy. The latter plan would require for its appli 
cation a series of tables based on experiments 
which we do not however possess. 

Before concluding this imperfect memoir on al- 
coholometry, I think I cannot better consult the 
interest of those connected with the spirit trade 
than by giving them the following important ta- 
ble. It shows by mere inspection the variation in 
the " richness in alcohol," and in volume, which 
spirits undergo by change of temperature. Per- 
sons purchasing spirits during summer, and pay- 
ing for them according to their apparent quantity 
and strength, will lose considerably when the wea- 
ther becomes colder, without being conscious of 
such loss from the hydrometer. By the inspection 
of this table the corrections to be made for change 
of temperature will become apparent. 



Table exhibiting the Volume which 1000 gallons of Spirits of different strengths, measured at the 
given temperatures, will have when measured at 59° F., arranged from Gay Lussac's Tables to 
his Alcoometre, and adapted to Fahr. Scale by Mr. Cool.ey. 



Pure 


Number of gallons 


which 1000 gallons of spirit at 


the given temperatures will measure 


Alcohol 

by 
volume, 
per cent. 






at 


59° Fahrenheit. 




• 


50° 


52° 1 534° 


554° 


574° 


59° 


604° 


624° 


644° 


664° 


68° 


694° 


"714° 


734° 


754° 


770 


27 


.. 






.. 


.. 


1000 






.. 




., 






.. 


996 


995 


28 






.. 


.. 




1000 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


997 


997 


996 


9954 


995 


29 


.. 




.. 


.. 




1000 








998 


998 


997 


9964 


996 


995 


9944 


30 




.. 






.. 


1000 




999 


999 


998 


9974 


997 


996 


9954 


995 


994A 


31 


.. 


.. 


1001 


1001 


1001 


1000 


1000 


999 


9984 


998 


997 


997 


996 


9954 


9944 i 9944 
9944 ■ 994 


32 


' • 


1002 ! 1001 


1001 


1001 


1000 1000^ 


999 


998 


9974 


997 


9964 


996 


9954 


33 


1002 


1002 10014 


1001 


1001 


1000 


9994 


999 


998 


9974 


997 


9964 


9954 


9954 


9944 1 994 


34 


10U2, 


1002 10014 1 1001 


1001 


1000 


9994 


999 


998 


9974 


997 


9964 


9954 


994 


9944 ! 9934 


35 


1003 


10024 1002 


10014 


1001 


1000 


999; 


999 


998 


9974 


997^ 


9964 


9954 


995 


9944 1 993^ 


36 


1003 


10024 1002 


10014 


1001 


1000 


999 


998J 


998 


9974 




996 


995.V 1 995 


9944 i 993= 


37 


1003^ 


10024 1002 


10014 


1001 


1000 


999. 


9984 


998 


9974 


9964 


996 


9954 


9944 


994 1 9932 


38 


1003:^ 


10024 1002 


10014 


1001 


1000 


999: 


9981 


998 


9974 


9964 


996 


9954 


9944 


994 1 9934 


39 


1003:r 1 1002^ 1002 


10014 


1001 


1000 


999: 


9984 


998 


997 


9964 


996 


995 


994.T 


994 i 993 


40 


1003i 10021 1002 


10014 


1001 


1000 


999i 
999; 


9934 


9974 


997 


9904 


996 


995 


9944 


9934 


993 


41 


10034 i 1003 il002" jlOOij 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


997 


9964 


9954 


995 


994 


9934 


993 


42 


100:3i|jl003 11002 jlOOli 


1001 


1000 


9992 


9984 


9974 


997 


9964 


995- 


995 


994 


9934 




43 


1003^11003 '100-2 llOOlii 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 


997 


996 


9954 


995 


994 


9934 


9924 


44 


1004 


1003 10024 10014 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 


997 


996 


9954 


9944 


994 


9934 


99^ 


45 


1004 


1003 11002411002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 


997 


996 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9934 


0901 


46 


1004 


1003 1002:; 1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997+ 


997 


996 


9954 


9944 


9934 
9934 


993 i 9921 


47 


1004 


1003 1002:; .J>2 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997z 


997 


996 


995 


9944 


993 


992i 


48 


1004 


1003 10024 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9972 


9964 


996 


995 


994* 


993i 


993 


9924 


49 


1004 


10034 10024 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


993 


997i 


9964 


996 


995 


9944 


993; 


9924 


9924 


50 


1004 |1003i 1002; 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997- 


99R4 


996 


995 


9944 


9934 


9924 


992 


51 


I004i 10034 1002i 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


994 


993^ 


9924 


992 


52 


lOOli 1003i 1002i 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 


9964 




995 


994 


993:; 


9924 


992 


53 


looii imU 10022 


1002 


1001 


1000 


999.T 


998 


997:; 


9964 


9954 


995 


994 


993i 


9924 


9915 


54 


1004i 1003i 10022 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997:: 


9964 


9954 


995 


994 


993^ 


992.4 


9911 
9914 
9914 
9914 
9914 


55 


lOOli 1003i 10022 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 


9964 


9954 


995 


994 


993 


9924 


56 


1004i 1003i 1002i 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


9974 




9954 


9944 


994 


993 


9924 


57 


1004i 1003^ 10024 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997 


9964 


9951 


9944 


994^ 


993 


992 


58 


1004i 10032 10024 


1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997 


9964 


9954 


9944 




993 


992 


59 


10042 10034 10024 1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997 




9954 


9944 


9934 


993 


992 


991: 


60 


10044 1003j 10025 1002 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997 


9964 


9954 


9944 


993j 


9924 


992 


991, 
991 


6] 


10044 10034 1002^ 1002i 


1001 


1000 


999: 


998 


997 


9964 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9924 


992 


62 


10044 10034 1002i ]002i 


1001 


1000 


9994 


998 


997 




9954 


994- 


993.2 


9922 


9914 


991 


63 


10044 1003i 1002i I002i 


1001 


1000 1 9994 


997J 


997 


9964 


9954 


9942 


9934 9924 


9914 


991 


64 


10042 1003i 1002i 10024: 


1001 


1000 9994 


9974 


997 


9964 


9954 


9944 


993,i- 9924 


9914 


991 


65 


10044 10034 10024 10024 


1001 


1000 9994 


9974 


997 


9964 


9954 


9944 


9934 1 9924 


9914 


991 


66 


10044 i0034 ]0024 1002: 
1004+ 10034 1002^ 1002; 


1001 


1000 1 9994 


9974 


997 


9964 


9954 


•9944 


9934 ; 9924 


9914 


990| 
99o| 


67 


1001 


1000 j 999: 


997: 


997 


9964 


9954 


9944 


9934 i 992:V 


9914 


68 


10044 10034 1003 


10024 


1001 


1000 1 999: 


9974 


997 


996 


9954 


9944 


9934 992; 


991.4 


990* 


69 


10044 1004 


1003 


10024 


1001 


1000 1 999 


9974 


9964 


996 


9954 


9944 


9934 I 992^ 


9914 1 9904 


70 


10044 1004 
10044 1004 


1003 


10024 


10.) 1 


1000 999 


9974 


9964 


996 


9954 


9944 


9934 i 992: 


991.1 9904 


71 


1003 


10024 


1001 


1000 : 999 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


9944 


9934: i 9924 


9914 990.4 


72 


10044 1004 


1003 


1002? 


1001 


1000 : 999 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


994 


993:; 9924 


9914 9904 


73 


10044 1004 


1003 10022 


1001 


10))0 i 999 


9974 


99G4 


996 


995 


994 


993 992 


9914 


9904 


74 


10044 1004 


1003 10024 


1001 


1000 99D 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


994 


993 992 


9914 


9904 


75 


1005 10044 1003 10024 


1001 


1000 9J8I 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


994 


993 


992 


991 




76 


1005 10044 1003 10024 


1001 


1000 : 998i 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


994 


993 


992 i 


991 


9904 


77 


1005 10044 10034 10024 


1001 


1000 9984 


9974 


9964 


996 


995 


994 


993 


992 : 


991 


9904 


78 


1005 1004 10034 10024 


1001 


1000 : 9984 


9374 


9964 


9954 


995 


9934 


993 


992 


991 


9904 


79 


10054 10044 100.34 10024 


1001 


1000 i 9981- 


9974 


9964 


9954 


995 


9934 i 9924 ! 9914 


991 


9904 


80 


1 10054 


10044 


10034 


10024 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 
6 


9964 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9924 


9914 , 


9904 


990 



ALD 



42 



ALE 



Tahle continued. 



Pure 


Number of gallons which 1000 gallons of spirit at the given temperatures will measure 


Alcohol 

by 
Tolume, 


at 59° Fahrenheit. 






























percent. 


50° 


52° 


534° 


554° 


57:^° 


59° 


m%° 


624° 


644° 


66i° 


68° 


69J° 


714° 


734° 


754° 1 77» 


81 


1005i 


1004i 


1003i 


10024 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


9964 


995i 


994| 


993^ 


992^ 
992a 


991| 


990^ 


990 


82 


1005^ 


10044 


1003i 


10024 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


9964 


995| 


994J 


993| 


99ia 


990^5 


990 


83 


1005^ 


10044 


10034 


1002^ 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


9964 


mbh 


994J 


9934 


992^ 


9914 


99O4 


989I 


84 


10054 


10044 


10034 


10021 


100] 


1000 


9984 


9974 


9964 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9924 


9914 


9904 


85 


10054 


10044 


10034 


1002^ 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


996- 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9924 


9914 


9904 


989i 


86 


10054 


10044 


10034 


1002^ 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


996^ 


995^ 


9944 


9934 


9924 


9914 


9904 


989A 


87 


1005J 


10044 


10034 


10U2^ 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 


996; 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9924* 


9914 


9904 


989j^ 


88 


1005^ 


1004^ 


1003^ 


1002- 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 99Gi 


9954 


9944 


9934 


9924 


9914 






89 


1005.1 

loosl 


1004^ 


1003^ 


1002^ 


1001 


1000 


9984 


9974 996^ 


9952 


9944 












90 


1004^ 


1003i 


1002J 


1001 


1000 


99bA 


9974 : 996 
















91 


10051 


1004 f 


10031 


.« 




1000 




1 
















92 


1006^ 


1005 


1004 




•" 


1000 




1 

















ALDEHYDAMMONIA. A compound of 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, discov- 
ered by Doebereiner and Liebig. 

Prep. Sulphuric acid 6 parts ; water 4 parts ; 
alcohol, of 80§, 4 parts ; hyperoxide of manganese 
in fine - pow-der, 6 parts. Proc. Dilute the acid 
with the water, then carefully add the alcohol, 
and next the manganese ; agitate and distil with 
a gentle heat, from a spacious retort into a receiv- 
er surrounded with ice, and connected with the 
former perfectly air-tight. When six parts have 
distilled, re-distil this portion from its own weight 
of dried muriate of lime, until three parts have 
come over, which must be again rectified in the 
same manner, until 1^ part of liquid is obtained in 
the receiver. This liquid must then be mixed with 
an equal bulk of ether, and trie mixture saturated 
with dry ammoniacal gas ;' brilliant colorless pris- 
matic crystals will then form, which, after washing 
with ether and drying, are pure aldehydammonia. 

Prop. ^c. Smells like turpentine ; melts at 160° ; 
volatilizes, unchanged at 212° ; decomposed by 
exposure to the air ; soluble in most menstrua ex- 
cept ether. Use. To m-rke aldehyde. 

ALDEHYDE. Syp. Hydrate of Oxide of 
AcETULE. A compound of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. Discovered by Liebig. 

Prep. Dissolve aldehydammonia in an equal 
weight of water ; place the solution in a retort, 
and add rather less than an equal quantity of sul- 
phuric acid, diluted with about half its weight of 
water ; then distil as above. Rectify the product 
twice from its own weight of dried muriate of lime, 
at a heat not exceeding 86° Fahr. 

Prop. An ethereous liquid, boiling at 72° ; neu- 
tral, inflammable, mixes with water, alcohol, and 
ether; decomposed by exposure to the air, into 
liquid acetic acid ; spoils by age. 

ALDEHYDIC ACID. Syn. Acetulous 
Acid. Lampic Acid. An acid not perfectly 
known, but supposed by Liebig to be the lam])ic 
acid of Davy and Faraday, or at least its essen- 
tial part. 

Prep. Digest oxido of silver in aldehyde, docaut 
and pass sulpliunded hydrogen through the litpiid 
to throw down the silver. Tli(> product is a weak 
acid, forming salts called aldcliydates with the 
bascH. These Halts sufler (l<>conij)Osilion during the 
evaporation of their solutions, and licnco cannot bo 
abtaincd in the dry state. 



ALE. Syn. Barley Wine. Ala. Cerevisia 
A pale-colored liquor, brewed from lightly-dried 
malt. It is usually described as containing more 
saccharine matter and mucilage than beer or por- 
ter ; but this is not a characteristic of the finer 
kinds of ale, as Old Burton, Scotch, East India, 
and other varieties, that have undergone a tho- 
rough fermentation. New or mild ale, on the 
contrary, abounds in undecomposed sugar and 
gum, and is thus rendered more nutritious, though 
less alcoholic, than the above varieties. 

Process of brewing ale. The various opera- 
tions of brewing are nearly the same for every spe- 
cies of malt liquor, the differences in the products 
arising from the materials employed, the heat of 
the water used for mashing, and the temperature 
at which the fermentation is conducted. (See 
Brewing.) For ale, pale or lightly-dried malt 
should be chosen, as well as pale hops, if it be de- 
sired to brew a hquor possessing but little color ; 
and the fermentation should be carried on at a low 
temperature. Almost every county in England 
has its variety of ale, but the difference consists 
chiefly (the same quantity of malt and hops being 
used) in the preparation of the malt. The water 
may in some cases vary in quality, the boiling 
may be longer or shorter, or the liquor may be 
turned on at a different heat ; but these circum- 
stances being considered, one general process 
serves for the whole, as before observed. For im- 
mediate use, the malt may be all pale ; but if 
brewed for keeping, or in warm weather, one- 
fourth should be amber malt. 6 lbs. of Kent hops 
should be used to the quarter, or 8 to 10 lbs. for 
keeping ale. The stronger ales contain about S^ 
of absolute alcohol ; ordinary ales from 5 to 6§. 

ALE, BARNSTAPLE. Boil the water, then 
throw two pails of cold water into the mash tun, 
and afterwards the boiling water ; then immediate- 
ly put in the malt, half a bushel at a time. After 
stirring it till it is soaked, caj) it with malt or bran, 
cover it close, and let it stand throe hours; then 
see if the mash is sunk in the middle ; if so, it 
must be filled level with boiling water, to stand 
half an hour; when it should be run ofl' in a 
goose-quill stream, and be returned upon the 
grains, by a bowl or pailful at a lime, as far back 
as possible from the cock, until the liquor strains 
through the body of the grains, and at last comes 
very fine ; otherwise the thick parts are forced 



ALE 



43 



ALE 



down to the cock. This is called " doubling ;" 
continue to do so for half an hour, then stop, and 
let it stand half an hour longer in winter, but not 
in summer. Then rub four pounds of hops very 
fine into the sieve, for the wort to run through ; 
do not draw it off too near before lading over more 
boiling water out of the copper. This is to be 
continued until the whole quantity of ale wort is 
obtained, which, with all the hops, is to be boil«d 
till the liquor breaks or curdles. Now empty all 
into large tubs or coolers ; work, when cold, with 
the same hops altogether, thus: put a little yeast, 
and that not a day old, to a quantity, and mix that 
with the rest, to work 12 or 14 hours, and then 
strain it directly into the barrel, where keep filling 
it until it has done working. 

ALE, BAVARIAN. This is a beer which 
has been made to ferment at a low temperature, 
until all the substances which favor acetification 
have been rendered insoluble. The fermentation 
is conducted in wide, open, shallow vessels, which 
afford free and unlimited access to atmospheric 
oxygen, and this in a situation where the tempe- 
rature does not exceed 46° to 50° Fahr. A sep- 
aration of the nitrogeneous constituents, i. e., the 
exciters of acidification, takes place simultaneous- 
ly on the surface and within the whole body of 
the liquid. The clearing of the fluid is the sign 
by which it is known that these matters have sep- 
arated. The beer obtained in this way is invaria- 
bly far superior, in quality and stability, to that 
brewed according to the common method. (Lte- 
big.) To be enabled to keep the temperature at 
the proper point, the operation is conducted in a 
situation removed as much as possible from the 
influence of atmospherical changes of tempera- 
ture, and at such seeisons as are favorable to the 
same. 

ALE, BURTON. This is a strong species of 
ale, of which only a barrel and a half is drawn 
from a quarter of malt. Temperature for the first 
mash 170°, and for the second 180°, followed by 
a mash for table beer at 165°. It is tunned at 
58°, and cleansed at 72°. The finest pale malt, 
ground two days before using, together with the 
best Kent hops, (6 to 8 lbs. per quarter,) are em- 
ployed for this ale. Remarks. The " East India" 
ale, brewed by Bass & Co. of Burton, is perhaps 
as near an approach to wine as malt liquor is ca- 
pable of receiving ; it is indeed the " wine of 
malt." 

ALE, DORCHESTER. This is made with 
^ pale and | amber malt, with 6 or 7 lbs. of hops 
to the quarter. The temperature of the first mash 
is 170°, and of the second 180° ; boiled for 30 
minutes, and the yeast added, when a head gath- 
ers on the gyle-tun ; work until the head begins 
to fall, then cleanse and fill up the casks as long 
as they continue to work. Two barrels per 
quarter. 

ALE, EDINBURGH. Employ the best pale 
malt. 1st. Mash two barrels per quarter, at 180° ; 
mash three quarter^ of an hour, let it stand 1 
hour, and allow half an hour to run off the wort. 
2d. Mash 1 barrel per quarter, at 183° ; mash 
three quarters of an hour, let it stand three quar- 
ters of an hour, and tap as before. 3d. Mash one 
barrel per quarter, at 170° ; mash half an hour, 
let it stand half an hour, and tap as before. The 



first and second .-^ort may be mixed together, 
boiling them about an hour or an hour and a quar- 
ter, with a quantity of hops proportioned to the 
tune the beer is intended to be kept. The first 
two may be mixed at the heat of 60° in the gyle- 
tun, and the second should be fermented separate- 
ly for small beer. 

Remarks. The best hops should be used, in the 
proportion of about 4 lbs. for every quarter of malt 
emploved. 

ALE, ESSEX. This ale is brewed by putting 
boiling water into the mash-tun, and adding there- 
to some cold water, and then the malt, gradually, 
until a cover of dry malt is left on top ; it is then 
allowed to stand three hours ; in the mean time a 
similar mash is made with half the previous quan- 
tity of malt, and the same measure of water, in 
another tun, as soon after the first as possible ; 
both worts are drawn off simultaneously, and the 
latter serves as a second water for the malt used 
for the formem The smaller quantity of malt is 
then mashed a second time with water. The first 
wort is boiled an hour, or until it breaks into large 
flakes, when half of it is taken out, and the re- 
maining raw wort added to it, and the boiling con- 
tinued until it again breaks. The wort is now 
drained off from the grains and boiled, and a fresh 
mash made with the wort from the second tun, for 
the larger quantity of malt, and very hot water 
for the other ; after an hour it is drawn off, and 
another mash made for small beer. The propor- 
tion of hops is 2^ lbs. per quarter. This system 
of mashing, which has no advantage over the 
usual way, has been called " succession mash- 
ing." 

ALE FOR PRIVATE FAMILIES. A bush- 
el and three quarters of ground malt and a pound 
of hops are sufiicient to make 18 gallons of good 
family ale. That the saccharine matter of the 
malt may be extracted by infusion, without the fa- 
rina, the temperature of the water should not ex- 
ceed 165° or 170° Fahrenheit's thermometer. 
The quantity of water should be divided into two 
portions, one of which should be poured upon the 
malt as speedily as possible, and the whole being well 
mixed together by active stirring, the vessel should 
be closely covered over for an hour ; if the weather 
be cold, for an hour and a half. If hard water be 
employed, it should be boiled, and the temperature 
allowed, by exposure to the atmosphere, to fall to 
about 165° Fahr. ; but if rain water is used, it may 
be added to the malt as soon as it reaches the 
point. After standing the proper time, the wort 
must be drawn off into another vessel, and the 
second portion of the water poured on, which 
should be allowed to mash an hour. The first 
wort may then be boiled with ^ lb. of hops for one 
hour, by which time the second mashing will be 
ready to be drawn off, and should be boiled for half 
an hour, with \ lb. of fresh hops. The two liquors 
should now be mixed and cooled down to the tem- 
perature of 60° or 65°, when a pint of good thick 
yeast should be well stirred in, and as soon as the 
fermentation is completed, the liquor may be drawn 
off into a clean cask previously rinsed with boiling 
water. When the slow fermentation which will 
ensue has ceased, the cask should be loosely 
bunged for two days, after which, if the liquor be 
left quiet, the bung may be properly fastened. 



ALE 



44 



ALE 



Pale malt is the best, because, when highly dried, 
it does not afford so much saccharine matter. If 
the malt be new, it should be exposed to the air, 
in a dry room, for two days previously to its being 
used. A third mashing may be made for table 
beer. 

ALE, LONDON. I. Pale malt, 14 quarters ; 
hops, 112 lbs. ; mash with 28, 18, and 18 barrels 
of water ; boil with the hops, cool, and set with 
36 lbs. of yeast ; cleanse with salt, 3 lbs. Prod. 
34 barrels, or 1 j gallon for each gallon of malt 
employed. 

IL ( To brew tw6 barrels from a quarter of 
malt.) Turn on two barrels at 175° ; mash one 
hour, and let it stand for the same time. For sec- 
ond mash, turn on one barrel at 160° ; mash one 
hour, and stand one hour: boil the first wort brisk- 
ly for one hour ; and boil the second two hours, or 
till the whole is two barrels. Cool down to 60°, 
and tun. Cleanse on the fourth day at 72°, pre- 
viously mixing in 2 ounces of ginger, if an ounce 
of salt, and a handful of flour. Keep the working 
tun closely covered, and just before the head be- 
gins to fall, skim the top, and rouse in the rest. 
When the blebs are large and on the fret, rouse in 
^ an ounce of salt, a handful of malted bean-flour, 
and some fresh yeast, after which it will ferment 
more kindly, and the cleansing may Soon follow, 
with the new head on. Take care to fill up the 
casks while working, and before bunging put a 
handful of scalded hops into each. 

ALE, NOTTINGHAM. This is usually brew- 
ed by three mashings in the common way, but a 
much longer time is occupied in the mashing, and 
after drawing off each wort, the grains are washed 
bypoufing over them fresh water from the copper, 
by two or three bowlfuls at a time. The boiling 
is conducted in separate portions for each wort, and 
the hops, enclosed in a coarse canvass bag, are only 
allowed to boil for half an hour, when they are 
taken out, and the boiling continued until the bub- 
bles break into little ragged particles. The quan- 
tity of hops is divided between the boilings, and 
frequently the second and third worts are boiled 
together. 

ALE, RINGWOOD. This brewing produces 
two b'^'-rels and a half from the quarter. The best 
pale malt and }X)cket hops are used, at the rate of 
6 lbs. to the quarter. Turn on first mash at 180°, 
and second mash at 190°. Pitch the tun at 60°, 
and cleanse at 80°. Mash successively one hour, 
and three quarters of an hour, standing an hour 
and a half, and two hours. Add in the tun 2 lbs. 
of yeust for every barrel, and coat with salt and 
flour after the first skimming. 

ALE, SCOTCH. Tills ale is brewed from the 
finest pale malt, (made from the best Englisli bar- 
ley,) and the best East Kent Hops, or for long 
keeping, Farnham^s or Countrtfs. The brewing 
is restricted to the colder portions of the year, as it 
never buecceds so well during the months of May, 
.June, July, August, and Scpleniber. Only one 
mask is made, and that at a temperature of about 
180°, with one-third of the quantity of the water 
necessary for the brewing. The mash-tun is then 
covered up for half an hour, when the wort is 
drawn ofl", and a quantity of water, at I he same 
temperature as before, sprinkled uniformly over its 
■urface. This is performed by throwing the water 



into a vessel with a bottom full of holes, somewhat 
resembling a shower-bath, from whence it de- 
scends and gets equally distributed over every por- 
tion of the malt. After an interval of about 
twenty minutes, this wort is drawn off from sev- 
eral small cocks or holes, placed round the circum- 
ference of the bottom, by which means the hot 
water is made to percolate equally through every 
particle of the mass. This operation, called 
" sparging," is performed a second time, with a 
fresh portion of hot water, and after a like inter- 
val, is again drawn off. This process is repeated 
several times, until the density of the mixed worts 
becomes adapted to the quality of the ale required 
Usually eight or ten " spargings" are employed, 
the latter at about 5° or 10° cooler than the first 
The skilful brewer so divides his water that it may 
produce a wort of the proper gravity ; but when a 
very strong one is required, the latter " sparges' 
are used for table beer, or as water for mashing 
a fresh quantity of malt. In this way, 1 quarter 
of malt will yield full 81 lbs. of extract. The wort 
is next boiled, with 4 lbs. of hops to every quarter 
of malt, and afterwards cooled down to 50° before 
adding the yeast. The latter must not exceed 
half a gallon for every 100 gallons of wort. The 
fermentation now commences and proceeds slowly, 
and in some brewings is accelerated by rousing up 
twice a day. Should more yeast be absolutely 
required in a few days, a little may be added. 
The fermentation generally continues for 15 to 20 
days ; and the ale is not cleansed before the de- 
gree of attenuation does not exceed J lb. per diem, 
and not more than \ of the original gravity of the 
wort remains. This process is then performed by 
drawing off without skimming. As soon as the 
fermentation is finished, the ale is put into care- 
fully prepared casks, and stored in a cold cellar. 
Here it soon becomes fine, and seldom wants 
racking before sale. The usual gravity per barrel 
of the best Scotch ale is about 38 or 40 lbs., and is 
seldom lower than 32 lbs. or higher than 44 lbs, 

ALE, TABLE. This is usually made by mash- 
ing the grains after the wort for the strong ale or 
beer has been drawn off; but if a separate brew- 
ing be made, the following are good proportions : — 
Pale malt 1 quarter ; mash with 4, 3, and 2;^ bar- 
rels of water ; boil with 5 lbs. of hops, set with 1 
gallon of yeast, and cleanse by beating the head 
in and letting it work out. Prod. 8^ barrels, or 
full 4 gallons of ale for 1 of malt. 

ALE, WELSH. Take 3 quarters of the best 
pale malt and 25 lbs. of hops ; turn on the first 
liquor at 178°. Mash for an hour and a half, and 
stand two houra. Turn on second liquor at 190°, 
and stand two hours. Boil an hour and a half; 
pitch the tun at 62°, and cleanse at 80°, using 
salt and flour. After tlie second mash, turn on for 
table beer at 150°. Mash three quartera of an 
hour, and stand two hours. 

ALE, WHITE, (DEVONSHIRE.) Boil to- 
gether 12 gallons of pale ale-wort, I handful of 
liops, and 4 or 5 lbs. of grouts ; cool, and add of 
yeast 3 lbs When it is in a state of lively fer- 
mentation, bottle in strong stone half-pints ; well 
cork them down, and wire them. Remarks. This 
is much drunk in some parts of Devonshire. It 
cHi'rvt'Nces wIumi opened. 

AliE, VVLNDSOR. This ale is brewed from 



ALK 



45 



ALK 



the best pale malt and hops. Turn on the first 
water at 180° ; mash 1^ hour, and stand 1 hour ; 
boil 1 hour. Turn on the second Ifquor at 190° ; 
stand I of an hour; boil 3 hours. Turn on the 
third liquor at 165° ; mash | of an hour: stand | 
of an hour. Pitch the tun at 60° : cleanse at 80° 
on the third day. Skim as soon as a close yeasty 
head appears, until the yeast ceases to rise, then 
rouse in ^ lb. of hops per quarter. 

ALE, YORKSHIRE OAT. The malt used 
is made from oats of the white sort, and dried with 
coke. Mash 1 quarter of ground malt with 44 
gallons of cold soft water, and let it stand 12 hours ; 
then draw otF the wort, and infuse therein for 3 
hours 2 lbs. of hops, well rubbed between the 
hands; next strain; tun it, and work it briskly 
with yeast for two or three days ; cleanse, and in 
ten days it will be fit to bottle. It drinks very 
smooth, brisk, and pleasant, but will not keep. It 
looks very much like white wine. 

ALIZARINE. Syn. Purr madder red. Prep. 
I. Expose madder red to a gentle heat, when the 
alizarine will sublime, and may be collected. 

II. Add powdered madder cautiously to its own 
weight of oil of vitriol, and mix with a glass rod ; 
then wash the charred mass with clean cold wa- 
ter ; dry, and sublime as before. 

Prop. Orange-red crj'stals, very soluble in alka- 
line solutions, which it colors violet; dyes mor- 
danted cloth red. Re/nark. The name is derived 
from Ali-zari, the commercial name of madder, in 
the Levant. 

ALKALIS. (From the Arabic al. an essence, 
and kali, the plant from which soda was first ob- 
tained.) Substances which possess the property 
of forming salts with the acids, and for the most 
part of turning the vegetable blues to greens, and 
yellow turmeric paper brown. The principal alka- 
lis are soda, potassa, and ammonia. The Jirst 
has been called the mineral, the second the vege- 
table, and the third the volatile alkali ; but this 
distinction is now nearly obsolete. Soda and po- 
tassa have also been called the fixed alkalis, from 
their permanence in the fire. 

Hist. At the time when Lavoisier declared oxy- 
gen to be the universal acidifying principle, Mor- 
veau conjectured hydrogen to be the alkalifying 
principle ; but it was afterwards demonstrated by 
Sir H. Davy, that potassa and soda are actually 
the oxides of tne metals, potassium and sodium. 
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydro- 
gen. Dr. Murray conceived that either hydrogen 
or oxygen might generate alkalinity, but thai a 
combination of the two was necessary to give this 
condition in its utmost energy. This theory is not, 
however, borae out by the observed phenomena of 
chemistry. Gay Lussac conceives alkalinity to be 
the result of " the alkali''yinor property of thv met- 
al, and the acidifying property of the ox>gen, 
modified both by combination and by the propor- 
tions ;" but this " coalition" theory is" far from sat- 
isfactory. Of late years tbe list of alkalis has been 
greatly extended by the discovery of several vege- 
table principles possessing important properties 
£ind forming salts with the acids. (See Alka- 
loids.) 

Prop., Char., SfC. Potassa, soda, and ammonia, 
are known by the following characteristics : — An 
acid urinous taste ; a great degree of causticity ; 



turning vegetable blues green, and yellows brown ; 
forming soaps with the fixed oils ; solubility in wa- 
ter, and when pure in alcohol ; forming salts with 
the acids ; solubility of their carbonates ; action of 
their carbonates on vegetable colors. 

Caution. The pure or caustic alkalis should be 
kept in glass bottles, well secured from the air, as 
they rapidly absorb carbonic acid and become car- 
bonates. 

ALKALIMETER. A measurer of alka- 
linity. 

ALKALIMETRY. The art or method of de- 
termining the amount of pure alkali contained in 
any given sample. 

Remarks on the principles of alkalimetry, <^c. 
The common method of alkalimetry is founded on 
the known quantity of pure alkali, which is required 
to saturate a given weight of dilute sulphuric acid. 
The glasses, or alkalimeters, as they are called, 
with which the operation is performed, are usually 
graduated into 100 parts, for the purpose of exact- 
ly estimating the quantity ofr acid employed. As 
the sulphuric acid, however, acts upon the muri- 
ates and sulphurets usually present in the alkalis 
of commerce, this plan does not admit of great ac- 
curacy, unless proper precautions are taken to avoid 
the source of error. Some years ago the German 
soap-boilers estimated the strength of their ashes 
by merely pouring a quart of water on a pound of 
the former, and then putting in a piece of Dutch 
soap, added water, in small portions at a time, 
until it sank. The more water required to effect 
this object, the richer the ashes were supposed to 
be in alkali. This plan was also employed at no 
very distant period in some of the remoter parts of 
the United Kingdom. Alkalimetry has lately en- 
gaged the attention of some eminent chemists, and 
by following their suggestions, the " richness" of 
any sample of ashes, barilla, or alkalis may be 
obtained with great precision. The importance of 
this subject to the soap-maker and manufacturing 
chemist must at once be evident. The following 
are among the most approved methods of pro- 
cedure. 

I. Oper. Pulverize a little of the sample, and 
weigh therefrom exactly 100 grs., agitate it with 
about half an ounce of hot water in a vial or small 
tube, then allow it to settle, and pour off" the clear 
into another tube or vial ; repeat the process with 
a second and third portion of hot water, or until 
nothing soluble remains, observing each time to 
allow the liquid to settle before pouring it off"; the 
mixed liquid is then tested as follows : — the test 
acid described below is poured into the glass tube 
until it reaches exactly to the line marked by the 
name of the alkali under examination ; water is 
then poured in to the line marked 1 or 1000, and 
the whole is well mixed by placing the thumb on 
the orifice of the tube and shaking it well. The 
measure of this dilute acid must then be carefully 
observed, and water added to make up the proper 
quantity as before ; should it be lower than the 
mark, agitation being again employed. The test 
liquor thus prepared is then to be carefully added 
to the solution of the alkali just described until it 
be perfectly neutralized. The quantity of me 
test liquor used must next be read off from the 
graduated part of the tube, each larger division of 
which will represent 1 gr. per cent, of the pure 



ALK 



46 



ALK 



alkali, or its carbonate, as the case may be, in the 
Bample under examination. 

The glass tube, or Faraday^s alkalimeter, as 
it is called, is here represented, and is about 9^ 
inches long, and | of an inch wide ; it is gradua- 
ted into 100 parts, each of which represents 10 grs. 
of water. Opposite the numbers 23-44, 48-96, 
54-63, and 65, are cut the words written in the 
margin, and indicate the quantity of test acid to 
be employed for each of these alkalis. The test 
acid being then poured in up to the proper marks, 
and the tube filled up to 1000 with pure water, 
gives a test solution equal to 100 grs. of the given 
alkalis. Consequently, the number of its divisions 
consumed to produce saturation, will exactly ex- 
press the value per cent. 



grs. 
1000 



Soda 



Potassa 

Carbonate of Soda . — 



Carbonate of Potassa 



1 
5 
10 
— 15 



-50 

-55 
■60 

— 65 
70 

— -lo 



95 



-100 

The test acid is prepared by adding pure water 
to pure sulphuric acid until the specific gravity is 
reduced to 1*127 at 60° F., (about 1 measure of 
acid to 4 of water.) The sp. gr. must be carefully 
ascertained by means of the sp. gr. bottle, and its 
strength checked by adding to 100 grs. of it, chlo- 
ride of barium until it no longer produces a precipi- 
tate. This, when washed and dried at a low red 
heat, contains 33*3 per cent, of sulphuric acid, from 
which the strength of the test acid may be calcu- 
lated. This is an jasy method of alkalimetry, and 
admits of as -^rtaining the quantity of alkali to the 
^ or ^ of 1 per cent. It is best to keep a quantity 
of the test acid always ready prepared, as it saves 
trouble. Should a Faraday's alkalimeter not be 
at hand, any other mode by which the test liquor 
can be accurately measured will do as well. 

II. Dissolve 100 grs. of alkali, as described in 
the last method, then take a known weight of the 
test acid prepared as directed below, and proceed 
to neutralize the alkaline solutiou therewith in the 
way above mentioned ; theu again weigh the test 
acid and note the quantity consumed ; the loss of 
weight divided by 10 gives the real per c -^age of 
pure alkali. 

Test, acid for soda. Add pure sulphuric acid to 
distilled water until the sp. gr. becomes about 1-109 
(about 5 water and 1 aeid,) and 100 grs. of which 
saturate exactly 17 grs. of pure carbonate of soda 
dried at a dull red heat ; or which is the same, 313 
grs. should contain exactly 40 grs. of real sulphuric 
acid, when 10 grs. will be ecpiivalent to 1 gr. of 
pure soda. The strength may be also tested by 
chloride of barium. 

Test, arid for potassa. This acid should be 
weaker than tiio ist, its sp. gr. about 1-069 or 



1-070 ; 471^ grs. should contain exactly 40 grs. of 
real sulphuric acid, and 1000 grs. should neutral- 
ize exactly 66^ grs. of dry carbonate of soda. 

Rernarks. The most convenient vessel to con- 
tain the test acid during the operation is Schuster's 
alkalimeter, described under the article Acetim- 
ETRY. This method of alkalimetry admits of 
great accuracy. By careful manipulation the 
content of real alkaU may be estimated to the 
one-tenth of 1 per cent. (C. Watt, jun., Chemist, 
No. 50.) The art of weighing admits of much 
greater accuracy than that of measuring, espe- 
cially where small quantities are concerned. This 
is the method employed at Apothecary's Hall^ at 
the Polytechnic Institution, (by Mr. L. Thomp- 
son,) in the Laboratory of Messrs. Hawes, and in 
various other places where great precision is de- 
sired. 

III. {Method of Fresenius and Will, of 
Giessen.) Oper. The flask B (article Acidime- 
try) is about half filled with oil of vitriol, and the 
sample of alkali is put into the flask A, and water 
poured on until it be almost half full. The tubes 
are then fitted into the apparatus quite air-tight ; 
the end of the tube h is fastened with a bit of wax, 
and the whole is carefully weighed. The appa- 
ratus is now removed from the scales, and the 
mouth applied to the end of the tube h, and the 
air in the flask B rarefied by suction ; the conse- 
quence of which is, that the oil of vitriol in B flows 
over into A. The evolution of carbonic acid im- 
mediately commences, which, from the construc- 
tion of the apparatus, has to pass through the oil 
of vitriol, before it can escape by the tube d, by 
which means it is rendered quite dry. Whenever 
the effervescence flags, a little more acid must be 
sucked over, until the whole of the carbonate be 
decomposed, after which an additional quantity is 
made to pass into A sufficient to raise the temper- 
ature considerably, which will have the effect of 
expelling all the gas absorbed by the fluid during 
the operation. As soon as this is completed, the 
wax is removed from the aperture h, %nd suction 
applied to h until all the carbonic acid gas in the 
apparatus is replaced by atmospheric air. The 
whole must now be allowed to cool, when it must 
be again weighed. The loss of weight gives ex- 
actly the amount of dry carbonic acid gas that 
was contained in the specimen, from which the 
weight of pure alkali is estimated. Every 22-12 
grs. of dry carbonic acid gas represent exactly 
31-3 grs. of pure soda, and 47-15 grs. of pure 
potassa. 

Remarks. Should the specimen contain caustic 
potassa, (as many of those of commerce do,) it 
should be triturated, previously to testing, with an 
equal weight of pure quartz sand, and about ^ of 
its w;ight of carbonate of ammonia added ; the 
miy.ure is then placed in a capsule and moistened 
with water, and a gentle heat applied until it be 
quite dry, and all the ammonia expelled. Should 
sulphuret of potassium or caustic soda be present 
in the sample, the same method must be followed, 
except that instead of water the powder should be 
jnoistened with liquor of ammonia ; and in the 
case of soda, the quantity of carbonate of annno- 
nia should be at least equal to half the weight of 
the t(>st specimen. It will thus be seen that unless 
for carbonates, (unmixed with sulp/iurcts, bicar* 



ALK 



47 



ALK 



honates, or caustic alkali,) tliis method requires 
several operations, and is consequently very trou- 
blesome and liable to error, except in expert hands. 
It is, however, a ready and elegant way of testing 
the pure carbonates. 

Concluding remarks on Alkalimetry. Rules 
for sampling, «^c. As each sample is taken from 
the cask, place it at once in a wide-mouth bottle, 
cork it up immediately and number it. The sam- 
ple should be drawn from as near the centre of the 
cask as possible. Before proceeding to the assay, 
throw the contents of the bottle upon a piece of 
clean paper, crush the lumps, and mix them with 
the small ; reduce the whole to coarse powder as 
rapidly as possible, and weigh the number of grains 
for trial at once. In a number of casks, at least § 
of them should be tested. Assays of soda should 
never be made while warm, as it will thereby fre- 
quently indicate 1 or 2 per cent, more alkali than 
when it has been cooled down and packed in 
casks. The method of trying the density of the 
test acid by merely dropping a bead of a known 
sp. gr. into it, as is frequently recommended by 
chemical reformers, is not sufficiently accurate to 
be depended on. Too much care cannot be taken 
to ensure the test acid of the proper strength, of 
which the sp. gr. alonft is an insufficient proof. It 
is always best to keep a stock of the test acid 
(properly made and proved) ready for use. 

Tho'se desirous of entering more largely into the 
subject of acidimetry, alkalimetry, &-c., are re- 
ferred to Bullock's " Translation of Fresenius and 
Will ;" some valuable papers by Mr. C. Watt, jun., 
in the fifth volume of the " Chemist ;" and to a 
paper by Dr. Ure, in the third volume of the 
" Pharmaceutical Transactions." 

ALKALOIDS. Syn. Vegetable Alkalis. 
Organic Alkalis. Organic Bases. Substances 
possessing basic and alkaline properties derived 
from the vegetable kingdom. They are compounds 
of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen, and have 
hence been distinguished by Dr. Collier, by the 
mnemonic word, " chaos," the first four letters be- 
ing the initials of the elements, and the " s" show- 
ing that they are salifiable. Some of the alka- 
loids are the most violent poisons with which we 
are acquainted ; one-fiftieth of a grain of pure 
aconitina has endangered life. (Pereira.) The 
greater number possess similar properties to the 
plant from which they are extracted, but in an 
eminently concentrated degree. The following 
table exhibits the principal alkaloids described in 
the body of this work, together with the plants 
which yield them : 

Alkaloids. Plants. 

Aconitina . . Aconitum Napellus. 

Aricina . . . Arica Bark. 

Atropia . . . Atropia Belladonna. 

Brucia . . . Strychnos Nux Vomica. 

Cinchonia . . Cinchona Lancifolia. 

Codeia . . . Opium. 

Conia .... Conia Maculatum. 

Corydalia . . . Corydalis Tuberosa. 

Cynapia . . . -^thusa Cynapium. 

Daturia . . . Datura Stramonium. 

Delphia . . . Delphinium Staphisagria. 

■ Digitalia . . . Digitalis Purpurea. 

Emetina . . . Cephaelis Ipecacuanha. 



}. 



Alkaloids. 

Hyoscyamia 

Meconia 

Morphia 

Narceia 

NarcotinaJ 

Nicotina . 

Picrotoxia 

Quinia 

Sanguinaria 

Solania 

Thebaia . 

Ver atria . 



Plants. 
Hyoscyamus Niger. 

Opium. 

Nicotiana Tabacum. 

Menispermum Coculus. 

Cinchona Cordifolia. 

Sanguinaria Canadensis. 

Solanum Nigrum. 

Opium. 

Veratrum Sabadilla. 



The following general method of procuring 
the alkaloids will be found applicable to such as 
full directions are not given for under their respec- 
tive heads. 

L (When the base is insoluble in water, non- 
volatile, and existing in the plant in an insoluble' 
form.) Proc. Boil or macerate the bruised plant 
in water acidulated with muriatic acid, filter, neu- 
tralize the acid with an alkali, (ammonia, lime, or 
magnesia,) and collect the precipitate, which must 
be purified by resolution in dilute acid, digestion 
with animal charcoal, and subsequent crystalliza- 
tion or precipitation by an alkali ; or the first pre- 
cipitate may be purified by dissolving it repeatedly 
in alcohol. 

2. (When the base is insoluble in water, and 
non-volatile, but existing in the plant in a soluble 
state.) Proc. Boil or macerate in hot water as 
before ; filter and precipitate by adding an alkali ; 
purify as last. 

3. (When the base is soluble in water, and 
non-volatile.) Proc. Make an infusion with a di- 
lute acid, (muriatic ;) concentrate by a gentle 
heat; treat the liquor with potassa and ether, 
(conjointly ;) decant and evaporate. 

4. (When the base is both soluble in water and 
volatile.) Proc. The vegetable or its extract may 
be mixed with potassa and distilled ; the product, 
neutralized with oxalic or sulphuric acid, carefully 
evaporated to dryness, and digested in alcohol, and 
this solution agitated with potassa and ether ; the 
ethereal solution thus formed, if carefully evapo- 
rated, leaves the base nearly pure. It may be 
further purified by cautious distillation. 

Re?narks. The above is a mere view of the 
four general processes of extracting the alkaloids, 
which, for success, require considerable address in 
manipulating. The plan adopted for the extrac- 
tion of the principal alkaloids of commerce, will 
be found fully described under their respective 
heads. 

ALKALOIDS, TESTS FOR THE. Per- 
chloride of gold is a more decisive test of certain 
vegetable alkalis than the double chloride of so- 
dium and gold, already employed for this purpose. 
The following are the colors of the precipitates 
which it produces with the salts of the annexed 
alkalis dissolved in water: quinine, bufF-colored ; 
cinchonine, sulphur-yellow ; morphine, yellow, 
then bluish, and lastly, violet ; in this last state 
the gold is reduced, and the precipitate is insoluble 
in water, alcohol, the caustic alkalis, and sulphu- 
ric, nitric, or hydro-chloric acids ; it fornos with 
aqua regia a solution which is precipitated by pro- 
tosulphate of iron ; brucine, milk-, coffee-, and 



ALK 



48 



ALK 



then chocolate-brown ; strychnine, canary-yellow ; 
veratrine, slightly greenish -yellow. 

All these precipitates, with the exception men- 
tioned, are very soluble in alcohol, insoluble in 
ether, and slightly soluble in water. 

Amouff the reactions of chloride of gold, there 
are two which appear to be especially important : 
they are those which occur with morphine and 
brucine ; these are sufficiently marked to prevent 
these alkalis from being mistaken for each other, 
and also yield pretty good characteristics for dis- 
tinguishing brucine from strychnine. (MM. La- 
rocque and Thibierge.) 

The above authors have arrived at the followmg 
conclusions : 

1st. By the aid of reagents it is possible to de- 
termine the presence of morphine, strychnine, and 
brucine in substances which, after being mixed 
with the salts of these alkalis, have undergone the 
vinous, acetic, or putrefactive fermentation. M. 
X)rfila has already shown that the putrefactive fer- 
mentation does not alter morphine. 

2d. Crystallized iodic acid, or a concentrated 
solution of this acid, is susceptible of being decom- 
Dosed by neutral azotized bodies ; but a dilute so- 
ution of this acid cannot be decomposed by them 
unless there be added concentrated sulphuric acid, 
crystallizable acetic acid, oxalic, citric, or tartaric 
acid. 

3d. Iodic acid should not be employed as a test 
of morphine without the greatest caution. 

4th. Perchloride of gold produces such effects 
with the vegetable alkalis, as serve to distinguish 
morphine, brucine, and strychnine from each other. 
Sth. The reagents on which the greatest reU- 
ance maybe placed as tests of morphine are, nitric 
acid, neutral perchloride of iron, and perchloride 
of gold. . 

6th. By the use of reagents, morphine which 
has been mixed with beer, soup, or milk, may be 
detected. 

7th. It is also easy to prove by reagents the 
presence of meconic acid in soup or milk, espe- 
cially when the meconate of lead is decomposed by 
dilute sulphuric acid. (Phil. Mag., Dec, 1842.) 

ALKANET. Syn. Alkanet Root. Qual, 
use, iSfC. The best alkanet is brought from the 
neighborhood of Montpellier. The bark contains a 
beautiful red color, which it freely gives to oils, fats, 
wax, spirits, essences, and similar substances, by 
simple infusion, and is consequently much em- 
ployed to color varnishes, ointment, pomatums, 
&c. Wax, tinged with alkanet and applied on 
warm marble, stains it of a beautiful flesh-color, 
which sinks deep into the stone, and is possessed 
of considerable permanence. The spirituous tinc- 
ture of alkanet gives a deep red to marble. 

In selecting this article, the smaller roots should 
be chosen, as they possess more bark than the 
larger ones in proportion to their weight. 

ALKKRMES. A cordial liqueur much es- 
teemed in some parts of the south of Europe. 

Prep. I. Inir. Bay leaves 1 lb., mace 1 lb., 
nutmegs and cinnamon, each 2 oz. ; cloves 1 oz., 
all bruised; cognac brandy .'4 gallons. Vror. Ma- 
cerate for 3 weeks, fre(inently shaking, then distil 
over 3 gallons, and add clarified siruj) of kennes 
18 llw., orang»'. flowiT water I i)int ; mix well and 
bottle. Remarks. Tiio above is the true formula 



for the alkermes de Santa Maria Novella, which is 
much valued. 

II. Spice as last, 4 gallons of British brandy, 
water 1 gallon; macerate as before, and draw 
over 4 gallons, to which add 2 gallons of capillaire, 
and 4 oz. of sweet spirits of nitre. (Cassia may be 
used for cinnamon.) 

ALLANTOIN. Syn. Allantoine. Allan- 
toic Acid. Hist. Discovered by Vauquelin and 
Buniva in the allantoic fluid of the cow. It has 
since been produced artificially by Wohler and 
Liebig. ' 

Prep. I. Evaporate the allantoic fluid of the cow 
to ^ or I of its volume, when, on cooling and stand- 
ing for some time, crystals will be deposited 
These must be purified by resolution, digestion 
with animal charcoal, and recrystallization. 

II. Boil 1 part of uric acid in 20 parts of water, 
then add thereto, gradually, freshly-precipitated 
and well-washed oxide of lead until the color ceases 
to change. Filter while hot, evaporate until a pel- 
licle forms on the surface, and set it aside to crys- 
tallize. Purify as above. 

Prop. Small prismatic crystals, scarcely solublf 
in water ; nitric acid converts it into allanturic 
acid. 

ALLANTURIC ACID. A new nitrogeneous 
acid, discovered by Pelouze, produced. by the ac- 
tion of nitric acid on allantoin. The name is de- 
rived from allantoin and uric acid, the new com- 
pound being made from the former, and being 
analogous in composition to the latter. 

Prep. Dissolve allantoin in nitric acid (1-2 to 
1-4) with a gentle heat ; on cooling, pour the U- 
quor from the crystals of nitrate of urea which are 
deposited, evaporate, and dry at 80° F. Treat the 
residuum with weak water of ammonia, and add 
alcohol ; collect the white viscid matter thrown 
down, redissolve it in water, and again precipitate 
it with alcohol ; the last precipitate is the acid. 
Prop. Little is known about it. 
ALLIGATION. An arithmetical rule for find- 
ing the price of mixtures, and for making mixl ures 
of any given price or value. From its great use in 
trade, and ease of performance, it should be under- 
stood by every tradesman. (Vide Jo>*ce or Walk- 
ingame.) Questions in alligation may also be very 
easily determined by the method of indeterminate 
analysis, by persons but slightly conversant with 
elementary algebra. This rule has been applied 
to ascertain the proportions of compounds from 
their sp. gr. when they have undergone no change 
in volume ; but when this is the case, as in alloys, 
alcoholic mixtures, «fcc., it is quite ina,pplicable. 

ALLOXAN. Syu. Erytiiric Acid. A pro- 
duct of the decomposition of uric acid by nitric 
acid, first noticed by Brugnatelli, and afterwards 
by Wohler and Liebig. 

Prep. Gradually add uric acid to nitric acid 
(sp. gr. 1-35) gently heated, until crystals begin to 
appear ; then cool, and throw the mass on a fun- 
nel choked with asbestos to drain, and afterwards 
drop on it a little cold water, to displace the last 
adhering portions of acid liquor ; when well drained 
dissolve'^in water, and crystallize, employing but 
little heat. The acid liquor will yield 4 or 5 
croi)s of crystals by treating it as often with fresh 
uric- acid. Prod. 80 to 90g of the uric acid em- 
ployed. 



ALL 



49 



ALM 



Prop. Crystals efflorescent ; treated with al- 
kalis it yields alloxanic acid. 

ALLOXANIC ACID. An acid discovered by 
Wohler and Liebig ; it is formed when alloxan is 
decomposed by the alkalis. Prep. Treat an aque- 
ous solution of alloxan with baryta water, and de- 
compose the alloxanate of Barytes formed with 
dilute sulphuric acid ; decant, evaporate, and crys- 
tallize. Prop. With the bases it forms salts called 
alloxanates ; these may generally be made from 
the alloxanate of baryta or ammonia by double 
decomposition : some of them are soluble. 

ALLOXAx\TINE. Obtained by Prout from 
uric acid. 

Prep. I. Boil 1 part of uric acid in 32 parts of 
water, and add dilute nitric acid until it be dis- 
solved ; evaporate to §ds, and set it aside for 12 
hours ; the crystals, which will then be found de- 
posited, must be purified by resolution and crystal- 
lization. 

II. Dissolve alloxan in water, and pass sulphur- 
eted hydrogen gas through the solution, until the 
alloxantiue be deposited as a crystalline mass, 
which must be purified by resolution and crystal- 
lization. 

ALLOY. Syn. Allay. Alliage, {Fr.) Le- 
GiRUNG, (Ger.) (From the French verb Alloyer, 
to mix one metal with another for the purposes of 
coinage.) Combinations of the metals with each 
other obtained by fusion. The term was formerly 
restricted to gold and silver when mixed with 
metals of inferior value, but is now applied to any 
mixture of two or more metals. 

Prop. Most of the metals unite with each other 
by fusion or amalgamation, and acquire new prop- 
erties. Thus : copper, alloyed with zinc, becomes 
brass, and possesses a different density, hardness, 
and color to either of its constituents. It is yet 
undecided whether alloys tend to be formed in defi- 
nite or equivalent proportions of the metals of 
which they are composed, or unite in any ratio, 
like sugar and water. The proportions contained 
in the natural alloys of gold and silver, as well as 
some phenomena attending the cooling of several 
alloys, from a state of fusion, go far to show the 
former to be the case. (Rudberg.) As, however, 
the metallic compounds are generally soluble in 
each other, or combine by fusion and mixture, 
their nature is much obscured. Alloys generally 
melt at lower temperatures than those required for 
the fusion of their separate metals, which affords 
strong evidence of a chemical change having taken 
I place. They also usually possess more tenacity 
I and hardness than the mean of their constituents ; 
but their malleability, ductility, and their power of 
resisting oxygen are diminished. The combination 
of two brittle metals is always brittle ; that of a 
brittle and a ductile metal generally so ; and this 
j is also sometijnes the case with two ductile metals. 
j From the number of the metals, it is evident that 
several hundred combinations may be made, but 
about 60 are all that have been carefully examined 
by the chemist, and not more than ^d part of that 
number has been applied to useful purposes. 
' Among these, however, may be iouwd - ome pos- 
Bessing most valuable properties, not to be met 
I with in the pure metals. 

Prep. No general rules for the manufacture of 
alloys applicable to each can be given ; but it may 
7 



j be lemarked that, in uniting those metals, differ- 
ing greatly in their fusibility, the more fusible one 
should not be added to the other until it be melted, 
or sufficiently heated, and then at the lowest pos- 
sible temperature at which a perfect union will take 
place between the two, lest the more fusible one 
should evaporate or be oxidized, and thus cause the 
compound to be imperfect. The mixture is usually 
effected under a flux, or some material that will 
prevent evaporation and exposure to the atmo- 
sphere. Thus : in meltiug lead and tin together, 
in forming solder, resin or tallow is thrown upon 
the surface ; in tinning copper, the surface is rub- 
bed with sal ammonia ; and in combiuing .some 
metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same 
purpose. For further information on this subject, 
the reader is referred to the following table, and 
to the separate articles devoted to the more impor- 
tant alloys. (See BroxNze, Brass, Pewter, &.c.) 

Table of the principal Alloys. 



Combining metals. 
Arsenic and copper . . 
Tin and Lead .... 

I Antimony, 1 
Tin with < Copper, and > 

( Bismuth S 


Jllloys produced. 
. White Copper or P ickfong. 
. Solder and Common Pewter 

5 Best Pewter or Britannia 
\ Metal. 


Tin and Copper . . . 


Fusible Metal. 

f Bronze Metal, 
j Speculum do. 
) Bell do. 




(_ Cannon do. 


Copper and zinc . . . . 


< BrMSs. 

I Dutch gold. 



Copper j Zinc. Nickel, J German silver. 

with } and Iron J 
Silver and Copper . . . Standard Silver. 

Gold with j ^"'^^f;/r"^ \ Do. Gold. 

Mercury and other Metals Amalgams. 

(See also Amalgams.) 

ALMOND TREE, (Amygdalus communis.) 
The kernels, stceet almonds, are pectoral and 
cooling, but mawkish ; imported from the south of 
Europe and the Barbarj'^ coast. Blanched almonds. 
Almonds thrown into boiling water until the skin 
comes off by pressing between the fingers, the hot 
water is then strained away, the almouds flung 
into cold water, peeled, and dried, either in a stove 
or the sun, until they are brittle. Burnt ahnonds. 
Used to color and flavor liqueurs. Bitter almonds. 
A variety, imported from Mogadore, used to re- 
lieve the flavor of the sweet almonds, and to clear 
muddy water ; both pressed for oil. Almond cake, 
left on pressing the oil, used for washing the hands. 

Remarks. Almonds are principally used for ob- 
taining the oil ; and in medicine for the prepara- 
tion of a confection and mixture ; and in caufec- 
tionarv, as an agreeable flavoring, &c. 

ALMOND FLAVOR. Syn. Essence of bit 
ter Almo.vds. Es.senoe of peach Kernels. 
Quintessence of Noyeau, &-c. Prep. Dissolve 
1 oz. of essential oil of bitter almonds in 1 pint of 
spirits of wine. 

Prop., uses, ^c. Used 2is a flavoring for wine, 
cordials, perfumery, pastry, &.C., and in any case 
where it is wished to impart an agreeable nutty 
flavor or smell ; also to prepare bitter almond wa- 
ter. Caution. It should be used in very small 
quantities, as it is very powerful. A few drops are 
sufficient for several pounds of pastry. 

ALMONDS, TO CANDY. Oper. Blanch 



ALO 



50 



ALU 



any quantity of ahnonds, then fry or bake theni in 
butter, until they acquire a light brown color ; wipe 
them with a napkin , pour over them sirup, (boiled 
to a thread,) and stir until cold. 

Remarks. According to Mrs. Rundel, almonds 
BO prepared were highly thought of by the London 
guests of his Highness Prince Ekbaladoola, the 
l^awaub of Oude, from whose cook this receipt 
was obtained. 

ALMOND PASTE. Prep. Blanched almonds 
4 oz. ; white of 1 egg ; spirit of wine and rose wa- 
ter, q. s. Proc. Beat the almonds to a smooth 
paste in a mortar, then add the white of egg and 
enough rose-water, mixed with i its weight of spi- 
rit of wine, to give the proper consistence. Use. 
As a cosmetic, to prevent chapped hands, «fec.- 

Remark. The skins will easily come off if the 
almonds be immersed for a few minutes in boilmg 
hot water. 

ALOES. As there are several descriptions of 
this drug, and the commoner sorts are frequently 
sold for the more expensive, the following charac- 
teristics will assist the reader in recognising such 
deceptions. 

ALOES, SOCOTRINE. Char. Color, garnet 
red to golden red; smell, peculiar and aromatic, 
not unlike a decaying russet apple, especially when 
breathed on or warmed ; taste, permanently and 
intensely bitter ; fracture, conchoidal ; softens in 
the hand and becomes adhesive, yet retains con- 
siderable brittleness ; powder, bright golden yel- 
low color ; central portions of the lumps often soft, 
especially when first imported. The Ed. Ph. states 
that socotrine aloes should be " in thin pieces, 
translucent and garnet red, almost entirely soluble 
in spirit of the strength of sherry ; very rare." 

ALOES, HEPATIC. Char. Less odorous, 
darker-colored, and more opaque than the preced- 
ing ; digested inspirit of wine, gives a yellow gran- 
ular powder, resembling lycopodium, and insoluble 
in water, alcohol, ether, and dilute sulphuric acid ; 
but freely soluble in liquor of potassa, which it 
turns red. Remarks. The finer and paler sam- 
ples of this aloes constitute the mass of what is 
sold for socotrine. It yields a powder of a duller 
color than the latter. 

ALOES, BARBADOES. Char. Color, dark 
brown or black ; smell, strong and unpleasant, 
especially when breathed upon ; powder, dull 
olive yellow. 

ALOES, CAPE. Char. Smell, stronger than 
the last ; color, deep greenish brown ; appearance, 
shining and resinous; fracture, glassy; powder, 
lively greenish-yellow color. 

Remarks. The above are the principal kinds of 
aloes ; but there are several other common sorts, 
as the Mocha, Caballine, and Indian, all of which 
are melted and doctored up by the conscientious 
druggijiit, and sold for Barbadoes and hcpatics. 
They may, however, be readily distinguisiied by 
an experienced person, by their odor and appear- 
ance, which are widely dilFcrent. 

ALOES, STRAINED. Syn. Micltkd Aloes. 
Aloio colata. Oper. I. Melt aloes in a cojjper 
pan by the heat of a steam or wat«^r-bath, then 
proKH them liirowgh a strong hair or wire sieve. 

II. Melt the aloes as above, but with the addi- 
ion of about twice their weight of water, strain 
lud evaporate. 



Remarks. Mocha and other common aloei, 
treated in this way and colored, are frequently 
sold for melted socotrine and hepatics. The color- 
ing employed is usually the precipitated carbonate 
of iron fsesquioxide) or Venetian red, in fine pow- 
der, and sometinies a little annatto. The impos- 
ture is not readily detected by mere inspection by 
any one unaccustomed to these matters, hence the 
impunity with which the fraud is perpetrated. The 
object in melting aloes is to deprive it of the for- 
eign matters, which it generally contains in large 
quantities, as sand, leaves, pieces of wood, «fec. 
The action of the heat drives ofFmuch of the nau- 
seous smell from the commoner kinds, at the same 
time that it deepens their color and renders their 
appearance more translucent and resinous, and 
hence disguises their original nature. The opera • 
tion of melting aloes on the large scale, is usually 
carried on at night, in consequence of the nau- 
seous fumes evolved, which may be smelt at a 
gre&t distance. 

ALOETIC ACID. This acid exists in a wa- 
tery solution of aloes. Trommsdorf supposed it 
to be the galUc acid, but Dr. Pereira regards it as 
a distinct principle. Gallic acid gives a blue color 
with the persalts of iron, but infusion of aloes pro- 
duces an olive brown one. (Pereira.) Prep. It is 
prepared by adding diacetate of lead to an infusion 
of aloes, and decomposing the precipitate with sul- 
phureted hydrogen. Remarks. This acid must be 
distinguished from polychromic, chrysammic, and 
other acids produced from aloes by the action of 
nitric acid. 

ALTERATIVES. (From the Latin altero, I 
change.) Medicines that establish the healthy 
functions of the body, without producing any sen- 
sible evacuation, by perspiration, vomiting, or 
purging. Small doses of the preparations of mer- 
cury are among the most useful and generally em- 
ployed alteratives. Various formulae for alterative 
medicines will be found in this work. 

ALTHIONIC ACID. Discovered by Re- 
gnault in the residual liquor from the preparation 
of defiant gas, from alcohol, and oil of vitriol. 

Prep. Dilute with water and neutralize with 
hydrate or milk of lime. Decant the solution, 
which contains althionate of lime, evaporate and 
crystallize. Dissolve the crystals in water, and 
precipitate with oxalic acid ; the solution is dilute 
althionic acid. 

Prop. A sour liquid, forming salts, called al- 
thionates, with the bases, which have the same 
composition as the sulpho-vinates ; they are, how- 
ever, distinct salts. (Regnault and Ettling.) 

ALUM. Syn. Lump Alum. Rock Alum. 
Sulphate of Alumina and Potash. Alumen, 
{Lat.;) Alun, {Fr.;) Alaun, {Gcr.;) Aluin, 
(Dut.) A salt composed of alumina, potassa, and 
sulphuric acid, aud in its usual state, ^ large quan- 
tity of combined water. 

Manufact. The principal alum works in Eng- 
land are near Paisley and Whitby. The minenUs 
from \Yhich it is procured are called aluminous 
slate, shale, or schist, and frequently alum ore. 
Proc. The ore, placed in heaps and moistened 
Irom time to time with water, becomes gradually 
hot, and falls into a pulveronl state. When it 
does not possess this property, by mere exposure to 
air and moisture, it is broken into pieces and laid 



ALU 



51 



ALU 



flpon a bed of brushwood and small coal, to the 
depth of about 4 feet, when the pile is fired, and 
fresh lumps of alum rock thrown on, until the 
mass becomes of considerable height and size ; the 
combustion is then conducted with a smothered 
fire, until the calcination is complete. The pile is 
then allowed to cool, and further exposed to the 
action of air and moisture. The residuum of the 
burning is now placed in large stone cisterns, and 
thoroughly edulcorated with water, until all the 
soluble portion is dissolved; the solution is then 
concentrated in another stone cistern, so made 
that the flame and heated air of its reverberatory 
furnace sweep the surface of the liquor. The 
evaporation is continued until it is vear the point, 
but somewhat weaker than that at which it would 
deposite crystals on cooling ; it is then run off, after 
defecation, into other cisterns, and solution of com- 
mon muriate or sulphate of potassa, or (sometimes) 
mipure sulphate or carbonate of ammonia, is added 
until a cloud or milkiness ceases to be produced on 
adding more ; it is then allowed to settle and get 
thoroughly cold, and the supernatant mother liquor 
being drawn off with a pump or syphon, the pre- 
cipitate is well drained. It is next well washed 
by stirring it up with a little very cold water, 
which after draining off, the operation is repeated 
a second time. A saturated solution of the alum 
is then formed in a leaden boiler, and the clear 
portion is run off, while boiling hot, into crystaUi- 
zing vessels, called " roaching casks,^' from wliich 
it is taken, after the lapse of about a week, in the 
form of large crystalline masses, which are broken 
up and packed in casks for sale. 

Remarks. The above is an outline of the most 
approved mode of making the alum of commerce. 
It has lately, however, been made at some chem- 
ical works on the banks of the Tyne, by the direct 
combination of oil o£ vitriol with a pure aluminous 
clay, the potash being afterwards added. This is 
a revival of the method first adopted by Chaptal. 
A patent alum is manufactured at the same 
works, which contains no alkali, and is, conse- 
quently, preferable for dyeing, as it is the alumina 
alone that forms the valuable ingredient in alums. 
Salts having the same general appearance and 
behavior as common alum, may be made by re- 
placing the sulphate of potassa in the common 
alum, by ammonia or soda. Such compounds are 
known as ammonia and soda alum. The best 
sort of alum is formed when potassa alone has 
been employed in its manufacture. Good alum 
contains about 11 per cent, of alumina, 10 per 
cent, of potassa, 33 of sulphuric acid, and 46 of 
water. 

Uses, ^c. Alum is used in large quantities in 
many manufactories ; added to tallow, it renders 
it harder ; printers' cushions, and the blocks used 
in the calico manufactory, are rubbed with burnt 
alum to remove any greasiness, which might pre- 
vent the ink or color from sticking. Wood, suf- 
ficiently soaked in a solution of alum, does not 
easily take fire ; and the same is true of paper im- 
pregnated with it, which is fitter to keep gunpow- 
der, as it also excludes moisture. Paper impreg- 
nated with alum is useful in whitening silver, and 
silvering brass without heat. Alum mixed in milk 
helps the separation of its butter. If added in a 
very small quantity to turbid water, in a few min- 



utes it renders it perfectly limpid, without any bad 
taste or quality ; while the sulphuric acid imparts 
to it a very sensible acidity, and does not precipi- 
tate so soon, or so well, the opaque eartliy mix- 
tures that render it turbid, as I have often tried. 
It is used in making pyrophorus, in tanning, and 
many other manufactures, particularly in the art 
of dyeing, in which it is of the greatest and most 
important use, by cleansing and opening the pores 
on the surface of the substance to be dyed, ren- 
dering it fit for receiving the coloring particles, (by 
imparting alumina to the stuff,) and in this way 
making the color fixed. Crayons generally con- 
sist of the earth of alum, finely powdered, and 
tinged for the purpose. In medicine alum is used 
as a tonic and stringent, in doses of 5 to 20 grs. ; 
as a gargle, (3j to i^ pint of water ;) and as a col- 
lyrium and injection, (10 to 15 grs. to 6 oz. of 
water.) In lead colic, 3ss to 3ij of alum dissolved 
in gum water, every 3 or 4 hours, is said to be in- 
fallible. Powdered alum is frequently applied 
with the tips of the fingers, in cases of sore throat 
and ulcerations of the mouth, &c. 

Pur. The usual impurity which re^iders alum 
unfit for the uses of the dyer, is the ferro-sulphate 
of potassa, but if iron be present in any other 
shape, it is equally injurious. Common alum fre- 
quently contains ammonia, from urine or the crude 
sulphate of the gas-works, having been employed 
in its manufacture. This may be detected by add- 
ing a little quicklime or caustic potassa. Powdered 
alum is commonly adulterated with large quanti- 
ties of common salt, when its solution may be 
tested as described for muriatic acid and the mu- 
riates. Pure alum should form a colorless solution 
with water, and give a white precipitate with pure 
potassa soluble in an excess of the latter. It should 
suffer no change on the addition of tinct. of galls, 
prussiate of potash, or sulphureted hydrogen. 

Ant. When excessive doses of alum have been 
taken, an emetic of sulphate of zinc should be 
given immediately, followed by copious draughts 
of warm water, and as soon as the vomiting 
ceases, give a purgative. 

ALUM, BURNT. Syn. Dried Alum. Alu- 

MEN USTUM. AlUMEN SICCATUM. A. EXSICCATUM. 

Proc. Liquefy alum in a shallow earthen vessel 
over the fire, then cautiously raise the heat until 
ebullition has ceased. (P. L.) 

Remarks. It is better to take more time, than 
to employ too much heat, lest a portion of the acid 
be driven off as well as the water. Use. Similar 
to common alum, but less soluble ; dose 10 to 20 
grs. in colic ; it is used as an escharotic to burn 
down proud flesh, &lc. 

ALUM, IRON. Prep. Mix the solution of 
sulphate of potassa with a solution of tersulpliate 
of peroxide of iron, and crystallize "by spontaneous 
evaporation. 

Remarks. This salt for the most part resembles 
common alum. It has sometimes a slight pink 
color. In a similar way may be made chrome 
and manganese alums. In all these salts ^mmo-* 
nia may be substituted for potassa, w'ti fliilar 
results. 

ALUM, ROACH. Syn. Roman Alum. Tur- 
key Alum. Red Alum, &c. A very pure sort of 
alum, imported from Roccha in Syria, and Tolfa 
in Italy, covered with an efflorescence of a palish 



ALU 



52 



ALU 



red or rose color. The article generally met with 
iii conrmerce under this name is, however, nothing 
but common English " alum, broken into pieces 
about the size of almonds, and colored with a little 
bole or rose pink. This is done by shaking the 
fragments in a sieve over a vessel of hot water, 
and then stirring them up with the color, until the 
surface is uniformly tinged therewith. In the gen- 
uine roach alum, the color not only covers the sur- 
face, but also partially pervades the substance of 
the crystals. 

ALUM, WHEY. Prep. Boil \ oz. of alum 
with a pint of milk, and strain it. Use. A wine- 
glassful in diarrhoea two or three times daily. 

ALUMINA. Syn. Pure Alumine. Oxide of 
Aluminum. Magistery of Alum. Aluminous 
Earth. Earth of Alum. Argil, &lc. This sub- 
stance is the base of the common alum, just de- 
scribed, and is about one of the most abundant 
productioDsof nature. It forms a large proportion 
of the clay oat of which bricks, pipes, and earth- 
enware are manufactured, and in a pure and crys- 
tallized state, constitutes the ruby and sapphire, 
two of the hardest and most valuable of the gems. 

Prep. I. Dissolve alum in 6 times its weight of 
boiling water, add a solution of carbonate of potas- 
sa, (in slight excess,) agitate for a few minutes, 
filter and wash with distilled water. To render 
this perfectly pure, it must be dissolved in weak 
muriatic acid, and again thrown down with am- 
monia, washed with water, and exposed to a white 
heat in a crucible. (Berzehus.) 

II. Precipitate a solution of alum with a solu- 
tion of chloride of barium, filter, evaporate to dry- 
ness, and ignite the residuum. (Liebig.) 

III. Expose perfectly pure ammonia alum to a 
white heat. (Gay Lussac.) 

Remarks. It is necessary to employ perfectly 
pure alum to prevent the product being vitiated. 
The third is the simplest process, where pure am- 
monia alum can be got ; but as this is seldom the 
case, the second should be used in preference to 
the first. The hydrate of alumina, in the moist 
state, is used to mix with oxide of cobalt, and sev- 
eral other substances, as a base for the color. In 
this form it is sometimes called gelatinous alumina. 

ALUMINA AND ITS SALTS, TESTS 
FOR. 1. Ammonia and the alkaline carbonates 
separate a bulky white powder (hydrate of alumi- 
na) from its solutions in the acids. 2. Pure po- 
tassa and soda throw down a white powder, soluble 
hi excess of the precipitant. 3. Phosphate of am- 
monia gives a white precipitate. 4. Iodide of po- 
tassium causes a white precipitate, passing into a 
permanent yellow. 5. At a strong red heat its 
salts part with some of their acid. 6. Neither ox- 
alate of anmiouia, tartaric acid, prussiate of potash, 
nor tincture of galls, disturb their solutions. 7. Bi- 
sulpiiatc of jK)tusli, added to concentrated solutions, 
gives a precipitat(! of octohedral crystals of alum. 
(See the article Bkkad.) 

ALUMINA, ACJETATE OF. Prep. I. Add 
a solution of acetate of baryta to another of sul- 
phate of alumina. 

II. {Calico prititer^s mordant.) Prop. Add 100 
parts of alum to 120 parts of sugar of lead, each 
being first dissolved separately in hot water, and 
allowed to cool before mixing ; decant the clear 
liquor. 



Prop. Very soluble in water ; astringent ; b) 
evaporation, it may be procured as a gummy mass 
but much heat decomposes it. Use. In calico 
printing as a mordant, mixed with starch or gum 
to thicken it. In dyeing, as a mordant, the thick 
ening being omitted. Its valuable properties de- 
pend upon the feeble affinity existing between its 
constituents, 'which is counterbalanced by that of 
the cotton fibres at a moderate heat. Chemically 
pure acetate of alumina is made by the first for- 
mula, or by dissolving the fresh hydrate in concen- 
trated acetic acid. The dyer's mordant, made 
like No. II., contains much sulphate of potassa, 
which is necessary for its proper action on the 
cloth. 

ALUMINA, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Ter- 
sulphate of Alumina. Prep. Saturate dilute 
sulphuric acid ,,-ith the freshly precipitated hy- 
drate, evaporate, ana crystallize. 

Remarks. Crystallizes with difficulty. The di- 
sulphate falls down from its solution when ammo- 
nia is added. The mineral called aluminite, found 
near Newhaven, in Sussex, and other places, is a 
disulphate of alumina. 

ALUMINUM. Syn. Aluminium. The me- 
tallic base of alumina ; discovered by Davy. The 
following is Wohler's method of obtaining this 
metal. 

Prep. Make a thick paste of alumina, powdered 
charcoal, sugar, and oil, and heat it in a covered 
crucible until all the organic matter is destroyed ; 
then transfer the product to a porcelain tube, and 
connect the one end with another tube containing 
dried muriate of lime, and the other end with a 
small tubulated receiver. Then expose the porce- 
lain tube to the heat of a small oblong furnace, 
and having connected the muriate of lime tube 
with a vessel disengaging chlorine, pass the gas 
through the apparatus, at the same time raising the 
heat of the tube to redness. In one or two hours> 
or as soon as the tube becomes choked, the whole 
must be allowed to cool, and taken to pieces, and 
the chloride of aluminum thus formed collected. 
9 or 10 pieces of potassium, of about the size of 
peas, are then to be placed in a platina crucible, 
and upon them an equal number of similar pieces 
of the sesquichloride of alumina, formed as above ; 
the cover is now to be put on and secured in Its 
place with a wire, and the heat of a spirit lamp 
cautiously applied, until the spontaneous incandes- 
cence of the matter ceases. When cold, throw 
the crucible into a large vessel of cold water, agi- 
tate and collect the gray powder deposited, and 
again wash it well and dry it. 

Prop. A gray powder, consisting of small me- 
tallic scales, resembling platina. It is not acted on 
by cold water, but is dissolved by the alkalis and 
some of the acids. Heated to redness, it catches 
fire and burns with great rapidity in the air, and 
in oxygen gas, with intense brilliancy. The pow- 
der, blown upon the flame of a candle, displays an 
immense number of inflamed points of great splen- 
dor. When heated to redness in the vapor of ' 
phosphorus, it burns vividly, and produces sesqui- 
pliosphorct of alumiiunn. When mixed with se- 
lenium and exposed to heat, a blackish powder, or 
srlniiurrt of alamina, is formed. When heated 
until strongly incandescent, and small pieces of 
sulphur droi)ped upon its surface, the most brilliant 



AMA 



53 



AMB 



combustion ensues with the formation of the ses- 
quisulphuret. Both this and the last article pos- 
sess a semi-metallic lustre, and are easily decom- 
posed by exposure and moisture. Sliould any of 
the chloride remain unconsumed, it may be pre- 
served in naphtha. 

AMADOU. This word is derived from the 
French, and is applied to a spongy, combustible 
substance, made from a species of mushroom, (the 
boletus igniarius,) which grows on the trunks of 
Bome old trees. 

Collect, and prep. It should be collected in the 
months of August and September, and the outer 
bark having been removed with a knife, the inner 
spongy light-brown substance must be carefully 
separated from the woody part below. It must be 
next cut into slices and well beaten with a ham- 
mer or mallet, until they become soft and easily 
pulled to pieces between the fingers. It is now fit 
for use. 

Uses, ^c. It is used for stopping bleeding and 
some other surgical purposes. When covered with 
resin plaster, it forms an excellent article for the 
protection of abraded surfaces in exposed situations. 
and a small piece thus prepared, of a circular shape, 
having a round hole cut in the middle, the size of 
the apex of the corn, forms the very best corn- 
plaster, as from its great softness it at once pro- 
tects the part from pressure, and removes the cause. 
It is also used to make a match or tinder. 

AMADOU TINDER. Syn. Boletus Bin- 
der. German Tinder. Spunk. Touchmatch. 
Touchwood. Prep. I. Boil the prepared amadou 
in a strong solution of saltpetre, dry and beat it 
well with a mallet, then again soak it in the solu- 
tion, dry and rub out the excess of saltpetre. 

II. Make a thin paste with gunpowder and 
water, to which a little spirit may be added, then 
thoroughly imbue the prepared amadou with it ; 
dry, beat out the loose powder, and again rub it 
with the paste ; lastly, dry and rub out the loose 
matter. 

Remarks. From the color of the last tinder, it 
has received the name of black spunk ; the former 
is the most cleanly, the last the most combustible. 
The former is sometimes called red amadou. It is 
much used as a touchmatch, and instead of tinder, 
especially on the continent, where most smokers, 
prior to the general use of congreves, carried a box 
with them containing a little amadou and a small 
flint and steel. 

AMALGAMS. (From ana, together, and 
ya/i£j»/, to marry.) Substances formed by mixing 
quicksilver with another metal. Alloys containing 
quicksilver. Remarks. Mercury unites with most 
of the metals by mere contact, forming amalgams. 
These are employed for various purposes in the 
arts, as silvering, gilding, coating mirrors, &c. 
(See the following Articles.) 

AMALGAM, AMMONIACAL. This is a 
compound of mercury, hydrogen, and nitrogen, 
produced by placing a globule of metallic mercury 
in a small cavity, formed in a piece of sal ammo- 
niac ; the negative pole of a powerful voltaic bat- 
tery is then brought in contact with the metal, 
and the positive pole with the ammoniacal salt. 
After a few seconds an amalgam of a ramified 
shape, and of the consistence of soft butter, is 
formed. On withdrawing the influence of the 



battery, the who'e returns to its former condition. 
2. By putting an amalgam of mercury and potas- 
sium into the moistened cavity of the sal ammo- 
niac, similar results ensue. Remarks. The phe- 
nomena attending the formation of this amalgam 
have been brought forward to prove the compound 
nature of nitrogen and the existence of the theo- 
retical base ammonium. 

AMALGAM, ELECTRICAL. Ivg. Zinc 
and tin, 1 oz. each ; quicksilver, 2 oz. Proc. Melt 
the first two in an iron ladle, then withdraw it from 
the fire and add the mercury also, made hot ; stir 
well together with an iron rod, pour the melted 
metal into a wooden box, and shake it violently 
until cold. It should be preserved in a corked 
glass vial. 

Use For covering the cushions of electrical ma- 
chines, >?r which purpose, a little must be poured 
out on a piece of clean paper, crushed quite smooth 
with a flat knife, and then spread thinly on the 
surface of the rubber, previously touched over with 
a little tallow. 

AMALGAM OF GOLD. Prep. Place one 
part of gold in a small iron saucepan or ladlo, per- 
fectly clean, then add 8 parts of mercury, and 
apply a gentle heat, when the -gold will dissolve; 
agitate the mixture for one minute, and pour it out 
on a clean plate or stone slab. 

Use. For gilding brass, copper, &c. The metal 
to be gilded is first rubbed 'over with a solution of 
nitrate of mercury, and then covered with a very 
thin film of the amalgam. On heat being applied, 
the mercury volatilizes, leaving the gold behind. 

Remarks. A much less proportion of gold is often 
employed thstn the above, where a very thin and 
cheap gilding is required, as by increasing the 
quantity of the mercury, the precious metal may 
be extended over a much larger surface. A simi- 
lar amalgam prepared with silver is used for sil- 
vering. 

AMALGAM FOR MIRRORS, &c. Ing. 
Lead and tin of each 2 oz. ; bismuth 2 oz. ; mer- 
cury 4 oz. Proc. Add the mercury to the rest in 
a melted state and removed from the fire ; mix 
well with an iron rod. 

Uses, ^-c. This amalgam melts at a low heat, 
and is employed for silvering the insides of hollow 
glass vessels, globes, convex mirrors, &c. The 
glass being well cleaned, is carefully warmed, and 
the amalgam, rendered fluid by heat, is then poured 
in, and the vessel turned round and round, so that 
the metal may be brought in contact with every 
part of the glass, which it is desired to cover. At 
a certain temperature this amalgam readily ad- 
heres to glass. 

AMBER. Syn. Succinum {Lat.) ; Succin 
(Fr.) ; Bernstein (Ger.) A yellow semi-transpa- 
rent, vegeto- mineral substance, somewhat resem- 
bling copal, much used for the manufacture of 
trinkets, mouth-pieces for pipes, &c. It is found 
upon the coasts of the Baltic Sea, Sicily, Poland, 
Saxony, Siberia, Greenland, &.c. 

Remarks. The finer sorts of amber fetch very 
high prices. A piece of a pound weight is said to 
be worth from 101. to 15Z. 5000 dollars were -lately 
offered in Prussia for a piece weighing 13 lbs., and 
which, it was stated by the Armfenian merchants, 
would fetch from 30 to 40,000 dollars in Constan- 
tinople. It would thus appear to be more valued 



AMB 



54 



AMB 



in the east than in England. In the royal cabi- 
net, Berlin, there is a piece weighing 18 lbs., and 
supposed to be the largest ever found. The coarser 
kinds are employed in medicine, chemistry, and 
the arts. 

Identity. Amber may be known from mellite 
and copal, both of which articles are occasionally 
substituted for it, by the following characteristics. 

1. Mellite is infusible by heat, and burns white. 

2. A bit of copal, heated on the point of a knife, 
catches fire, and runs into drops, which flatten as 
they fall. 3. Amber burns with spitting and froth- 
ing, and when its liquefied particles drop, they re- 
bound from the plane on which they fall. (M. 
Haiiy.) 

AMBER IS JOINED AND MENDED by 
smearing the surfaces of the pieces with linseed 
or boiled oil, and then strongly pressing them to- 
gether, at the same time holding them over a char- 
coal fire, or heating them in any other way in 
which they will not be exposed to injury. 

AMBER IS WORKED in a lathe, polished 
with whiting and water or oil, and finished off by 
friction with flannel. During the operation the 
pieces often become hot and electrical, and fly 
into fragments, to avoid which, they should be kept 
cool, and only worked for a short period at a time. 
The workmen are said to suffer considerably from 
electrical excitement, .often experiencing severe 
nervous tremors of the hands and arms. 

AMBER, FACTITIOUS. Prep. Dissolve 
shellac in an alkaline lye, then pass chlorine 
through the solution until the whole of the lac is 
precipitated. After washing in water, this must 
be melted and kept over the fire until it runs clear, 
taking care that it does not burn ; it should then 
be poured into moulds of the size of the pieces re- 
quired. 

Remarks. The darkest and hardest pieces of 
copal are also often substituted for amber. The 
above operation requires considerable management. 
(See Chlorine and Gas.) 

AMBER, SOLUBLE. Prep. Heat the am- 
ber cautiously in an iron pot, over a clear fire,, until 
it softens and becomes semi-liquid ; then add pale 
boiled linseed oil, heated very hot, and well mix it 
in by stirring. The best proportions are 3 lbs. of 
oil to 4 lbs. of amber. 

f/.ves, ^c. In this state, on being cooled a little, 
it may be made into a varnish by the addition of 
oil of turpentine ; or it may be preserved for any 
length of time if covered from the air, and is al- 
ways ready for the above purpose on being gently 
heated. It is sometimes used as a cement for glass 
and earthenware, by rubbing it on the edges of the 
broken piece, previously heated. Amber is soluble 
in sulphuric acid and the pure alkalis, but neither 
of these solutions can be used in the arts. The 
previous method is that followed by the varnish- 
makers. , 

AMBER, TO IMPROVE. There are two 
methods practised by the workman to harden com- 
mon amber, and to render it cl(>arer. Oper. I. Boil 
the pieces of ainb(!r in rape oil for '24 hours. II. Sur- 
round tl»^ amber with clean Haiul in an iron pot, 
and exp.80 it to a gradually increasing heat for.^0 
or 40 hours. Diuing this j)r()ceH8 pieces must be 
Aept in the sand at the side of the pot, for the pur- 
pose of occusionul exuniinution, lest tho heat bo 



raised too high, or be too long continued. Re- 
marks. The second process is said to require much 
skill and experience for its successful performance. 

AMBER, CAMPHOR. Sijn. Crystalline 
PvRETiNE. Volatile Resin of Amber. This 
substance is obtained as a yellowish light subli- 
mate towards the end of the process of the de- 
structive distillation of amber in close vessels ; it 
comes over after the last portion of the oil, and is 
found in the neck of the retort. 

AMBER VARNISH. Prep. Amber 1 lb. ; 
pale boiled oil 10 oz. ; turpentine 1 pint. Proc. 
Render the amber, placed in an iron pot, semi- 
liquid by heat ; then add the oil, mix, remove it 
from the fire, and when cooled a little, stir in the 
turpentine. 

II. To the amber, melted as above, add 2 oz 
of shellac, and proceed as before. 

Remarks. This varnish is rather dark, but re- 
markably tough. The first form is the best. It 
is used for the same purposes as copal varnish, and 
forms an excellent article for covering wood, Ox 
any other substance not of a white or very pale 
color. It dries well, and is very hard and durable. 

AMBER VARNISH, BLACK. Prep. Am- 
ber 1 lb. ; boiled oil ^ pint ; powdered asphaltum 
6 oz. ; oil of turpentine 1 pint. Proc. Melt the 
amber, as before described, then add the asphal- 
tum, previously mixed with the cold oil, and after- 
wards heated very hot, mix well, remove the ves- 
sel from the fire, and when cooled a little add the 
turpentine, also made warm. 

Remarks. Each of the above varnishes should 
be reduced to a proper consistence with more tur- 
pentine if it be required. The last form produces 
the beautiful black varnish used by the coach- 
makers. Some manufacturers omit the whole or 
part of the asphaltum, and use the same quantity 
of clear black rosin instead, in which case the 
color is brought up by lampblack reduced to an 
impalpable powder, or previously ground very fine 
with a little boiled oil. The varnish made in this 
way, lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and 
depth of blackness imparted by asphaltum. 

AMBERGRIS. Syn. Ambergrisea (Lat.) 
Ambregris (Fr.) A substance found in irregular 
masses floating on the sea in tropical climates, and 
supposed to be a morbid secretion of the liver or 
intestines of the spermaceti whale. Prop. Dirty 
pale color ; very odorous ; lighter than water ; 
largely employed in perfumery. Pur. From its 
high price (about 21s. per oz. retail) it is frequent- 
ly adulterated with cheaper matter. When quite 
pure it is nearly or wholly soluble in hot ether and 
alcohol, and yields about 85§ of ambreine. Its 
sp. gr. should not exceed -926 nor be less than '780. 
It should adhere to the edge of a knife when 
scraped, and should yield to the pressure of the 
nails. It melts at 144°, and flies off as a white 
vapor at 212°. It should burn with an agreeable 
odor, and leave no notable quantity of ashes. It 
is frequently adulterated with gum benzoin, lab- 
danum, farina, meal, &lc., mixed together, and 
scented with musk. Dose, ^c. It has been given 
in doses of 3 to 10 grs. as an aphrodisiac. 

AMBERGRIS, FACTITIOUS or REDU- 
CED. An article is sold of this description, which 
is made in the following way. Prep. Ben nuts 
6 oz. ; spermaceti 8 oz. ; gum benzoin 20 oz. ; or- 



AMM 



55 



AMM 



ris powder 16 oz. ; starch 8 oz. ; asf hLitum 3 oz. ; 
wucilage of gum tragacanth q. s. ; good grain 
musk 1 oz. ; genuine ambergris 8 oz. ; liquor of 
ammonia 1 oz. Proc. Beat to a perfectly homo- 
geneous mass, make it up into lumps, and dry. 

Remarks. This article is readily distinguished 
from genuine ambergris by its imperfect solubility 
in alcohol. 

AMBREINE. S'yw. Ambreina. Odorous prin- 
ciple OF AMBERGRIS. Prcp. Digest ambergris in 
hot alcohol of 0-827 until the latter will dissolve 
no more, then filter. The ambreine will be de- 
posited on cooling, in an irregular crystalline mass. 
It may be purified by resolution. 

Prop. White, smells of amber, and is often ad- 
vantageously substituted for that substance in per- 
fumery. Melts at 86° ; volatilizes at 212°. Nitric 
acid converts it into ambreic acid. This acid 
combines with the bases, and resembles cholesteric 
acid. 

AMIDINE. A substance found in starch paste 
that has been long exposed to the atmosphere, and 
also formed immediately by the action of hot wa- 
ter. (Saussure, Caventou.) Its properties are in- 
termediate between those of starch and gum. 

AMILENE. Prep. When the oil of potato 
spirit is repeatedly distilled with anhydrous phos- 
phoric acid, an ethereous liquid, possessing a pe- 
culiar aromatic odor, is obtained, which has been 
called amilene by Cahours. 

AMMELIDE. A white powder, possesaing 
some peculiar properties, discovered by Liebig. 
Prep. It is prepared by dissolving melam, mela- 
mine, or ammeline, in strong sulphuric acid, add- 
ing alcohol, and washing the precipitate with cold 
water. It is purified by resolution in dilute nitric 
acid, and precipitation by carbonate of ammonia. 

. AMMELINE. Prep. Dissolve melam in boil- 
ing dilute muriatic acid, evaporate and crystallize. 
Dissolve the crystals in pure water, and precipitate 
with ammonia. Remarks. A weak alkaline base, 
discovered by Liebig. It csonsists of very fine nee- 
dles, having a silky lustre. 

AMMONIA. Syn. Volatile Alkall Al- 
kaline Air. Gaseous Ammonia. Azotureted 
Hydrogen. Pure ammonia is an incondensable 
colorless gas, possessing great pungency and acrid- 
ness, and powerful alkaline properties. Water 
readily absorbs about 500 times its volume of this 
substance, and in this state forms strong liquid 
amm.onia, which, when much more dilute, is pop- 
ularly known as spirits of hartshorn, or water of 
ammonia. As usually met with in the form of a 
semi-cr^^stalline whitish mass, commonly called 
smelling salts, it is combined with carbonic acid 
and water, forming a sesquicarbonate of this base. 

Hist., Sources, ^c. Ammonia, in combination 
with acids, is frequently found ready formed in 
nature ; but that met with in commerce is an ar- 
tificial production. It is found, in variable quan- 
tities, among the saline product of volcanoes, in 
sea water, in bituminous coal, and in the atmo- 
sphere, especially that of large towns. The mi- 
nute stellated crystals sometimes found on dirty 
windows in London and other populous cities con- 
sist of sulphate of ammonia. (Brande.) Ammonia 
was originally brought from Egypt, where it was 
obtained by sublimation, under the form of sal 
ammoniac, from the &oot produced by burning 



camel's dung. It was afterwards procured from 
putrid urine by distillation ; but at the present day 
it is chiefly prepared from the ammoniacal liquor 
of the gas-works, and the manufactories of ivory 
blaek, animal charcoal, &,c. In these places * 
larger quantity of crude ammoniacal liquor is ob. 
tained, to which either sulphuric or muriatic acid 
is added, by which it is converted into a salt, 
which may be obtained nearly pure by evapora- 
tion, crystallization, and subsequent sublimation 
Other processes have been adopted for the prepa- 
ration of the principal salts of ammonia, viz., its 
sulphate, carbonate, and muriate, some of which 
have been patented, but none of these have got 
into general use. 

Prep. Mix unslaked lime with an equal weight 
of sal ammoniac, both dry and in fine powder ; 
introduce the mixture into a glass retort, and join 
the beak by a collar of Indian rubber to a glasa 
tube about 18 inches long, which must lie hori- 
zontally, and have its beak bent up ready to be 
placed under a glass jar, on the shelf of a mercu- 
rial pneumatic trough. Heat being applied by 
means of a spirit-lamp, and the air contained in 
the apparatus having been expelled, the gas may 
be collected for use. Ammonia cannot be dried 
by means of muriate of lime. 

Use. It is employed in several chemical pro- 
cesses ; absorbed by water it forms liquor of am- 
monia, spirits of hartshorn, &c., which see. 

Tests and Char. Ammonia is easily recognised 
by — 1. Its pungent odor. 2. By turning vegeta- 
ble blues green and yellows brown, but which soon 
regain their previous colors, especially on the ap- 
plication of heat. 3. By producing dense white 
fumes when brought in contact with those of mu- 
riatic acid, as for instance, by holding the stopper 
moistened with the latter over the former. 7 he 
salts of ammonia may be known by the following 
properties : — 1. The exhalation of ammoniacal gas 
(recognised by its odor) when mixed with caustic 
potassa, or soda. 2. Dropped into a solution of 
chloride of platinum, they produce a yellow pre- 
cipitate. They are mostly soluble in water, vola- 
tile, and crj'stallizable. 

Estimation. This is usually performed by put- 
ting a given weight of the sample into a small re- 
tort, the end of which is made to dip into a vessel 
containing dilute muriatic acid. A strong solution 
of caustic potassa is then poured into the retort, 
and heat applied by means of a small spirit lamp. 
When all the ammonia is distilled over, the acid so- 
lution must be evaporated to dryness and weighed, 
and from the quantity of the muriate thus found, 
the weight of pure ammonia will be known ; 54 
parts of the former being equivalent to 17 of tlie 
latter. If the article for examination be a solid 
substance (as a salt) it may be dissolved in water 
or dilute acid before being put into the retort. 

AMMONIA, ACETATE OF. Prep. I. Mix 
together equal parts of sal ammoniac and acetate 
of potassa, and distil ; binacetate of ammonia 
passes over into the receiver, as an oily liquid, 
which on cooling forms a radiated crystalline mass. 
By passing dry ammoniacal gas into this salt, 
melted by a gentle heat, it is transformed into 
the neutral acetate, and becomes solid and in- 
odorous. 

II. By saturating strong acetic acid with am 



AMM 



56 



AMM 



monia^ and evaporating over sulphuric acid in 
vacuo, crystals of acetate of ammonia may be 
obtained. 

Prop. Very soluble both in alcohol and water ; 
very deliquescent. 

AMMONIA, ACETATE, SOLUTION OF. 
Syn. MiNDERUs Spirit. Liquid Acetate of Am- 
monia. Water of Acetate of Ammonia. Prep. 
Saturate distilled vinegar with carbonate of am- 
monia. 

Proportions. 

Sesquicarbonate Distilled 
of ammonia. vinegar. 

Lond. Ph. . §ivss 4 pints. 

Edin. " . ij f fxxiv (s. g. 1-005) 

Dub. " . 1 part, about 30 parts. 

Prop. Colorless ; taste slightly urinous ; neutral 
to litmus and turmeric paper ; when concentrated 
by heat and mixed with oil of vitriol, it emits the 
fumes of vinegar, and those of ammonia, when 
mixed with caustic alkali or liquor of potassa in 
exc(,ss. 

Use, Dose, ^c. It is a very common febrifuge 
and diaphoretic, and an excellent aperient saline 
liquor. Taken warm in bed, it generally proves a 
powerful sudorific; and. as it operates without 
heat, it is used in febrile and inflammatory dis- 
orders, where medicines of the warm kind, if they 
fail of producing sweat, aggravate the disease. 
Its action may likewise be determined to the kid- 
neys, by walking about in cool air. The common 
dose is half an ounce, either by itself or along with 
other medicines adapted to the intention. Exter- 
nally it is frequently used as a coUyrium in chronic 
ophthalmia : 1 oz. to 9 oz. of water. 

Remarks. It is very necessary to avoid an ex- 
cess of ammonia, as its presence would prove in 
many cases injurious, especially in eye-waters. A 
very trifling excess of acid is preferable. The 
point of saturation is known by the effervescence 
becoming feeble on adding more ammonia, and 
the liquor being neutral to turmeric and litmus 
paper. 

AMMONIA, SOLUTION OF ACETATE 
OF, (CONCENTRATED.) Prep. Saturate 
acetic acid, sp. gr. 1*038, with sesquicarbonate of 
ammonia in powder ; about 2^ lbs. of the latter to 
1 gallon of the former. 

Remarks. The same precautions are necessary 
to produce a neutral solution as in the previous ar- 
ticle. This article has a great demand in the 
wholesale drug trade, under the name of concen- 
trated liquor of acetate of ammonia, (liq. ammon. 
acet. cone.) It is very convenient for dispensing, 
f 3j added to f 3vij of water, forms the liquor am- 
monia) acetatis of the L. Ph. 

AMMONIA, ARSENIA*TE OF. Prep. Sat- 
urate a strong solution of arsenic acid with the 
liquor of sesquicarbonate of ammonia ; evaporate 
and crystallize. Remarks. A binarscniate may 
' also be fo/niod by adding an excess of acid. 

AMMONIA, ARSENITE OF. Prep. Dis- 
solve sesquicarbonate of ammonia in a hot and 
strong solution of arsenious acid, until saturation 
is produced ; evaporate as last. Use. To make 
the arscnite of iron. Its properties and action are 
similar to those of arsenitti of potash. 

AMMONIA, ARGENTO-CIILORIDE OF. 
SyTi Ammonio-chloride of Silver. Prep. Ex- 



pose well-washed and freshly precipitated chloride 
of silver to the action of ammoniacal gas, by pla- 
cing a small cup containing liquor of ammonia, in 
an evaporating basin containuig the chloride, and 
covering the whole with a sheet of glass or writing 
paper. After the lapse of a few hours, digest the 
precipitate in liquor of ammonia, sp. gr. 'SbO, grad- 
ually applying a gentle heat until at length the 
water boils ; then remove the flask from the fire 
and allow it to cool, when crystals will form. 
These must then be collected, washed with a little 
cold liquor of ammonia, and dried by pressure be- 
tween blotting-paper. Caution. This article should 
only be prepared in small quantities at a time, as 
a brown fulminating powder, of the most danger- 
ous description, is not unfrequently thrown down 
from the liquor, and has sometimes led to ac- 
cidents. 

AMMONIA, BENZOATE OF. Prep. Dis- 
solve pure benzoic acid in strong liquor of carbon- 
ate of ammonia, until the latter is saturated, ap- 
plying (cautiously) a gentle heat ; cool and crys- 
tallize. Uses, ^c. As a chemical reagent. 

Remarks. When the solution is boiled for a 
short time, and abandoned to spontaneous evapo- 
ration, crystals of acid benzoate of ammonia are 
deposited. 

AMMONIA, BIMALATE OF. Prep Add 
a strong solution of malic acid to another of neu- 
tral malate of ammonia ; cautiously evaporate and 
crystallize. Prop. Large crystals ; taste, acid 
and agreeably saline ; very soluble in water. 

AMMONIA, CARBONATE OF. Syn. Sub 
carbonate of Ditto. Sesciuicarbonate of Dit- 
to. Volatile Sal Ammoniac. Baker's Salt. 
Volatile Salts. Prepared Ammonia. Ammoni^b 
Sesquicarbonas, (P. L. and E.) Ammonite Car- 
BONAs, (P. D.) Carbonate d'Ammoniaque, (Fr.;) 
Kohlensaures Ammoniak, {Ger.) This is the 
substance popularly known as " smelling salts." 

Prep. 1. Sal ammoniac 1 lb. ; dried chalk 
li lb. Proc. Pulverize the ingredients separately, 
then mix and sublime with a gradually increasing 
heat, (L. and E. Ph.) Remarks. The above are 
the proportions of the London and JScotch Col- 
leges ; they are as 2 to 3. The D. Ph. directs 
equal quantities of dried carbonate of soda and sal 
ammoniac. On the large scale this salt is pre- 
pared as follows. 

II. Sal ammoniac, or pure commercial sulphate 
of ammonia, and chalk, equal parts, both dry and 
in powder. Mix and sublime from an iron pot, 
into a long earthen or leaden receiver, well cooled. 

Remarks. The receiver is usually fitted with a 
moveable lead cover, secured by a water joint, and 
has an open lead pipe in the bottom, to allow the 
liquid products of the distillation to drain olf into a 
second receiver. When made of the impure sul- 
phate of ammonia, it must be resublimed in iron 
pots, furnished with leaden heads kept cool. A 
little water is commonly introduced into the sub- 
liming pots, to render the product translucent 
The heat is usually applied by means of a common 
furnace, but a steam or water bath is preferable, 
as the temperature required for this purpose does 
not exceed 200° F. 

In the above processes the salt is formed by the 
double decomposition of the ingredients, a muriate 
or sulphate of lime being If ft in the retort, and 



AMM 



67 



AMM 



carbonate (sesqui-) of ammonia passing over into 
the r'^"'i"ver. It is commonly called a carbonate, 
but :t is properly a sesquicarbonate, containing 1^ 
atom of carbonic acid and 1 atom of ammonia, 
besides combined water. (Phillips, Rose, Thomp- 
son.) As it is usually met with, its composition 
is variable, owing to the action of the atmosphere, 
&c. The chemically pure carbonate of ammo- 
nia can only be prepared by bringing together per- 
fectly pure and dry carbonic acid and ammoniacal 
gases. Such is the competition at present exist- 
ing in the ammonia trade, that this salt may be 
bought of very fine quality at 5d. a pound, in quan- 
tity. Prop. Soluble in 4 parts of cold water ; but 
boiling water and alcohol decompose it, with the 
evolution of carbonic acid gas. By age or expo- 
sure to air, the surface assumes an opaque white 
color, from a portion of the ammonia flying off, 
and the remainder being converted into a bicar- 
bonate. 

Tests and Char. It is recognised in the same 
way as ammonia, and it is known to be a carbon- 
ate by giving a white precipitate with chloride of 
barium. ^ 

Uses. Much used by bakers, especially in their 
fancy goods, and to make extemporaneous bread 
and pastry ; and by the chemist and pharmaceu- 
tist for the preparation of many of the salts of am- 
monia. As a medicine it is stimulant, antacid, 
diaphoretic, and antispasmodic. Dose. 5 to 15 grs. 
in pills or solution, (in hysteria, dyspepsia, heart- 
burn, or chronic rheumatism.) A plaster made of 
1 part of powdered carbonate of ammonia, and 3 
parts of extract of belladonna, and spread upon 
leather, is used for allaying rheumatic pains, Ses- 
quicarbonate of ammonia is also used to make an 
effervescing saline draught. 
20 grs. of sesquicarbon-1 f36 of lemon juice, 24 

ate of ammonia, in [ grs. of citric acid, or 

solution, should be f 25 grs. of tartaric 

used, to either — J acid. 
With the addition of a few drops of any aromatic 
essential oil, as lavender, bergamotte, &c. It is 
much used eis a smelling salt in, cases of faint- 
ing, &c. 

AMMONIA, CARBONATE. (Super, cr 
Bicarbonate.) Prep. (Dub. Ph.) Dissolve car- 
bonate nf ammonia in water, and pass a stream of 
carbonic acid gas through it, until effervescence 
ceases. Dry the crystals without heat, and pre- 
serve in stoppered bottles. (See Carbonic Acid.) 
Remarks. After the ammoniacal solution is tho- 
roughly saturated with gas, evaporation must be 
conducted with a very gentle heat, when small 
prismatic crystals will form, having neither smell 
nor taste. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Similar to the sesquicarbon- 
ate, except being devoid of smell. Dose. 6 to 24 
grains. 

AMMONIA, CITRATE. Prep. I. (Exteyn- 
poraneous.) Saturate lemon juice with carbonate 
of ammonia, about 3j of the latter to f ^ij and 3ij 
of the former. 

II. {Crystals.) Saturate a solution of pure 
citric acid as above ; evaporate and crystallize, 
(about 7 parts of acid to 6 of sesquicarbonate of 
immonia.) 

Uses, <^c. A solution of the crystals is employed 
AS a chemical reagent ; the 1st form is used as a 



mild saline aperient and diaphoretic in febrile dis- 
orders. 

AMMONIA, CYANATE OF. Syn. Urea. 
Prep. Mix 28 parts of perfectly dry ferro-cyanide 
of potassium with 14 parts of black oxide of man- 
ganese, both pure and in fine powder ; then place 
them on a smooth iron plate, and heat them to a 
dull red, over a charcoal fire. When the mass 
begins to burn, it must be frequently stirred ; after 
which cool and dissolve in cold water, filter and 
add 20 i parts of dry sulphate of ammonia, and 
decant the clear from the precipitated sulphate of 
potassa. Concentrate at a heat below 212°, again 
decant, evaporate to dryness, and digest in boiling 
alcohol of 80§ ; crystals of urea will be deposited 
as the solution cools. (Liebig.) Prod. 4 oz. of 
perfectly colorless and beautifully crystallized 
urea, from 1 lb. of the ferro-cyanide of potassium. 

AMMONIA, HYDROSULPHURET OF. 
Syn. Hydrosulphate of AmiMonia. Boyle's Fu- 
ming Liquor. Beguin's Sulphureted Spirit. 
Hepatized Ammonia. Sulphuret of Ammonia, 
Prep. Reduce 5 parts of sulphuret of iron to coarse 
powder, put it into a retort, and pour thereon 7 
parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with 32 parts of 
water, and pass the gas evolved through 4 parts of. 
the strong liquor of ammonia, applying a gentle 
heat towards the end of the process. 

Remarks. This operation is best conducted in a 
Woolf 's apparatus, putting into the first bottle a 
little water, into the second, the liquor of ammo- 
nia, and into the third, some milk of lime to ab- 
sorb the superfluous gas, and prevent its escape 
into the apartment. This gas is sulphureted hy- 
drogen, which is not only very foetid, but poi- 
sonous. 

Prop. The hydrosulphuret of ammonia, when 
quite pure, is a gaseous body, readily absorbable 
by water, forming a transparent solution. It is 
this gas which constitutes the nauseous effluvia 
evolved from privies, and decomposing animal mat- 
ter. Dose. 5 drops and upwards, mixed with wa- 
ter, and instantly swallowed to prevent decompo- 
sition, in diabetes. It is principally employed by 
the chemist as a test liquor for metals. 

Ant. When this liquid is swallowed in large 
doses it acts as a violent poison. Dilute solution 
of chlorine, or the chloride of lime or soda, followed 
by a powerful emetic, or the stomach-pump, are 
the best antidotes. When the gas has been re- 
spired, free exposure to fresh air, and copious' 
afl'usions of cold water, with moderate draughts of 
brandy and water, and the use of the smelling- 
bottle, (ammoniacal,) should be adopted. 

AMMONIA, LIQUOR OF. Syn. Water of 
Ammonia. Solution of Ammonia. Water of 
CAUSTIC Ammonia. Dissolution d'ammoniaque 
{Fr.) Liquore di Ammoniaco {Ital.) Atzender 
ammonium-liquor {Ger.) Prep. I. {Liquor am- 
monicB, P. L.) Ing. Newly-burnt lime f viij ; sal 
ammoniac, in small lumps ^x ; water 2 pints. 
Proc. Put the lime into a retort and slake with a 
little water, then add the sal ammoniac, and the 
remainder of the water ; distil f ^xv of-tho solution 
with a gradually increased heat into a well-cooled 
receiver. The sp. gr. should be 0*960. 

II. {Aqua ammonice. fortior, and aqua ammon 
P. E.) Both thef© articles are prepared by one 
process, by using a second receiver containing 



AMM 



58 



AMM 



double the quantity of water in the 1st. Sp. gr. 
0-880 and 0*9 60. The proportions are equal parts 
of lime and sal ammoniac. 

III. {Aq. ammon. caustics. D. Ph.) The spe- 
cific gravity is 0'950. 

IV. On the commercial scale this article is pre- 
♦iared from a mixture of about equal parts of quick- 



lime and sal ammoniac, or sulphate of ammonia, 
which are heated together in an iron cylinder or 
retort, connected with a refrigerator, consisting of 
a row of stone bottles with double necks contain- 
ing water, and kept very cold. The arrangement 
of this apparatus is represented below, which, with 
the accompanying references, will explain itself 






1 ' 1 - 






-T-!-— 






-^- 
















jSl^fevVVV.Avv..... 


1 1 1 1 1 -I 


'■'',' .^' ' 










1 1 1 1 ■■ 1 "1 ' 


1 1 1 1 1 


1 1 1 ! 1 r 


,.,111 



./?, Cylindrical Iron Retort. 

B, Furnace for ditto. 

CC C C, Stoneware Receivers. 

• There are two methods of proceeding in mixing 
the ingredients : the one is to mix the dry ingre- 
dients together, and to drive over the dry gas into 
water ; the other is first to slake the lime with a 
little water, then to add the sal ammoniac, and 
mix the whole to a pap before applying heat. In 
either case a proportionate quantity of water is put 
into the condenser, and the operation is nearly 
similar, but the latter method requires the least 
heat. 

Remarks. Whatever form may be adopted to pre- 
pare hquid ammonia, it is absolutely necessary to 
keep the receivers as cool as possible for the purpose 
of promoting the absorption of the gas, and to pre- 
vent its loss. On the small scale the glass re- 
ceivers or bottles should be surrounded with ice 
and furnished with a safety tube to prevent acci- 
dents. The water contained in the first bottle 
will be the strongest, if it be kept well cooled, and 
the others will progressively decrease in strength. 
By mixing the contents of one bottle with another, 
water of almost any strength may be made. This 
article is now seldom made by the druggist on the 
small scale, the large chemical manufactories sup- 
plying it at very low rates, and of very superior 
quality. In the shops, liquor of ammonia is kept 
of two or three strengths : one of a sp. gr. of -880, 
for dissolving essential oils and filling smelliug-bot- 
tles, &LC. ; another at 0-960, liq.of ammonia, P. L. ; 
and a third about the strengtli of commoji spirits 
Df hartshorn, for which it is sold. 1 measure of 
vhe first mixed with 3 measures of distilled water 



n D D D, Connecting Pipes. 
E F, Waste Pipe and Receiver. 
G, Safety Tube 

will make a water of about 0-970, and with only 
2 measures of water, one of about 0-960. I have 
known the strongest sold so low as 9d. per lb., arid 
the last at l^d. Caution. It should be kept in 
well-stoppered bottles in a cool cellar. . 

Props., Uses, c^c. Ammonia-water is stimulant, 
antacid, diaphoretic, and rubefacient. Dose. 5 to 
20 drops, mixed with water. It is seldom used 
internally. It enters into the composition of seve- 
ral valuable external remedies, and is employed in 
many chemical operations. 

Pur. It should neither effervesce with acids, nor 
form a precipitate with lime, water, or chloride of 
calcium. When neutralized with nitric acid, nei- 
ther nitrate of silver, oxalic acid, nor sesquicarbon- 
ate of ammonia, should produce any precipitate. 

Ant. When the fumes have been inhaled, ex- 
pose the patient to a current of fresh air, and when 
the liquid has been swallowed, administer vinegar 
or lemon-juice mixed with water. 

Strength. The usual method of ascertaining the 
strength of liquid ammonia is by taking its specific 
gravity ; before this is done, however, it is best to 
test it for its purity, as the presence of foreign 
matter will alter its density. (See Alkalimetry 
and Ammonimetrv.) 

AMMONIA, LIQUID, FOR TESTING. 
Si/n. Henrv's Pure Ammonia Water. Prep. Add 
distilled water to pure liquid ammonia, until its sp. 
gr. bo exactly 0-970. 

Use. For testing, in acidimetry, &c. One meas- 
ure of this icater is exactly equal to one measure 




AMM 



59 



AMM 



of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-135 ; one measure of 
nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-143, and one measure of mu- 
riatic acid, sp. gr. 1-074. Useful in assaying 
waters. 

AMMONIA, MURIATE OF. Syn. Hydro- 
chlorate OF Ammonia. Sal Ammoniac. Chlo- 
ride OF Ammonium. Chloro-amidide of Hy- 
drogen. Hist. This substance is said to have 
been known to antiquity ; it was formerly pre- 
pared in Egypt by tlie sublimation of the soot from 
camel's dung, which yields from J to :^ its weight. 
^See Ammonia.) The sal ammoniac of commerce 
is now wholly prepared at the great chemical 
works, and never by the small consumer, by whom 
it is merely occasionally refined or purified. 

Prep. The crude ammoniacal salt of the gas- 
works is placed in iron pots, lined with clay, and a 
leaden dome or head adapted, and heat applied 
until the whole has sublimed. When the crude 
salt is a sulphate, it is mixed with a sufficient quan- 
tity of muriate of soda before sublimation, and the 
sal ammoniac is formed by the double decomposi- 
tion of the ingredients. The preceding figure repre- 
sents the arrangement of the pots and furnace, 
whiali was adopted a few years since at the West- 
minster gas-works. 

The preparation of sal ammoniac from bone- 
spirit salt is nearly similar. 

Prop. The sal ammoniac of commerce is found 
under the form of large hemispherical, cup-like 
cakes or masses, having a semi-crystalline texture, 
and varying in weight from 100 to 1000 lbs. 

Use. It is much used in the arts, especially in 
the working of metals and in dyeing ; it is also 
employed in large quantities to give a factitious 
pungency to snufF; in chemistry to form frigoric 
mixtures, &c., and in medicine, it is given as a di- 
uretic, stimulant, and tonic. Dose. 5 to 20 grs. 
(combined with bark, in agues.) 1 oz. to half a 
pint of water forms a good chilblain lotion. 

Pur. It forms a clear and colorless solution with 
water, and wholly volatilizes by heat. Mixed with 
lime or caustic potassa, it evolves the pungent 
•dor of "ammonia ; it gives a white curdy precipi- 
tate with nitrate of silver. 

Remarks. The sal ammoniac of commerce is 
generally suflBciently pure for all the purposes of 
the arts, but when wanted of greater purity, it may 
be broken into pieces and re-sublimed from an 
earthenware vessel into a large receiver of earth- 
enware or glass, in which state it is known as 
"flowers of sal ammoniac," from being in fine 
powder. Chemically pure hydrochlorate of am- 
monia maybe preparedby adding the pure carbon- 
ate of ammonia to dilute hydrochloric acid until 

AMMONIA, NITRATE OF. Syn. Nitrate 
OF Oxide of Ammonium. Nitrum Flammans. 
NiTRUM Semi-volatile. Prep. Dilute nitric acid 
with 3 times its weight of water, then gradually add 
sesquicarbonate of ammonia in powder, to satura- 
tion ; evaporate and crystallize. 

Uses, ^c. This salt is principally employed for 
the preparation of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, 
of which nearly 3 cubic feet may be procured from 
1 lb. (Davy.) It forms a very convenient " freez- 
ing mixture" with water, and may be used for this 
purpose any number of times by simply evapora- 
ting the solution to dryness, when the salt will be 



obtained unaltered, ready for another operation. 
Dose. 20 to 30 grs., as a febrifuge, but it appears 
worthless in this respect. Remarks. Nitrate of 
ammonia crystallizes in beautiful hexagonal prisms, 
when the process is conducted at a heat not ex- 
ceeding 100° F., but at 212°, in long silky fibres 
or needles. When dried at 300°, it forms a com- 
pact white mass. The first is called prismatic, 
the second fibrous, and the third compact nitrate 
of ammonia. 

AMMONIA, OXALATE OF. (Ammonia 
OxALAS, P. E.) Prep. Oxalic acid §iv, water 4 
pints, sesquicarbonate of ammonia ^viij. Proc. 
Dissolve the acid in the water, then add the am- 
monia in powder; evaporate and crystallize. 

Remarks. The above is the form of the Ed. Ph., 
but all that is required is to saturate a solution of 
oxalic acid with ammonia. It is used as a test for 
lime, with which it produces a white precipitate so- 
luble in nitric acid. 

AMMONIA, WATER OF OXALATE OF. 
Prep. Dissolve oxalate of ammonia in 10 or 12 
times its weight of pure water. Use. As above. 

AMMONIA, SUCCINATE OF. Prep. Sat- 
urate a solution of succinic acid with ammonia, 
(liq. or carb.,) evaporate and crystallize. Use. As 
a test for iron. It is said to be antispasmodic. 

AMMONIA, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Sul- 
famide. Secret Salt of Glauber. Sulphate 
OF Oxide of Ammonium. Oxysulphion of Am- 
iMONiuM. Secret Sal Ammoniac. Ammonite Sul- 
phas. (Lat.) The manufacture of the crude sul- 
phate has been already described ; the pure salt is 
made as follows: 

Prep. Saturate dilute sulphuric acid with am- 
monia; evaporate and crystallize. 

Uses, ^c. It is diuretic and aperient, but has 
been little used in medicine. Dose. 5 to 30 grains. 
The crude sulphate forms an excellent manure. 
(See Manures.) 

AMMONIACAL LAVENDER. Syn. Am- 
moniacal Alcoholate of Lavender, (P. Cod.) 
Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. of English oil of lavender in 
2 lbs. of spirits of ammonia. Use. Stimulant ; as 
a scent in fainting. 

AMMONIMETRY. Syn. Ammoniometry. 
The operation by which the strength of liquid 
ammonia or ammonia water is determined. 

Proc. The strength of liquid ammonia is best 
found from its specific gravity, which maybe easily 
ascertained by an hydrometer, or sp. gr. bottle. 
(See Specific Gravity.) When the content of 
ammonia per cent, may be found by mere inspec- 
tion of either of the following tables, or approxi- 
mately by deducting the sp. gr. expressed in three 
integers from 998, and dividing the remainder by 
4 ; the quotient will give the per centage very 
nearly. (Ure.) This rule may be employed for 
such sp. gr. as are not contained in the tables. 
I. Table of the Per Centage of Pure Ammonia, 

in Water of Ammonia of the specific gravity 

0-8750 to 0-9692. By Sir H. Davy. 



Sp. Gr. 



Ammonia. 



8750 
8875 
9000 
9054 



32 50 
29 25 
26 00 
25-37 



Water. 



67-50 
70-75 
74 00 
74-63 



AMN 



60 



ANA 



Sp. Gr. 


Ammonia. 


Water. 


0-916fi 


22-07 


77-93 


0-9255 


19-54 


80-46 


0-9326 


17-52 


82-48 


0-9385 


15-88 


84-12 


0-9435 


14-53 


85-47 


0-9476 


13-46 


86-54 


0-9513 


12-40 


87-60 


0-9545 


11-56 


88-44 


0-9573 


10-82 


89-13 


0-9597 


1017 


89-83 


0-9619 


9-60 


90-40 


0-9692 


9-50 


90-50 



II. Table of the Per Centage of Pure Ammonia, 
and of Ammonia Water of 0-9000 in Water of 
Ammonia of the specific gravity 0-9000 to 
0-9945. By Dr. Ure. 



Water of 


Ammonia in 




Sp. Gr. by 


0-900. 


100. 




experiment. 


100 


26-500 


73-500 


0-9000 


95 


25-175 


74-825 


0-9045 


90 


23-850 


76-150 


0-9090 


85 


22-525 


77-475 


0-9133 


80 


21-200 


78-800 


0-9177 


75 


19-875 


80-125 


0-9227 


70 


18-550 


81-450 


0-9275 


65 


17-225 


82-775 


0-9320 


60 


15-900 


84-100 


0-9363 


55 


14-575 


85-425 


0-9410 


50 


13-250 


86-750 


0-9455 


45 


11-925 


88-075 


0-9510 


40 


10-600 


89-400 


0-9564 


35 


9-275 


90-725 


0-9614 


30 


7-950 


92 050 


0-9662 


25 


6-625 


93-375 


0-9716 


20 


5-300 


94-700 


0-9768 


15 


3-975 


96-025 


0-9828 


10 


2-650 


97-350 


0-9887 


5 


1-325 


98-675 


0-9945 



AMMONIACUM. A gum resin, the inspissa- 
ted juice of the dorema ammoniacum. It is stim- 
ulant and expectorant, and is much used in ca- 
tarrhs. Dose. 10 to 30 grs. in pills, or diffused 
through water. 

AMMONIACUM, STRAINED. Prep. I. 
Boil the ammoniacum with water, until it forms 
an emulsion or milk, then strain it through can- 
vass ; boil the refuse a second time with more 
water ; mix the liquors, and evaporate to a proper 
consistence. 

II. Place the gum on a sieve or canvass strainer, 
and put it on the top of a copper pan, containing a 
little boiling water. The steam will soften the 
gum, which will then run through, leaving the 
impurities behind ; evaporate as before. 

Remarks. The finst meliiod is that usually 
adopted in trade ; but the second preser\'ea the 
odor of tiie gum much better. Use. To make the 
plaster of ammoniacurn, and the plaster of ammo- 
niacnfn and niercurv. 

AMNIOTIC ACID. Vauqueliii and Buniva 
gY."e this name to allautoin, which, by some \n\- 
accounlable mistake, they represent to have found 



in the liquor amnii of the cow, instead of the fluid 
of the allantois, as shown by Lassaigne. 

AMULETS. Substances worn about the per- 
son to protect the wearer against some real or 
imaginary evil. Their protective power depends 
entirely on the imagination ; they are therefore 
now wholly discarded, except by the most super- 
stitious and ignorant. Camphor is frequently 
worn as a protective against fever. 

AMYGDALINE. Discovered by Robiquet 
and Boutron Charlard. Source. The bitter al- 
mond and the laurocerasus. 

Prep. Powder bitter almonds, from which the 
oil has been thoroughly expressed, and boil it re- 
peatedly in alcohol of 93 or 94§ ; mix the several 
tinctures, and distil off the alcohol ; mix the sirupy 
residuum with water, add a little yeast, and fer- 
ment ; after the fermentation has ceased, evapo- 
rate in a water bath to the consistence of a sirup, 
and add alcohol of 94§ ; collect the precipitate, 
drain well, and purify by repeated re-solutions and 
crystallizations. Prod. 3 to 4§. 

Prop., ^c. Form, Silken crystalline scales ; 
taste, sweet and nutty ; scentless ; soluble in wa- 
ter and hot alcohol. Its solution, mixed with milk 
of almonds, produces prussic acid and essential oil 
of almonds. 

AMYGDALINIC ACID. A new acid dis- 
covered by Wohler and Liebig. 

Prep. Dissolve amygdaline in baryta water, and 
boil the solution in a glass vessel as long as ammo- 
nia is evolved -, then add dilute sulphuric acid until 
precipitation ceases ; filter and evaporate the clear 
liquid in a water bath. Prop., ^c. A colorless 
transparent acidulous mass ; deliquescent in damp 
air, azid soluble ip water. With the bases it forms 
soluble salts but little known, called amygdalinates. 

AMYLIC ACID. A new acid compound, first 
described by M. Tiinnerman in TrommsdorfF's 
' Journal.' Its ultimate constituents are carbon 
2-5, oxygen 3. It is but little known. 

Prep. Three parts of muriatic acid are gradu- 
ally added through a feeding tube, to one part 
each of starch, black oxide of manganese, and 
water, previously well mixed together and heated 
in a capacious tubulated retort, connected with a 
well-cooled receiver. The product is impure amylic 
acid, which should be saturated with carbonate of 
lime, and crystallized by gentle evaporation. This 
salt, decomposed by 73 per cent, of sulphuric acid, 
yields by distillation pure amylic acid. 

Prop. It forms salts with the bases, which art 
mostly soluble and deliquescent, and possess the 
proi)erty of reducing the nitrate of silver and mu- 
riate of gold. It evaporates when gently heated, 
and gives out a sharp smell, resembling prussic 
acid. 

ANACARDIUM INK. The cashew nut con- 
tains a fluid between the kernel and shell, which 
forms an excellent marking ink. On linen and 
cotton it turns gradually black, and is very dura- 
ble. (Ure.) 

ANALYSIS, (in Ciif.mistry.) The resolution 
of any substance into its elements. It is divided 
into qualitalhic atul quantitatire analysis ; and 
these again into proximate and ultimate analysis. 
The first consists in merely finding the compo- 
nents of a compound ; the second, the components 
and the proportions of each of them ; the third, 



ANE 



61 



the proximate or compound constituents ; and the 
fourth, the chemical elements of which it is com- 
posed. For success in chemical analysis a tho- 
rough acquaintance with the various properties of 
iJodies is required, as well as an aptitude in apply- 
ing this knowledsje in discriminating them and 
eeparatiirg them from each other. Judgment and 
expertness in manipulation are also essential. Tp 
enter fully into the subject of chemical analysis is 
not the object of the present work ; nor would its 
size admit of such, even thoui^h every pa.ge of it 
were devoted to this subject. The reader will, 
however, find appended to each article of impor- 
tance the most simple means of determining its 
purity, as well as detect'ng its presence in mix- 
tures, and in some cases estimating its quantity. 

ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, FLU- 
ID FOR. {Objects of Natural History, <^c.) 
Prep. I. Saturate water with sulphurous acid, and 
add a little creosote. 

II. Dissolve 4 parts of chloride of tin in 100 of 
water, to which 3 per cent, of muriatic acid has 
been added. 

III. Dissolve 5 or 6 parts of corrosive sublimate 
in 100 of water, to which 2§ of muriatic acid has 
been added. 

IV. Mix together one part of ammonia water 
(strong) with 3 times its weight (each) of water 
and spirit of wine. 

Remarks. These fluids are used by immersing 
the objects therein, in close vessels. The third -for- 
mula is apt to render animal substances verv^ hard. 

ANCHOVIES, BRITISH. Prep. To a peck 
of sprats put two pounds of salt, three ounces of 
bay-salt, one pound of saltpetre, two ounces of 
prunella, and a few grains of cochineal ; pound 
them all in a mortar, then put into a stone pan or 
anchovy^ barrel, first a layer of sprats, and then one 
of the compound, and so on alternately to the top. 
Press them down hard ; cover them close for six 
months, and they will be fit for nee, and will really 
produce a most excellent flavored sauce. Re- 
marks. A large trade is done in this article, espe- 
cially for making anchovy paste or sauce, when a 
little more coloring is added. 

ANCHOVY POWDER. Prep.l. Pound an- 
chovies to a paste, then rub them through a sieve, 
and add enough flour to make a dough, which 
must be rolled out into thin slices and dried for 
powdering. 

II. Substitute British anchovies, and add color- 
ing. Use. To make sauces. 

ANCHUSIC ACID. This name has been 
given to the coloring principle of alkanet root, (the 
anchusa tinctoria,) but little is known respecting 
it. (See Alkanet Root.) 

ANEMOMETER. An instrument for deter- 
mining the force of the wind. 

An excellent instrument of this sort which may 
oe applied to determine the draught of a chimney 
as we!!, is the anemometer of Dr. Lind, the con- 
struction of which, by means of the annexed en- 
graving, will be rendered familiar. App. The 
open end, a, is kept by means of a vane presented 
to the wind, which acting on the surface of the 
liquid (water) b, raises it in the arm c. The dif- 




ANG 

ference of the level of the fluid in 
the two arms of the instrument is 
the measure of the force of the 
wind. To estimate the draught 
of a flue or chimney, the arm c is 
placed in the chimney, and the 
orifice a in the apartment. 

ANEMONINE. A substance 
noticed by Lnwig and Fehling, 
extracted by hot alcohol from the 
anemone pulsatilla, nemorosa,and 
pratensis. By the action of baiyta 
water on this substance,, Lowig obtained a com- 
pound which has been called anemonic acid. 

ANDERSOxN'S PILLS. Prep. Barbadoea 
aloes 2 oz. ; jalap 1 oz., (both in powder ;) oil of 
aniseed 2 drops ; mix and beat theiU "ito a mass 
with sirup. Dose. 5 to 20 grains ; purgative. 

ANGELICA, CANDIED. Prep. Boil the 
fresh stalks in water, to remove their bitterness, 
then put them into a sirup boiled to a full candy 
height, and boiling hot ; let them remain until 
nearly cold, when they may be taken out and dried. 
Prop. Cordial and stomachic. 

ANGELICA, EXTRACT OF. L (Dr. Mohr.) 
Macerate 2 lbs. of the bruised root in 1 gallon of 
rectified spirit of wine, for 7 days ; strain and press ; 
then macerate again in 1 gallon of proof spirit ; 
filter each separately ; mix and distil off" the spirit ; 
lastly, evaporate the remainder in a water bath to 
the consistence of an extract. Remarks. Quality 
very fine ; odor and taste strongly balsamic. 

II. Macerate 2 lbs. of bruised angelica root in 
1 gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified 
spirit and water for 10 days, frequently shaking ; 
then proceed as before. Remarks. Not so bal- 
samic as the former. 

ANGELICA, INFUSION OF. Dr. Mohr 
directs the use of hot water, or preferably wine. 
Remarks. An oil and water is also obtained from 
angelica, by distillation ; a tincture is prepared, 
(with rectified spirit,) and pills are made of the 
extract. 

ANGELIC ACID. During a recent analysis 
of angelica root, by L. A. Buchner, jun., he dis- 
covered a peculiar volatile acid, of a pungent sour 
smell, and biting acid taste ; sometimes fluid and 
oleaginous, and sometimes crystallized in striated 
prisms. (Schmidt's Jahrb., Aug. 1842.) 

ANGELICINE. A substance obtained from 
the root of angelica. The process is troublesome, 
and the product small. 

ANGEL WATER. Syn. Portugal Water. 
Prep. Mix together 1 pint each of orange-flower 
and rose-water, ^ pint of myrtle water, \ oz. of 
essence of musk, and 1 oz. of essence of amber- 
gris ; shake them well up, and filter through white 
blotting-paper. 

ANGOSTURA BARK. The true medicinal 
angostura or cusparia bark is brought from the 
West Indies ; but a spurious and poisonous spe- 
cies is imported from the East Indies, and is fre- 
quently sold for or mixed with the former. The 
following tabular view of the characteristics of 
each will afford a ready means of detecting thi* 
fraud 



ANI 



62 



ANI 



Tabular View of the Characteristics of the True and I'i^e Angostura Barks ; drawn up by Dr. Pe- 
REiRA, from his own researches, and thos«) of Guibourt, Fee, and others. 



True Angostura Bark. 



Nux Vomica, or False Angostura Bark. 



Form 

Odor 

Taste 

Hardness and density. . 
Fracture 

Epidermoid crust 

Inner surface . . 

Tinct. Litmus. 
Sesquichlo- 






ride of Iron S 
Prussiate of ) 
Potash .. \ 

Nitric Acid • . 



J Q,uills or flat pieces, straight or slight- ) 
I ly bent S 

Disagreeable . • 
S Bitter, afterwards somewhat acrid ; > 

\ persistent j| 

j Bark fragile when dry; easily cut;) 
} light; tissue not very dense •• ) 

Dull and blackish 



f Whitish or yellowish; insipid; un- 

< changed, or rendered slightly orange | 
( red by nitric acid 

{ Separable into laminse; deepened by 

} nitric acid 

Blue color destroyed •• 
{ Flocculent dark grayish-brown precip- 

} itMte 

\ No change ; hydrochloric acid caused 

( a yellow precipitate 

(A small qu^mtity makes the liquor ^ 

< cloudy ; a large quantity makes it a 
( transparent deep red •• •• ' 



< Q,uills or flat pieces; short; often very much 
( twisted, like dried horn; arched backwards 

None, or very slight. 

Intensely bitter ; very persistent. 

4 Broken, or cut with difficulty; heavy; tissue 
( compact. 

Resinous. 
, Variable ; sometimes a spongy rust-colored layer 

5 at other times whitish, prominent spots, mort 
i or less scattered or approximated. Nitric acid 
^ makes it intensely dark green or blackish. 

< Not separable into lamina ; rendered blood red 
( by nitric acid. 

Slightly reddened. 

Clear yellowish-green liquor. 

\ Slight turbidness, not increasec -.ji hydrochloric 
( acid. 

I A small quantity makes the liquor cits, and 
\ paler ; a large quantity transparent red. 



ANGOSTURIN. Syn. Cusparin. Saladin. 
Bitter Extractive. Prep. Digest bruised an- 
gostura bark in alcohol until the latter will take 
up no more ; then filter and submit it to sponta- 
neous evaporation. Prop. Dissolves in alcohol, 
water, and alkaline lyes ; neutral ; tincture of 
galls precipitates it from its solutions. 

ANHYDROUS. (In Chemistry.) Without 
water ; a term frequently applied to gases, salts, 
alcohol, acids, and some other substances, to ex- 
press their existence in the dry state. The gases 
may generally be rendered anhydrous, by passing 
them through a tube containing very dry pow- 
dered chloride of calcium, and some of them by 
passing through strong sulphuric acid. Salts may 
generally be dried by cautiously submitting them 
to the action of heat ; and alcohol, and many 
other volatile fluids, by careful distillation from 
chloride of calcium. 

ANIMAL SUBSTANCES USED AS 
FOOD, PRESERVATION OF. Animal sub- 
stances are preserved in various ways, among 
which may be mentioned — 

1. Exposure to the sun, or in a stove, to as 
high a heat as possible without scorching them. 

2. Exposure to the frost until they become 
frozen, and then keeping them in this state. 
Meat, fish, poultry, &lc. are generally preserved 
in this way in the colder parts of North America, 
in Russia, and in many other parts of the world. 
In Lower Canada, the meat killed early in the 
winter is frequently kept in a frozen state for 
summer use, to prevent the necessity of killing 
during the hotter portions of the year. It remains 
perfectly fresh, tender, and good flavored. 

3. Saliiiiff in brine. This method is hoth easy 
and eflcctual. The beat plan is to dissolve about 
4 lbs. of good salt in 1 gallon of water, for brine, 
and to ininiorHo the meat therein, at the same 
time, adding a few handfuls of undissolved lurge 
grained rock salt, more than it will dissolve, lor 
the purpose of keeping up its Ktrenj!;lh Thre(^ lo 
ten days, depending on tlio size, is Bufilcienlly 



long to keep the meat in the brine ; when it is 
taken out it should be hung up to dry, packed in 
barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, which- 
ever may be desired. When the brine has been 
used for some time, it should be boiled with some 
more salt and 2 or 3 eggs, then skimmed and 
strained. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat 
a red color, and brown sugar improves the flavor. 

4. Dry salting. In many parts, as in Hamp- 
shire, Yorkshire, &c., the process of dry salting is 
adopted, which consists of merely well rubbing 
the salt, mixed with a little saltpetre, into the 
meat, and afterwards sprinkling some over it, and 
placing it on a board or trough in such a manner 
that the brine may drain off. Sometimes fresh 
meat is packed at once in casks, with the best 
coarse-grained salt. 

5. Pickling. This plan is to steep the sub- 
stance in vinegar, or a mixture of vinegar and 
beer. Fish is often served in this way. 

6. Pyroligneous acid brushed over animal sub- 
stances will keep them for any length of time. 
This acid imparts a smoky flavor ; but pure acetic 
acid may be used instead. Before use, the sub- 
stance should be washed or soaked in water. 

7. Immersion in olive oil. Salmon and other 
fish are often preserved in jars of salad oil, well 
corked up, and cemented over. 

8. Potting. Small birds, fish, cooked meat, &c. 
are frequently pounded to a paste, with spices and 
butter, and pressed into pots until nearly full, 
when melted clarified butter is poured over to 
about \ or \ of an inch in depth. This plan is 
called " potting." 

9. Smoking. This is done on the large scale 
by hanging the articles up in smoking rooms, into 
which smoke is brought from dry wood tires, kin- 
dled in Ihe cellar, for the purpose of allowing it to 
cool and d(>posite its cruder part, befoiv it arrives 
at ths meat. This process requires from six days 
to >^ many wt>eks to perform it properly, and is 
best done in winter. In 'farm-houses, where dry 
wood is burnt, hams, &lc. ore often smoked by 



ANI 



63 



ANN 



hanging them up in some cool part of tlie kitchen 
chimney. When the meat is cut into slices, or 
scored deeply with a knife, to allow the smoke to 
penetrate it, it is called " biiccaning." This is 
frequently performed by hunters in the remoter 
parts of Europe, by placing the slices on a grating 
of sticks, about 3 or 4 feet high, over a fire made 
with the branches of trees, and continuing the 
drying and smoking until the meat be sufficiently 
cured. 

10. Jerking. In some hot countries the meat, 
cut in thin slices, is dried in the sun, beat into a 
paste in a mortar, and pressed into jars for use. 
Sometimes meal or flour is added. This plan is 
called "jerking," or " charqui." 

11. For sea-stores, a new and simpU/ plan has 
been lately adopted. Proc. Immerse the meat, 
cut into slices of from 4 to 8 ounces each, for five 
minutes in a vessel of boiling water, and dry them 
on network, at a regular tenjperature of from 120° 
to 125° Fahr. Next evaporate the soup formed 
by washing the meat, to the consistence of a thick 
varnish, adding a little spice to flavor it ; into this 
fluid immerse the perfectly dry pieces of flesh, 
and again expose them to the proper drying tem- 
perature. Repeat the operation of dipping and 
drying a second and a third time. Remarks. For 
use, the meat must be cooked in the usual way 
for boiling, &c. In this manner, meat may be 
preserved without salt, for 15 to 20 months. 

12. Skins are preserved by tanning, or expo- 
sure to the action of oak bark and other astrin- 
gents, until they are converted into leather ; or by 
tawing them, which is somewhat similar. 

Other methods have also been occasionally 
adopted for objects of natural history and ana- 
tomical preparations ; as dilute spirit or weak so- 
lution of corrosive sublimate, both of which, how- 
ever, harden the texture of animal substances 
considerably. This may be prevented in the for- 
mer by adding a little liquor of ammonia. (See 
Putrefaction.) 

ANIMATION, SUSPENDED. Syn. As- 
phyxia. Causes. Various ; hence it has been di- 
vided into four varieties, viz. : 

1. From suffocation produced by hanging and 
drowning. 

2. From suffocation produced by the inhalation 
of irrespirable gases or vapors, as the fumes of 
charcoal, fixed air, ^c. 

3. From strokes of lightning or electricity. 

4. From, extreme cold. (Dr. Mason Good.) 

No general rules can be given exactly suitable 
to each case ; but the reader is referred to Drown- 
ing. Whenever it is possible to procure medical 
aid, it should be immediately sought, as the delay 
of a single minute may put the case beyond the 
reach of assistance. The following valuable re- 
marks on asphyxia, from the pen of an eminent 
physician, may, however, be well introduced here : 

The treatment of asphyxia involves an attention 
both to the functions of respiration and to that of 
the true spinal marrow. The object, doubtless, is 
to effect a restoration of the respiratory and circu- 
latory functions, the former of which has been ar- 
rested by the external conditions of the patient ; 
the latter, by the contact of morbidly carbonized 
blood with the capillary vessels of the lungs. The 
first thing to be attempted is the restoration of 



warmth by active friction with warm hands, &c. ; 
the second, the imitation of artificial respiration, by 
any means at hand, of which none is better, usu- 
ally, than the action of alternate pressure and its 
relaxation, applied to the thorax and abdomen, so 
as to induce expiration first, and inspiration imme- 
diately by the play of the elasticity of the ribs. 
The third effort is made by suddenly dashing cold 
water on the face and general surface, previously 
warmed by the frictions, in the hope of inducing a 
more decided inspiration. Artificial respiration 
must be attended to, if these measures, very 
promptly enforced, fail ; and unless the proper ap- 
paratus be present, the mouth of another person, 
of robust make, is to be applied to that of the as- 
phyxiated person, covered with a handkerchief, 
the nostrils being closed. (Dr. Marshall Hall.) 

ANISEED, COMPOUND SPIRIT OF. 
Prep. Aniseeds and angelica seeds, of each, 8 oz. ; 
cassia bark and caraways, of each, ^ oz. ; all 
bruised ; proof spirit and water, of each, 1 gallon. 
Proc. Macerate for 3 or 4 aays, then distil over 1 
gallon. 

II. Oil of aniseed 2 drachms ; oil of angelica ^ 
drachm ; oil of cassia 20 drops ; oil of caraway 15 
drops ; proof spirit 1 gallon. Mix well. 

Vse. A pleasant cordial in flatulence, low spirits, 
&c. Dose, i oz. in w^ater. Much used by some 
old ladies. Remarks. Should it be milky, shake it 
up with a tablespoonful of magnesia, and filter 
through blotting-paper. 

ANISETTE DE BOURDEAUX. Lig. Ani- 
seed 4 oz. ; coriander and sweet fennel seeds, of 
each, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit ^ gallon ; water 3 
quarts. Proc. Bruise the seeds, and macerate 
them for 2 days in the spirit and water ; then draw 
over 7 pints, and add lump sugar 2 lbs. 

II. Lump sugar IJ lb. ; oil of aniseed 12 drops ; 
oil of cassia and caraway, of each, 5 drops ; spirit, 60 
u. p., 3 quarts. Proc. Rub a little of the sugar with 
the oils, then dissolve it in the spirit ; add the water 
and filter through magnesia ; lastly, dissolve the 
remaining portion of the sugar in the filtered liquor. 

III. Good brandy 3 quarts ; sugar 1^ lb. ; ani- 
seed water 1 pint. As above. Remarks. An 
agreeable cordial. 

ANNEALING. The process by which glass 
is rendered less frangible, and metals which have 
become brittle again rendered tough and mallea- 
ble. Glass vessels, and other articles of glass, are 
annealed by being placed in an oven or apartment 
near the furnaces at which they are formed, called 
the " leer,^' where they are allowed to cool slowly, 
the process being prolonged according to their 
bulk. Steel, iron, and other metals are annealed 
by heating them and allowing them to cool slowly 
on the hearth of the furnace, or any other suitable 

j place, unexposed to the cold. As -a specimen of 
unannealed glass, the Prince Rupert's drop may 
be mentioned, and of unannealed metals, common 
cast iron ; to each of which the reader is referred, 

i in their alphabetical places. 

I ANNOTTO. A valuable coloring matter, im- 

: ported into Europe in cakes, and usually made up 
in England into rolls, before sale. Source. The 
pellicles of the seeds of the bixa orellana. Si Iv 
Alcohol, ether, volatile, and fixed oils, to each of 
which it imparts a beautiful orange color ; very 
soluble in alkaline lyes, wliich darken it, and in 



ANO 



64 



ANT 



strong sulphuric acid, which turns it blue. Re- 
marks. The best annotto is known as roll annot- 
to ; flag and egg annotto are not so much esteem- 
ed. Use. For dyeing, painting, coloring, varnish- 
ing, cheese-making, &c. 

ANNOTTO, PURIFIED. Syn. Orelline. 
Concentrated Annotto. Prep. Boil annotto in a 
solution of pearlash, until it will dissolve no more ; 
then add oil of vitriol, previously diluted with 20 
times its weight of water, until no more coloring 
matter is thrown down, but not enough to make 
the liquor taste sour ; wash the precipitate with a 
little cold water ; then drain and dry it. 

Remarks. This is the pure coloring matter of 
annotto, and possesses all the properties of the best 
annotto in a concentrated form. 

ANNOTTO, COMMON. Syn. Reduced An- 
notto. English Annotto. Ing. Egg or flag 
annotto 24 lbs. ; gum tragacanth, 10 lbs. ; starch 
6 lbs. ; soap 1^ lb. ; red bole, or Venetian red, 1 
lb. ; water q. s. Proc. Mix by. heat in a copper 
pan, and form into rolls. 

Remarks. Used for common purposes. Should 
it be attempted to pass this off" for genuine annotto, 
the fraud may be detected by its partial solubility 
in alcohol. 

ANNOTTO, CHOICE OF. Annotto should 
be chosen of a good flame color ; brighter in the 
middle than on the outside. It should feel soft and 
smooth, and have a good consistence. It should 
possess a strong smell. 

ANNOTTO DYE. Prep. Cut the annotto 
into small pieces, and boil it in a copper, with an 
equal weight of good pearlashes, then dilute with 
water to a proper color. Process of dyeing. Im- 
merse the articles, previously rinsed in clean wa- 
ter, in the dye, and give them a good boil ; then 
drain them out and rinse them well in clean water. 

Remarks. Annotto is chiefly used for silks, to 
which it imparts a fine orange yellow color, the 
shade of which may be modified, by using differ- 
ent proportions of pearlash, and also by giving the 
stuff different mordants before putting it into the 
dye-bath. 

ANODYNE. (From the Gr. a, without, and 
65vvri, pain.) A medicine which allays pain. Among 
the principal anodynes may be mentioned opium, 
morphia, camphor, and other medicines of the 
same kind. " The constant use of anodynes be- 
gets their necessity." (W. Cooley.) 

ANODYNE NECKLACES, are formed of 
the roots of hyoscyamus. Job's tears, allspice 
steeped in brandy, jumble beads, or elk's hoof, to 
suit the fancies of the prescribers. Use. To pro- 
cure easy dentition in children, and sleep in fevers. 
(Bah !) 

ANODYNE, INFANTILE. Prep. Sirup 
of red poppies I oz., aniseed water 3 oz., brandy or 
spirit of wine ^ oz. ; mix. Use. An excellent ano- 
dyne for infants. Vose. A small leaspoonful as 
requinnl. 

ANODYNE, MARTIAL. Prep. Dissolve 
ammoniated iron in water, and precipitate with 
liquor of potassn ; wash and dry. Remarks. An 
obsolete pre})aration. It is sesqui-oxide of iron. 

ANODYNE, MINKRAL. An old prepara- 
tion forn)ed by dissolving diaphoretic anlinjony in 
water, and evaporating to drviiess. 

ANO ZA[JA(;LI()NE. i'rrp. Put 2 eggs, 3 



teaspoonfuls of sugar, and 2 small glasses of mar- 
sala, into a chocolate cup, over the fire, and keep 
it rapidly stirred, until it begins to rise and hardens, 
then serve it up in glasses. Remarks. A pleasant 
Italian receipt for a cold : very nutritious. 

ANTACIDS. Medicines that neutralize the 
acid of the stomach, and thus tend to remove 
heartburn, dyspepsia, and diarrhcea. The princi- 
pal antacids are the carbonates of potassa, soda, 
ammonia, lime, and magnesia. Ammonia is the 
most powerful, and when the acidity is conjoined 
with nausea and faintness, is the best : when 
great irritability of the coats of the stomach exist, 
potash is preferable ; when accompanied with di- 
arrhoea, carbonate of lime, (prepared chalk :) and 
when with costiveness, magnesia. (See Absorb- 
ents.) The dose of the carbonates of potassa and 
soda in powder is half a ieaspoonful, of chalk, a 
teaspoonful, of magnesia, a dessert spoonful, and 
of carbonate of ammonia, 10 grs., or a teaspoonful 
of the solution. All these are taken in water. 

ANTHELMINTICS. Medicines that destroy 
worms. List. Among the principal anthelmin- 
tics are, calomel, tin -powder, castor oil, oil of tur- 
pentine, cowhage, and ga.mboge. Remarks. A 
good plan for removing worms from children, is to 
give 3 to 5 grs. of calomel in sugar, overnight, and 
a dose of castor oil the next morning. The mo- 
tions should be observed, and if worms be found, 
the same treatment may be followed once a week, 
until they are wholly removed. 

ANTHIARINE. Syn. Antiarine. The ac- 
tive principle of the antiaris toxicaria, or upas 
poison-tree of Java. It is extracted from the upas 
poison by alcohol, and is obtained under the form 
of small crystalline scales. It is a frightful poison, 
to which no antidote is known. 

ANTHRAKOKALI. A remedy recommend- 
ed by Dr. Poly a in scrofula and chronic rheuma- 
tism. Prep. Mix in an iron basin over the fij-e, 
160 parts of powdered coal with 192 parts of strong 
boiling solution of caustic potassa. Stir until con- 
verted into a homogeneous black powder. Dose. 
1 gramme with -25 gramme of powdered liquorice, 
3 or 4 times daily. 

Remarks. What remedy next? Ansroer. (See 
FuLiGOKALi.) This is as bad as curing hydropho- 
bia with the top of the snuff* of a mould candle, or 
consumption with naphtha. 

ANTHRAKOKALI, POMMADE OF. Prep, 
Anthrakokali in fine powder 1 part, lard 30 parts ; 
mix. 

Remarks. " Said^^ to have been tried by Dr 
Gibort at the Hopital St. Louis, on 24 cases of 
cutaneous disease, many of which were cured, 
and in all, the symploms were ameliorated. — ? 

ANTHRANLLIC ACID. An acid discovered 
by Fritzsche, and prepared froni indigo. 

Prep. Dissolve indigo in a hot solution of pure 
potassa, sp. gr. 1-35, and add powdered peroxide 
of manganese, imtil the liquid on dilution and ex- 
posure to (he air ceases to form indigo h\nv. It 
now contains anthranilate of potassu and free al- 
kali ; neutralize the alkali with sulphuric acid, 
dissolve out the anthranilate with alcohol, and de- 
compose it with acetic acid, when orange-colored 
crystals of inip\ire anthranilic acid will be ob- 
tained. Purify hy uniting it with lime, crystal- 
lizing the salt and decomposing it with acetic acid, 



ANT 



65 



ANT 



when large colorless tabular crystals will be de- 
posited as the solution cools. This is the pure 
hydrated acid. 

Remarks. This acid is fusible and volatile, yield- 
ing crystals resembling those of benzoic acid. It 
dissolves in water, alcohol, and etlier, and forms 
salts with the bases, called anthranilates. By de- 
structive distillation, it yields aniline. 

ANTI-ATTRITION. Prep. Grind together 
blacklead with 4 times its weight of lard or tallow. 
Use. To lessen friction in machinery, and to pre- 
vent iron rusting. Remark. This was once a pa- 
tent article. Camphor is sometimes added, (7 lbs. 
to the cwt.) 

ANTIDOTES. Medicines used to prevent or 
remove the effects of any poison or disease. At- 
tached to each of the principal poisonous prepara- 
tions mentioned in this work, the reader will find 
a notice of the best antidotes and treatment of 
cases of poisoning therewith. 

ANTIHECTIC POWDER, POTERIUS'. 
Prep. Melt equal parts of tin and metallic anti- 
mony, powder, mix with six parts of powdered 
nitre, and deflagrate in a red hot crucible ; lastly, 
powder and wash well with water. Uses. Astrin- 
gent and tonic ; formerly used in consumption. 
Dose. 10 to 30 grs. It is a mere mixture of the 
oxides of antimony and tin. 

ANTIHYSTERIC DRAUGHT. (Dr. Jo- 
sat.) Prep. Cy anuret of potassium 0*05 grammes ; 
distilled lettuce water 60 grammes ; sirup of orairge 
flowers 20 grammes ; mix. 

Admin. One or two teaspoonfuls every ten min- 
utes when the fit is expected ; during the fit it 
may be given in larger doses ; which, however in- 
tense, will be stopped or greatly allayed. Such is 
the assurance of Dr. Josat, who declares its effi- 
cacy to have been indisputably proved, in upward 
of 55 cases. 

ANTIFERMENT. A substance sold in the 
cider districts, for the purpose of arresting fermen- 
tation. Prep. I. It generally consists of sulphite 
of lime in powder, or a mixture of equal parts of 
the sulphite and powdered mustard.' 

II. Mix together 14 lbs. of mustard seed with 
1 lb. of cloves, and bruise them well without dry- 
ing. 

Use. A portion of either of the above added to 
cider or perry, tends to allay the fermentation, 
when it has been renewed. The second may be 
used for wine and beer as well as cider. Caution. 
In the above the sulphf^e must be employed, not 
the sulphate, which is quite a different article. 
(See Fermentation.) 

ANTIMONIC ACID. Syn. Peroxide of 
Antimony. An acid compound formed of anti- 
mony and oxygen. It is the metal in its highest 
state of oxidation. 

Prep. I. Digest metallic antimony in strong 
nitric acid, or dissolve it in nitro-murialic acid ; 
then evaporate by heat until the excess of acid be 
expelled, and throw the solution into cold water. 
The precipitate is the hydrated acid ; by exposure 
to a heat of about 500° or 600° Fahr.," the water 
is driven off", and the anhydrous acid remains be- 
hind. 

II. Mix powdered metallic antimony with six 
times its weight of nitre, ignite in a silver cruci- 
ble, and when cold, wash out the excess of alkali 



with hot water ; the remaining antimoniate of 
potash, decomposed by muriatic acid, yields an 
insoluble residue of antimonic acid. 

Prop. The hydrated acid (freshly precipitated) 
reddens litmus, and is insoluble in water, unless 
soured with tartaric or muriatic acid. When heat 
ed nearly to redness, it gives out oxygen and be- 
comes antimonious acid. The hydrated acid is a 
white powder ; the anhydrous acid has a pale yel- 
low color, and is insoluble in water even with the 
assistance of the acids. With the bases it forms 
salts called antimoniates. Uses. It has been used 
in medicine, but owing to the high state of oxida- 
tion of the metal, appears to be nearly inert. It 
is said to be diaphoretic in doses of 2 to 10 grs., 
but it has been given in ^oz. doses, 2 or 3 times 
daily, with good effect? (Wilson.) It is now sel- 
dom used in medicine. Tests. (See Antimony 
and Antimonious Acid.) 

ANTIMONIOUS ACID. Syn. Binoxide of 
Antimony. Deutoxide of Antimony. An acid 
of antimony, containing 1 eq. less of oxygen than 
the last, or 2 eq. of antimony, and 4 eq. of oxy- 
gen. 

Prep. I. Expose the white hydrated antimo- 
nic acid to a red heat, when 1 eq. of oxygen will 
be driven off" along with the water, and pure an- 
timonious acid remain. 

II. Either the oxide or sulphuret of antimony, 
exposed to a strong heat, long contained in open 
vessels, gradually absorbs oxygen, and passes into 
antimonious acid. 

III. The hydrated acid may be prepared by 
adding an acid to the antimonite of an alkali. 

Prop. White, very infusible ; insoluble in water, 
likewise in acids after being heated to redness. It 
combines with the bases forming salts called anti- 
monites. The hydrated acid reddens litmus and 
dissolves in the muriatic and tartaric acids. Use. 
It is employed in medicine, and forms the basis 
of the celebrated nostrum, James's powder, as 
well as the pulvis antimonialis of the L, Ph. It 
appears, however, to be very inactive and uncer- 
tain in its operation. Dr. EUiotson exhibited the 
pulvis antimonialis, which contains nearly 40 per 
cent, of this acid, in doses of upwards of 100 gra., 
without producing any visible effect. The high 
state of oxidation in which the antimony exists in 
this compound, as mentioned in the last article, 
may account for its inactivity. 

Remarks. Neither the salts of this nor the last 
acid have been applied to any useful purpose. 
Tests. (See Antimony.) 

ANTIMONY. Syn. Metallic Antimony. 
Regulus of Antimony. Hist., ^c. This word 
is generally applied to a gray metallic ore, which 
is a sulphuret of antimony. The pure metal, 
formerly called regulus of antimony, is of a whi- 
tish color, and semi-crj-stalline appearance. The 
derivation of the name is singular : Basil Valen- 
tine, a monk who flourished in the 15th century, 
believing that it fattened pigs, administered some 
to his brethren, with the charitable intention of 
giving them a plump appearance, but the experi- 
ment was attended with fatal results. Hence it 
was called " anti-nioine," " anti7nonk," and grad- 
ually, antimony. The sulphuret is even now of- 
ten given by farriers to horses, to render theij 
coats sleek. 



ANT 



66 



ANT 



Prep. I. Heat the protoxide of antimony to 
redness in a crucible, having previously mixed it 
with an equal weight of cream of tartar ; pour the 
melted metal into conical moulds. 

II. Mix the powdered sulphuret of antimony 
of commerce with ^ its weight of iron filings, and 
submit it to a strong red heat in a covered cruci- 
ble. 

III. Common sulphuret of antimony 16 oz., 
cream of tartar 12 oz., nitre 6 oz. ; mix, and pro- 
ceed as above. When cold, separate the scoria. 
Remarks. The first form gives a chemically pure 
metal. On the large scale, the ore of antimony 
is reduced in a peculiarly shaped flame furnace, 
and afterwards melted under coal dust, in cruci- 
bles holding 20 to 30 lbs., placed upon a reverber- 
atory hearth. The following formula has been 
recommended on the large scale. 

IV. 100 parts of sulphuret ore, 60 parts of ham- 
merschlag, (oxide of iron from the rolling mills,) 
50 parts of common soda, or glauber salts, and 10 
parts of charcoal. (Berthier.) Prod. From 65 to 
70 parts of good metal. 

Prop. Antimony is a whitish, brittle, volatile, 
and inflammable metal, and imparts its brittleness 
to its alloys. 

Uses. It is used in medicine ; combined with 
lead, it forms type metals, and with lead and tin, 
music plate metal, pewter, &c. 

Tests. Sulphureted hydrogen throws down an 
orange-colored precipitate, soluble in pure potassa, 
and also in hot muriatic acid ; from the latter so- 
lution, water throws down a whitish powder. If 
Ihe sample be in the solid state, powder, boil in 
muriatic acid, and test as above. 

Estim. Strongly acidulate the solution with tar- 
taric acid, then throw down the antimony as a 
sulphuret by passing sulphureted hydrogen gas 
through it. After warming the solution and allow- 
ing it to cool again, the precipitate may be col- 
lected on a filter, dried, and weighed. A small 
portion must now be digested in strong muriatic 
acid, which will completely dissolve it if it be the 
simple sulphuret ; in whioh case the quantity of 
antimony will be obtained by multiplying the 
weight of the sulphuret by 5, and dividing the 
product by 7. Should, however, only part of the 
precipitate be soluble in strong muriatic acid, a 
known weight of it must be introduced.into. a flask, 
and fuming nitric acid added, drop by drop, with 
great care, until a considerable quantity has been 
thus added ; hydrochloric acid should now be add- 
ed, and the mixture digested at a gentle heat, until 
the whole of the sulphur be dissolved. The solu- 
tion must next be diluted with water, strongly 
acidulated with tartaric acid, and chloride of ba- 
Tium added as long as it produces a precipitate. 
This collected, dried, and weighed, and the weight 
divided by 3, will give the quantity of sulphur in 
the sample last operated on, which, by proper al- 
lowance and deduction from the weight of the 
Bulphuret first found, will give the quantity of 
metal as before. 

ANTIMONY ASH. Prep. Roast the common 
■ulphurct of antimony in an earthen crucible for 
an hour. RnnarkK. lOnietic in small doses, used 
to make metallic antimony. 

ANTIMONY, DIArilORETIC. .<?///». Calx 
or Antimony. Fkroxidk ok Antimony. Prep. 



Mix 1 lb. of powdered sulphuret of antimony with 
3 lbs. of powdered nitre, and deflagrate by spoon- 
fuls at a time, in a red hot crucible ; collect the 
calx and powder it. 

Remarks. The flowers that collect on the sides 
of the crucible must be carefully rejected, as they 
are violently emetic. Use. Once much employed 
in medicine as a gentle diaphoretic and laxative 
When this article has been well washed in water, 
it is called washed diaphoretic antimony, washed 
calx of ditto, &c. The process deprives it of some 
of its alkali. 

ANTIMONY, FLOWERS OF. Prep. 
Throw powdered sulphuret of antimony, by spoon- 
fuls, into an ignited tubulated retort, that has a 
short and very wide neck, until as many flowers 
collect in the receiver as are required. Remarks 
An impure oxysulphuret of antimony. Emetic in 
doses of 1 to 3 grs. 

ANTIMONY, FLOWERS OF, (ARGEN- 
TINE.) Syn. Sesquioxide of Antimony. Prep. 
Keep metallic antimony melted in a vessel, freely 
exposed to the air, and furnished with a cool place 
for the flowers to rest upon ; collect the flowers as 
deposited. Remarks. These flowers were formerly 
thought to be the binoxide, but Berzelius has clear- 
ly shown them to be the sesquioxide. 

ANTIMONY, FULMINATING. Syn Ful- 
MiNATiNG Antimonial Powder. Prep. 1. Grind 
well together 100 parts of dried tartar emetic, and 
3 parts of lamp-black, or charcoal powder, then 
take a crucible, capable of holding 3 oz. of water, 
and having ground its edge smooth, and rubbed 
the inside with powdered charcoal, | fill it with 
the above mixture, cover it with a layer of char- 
coal powder, and lute on the cover. Expose it for 
3 hours to strong heat in a reverberatory furnace, 
and when taken out, let it stand to cool for 6 or 7 
hours, before removing its contents, to prevent an 
explosion. The crucible being now opened, the 
contents must be hastily transferred without break- 
ing to a wide-mouthed stoppered vial, when, after 
some time, it will crumble down into a powder of 
itself. (M. Serullas.) 

II. Triturate together, very carefully, 100 parts 
of antimony, 75 parts of carbureted (roasted to 
blackness) cream of tartar, and 12 parts of lamp- 
black : preserve it in vials. (Ann. de Chim., Oct. 
1822.) 

Remarks. When the above processes are pro- 
perly conducted, the resulting powders fulminate 
violently on contact with water. It is to the pres- 
ence of the very inflammable metal potassium that 
they owe this property. Another compound, made 
with 60 parts of carbureted cream of tartar, 120 
bismuth, and 1 of nitre, treated as above, contains 
an alloy very rich in potassium. A piece the size 
of a pea introduced into a mass of gunpowder ex- 
plodes it on being thrown into water. Use. Foi 
making some kind of fireworks. It is very proba- 
ble that this is the preparation used by Capt. 
Warner. 

ANTIMONY, MAGISTERY OF DIAPHO- 
RETIC. Syn. Materia Perlata. Prep. Add 
oil of vitriol io the water used in washing diapho. 
rotic antimony, until it ceases to produce a precipi- 
tate. Wash this well with water. 

ANTIMONY, MARTIAL DIAPHORETIC 
Syn. Anticacuecticum Luuovici. Prep. Fusi 



ANT 



67 



ANX 



equal weights of iron filings and sulphuret of anti- 
mony in a crucible, cool, powder, and mix with 3 
times their weight of nitre, and deflagrate them 
by spoonfuls in a red hot crucible. Wash the pro- 
duct in water, and collect the brown precipitate. 
Use. Formerly given as a tonic, in doses of 10 to 
20 grs. 

ANTIMONY, MEDICINAL. Syn. Medi- 
cinal Regulus of Antimony. Prep. Crude 
antimony in powder, melted with nearly its own 
weight of salt, and about \ of its weight of potash, 
or i Its weight of a mixture of nitre and argol. 
When cold, separate the ashes from the mass, 
wash and powder. Use. Said to be stronger than 
crude antimony. Used in some quack medicines. 

ANTIMONY, MURIATE OF. Syn. But- 
ter OF Antimony. Chloride of ditto. Sesqui- 

CHLORIDE OF DITTO. OiL OF CaUSTIC AnTIMONY. 

Prep. Mix 2 parts of metallic antimony with 5 
parts of corrosive sublimate, and distil from a wide- 
necked retort. 

II. Grind together equal parts of common anti- 
mony and corrosive sublimate, and proceed as 
before. 

III. Common antimony roasted until gray, or 
glass of antimony, 9 oz. ; powder and mix with 
common salt 2 lbs. ; oil of vitriol 1^ lb. ; water 
1 lb. ; distil. Prod. 2^ lbs. of butter of antimony. 

IV. Common sulphuret or glass of antimony, as 
leist, 7 lbs. ; common salt, 28 lbs. ; oil vitriol, 21 
lbs. ; water, 14 lbs. ; distil. 

V. Boil 20 parts of powdered common sulphu- 
ret of antimony, in 1*00 parts of muriatic acid to 
which 1 part of nitric acid has been added. A 
little pernitrate of iron is used to color it, and it is 
made up to the sp. gr. of about 1-4. This article 
is improved if the crude antimony be roasted be- 
fore dissolving it in the acid. 

Prop. When pure, it somewhat resembles but- 
ter, melts with a gentle heat, and crystallizes on 
coohng ; it deliquesces into an oily liquid when 
exposed in a damp place, and this was once the 
common method of obtaining a cheaper article for 
sale. It is decomposed by water. • Use. It 4^ a 
common caustic with farriers. 

Remarks. The first of these processes produces 
the pure sesquichloride of antimony, the second an 
article less pure, and the last one the liquid sold as 
butter of antimony in the shops. The solution of 
the anti.nony in the acid is attended \ Ith the evo- 
lution of a large quantity of sulphureied hydro- 
gen ; it should therefore be done under a chimney. 

ANTIMONY, SOLUTION OF MURIATE 
OF. Syn. LiduoR Stibii Muriaticl (Pharm. 
Borruss.) Prep. Dissolve pure oxide of anthnony 
in pure muriatic acid. 

ANTIMONY, OXIDE OF. Syn. Sesqui- 
oxide of Antimony. Prep. I. (P. E.) Dissolve 
§iv of sulphuret of antimony in fine powder, in 1 
pint of muriatic acid by heat, filter and pour the 
solution into 5 pints of water, collect the precipi- 
tate on a cahco filter, and wash it well, first with 
cold water, and then with a weak solution of car- 
bonate of soda ; and lastly, a second time with 
cold water, imtil the latter ceases to affect turme- 
nc paper. Dry with a gentle heat. 

II. To the solution of the sulphuret of antimony 
as prepared above, enough water is added at 167^^ 
Fahr. to produce slight turbidness ; it is then left 



to itself until all the sulphureted hydrogen has 
escaped, when it is again filtered and mixed with 
6 times its weight of water. Prod. From 4 oz. of 
the sulphuret, — IJ oz. pure white oxide of anti- 
mony soluble without residue in tartaric acid 
(Giesler.) 

III. Digest the precipitate obtained by mixing 
chloride of, antimony with cold water, in a weak 
solution of carbonate of potassa, having first well 
washed it with cold water ; agitate occasionally 
for some hours, then collect the powder, wash it 
well and dry it. 

IV. Add a solution of carbonate of soda to an- 
other of tartar emetic ; wash the precipitate well, 
and dry it. 

Remarks. This is a dirty white powder ; fusible 
and volatile ; changing into antimonious acid when 
strongly heated in open vessels. It is a feeble 
base. Uses. To make tartar emetic, and in med- 
icine, as a diaphoretic, in doses of 2 to 10 grs., and 
an emetic and purgative in larger doses. It has 
been proposed as a substitute for James's Powder. 
Pur. and Tests. It is completely soluble in hydro- 
chloric acid, and again thrown down as a white 
powder by cold water ; perfectly soluble in a solu- 
tion of tartaric acid ; it is thrown dowm from its 
solutions as an orange-red ppwder by sulphureted 
hydrogen ; it volatilizes by heat. 

ANTIMONY, OXYCHLORIDE OF. Syn. 
Mercurius Vit^. Powder of Algaroth. Ox- 
ydum AntimOxVii Nitro-muriaticum, (D. p.) Prep. 
Mix the liquid chloride of antimony with cold 
water ; wash and dry the precipitate. Prop. Sim- 
ilar to the oxide. Used to make tartar emetic. 

ANTIMONY, PURGING. Syn. Cathartic 
Antimony. Prep. Digest ^ lb. of glass of antimo- 
ny in 1^ lb. of oil of vitriol for two days, evaporate 
to dryness, powder and wash the residuum ; dry 
and melt with 4 oz. of Glauber salts, and 8 oz. of 
sal enixum ; again powder, wash, and dry. Re- 
marks. This has been said to be the most certain 
of all the antimonial purges. Dose. 2 to 10 grs 
Seldom used. 

ANTIMONY, SMELTED. Prep. Meh 
crude antimony, and pour it into conical moulds. 
Uses, ^c. Diaphoretic and alterative. Dose. 10 
to 60 grs. Used in rheumatism, scrofula, and 
skin diseases the refining of gold, «Slc. ; and when 
reduced to powder, by ladies, to paint theu* eye- 
lashes black. 

ANTISEPTICS Substances that prevent 
putrefaction. The principal antiseptics are co?n- 
mon salt, saltpetre, spices, sugar, vinegar, and 
creosote. For antiseptic process, see Animal Sub- 
stances, Putrefaction, Provisions, &.c. 

ANTISEPTIC MEDICINES. Of these the 
principal ones are hark, acids, wine, spirits, and 
camphor. 

ANTISPASMODICS. Medicines that allay 
spasms and other pains. Bark, opium, camphor, 
ether, musk, castor, assafostida, valerian, and 
chalybeates, are antispasmodics. 

ANTISPASMODIC MIXTURE. (Dr. Col- 
lier.) Prep. Mixtures of asafoetida and cam- 
phor of each f iiss, tincture of valerian §j. Mix. 
Dose. One tablespoonful three or four times 
daily. 

ANXIETY, NERVOUS. This unpleasant 
state may be removed by keeping the bov^'els reg 



API 



68 



API 



iilar with mild purgatives, taking plenty of exercise 
in the open air, adopting a light nutritious diet, and 
seeking pleasant society. A teaspoonful of car- 
bonate of soda or magnesia, or a few drops of 
laudanum, taken the last thing at night, will gen- 
erally have the effect of preventing watchful- 
ness. 

APERIENT. A medicine that gently opens 
the bowels. Among the best mild aperients may 
be mentioned small doses of castor oil, Epsom 
salts, phosphate of soda, (tasteless salt,) or seid- 
litz 'powder; compound rhubarb pills, compound 
aloetic pills, and pil. rufi. 

APERIENT, DR. COLLIER'S SALINE, 
(ANTIMONIAL.) Ing. Double tartrate of po- 
tassa and soda §ij, carbonate of soda 3ij, outer 
yellow peel of the orange (fresh) 3ij, tartar emetic 
1 gr., boiling water 1^ pint. Pro. Pour the water 
on the other ingredients, and macerate until cold 
in a covered vessel. Dose. A small tumbler or 
teacupful, mixed with a tablespoonful of lemon 
juice, or about a dozen grains of tartaric or citric 
acid, and drunk while effervescing, forms an agree- 
able mild aperient. 

APIARY. (From apis, a bee.) A place where 
bees are kept. 

Establishment of an Apiary. The proper 
time for this purpose is about February, or the be- 
ginning of March, as the stocks have then passed 
through the winter in safety ; the combs are then 
empty of broods, and light of honey, and may be 
removed with safety and ease. Stocks should be 
selected by a competent judge, as the weight 
alone cannot always be relied on ; such as weigh 
12 lbs. and upwards, the number of bees being also 
observed, and that they are well combed to near 
the bottom, may be safely chosen. 

As soon as they are brought home they should 
be set in the bee-house, care being taken to keep 
them dry and from the attacks of vermin. The 
next day plaster the hive to the bee-board, leaving 
an entrance the size of the little finger. 

If the season has passed, the first and early 
swarm should be selected, as late ones or casts are 
not worth keeping, unless two or three of them 
have been united. 

The time for removing stocks is in the even- 
ing ; the hives should be raised by wedges some 
hours previous, unless the floor be moveable with 
the hive, otherwise many bees will remain on the 
floor at the time of removal, and prove very trou- 
blesome. When the floor is moveable, plaster the 
hive with mortar to the board, .and pin a card 
pierced with holes before the entrance ; in this 
way it will travel any distance in safety. 

Swarms should be brought home the same even- 
ing that they arc purchased ; if delayed a day or 
two, combs will be worked, and subject to be bro- 
ken in removing. 

Manaokmknt of Bees, The best situation for 
bees is to the north, with a range of hills wooded 
on the summit, and toward the base enriched with 
heather ; and southward, gardens where hardy 
winter-greens have been allowed to flower, as 
early food for the hvvs. Wiiito mustard should 
also be .sown very early, in patciics near th(> 
hives ; but not nt^aror than one yard. A few 
dwarf flowers may conu^ within two leot, but tall 
ones would assiht insects to get up. To the west 



it would be desirable to have a shrubbery, a wood, 
a broomy common, or heather moor. 

The stations for the hives must be six yarda 
asunder, and never nearer than three yards. The 
board on which they are placed ought to be of one 
piece ; or if joined, the under side of the joining 
should be lined with a thinner beard, fixed closely 
with wooden pins. The edges of this rounded 
standard should project four inches all round from 
the hive. Place it on three wooden pillars sixteen 
inches long, ten inches above the ground, but six 
inches of its length should be firmly thrust into the 
earth ; in all, its length should be sixteen inches. 
The pillar in front should be an inch shorter than 
the other two, and the three pillars should be 
within twelve or fourteen inches of the outer edge 
of the board, to exclude rats and mice. For the 
same reason no tall-growing plant, no wall, nor 
any means for ascent should be within three or 
four feet of the hive. In fine weather the entrance 
to the hive must be fom' inches long, and an inch 
and a half in depth. 

In the beginning of the fine season, when the 
bees can get food, or have stores remaining, the 
bee-master has nothing to do but to keep the 
ground about the hives clear from weeds, and 
from whatever might enable vermin to climb 
there. Yet as a thriving stock inclines very soon 
to swarm, the hives must be frequently looked 
after from eight in the morning till five in the af- 
ternoon. The symptoms are generally thus : — 
The little city seems crowded with inhabitants. 
They are continually in motion during the day ; 
and after working-time they make loud noises. 
The drones may be seen flying about in the heat 
of the day, and the working bees go with a reel- 
ing motion and busy hum. When the bees come 
regularly out of the hive, let no noise, no interrup- 
tion incommode them ; but if they fly long, as if 
they were unsettled, some tinkling noise, or the 
loud report of a gun, will make the fugitives re- 
pair to the nearest lodgings. If there is an empty 
hive, with combs and some honey in it, they will 
readily go there. If a new hive is used, remem- 
ber to smooth it well within, and singe off loose 
straws. Perpendicular sticks should never be 
employed. Four cross sticks at equal distances 
will support the combs. Old hives do very well 
for late swarms, that are not to be preserved 
through the winter ; but box-hives are best for 
them, as the bees work fastest there. They are 
not, however, fit for being kept through the cold 
seasons. 

It is to be observed, that great haste in forcing 
a swarm into the hive may disperse them. Give 
them time to settle undisturbed, though keep a 
steady eye on their motions ; but whenever they 
gather into a cluster, lose no time in placing the 
hive over them. If the swarm rest on any thing 
that can be brought to the grouui' «oread a clean 
linen cloth ; lay two sticks on it, two feet asunder ; 
lay the body on which the swarm have fixed, 
gently on the sticks, covering it with the hive by 
a motion the least perceptible, and taking care 
that the edges of the hive rest upon the sticks, 
(-over hive and all with a cloth, for the sun might 
allure the bees to rise again. When they have 
gone into the hive, cover it with its own board, 
and carry it cautiously to its station. Bees arc 



API 



69 



APP 



apt to leave their hive even after they begin to 
work, so they must be watched till evening, and 
throughout the ensuing day. Whenever they are 
sure to remain, fix the hive to its board witii a lit- 
tle lime round the edges ; and crown it with green 
sods, to keep out too great heat or rain. 

If a hive divides into two swarms, it is a sign 
that each swarm has a queen. Put each into old 
hives or boxes, but they must be kept separate. If 
a cluster of bees about the size of a small plum are 
sepa together, the queen will generally be found 
there. Separate them, and with a drinking glass 
turned down, you may seize the queen. Put her, 
and a score or two of her subjects, into a box full 
of holes, large enough to admit air, and yet not to 
allow the bees to escape. Feed her with honey- 
combs, and keep her in reserve in case of the death 
of a queen in one of the hives. When a hive 
ceases to work, it is a sure sign the queen is no 
more. Then the bee-master may wait an hour 
and not see a loaded bee enter the habitation. But 
if the spare queen be taken late in the evening, 
(wet her wings to prevent her escape,) and intro- 
duced to the desponding society, they will receive 
her gladly, and begin to work. 

If a hive fight among themselves, be assured 
there are two queens ; and they will destroy each 
other, if one is not taken away. 

When bees are to swarm a second or more times 
they do not come out in clusters ; but they make 
a sound called bellings, which may be heard; 
ceasing for a little, and renewed again and again. 
If there are different tones, it is certain there are 
several young queens in the hive. It is only by 
putting the ear close to it that the sound can be 
heard distinctly. 

To take the honey without destroying the hees. 
In the dusk of the evening, when the bees are qui- 
etly lodged, approach the hive, and turn it gently 
over. Having steadily pl-^oed it in a small pit, 
previously dug to receive it, with its bottom up- 
wards, cover it with a clean new hive, which has 
been properly prepared, with a few slicks across 
the inside of it, and rubbed with aromatic herbs. 
Having carefully adjusted the mouth of each hive 
to the other, so that no aperture remains between 
them, take a small stick, and beat gently round 
the sides of the lower hive for about ten minutes or 
a quarter of an hour, in which time the bees will 
leave their cells in the lower hive, ascend, and ad- 
here to the upper one. Then gently lift the new 
hive, with all its little tenants, and place it on the 
stand from which the other hive was taken. This 
should be done some time in the week preceding 
Midsummer-day, that the bees may have time, be- 
fore the summer flowers have faded, to lay in a 
new stock of honey, which they will not fail to do, 
for their subsistence through winter. 

The color of the honey shows whether it is fine 
or inferior. If it be wanted to press some in the 
comb, choose the fairest and those that have not 
been broken: wrap each comb in white paper, 
such as lines the blue cover of loaf sugar. Set it 
edgewise as it stood in the hive, and it may be 
preserved many months. The combs meant to be 
drained must be cut in slices. Lay them on a 
nair-search, supported by a rack over the jar, in 
which the honey is to remain ; for the less it is 
■tirred after draming, it keeps the better. Fill the 



jar to the brim, as a little scum must be taken off 
when it has settled. A bladder well washed in 
lukewarm water, ought to be laid over the double 
fold of white paper with which it is covered. 

To keep hives for winter. They must not be 
more than three years old, and well stocked with 
bees. A hive for preserving should weigh from 
thirty to forty pounds. Place them in October 
where they are to remain. Stocks of less weight 
than 21 lbs. in September should never be kept. 
In most cases light stocks will require feeding, 
which may be done by inserting little troughs con- 
taining a mixture of equal parts of sugar and mild 
beer, into the hive ixi the evening, and removing 
them the next morning. (See also Bees.) 

APOPLEXY. A sudden suspension or loss of 
the powers of sense and motion ; the heart con- 
tinuing to beat and the lungs to act, but generally 
with difficulty. During the fit the patient fre- 
quently lies in a state resembling sleep, or the stu- 
por induced by drunkenness. 

Treat. Medical aid should be immediatelv 
sought, as the delay of only a few minutes may 
render the skill of the most talented surgeon una- 
vailing. Until the arrival of the latter, the patient 
should be kept easy and cool, with head and 
shoulders elevated, the neckcloth removed, and 
the clothes loosened, to avoid pressure on any por- 
tion of the body ; the windows should be opened, 
and crowding round the patient especially avoided, 
a free exposure to fresh air being desirable. In 
this state of affairs the practitioner should be wait- 
ed for. Where medical aid cannot be procured, 
(as in remote places, &c.,) rather copious bleed- 
ing from the arm should be resorted to ; cold wa- 
ter should be poured upon the head, and the bowels 
opened by means of active purgatives : 10 grs. of 
calomel may be immediately given, and its action 
promoted by the use of saline purgatives and stim- 
ulating clysters. The legs may be placed in pretty 
warm water, and blisters applied between the 
shoulders. When these means prove successful, 
the remainder of the treatment may consist in the 
administration of mild purgatives and diaphoretics, 
avoiding stimulating food or drinks, and other ex- 
citing causes. 

Prev. Apoplexy is frequently preceded by gid- 
diness, pain, and swimming in the head, loss of 
memory, drowsiness, noises in the ears, specks 
floating before the eyes, nightmare, laborious res- 
piration, &c. When any of these symptoms oc- 
cur in a person of apoplectic habit, opening medi- 
cines and a light diet should be at once adopted, 
and wine, beer, and spirits avoided; and if the 
symptoms increase or continue, bleeding may be 
had recourse to. If the admonitions of nature 
were attended to, many cases of apoplexy might 
be prevented. 

Remarks. Short, robust, and plethoric persons, 
having short, thick necks, are the most liable to 
apoplexy ; in them the fit generally comes on with- 
out warning. Persons once attacked with this 
malady are regarded as especially liable to the 
same again. 

APPENSA. I. Root of vervain hung round 
the neck by a yard of white satin riband for scro- 
fula ; but the usual medicines must be exhibited 
during the same period. 

II. A root of the peony suspended to the neck 



APF 



70 



APP 



in epilepsy ; its use to be accompanied with that 
of the most active cathartics. 

III. Magues arsenicaHs, or camphor, hung to 
the neck so as to reach the pit of the stomach, to 
guard against contagion. 

Remarks. All these probably act by keeping 
up the courage and spirits of the wearer. 

APPETITE. An instinctive desire to perform 
certain natural functions. In its commoner sense, 
it is confined to a desire for food. 

Remarks. The sensations of hunger and thirst 
are seated in the stomach, and are necessary to 
the body in a state of health. They are, how- 
ever, frequently disordered and altered in various 
ways, in consequence of diseased action of the sto- 
mach and nervous system, or from vicious habits. 
A healthy appetite for food is usually a most cer- 
tain indication that nature requires a supply ; yet 
when irregular, it should never be indulged in be- 
yond a moderate extent. In the gratification of 
the appetite, certain regulations should be ob- 
served, and a boundary put to mere animal grati- 
fication. By slowly eating and thoroughly masti- 
cating or chewing the food, the stomach becomes 
gradually disten^ded, and the individual feels him- 
self satisfied only after he has received a due pro- 
portion thereof, sufficient for the nourishment of 
his body ; but, on the contrary, if the food be 
swallowed too rapidly, and without proper masti- 
cation, it will press heavily and roughly against the 
sides of the stomach, and induce a sensation of 
fulness, before a sufficient quantity has been taken 
to meet the continual demands of life ; the conse- 
quence will be, that hunger will soon return. Per- 
sons who labor or take much exercise have gen- 
erally a better appetite than those who lead a 
sedentary occupation ; this arises from the func- 
tions of the stomach and bowels being promoted 
through the action of the muscles of the abdomen 
increasing the healthy peristaltic action of those 
viscera. When an enormous appetite exists in 
persons leading a sedentary life, it may fairly be 
presumed that either the food passes off* imperfectly 
digested, or that the coats of the stomach are in 
an unhealthy state. More food is required in 
winter than in summer, in consequence of a greater 
radiation of the heat of the body, and hence a 
greater desire for food is usually an accompani- 
ment of that season. In persons who lead a more 
sedentary life in winter than in summer, the re- 
verse is, however, frequently the case ; the want 
of exercise producing a corresponding loss of ap- 
petite. 

The various deviations from the healthy stand- 
ard, or the natural desire for food, constitute dis- 
eased appetite, among which may be mentioned 
the following. 

APPETITE, CANINE. Syn. Voracity. In- 
satiable Hunger. Bulimia. This complaint is 
generally symptomatic of pregnancy, worms, and 
diseases of the stomach and other viscera, but 
sometimes exists as a soparato disease. Many 
persons eat enormously from a mere vicious habit, 
wliich is certain to weaken the digestion, and thus 
induce an increasing desire for food. 

Treat. When children display a voracious ap- 
petite, worms may be suspected, and vermifuges 
should bo administered, wliich will generally re- 
move it. Ill adults, the couuuou cause is imper- 



fect digestion, arising from stomach complaints or 
an excessive consumption of food, by which the 
system receives an insufficient quantity of nour- 
ishment, and the languor and gnawing pain of 
disease is mistaken for that of hunger. The best 
plan in this case is to regulate the diet, to keep 
the bowels moderately open with gentle laxatives, 
and to administer tonics, as bark and steel, or bit- 
ters, as orange peel and gentian. When preg- 
nancy is the cause, a plentiful supply of nutritious 
food and good malt liquor may be adopted with 
advantage. When the practice wholly depends 
on vicious habits of indulgence, small doses of tar- 
tar-emetic or ipecacuanha, mixed with the food, 
will generally effect a cure. 

APPETITE, DEPRAVED. Syn. Pica. A 
desire for unnatural food, as dirt, cinders, tallow, 
chalk, &c. Treat. The method detailed at the 
end of the last article may be followed in this. 
Emetics and purgatives, with rhubarb, bark, and 
steel, are the best remedies. 

APPETITE, DEFICIENT. A bad appetite 
generally arises from a disordered stomach, and is 
best improved by exercise and the occasional use 
of saline purgatives. Chalybeates and bitters will 
also prove advantageous. A piece of rhubarb 
chewed an hour before dinner is employed by 
some persons to create an appetite ; others suck 2 
or 3 ginger lozenges, or take a small glass of bit- 
ters, for the same purpose. One or two 4-grain 
compound aloes pills of the London Pharmaco- 
poeia, taken in the middle of the morning, have 
been strongly recommended, under the name of 
dinner pills. (See also Dyspepsia.) 

APPETITE, DRAUGHT TO PROMOTE 
THE. Compound tincture of gentian ^ oz. ; sal 
volatile ^ a teaspoonful ; cinnamon water 1 oz. ; 
compound tincture of cardamoms 1 teaspoonful. 
Mix for a draught to be taken an hour before a 
meal. 

APPETITE, MIXTURE TO RESTORE 
THE. Prep. Gentian root sliced \ oz. ; fresh 
orange and lemon peel, each 1 oz. ; tincture of 
rhubarb 1 oz. ; compound tincture of cardamoms 
i oz. ; spirits of red lavender \ oz. ; boiling water 
1 pint. Proc. Pour the water on the gentian and 
peels, and macerate for 2 hours ; strain, and add 
the other ingredients ; and if it be wanted very 
clear, it may be filtered through blotting paper ; 
lastly, add 2oz. of lump sugar. Dose. A small 
wine-glassful early in the morning or shortly be- 
fore dinner. 

' APPLE. The apple is a wholesome and plea- 
sant fruit when perfectly ripe, and may be eaten 
either raw, roasted, or boiled. The more aromatic 
and flavored varieties are well adapted for dessert 
fruit, and are especially useful to persons of a full 
or confined habit of body. 

APPLE-FOOL. Put the peeled and cored 
fruit into a jar, with moist sugar to render it pal- 
atable, and a very little cider or perry ; place the 
jar in a saucepan of water over the fire, and con- 
tinue the heat until the apples become quite soft, 
then pulp them through a colander, and add a 
sufficient quantity of milk, a little cream, and 
sugar to complete the sweetening. Mix well. 

APPLES A LA CREMONA. Prep. Cut 
the best cooking apples into small squares, until 
you have about l^lb., strew over them lib. of 



APP 



71 



ARB 



good moist sugar and several long strips of lemon- 
peel, then cover them up close in a bowl. Next 
day put the apples, &lc., piece by piece, into a 
email stewpan, with 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of cider 
or perry, and simmer gently until they become 
clear ; then take them out, and when cold build a 
wall round a small dish with the square pieces, 
place the strips of lemon-peel on the top, and pour 
the sirup into the middle. 

APPLES, DRIED. Syn. Baked Apples. 
Prep. Place any quantity of apples in a cool 
oven, 6 or 7 times in succession, flattening them 
each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, 
as soon as they are soft enough to bear it ; then 
take them out, and as soon as cold put them on 
clean dishes or glass plates. The sour or tart va- 
riety of apples is the best for baking. 

APPLES AND PEARS, PRESERVATION 
OF. One of the best ways to preserve valuable 
fruit of this description, is to wrap each in a piece 
of clean dry paper, and to fill small wide-mouthed 
jars or honey-pots therewith, and to pack them in 
the following manner, in a dry and very cold 
place, (as a cellar,) but where the frost cannot 
reach them. The pots, of the shape 
of fig. 1, are placed in rows one in 
the other, as in fig. 2, and the space 
(a) between the two pots filled up 
with plaster of Paris made into a 
paste with water; the joint is thus 
rendered air-tight, and the fruit ^vill 
^a keep good for a long time. The mouth 
of the top jar should be covered with 
a slate. 

Remarks. The fruit should not be 
too ripe for the purpose of being preserved ; and 
the later sort is the best. The jars may be taken 
one at a time from the store-room, as wanted, 
and the fruit exposed for a week or ten days in a 
warm dry room before being eaten, which will 
much improve the flavor. Another plan, which 
is a modification of the above, is to place alternate 
layers of bran or clean dry sand and apples, either 
naked or wrapped in paper, in jars, until they are 
full, then to shake them well te settle the bran 
between the fruit, and to add more if required ; 
they are the ; packed away as before described. 

II. Fruit is kept in the large way for the Lon- 
don market by placing in a cool situation, first a 
layer of straw or paper, then a layer of apples, 
next a layer of straw, and so on alternately, to 
the height of 20 to 25 mches, which cannot be 
well exceeded, as the weight of the superincum- 
bent fruit would be apt to crush or injure the 
lower layers. This plan is frequently modified by 
placing alternate layers of fruit and paper in bas- 
kets or hampers, and covering them well over be- 
fore placing them in the fruit-room. The baskets 
may then be piled one over the other without in- 
jury to the fruit. 

Reinarks. Apples or other fruit intended for 
preserving in the above way should never be laid 
in heaps or allowed to touch each other, as they 
thereby acquire a bad flavor. They should be 
gathered in dry weather and immediately carried 
to the fruit-room, when they should be laid, if not 
singly, at least thinly, on the floor or shelves, on 
paper, and packed away as soon as possible. The 
use of brown paper is inadmissible, as it conveys 




its peculiar flavor to the fruit. Thick white brown 
paper is the cheapest and the best. 

III. (American method.) The apples or pears, 
after being peeled, are cut into eighths, the corea 
extracted, and then dried in the sun or in a kiln 
or oven until they are quite hard. Remarks. In 
this way fruit is kept in the United States for two 
or three years. 

For use, wash the fruit in water, then pour 
boiling water on it ; let it stand for a few minutes, 
and use it as fresh fruit. The water it has soaked 
in. is an excellent substitute for fresh juice. 

APPLE SUGAR. Prep. Express the juice, 
and add chalk until the whole of the acid is satu- 
rated ; pour oflf the clear liquor; then clarify by 
boiling in a clean pan with some white of egg ; 
skim off the dirt ; and lastly evaporate by a gen- 
tle heat to a proper consistence. Remarks. 1 cwt. 
of apples yield about 84 lbs. of juice and 12 lbs. of 
crude sugar. 

APRICOTS, DRIED. Syn. Candied Apri- 
cots. Prep. Thrust out the stones with a wooden 
skewer, then pare them and roll them in dry pow- 
dered lump sugar ; afterwards put them into a 
cold sirup, made with 2 lbs. of lump sugar to | of 
a pint of water, and heat them gradually nearly 
to the boiling point, turning them frequently. 
Then pour them into a deep dish, and next day 
scald them again, adding as much sugar as will 
dissolve ; again let them rest until the next day, 
when they must be placed on a hair-sieve to drain 
and dry. 

Remarks. The fruit should not be quite ripe. 
Sometimes the apricots are cut into halves c.7 
quarters before preservdng, and at other times 
pickled with the skins on ; in the latter case they 
are gathered sooner, and infused in cold water 
with some vine leaves ; next taken out and gently 
immersed in fresh water until they turn yellow, 
and then rubbed with a flannel and some salt to 
remove the down ; they are then again soaked in 
the pan with the vine leaves, until they turn 
greenish. The best are now selected, rubbed dry, 
the stones extracted, and boiled in sirup as above 
described. 

AQUETTA. The poison prepared by the once 
notorious woman named TofFana Tophana, ap- 
pears to have been alkarsine, or some preparation 
of the kadodule series, to which article the reader 
is referred. The emperor Charles VI. declared to 
his physician Garelli, that it was arsenic dissolved 
in aqua cymbelaria. 

ARABESQUE. The ornamental designs of 
this kind, so much employed to beautify leather 
and fancy cloth binding, are produced by the pres- 
sure of hot plates or rollers, having the design 
sunk into them. (See Bookbinding.) 

ARABINE. Syn. Soluble Gum. Prep. Dis- 
solve gum arable in water ; filter, and add alcohol 
to throw down the arabine ; filter and dry the re- 
siduum by a gentle heat. Prop. Similar to pure 
gum arable ; over the finer sorts it possesses little 
or no advantage. 

ARBUTUS SUGAR, Prep. From the fruit 
of the strawberry, in the same way as apple sugar. 
Strawberries are said to yield one-fifth of their 
weight of sugar, and the rape, or pressings, yield 
by fermentation and distillation a very pleasant, 
spirit. 



ARC 



72 



ARC 



ARCANUM BECCHINUM. A solution of 
[ivers of sulphur and sugar in water. (Willis.) 

ARCANUM CORALLINUM. Red oxide of 
mercury digested in potash water, and spirits 
burned on it. Remarks. Formerly used to excite 
salivation and as an escharotic. 

ARCANUM DUPLICUM CATHOLICUM. 
An amulet composed of the roots of plantain and 
colchicum, recommended by Wedel against con- 
tagion. A relic of superstition. 

ARCHIL. Syn. Orchil. Turnsole. Litmus. 
Cudbear. Persio. A beautiful violet-red or blue 
color, prepared from several species of lichens, 
(the rocellus, parellus, &c.) In Great Britain it 
is principally prepared from the lecanora tartarea 
and parmelia omphilodes. Archil is met with in 
three states — a violet-red liquid paste — in blue 
lumps — and in powder. 

Uses, <^c. It is largely employed to dye blues, 
violets, &LC., mixed with other colors, to which it 
imparts a beautiful bloom. It is generally used 
as a finishing bath, by passing the fabric, already 
dyed of the same color, through archil mixed with 
hot water. Its beauty, however, is deceptive, and 
soon decays. Solvents. Water, urine, ammoni- 
acal and alkaline lyes, acidulated water. Alkalis 
turn it blue, acids red; hence its value as a test 
for these articles in chemistry. Spirit stained with 
archil is sometimes used to fill the tubes of ther- 
mometers, but the color soon fades. An aqueous 
infusion of archil stains marble of a beautiful violet 
color of considerable permanence. (Fay.) In the 
state of powder it is called cudbear, under which 
form, when used with skill, it possesses greater 
permanency, and dyes all shades, from pink and 
crimson to blue. The word archil, as commonly 
applied, means the liquid archil, or violet color, 
sold for staining wood, dyeing, &lc. Lump archil, 
or dyer's archil, a similar colored substance, under 
the form of a paste or lumps. Turnsole or litmus 
is archil prepared of a bluish color, and made up 
into small lumps, and cudbear is archil in the state 
of powder, which has undergone some trifling pre- 
paration for the dyer. The names are, however, 
frequently used indiscriminately. 

ARCHIL, TO DYE WITH. Proc. Diffuse 
the archil or cudbear in warm water, then raise it 
to nearly the boiling point, and pass the cloth, 
previously prepared by rinsing in cold water, 
through the dye until the proper shade is produced. 

Remarks. This plan is principally employed to 
bloom or finish off goods dyed of a permanent 
color, as before alluded to. Pearlash, or milk of 
lime, added to the bath, deepens the shade ; acids 
redden it. A beautiful crimson red is obtained, 
by first passing the stuff through a mordant of tin 
and tartar, and then through a bath of archil 
mixed with a little solution of tin. By proper 
management of this dye, lilachs, violets, mallows, 
rosemary flowers, soupcs au vin, agates, and other 
shades may be prod iced, on silk or cloth, either 
alone, or in conjunction with other dyes to modify 
it. i lb. of archil or cudbear will dye 1 to 2 lbs. 
of cloth. 

ARCHIL, FACTITIOUS. A factitious col- 
oring matter, resembling ai iliil, in pr(>i)arf(i l)y 
fermenting together a mixtun^ of rotten onions 
witii un ('(inal weight of pearluuh, for a few days, 
and then adding \ of tho weight of the ])earlash in 



sugar of lead. The particulars of the process es- 
sential to its success are, however, kept a secret. 

ARCHIL, INFUSION OF. Syn. Infusion 
OF Litmus. Prep. Digest 1 oz. of powdered lit- 
mus in 1 pint of hot water, and filter. Remarks. 
It will not keep without the addition of spirit. 
Used for testing. (See the Tincture.) 

ARCHIL, LIQUID. Syn. Common Archil, 
(of the shops.) Prep. The archil lichen, well 
bruised between stones, is moistened with a crude 
ammoniacal liquor, or urine, mixed witn a little 
quicklime ; in a few days it acquires a purplish 
red color, and is then steeped in urine until all the 
color is extracted. Use. As a dye, especially for 
staining wood, and tinging silk stockings, &c. 

Remarks. When the process is conducted with 
free access of air, and in rooms heated bv steam, 
(stove rooms,) the color turns more on th. -'iolett 
and the product is called red archil ; but wl . n the 
manufacture is carried on in close vessels, the pro- 
duct is bluish, and hence called blue archil. In 
this way various shades of color are produced. 

ARCHIL, LUMP. , Syn. Litmus. Turnsole. 
Prep. The archil plant, ground to powder, is 
moistened with urine, or bone spirit, and allowed 
to lie together for a few days, to ferment ; a small 
proportion of chalk or gypsum is now added, and 
the whole is made up into small squares, (lump 
archil,) or preserved in the state of paste. 

Remarks. When the ground lichen is mixed 
with about half its weight of pearlash before fer- 
menting, and afterwards made with a small quan- 
tity of lime, it becomes quite blue, and is then 
called litmus or turnsole. 

ARCHIL PAPER. Syn. Litmus Paper. 
I. (Blue.) Prep. Stain thin unglazed writing- 
paper with infusion of litmus ; dry, and keep it 
from the light. Use. As a test for acids, which 
turn it red. Remarks. It should be of a blue color. 
Should the infusion of litmus turn a little on the 
violet, add a minute quantity of alkali (which will 
turn it blue) before wetting the paper. 

II. (Red.) Add 2 or 3 drops of acetic acid to 
the infusion of litmus, or enough to turn it red ; 
then stain the paper, as above. Use. As a test : 
turned blue by alkalis. 

Remarks. A convenient extemporaneous meth- 
od of preparing this paper, is to take a strip of the 
blue litmus paper, and hold it for an instant over 
a bottle containing muriatic acid, which will turn 
it red. In this state it is very sensitive to alkalis. 
A good method of keeping these papers for use, is 
to cut them into strips about ^ an inch wide and 
3 inches long, and to tie them up in bundles, or to 
keep them in a box of a similar size to the paper. 
They are then always ready for use, as well as 
excluded from the light. 

ARCHIL, POWDERED. Sytu Cudbe.xr. 
Dyer's Archil. Prep. The bruised archil lichen 
is sprinkled with bone spirit and urine, and allowed 
to ferment for a few days in the open air, as be- 
fore described, when it is dried and ground to a 
fine powder. Use. As a dye. 

AliCUIL, TINCTURE OF. Syn. Tincture 
OK Litmus. I. {lilac.) Ing. Litmus, in powder, 
1 07.. ; water and rectified spirit, of each, ^ pint. 
Proc. Digest for a week. Use. As a test. It 
turns red with acids. 

11. {Red.) To tho above add acetic acid, just 



ARR 



73 



ARS 



sufficient to tinge it red. Use. As a test ; turned 
blue by alkalis. 

Remarks. A very slight trace of either acids or 
alkalis may be detected in mineral waters, or sa- 
line solutions, by means of either the infusion or 
the tincture of litmus, or litmus paper. The latter 
is, however, the more convenient, and is that gen- 
erally used. 

ARCiEUS, BALSAM OF. Mutton suet 4 
parts ; hogs' lard 2 parts ; turpentine and rosin, of 
each, 3 parts. Proc. Melt, add 4 parts of hot 
water, and beat together until cold. Reinarks. 
Once a noted ointment for sores and bruises. 

ARICINA. Syn. Aricine. Cusconine. Cus- 
co-ciNCHONiA. An alkaline principle, discovered 
by Pelletier and Coriol, in the bark of the arica, 
or cusco-cinchona. 

Prep. Boil the bark in water acidulated with 
sulphuric acid ; repeat the process a second and 
third time ; concentrate the mixed liquors, and 
precipitate with ammonia. Collect the powder on 
a filter, and purify by repeated resolutions and 
crystallizations from hot alcohol. 

Remarks. It forms salts with the acids. It is 
supposed to be the teroxide of the base, of which 
quina is thought to be the binoxide and cinchona 
the monoxide. 

ARITHMETER. Syn. Abacus. An instru- 
ment frequently employed in schools to teach 
young children the rudiments of arithmetic. Its 
construction is similar to the abacus of the Greek. 
The lines represent the nine digits, and progress 
from units upwards, as will be easily understood 
from the annexed figure, which has the number 



millions. 



thousands? 

— hundreds. 

— tens, 

— units. 



131,231,431 on it, according to the common sys- 
tem of notation. Sometimes a small ball is sus- 
pended over the lines, which in that case adds Jive 
to the line below, and thus reduces the number of 
balls on each wire from 9 to 5. 

ARNICINE. A resinous substance extracted 
by alcohol from the root and flowers of the moun- 
tain arnica. (PfafF.) 

ARRACK. A spirituous liquor, procured by 
distillation from palm wine, or a fermented infu- 
sion of rice. It is imported from the East Indies, 
and much used to make punch. When sliced 
pine apples are plao>i in arrack, and the spirit 
kept for r.ome time, it acquires a most delicious 
flavor, and is thought to be unrivalled for making 
nectarial punch. 

ARRACK, FACTITIOUS. S-yn. Mock Ar- 
rack. Vauxhall Nectar. Prep. Dissolve 23 
grs. of flowers of benzoin (benzoic acid) in 1 quart 
of good pale Jamaica rum. Sold for arrack. 

ARROW ROOT. A very pure and nutritious 
species of starch, prepared in the West Indies from 
the root of the maranta arundmacea. 
10 




Pur. The mass of what is sold for arrow root, 
in the shops, consists either wholly or in part of the 
fecula or farina, obtained from potatoes, and com- 
monly called potato starch. This article is known 
in the trade as " British arrow root," or simply 
" arrow root," whereas, the genuine kind is always 
described as ^^ Bermuda," ^'St. Vincent," '^ St. 
Kitts," or at least as " West Indian arrow root." 
The mere addition of an adjective is no proof of 
quality, and no sample should be bought without a 
proper examination. Arrow root is imported in tin 
canisters or cases, and in boxes and casks, but 
the former is most esteemed. 

Tests, ^c. Genuine arrow root is odorless and 
tasteless, and produces a sort of crackling noise 
when pressed or rubbed, and emits no peculiar odor 
when mixed wil^h muriatic acid. Stirred up in a 
mortar with double its weight of a mixture of equal 
parts of aquafortis and water, it does not become 
gelatinous and adhesive in less than 15 minutes. 
(Dr. Scharling.) 

ARROW ROOT, EAST INDIAN. Source. 
The roots of the curcuma angustifolia. Char. 
A white powder, somewhat resembling bicarbonate 
of soda or rochella salts. It does not crepitate be- 
tween the fingers like West Indian arrow root. 

ARROW ROOT, BRAZILIAN. Syn. Ta- 
pioca Meal. Source. The cassava plant. Char. 
Partially soluble in cold water ; appearance infe- 
rior to W. I. arrow root ; grains, muUar-shaped, 
when viewed by the microscope. 

AHROW ROOT, ENGLISH. Syn. Farina. 
Potato Starch. Source. The esculent potato. 

Char. I. When mixed with muriatic . acid, a 
smell resembling fresh beans or rushes may be per- 
ceived. (Ann. Chem.) 

II. One drachni of potato starch rubbed in a 
mortar, with a mixture of one drachm of aquafor- 
tis, previously diluted with 1 drachm of water, 
forms rapidly a very stiff and tenacious jelly. 5§ 
of potato starch, mixed with West Indian arrow 
root, may be detected in this way. (Scharling.) 

ARROW ROOT, PORTLAND. Source 
The tubers of the arum maculatum, or wake- 
robin. Char. It resembles the Brazilian arrow 
root, mentioned above. 

Remarks. By attention to the characteristics of 
each of the above varieties, the purity of any sam- 
ple may be easily ascertained. The grains of each 
variety have a different appearance when viewed 
by the microscope, but when the sophistication 
takes place before grinding, the original form of 
the grains of each is lost, and this method of ex- 
amination is then useless. The reader is referred, 
for further information on this subject, to Dr. Pe- 
reira's excellent work on Materia Medica, where 
he will find the subject fully explained and illus- 
trated by engravings, from the pencil of the doc 
tor's talented lady, representing the appearance of 
the magnified grains. 

AR8ENIATES. Salts formed of the arsenic 
acid and the bases. They are all poisonous. Most 
of the metallic arseniates may be made by adding 
a soluble salt of the metal to a solution of the acid, 
when the arseniate is precipitated. 

ARSENIATE OF AMMONIA AND SODA, 
DOUBLE. Prep. Mix the separate solutions of 
the arseniate of soda and ammonia, evaporate and 
crystallize. Poisonous. 



ARS 



74 



ARS 



Remarks. In a similar way are made the dou- 
ble arseniates of soda and poteissa, and of ammo- 
nia and potassa. 

ARSENIATE OF BARYTA. Prep. Add a 
solution of chloride of barium to another of arse- 
niate of potassa or soda ; collect the precipitate and 
wash it well. Remarks. By dissolving this salt in 
a solution of arsenic acid and crystallizing, a biar- 
seniate of baryta is obtained. 

ARSENIATE OF POTASSA. Prep. Satu- 
rate a solution of the acid with potassa. Uncrys- 

ARSENIATE OF POTASSA, (SUPER- or 
BI-.) Syn. Arseniated Kali. Macqueer's 
Neutral Arsenical Salt. Prep. Heat together 
equal weights of nitre and arsenious acid ; dissolve 
the melted mass in water, evaporate and crystal- 
lize. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. This salt is obtained in large 
crystals. It is tonic. Dose -Jg- to ^ of gr. ; used 
in making cobalt blue. 

Remarks. By a similar process to the above, 
the arseniates of lime and magnesia may be made. 
This salt (potassa) is made on a very extensive 
scale in Saxony. 

ARSENIATE OF SODA. Saturate a solu- 
tion of arsenic acid with another of carbonate of 
soda ; evaporate and crystallize. 

ARSENIATE OF SODA, (SUPER or BI- 
SALT. Prep. Heat together in a crucible or 
bolthead, a mixture of 9 oz. of white arsenic with 
1 lb. of dry nitrate of soda, until all the nitric acid 
be expelled. Dose. § to ^ gr. 

ARSENIC. Syn. Metallic Arsenic. Reg- 
ULUS OF Arsenic. Black Arsenic A brittle, 
inflammable, volatile, and combustible metal, the 
base of white arsenic or arsenious acid. 

Prep. I. Mix white arsenic in powder with 
twice its weight of black flux, and expose the mix- 
ture to a red heat, in a Hessian cruciHe, over 
which is luted an empty crucible to receive the 
metal. The upper one must be kept cool. 

II. Mix white arsenic with twice its weight of 
soft soap, and fuse it in a crucible, with a very 
quick fire ; pour the melted metal into inverted 
hot iron cones. 

Remarks. The first is the more convenient 
process. Caut. Too much care cannot be taken 
to avoid inhaling the fumes ; the process should 
be conducted only where there is a strong current 
of air to carry them off". On the large scale it is 
procured by distilling white arsenic with charcoal 
and iron, or lime. Use. To whiten copper, and 
in medicine. 

ARSENIC, BROMIDE OF. Syn. SEsaui- 
bromide of Arsenic. Prep. Add dry arsenic in 
powder, cautiously, and in small quantities at a 
time, to bromine, as long as light continues to be 
emitted, then distil into a cool receiver. (Sernllas.) 
Prop. Solid below 68°, boils at 428°. When 
liquid it is yellowish. Poisonous. 

ARSENIC, PROTOCHLORIDE OF. Prep. 
Mix in a tubulated retort 1 part of arsenious acid, 
and 10 parts of strong sulphuric acid ; heat to 
212°, and throw in gradually sinail quantities of 
sea salt. Collect the chloride in a well-cooled re- 
ceiver. (Dumas.) Remarks. The pure j)rotochlo- 
ride Hwin)s on a little hydrated portion when the 
procest) has been too long continued. The latter 



may be rendered anhydrous by distillation from 
strong sulphuric acid. 

ARSENIC, SESQUICHLORIDE. Syn. 
Chloride of Arsenic. Butter of Arsenic, 
Fuming Liquor of ditto. Prep. I. Distil to- 
gether 6 parts of corrosive sublimate and 1 of arse- 
nic. II. Boil muriatic acid, mixed with a little 
nitric acid, upon arsenic for some time, then con- 
centrate and distil, (if required.) 

Remarks. All the above are poisonous, corro- 
sive, and volatile. 

ARSENIC, IODIDE OF. Syn. Periodide 
OF Arsenic. Prep. Gently heat together in a 
tube or flask, ■" part of metallic arsenic in fine 
powder, with 6t ^larts of iodine, then sublime the 
iodide to separate the excess of arsenic. A sand- 
bath or the heat of a spirit-lamp should be em- 
ployed for this purpose. Prop. An orange-red 
solid, volatile and soluble in water. Dose. | to ^ 
of gr. in lepra, lupus, psoriasis, impetigo, &c. 

ARSENIC, OINTMENT OF IODIDE OF. 
(Biett.) Prep. Mix well together 3 grs. of iodide 
of arsenic and 1 oz. of lard. Use. In corroding 
tubercular diseases. 

ARSENIC, RED SULPHURET OF. Syn. 
Protosulphuret of Arsenic Red Arsenic Re- 
algar. This substance is found ready formed in 
nature, but it may also be produced by art. 

Prep. Powdered white arsenic 2 parts, flowers 
of sulphur 1 part, Proc. Heat them together in 
a crucible, until in a state of perfect fusion. 

Prop. Transparent ruby red-colored mass. Very 
poisonous. Uses. As a pigment and in fireworks. 
Not used in medicine. Its color is improved by 
sublimation in close vessels. 

ARSENIC, YELLOW SULPHURET OF. 
Syn. Sesquisulphuret of Arsenic Yellow 
Arsenic. Sulphoarsenious Acid. Orpiment. 
King's Yellow. This sulphuret, like the last, is 
found ready formed in nature, and was once called 
auripigmentum, from its fine color. 

Prep. I. Mix together equal parts of sulphur and 
arsenious acid, and sublime in a close vessel. 

II. Transmit a current of sulphureted hydrogen 
gas through a solution of arsenious acid ; collect 
the precipitate and well wash it in cold water. 

Prop. Yellow crystalline lump, or fine golden 
yellow powder ; very soluble in the pure alkalis. 

Uses. As a dye, a pigment, in fireworks, and in 
some depilatories. Silk, woollen, or cotton goods, 
soaked in a solution of this substance in ammonia, 
and then suspended in a warm apartment, are per- 
manently dyed of a beautiful yellow color. The 
native sulphurets (both red and yellow) are much 
less soluble than those prepared artificially, and are 
consequently less poisonous. The native varieties 
possess the finest color, and are hence preferred 
by artists. If sulphureted hydrogen be transmitted 
through a solution of arsenic acid, a persulphuret 
is formed which much resembles orpiment. 

ARSENICAL CAUSTIC. (Justamond's.) 
Prep. Melt together 2 parts of white arsenic and 
1 part of antimony ; when cold reduce the mass 
to a fine powder. 

Remarks. A poisonous and dangerous escha- 
rotic, employed by M. Justamond, mixed with 
powdered opium, in cancer. It is seldom used in 
England. 

ARSENICAL SOLUTION Syn. (Dr. Dk- 



ARS 



75 



ARS 



vergie's Mineral Solution.) Prep. Arsenious 
acid (crystallized) 010 centigramme ; carbonate 
of potassa 0-10 centigramme ; distilled water 500 
grammes ; compound tincture of melissa 0*50 cen- 
tigramme ; tincture of cochineal to a deep rose 
color. Proc. Dissolve the acid and potassa in 
the water, (hot,) and when cold add the rest. 

Remarks. Each gramme is equal to i-^Vn °^ ^^" 
senious acid, or 3^, of the strength of Fowler's so- 
lution. Used in similar cases to the solution of 
arsenite of potassa of the L. Ph., over which it is 
said to possess the advantages of greater con- 
venience and safety in dispensing. 

ARSENIC ACID. An acid formed by the 
combination of metallic arsenic with oxygen. Hist. 
The combinations of this acid were noticed by 
Macqueer, but we are indebted to Scheele for the 
subsequent discovery of the acid. 

Prep. Pour 6 parts of strong nitric acid on 1 part 
of white arsenic in a glass vessel, and distil until 
the solution acquires the consistence of a sirup, 
then transfer it into a platina crucible, and expose 
it for some time to a faint dull red heat, to expel 
the nitric acid. Remark. The addition of a little 
muriatic acid facilitates the process. (Liebig.) 

IT. Submit arsenious acid to the action of aque- 
ous chlorine. 

Prop. Sour, reddens litmus, dissolves in 6 times 
its weight of cold water, (twice its weight, La- 
grange,) and less of boiling, and forms salts with 
the bases, called arseniates. By careful evapora- 
tiori it may be obtained under the form of small 
grains, but as usually met with has the consistence 
of sirup. It is deliquescent. 

Use. It has not been employed in medicine, or 
the arts, but indirectly some of its combinations 
have been used in dyeing. It is a more violent 
poison than even the arsenious acid. (Brodie.) 

Tests. Sulphureted hydrogen gives a yellow 
precipitate ; nitrate of silver added to the solution 
of an arseniate, gives a precipitate of a brick red 
color ; nitrate of lead gives a white one, and the 
salts of copper a bluish colored one. Pure lump 
sugar dissolved in an aqueous solution of arsenic 
acid, becomes in a few hours of a reddish color, 
and afterwards of a magnificent purple. (Ure.) 
This acid, whether free or combined, is reduced to 
the metallic state, and evolves a garlic odor when 
heated with charcoal. Wohler recommends the 
addition of sulphurous acid to the suspected liquor, 
and to boil it for a short time, when the arsenic 
acid will be reduced to arsenious acid, in which 
state it will be more susceptible of tests. See the 
next article. 

ARSENIOUS ACID. Syn. White Arsenic. 
Oxide of Arsenic. Arsenic blanc. Acide Ar- 
BENiEux. {Fr.) Arsenichste saure, Gift Mehl. 
'^Ger.) AciDUM arseniosum. (P. L.) Hist., Des., 
^c. This substance, like the preceding, is a 
compound of metallic arsenic and oxygen, and is 
a powerful poison ; in fact, one of the most viru- 
lent of the class to which it belongs. It is com- 
monly known by the simple title of " arsenic,'' a 
term derived from the Greek, A^gevikSv, an epithet 
once applied to those natural substances which 
possess strongly poisonous and acrimonious proper- 
ties ; as orpiment was the usual form under which 
arsenic occurred, it consequently received the name, 
and hence this word has gradually been altered to 



ite present application. (Paris.) Scheele first proved 
the white arsenic of the shops to consist of a metal 
and oxygen, but Fourcroy gave it the name of ar- 
senious acid. 

Source. The white arsenic of commerce is prin- 
cipally imported from Germany, where it is ob- 
tained in the process of roasting the arsenureted 
cobalt ores for making zaffre. At Altenburg it is 
procured from arsenical iron pyrites, and at Riech- 
enstein from the sesquiarseniate of iron. About 
600 to 800 tons are also annually collected in 
Cornwall, being a secondary product of the pro- 
cess of roasting the gray copper ores and white 
mundic. The crude article obtained in this way 
has to be purified by sublimation in suitable iron 
vessels, before it is fit for sale. It then forms a 
semi-transparent vitreous cake, which gradually 
becomes opaque, and of a snowy whiteness by ex- 
posure to the air, and sometimes falls into a pul- 
verulent state on the surface. The powdered white 
arsenic of the shops is generally adulterated with 
plaster of Paris, white sand, or ground bone ashes, 
and is totally unfit for the purposes of chemistry or 
the manufacturer. To avoid this fraud, the best 
way is to purchase it in the lump, which will gen- 
erally be found sufliciently pure. When wanted 
very pure, it may be resublimed in glass. 

Prop. Volatilizes at 380° Fahr. Vapors smell 
of garlic ; sp. gr. 3-7. Its taste is usually thought 
to be acrid, but this is not the case. It may be 
deliberately tasted without exciting more than a 
very faint impression of sweetness, and perhaps 
slight acidity. (Turner.) I can say from painful 
experience that such is the case. Hence its dan- 
gerous character as a poison. 100 parts of boiling 
water dissolve 8 parts of arsenious acid, (Bucholz 
and Klaproth ;) but on cooling to 60§ only 3 parts 
remain in solution. The opaque variety is the 
more soluble. (Guibourt.) 

Uses. Extensively employed in the arts, and in 
medicine. In small therapeutical doses it is a val- 
uable remedy in intermittent fevers, chronic skin 
diseases, (especially lepra and psoriasis,) and in 
some nervous diseases, (as neuralgia, epilepsy, 
chorea, tetanus, &c.) It is the active ingredient 
in the " tasteless ague drop," and the Tanjore 
pills, long celebrated in India for the cure of the 
bite of the cobra di capello, and other venomous 
serpents, as well as hydrophobia. It has been 
given in syphilis, chronic rheumatism, typhus, and 
several other diseases, with more or less advantage. 
Externally it has been employed in the form of 
powder, lotion, and ointment for the cure of can- 
cer. Its use, whether internal or external, is al- 
waj'^s attended with danger, and should never be 
adopted without proper advice. It even proves 
destructive to vegetable life, (Jager, Marcet, Ma- 
caire.) Dose. In substance, made into pills with 
crumb of bread and lump sugar, y'^th to |th of a 
grain, or in solution, (the liq. of arsenite of potassa, 
P. L.) 4 to 5 drops, 2 or 3 times daily, gradually 
and cautiously increased to 10 or 15 drops. 

Pur. 1. It should wholly volatilize by heat. 2. 
5 grs. boiled in 1 oz. of water should dissolve with- 
out leaving any residue. 3. Mixed with half its 
weight of black flux, and heated, it should sub- 
lime with the production of a garlic odor, and 
leave an ash behind, perfectly soluble in distilled 
water. 



ARS 



76 



ARS 



ARSENIOUS ACID, TESTING FOR. 

Memo. For the sake of brevity and convenience 
of reference, I shall describe the usual tests for 
arsenic, in alphabetical order, appending such re- 
marks to each, as will render their application 
quite simple, even to persons but partially conver- 
sant with chemical manipulations. 

I. A/nmoniacal acetate of copper in a state of 
weak solution, gives a fine grass-green and very 
characteristic precipitate of arsenite of copper, or 
Scheele's green. This precipitate, well washed, 
and acted on by sulphureted hydrogen water, 
turns brownish-red ; prussiate of potash turns it 
blood-red, and nitrate of silver yellow. 



Susc. 



(Ure.) 



II. Ammoniacal nitrate of silver. Syn. Hume's 
test. A solution of this test, added to an aqueous 
solution of arsenious acid, gives a yellow precipi- 
tate of arsenite of silver. This precipitate is solu- 
ble in liquid ammonia, nitric acid, and in a solu- 
tion of nitrate of ammonia. 

Susc. 4-^Voo- (Devergie.) 

Remarks. This test, when properly prepared, 
yields a yellow precipitate with no known sub- 
stance save arsenious acid. It is usually said to 
be inajsplieable to solutions containing sulphate or 
muriate of soda, or chlorine ; but Dr. Ure declares 
that these substances do not interfere with the 
test if it be used in the following manner : — Dip a 
small glass rod into liquid ammonia, and then 
plunge it into the fluid under examination ; dip 
another glass rod into a solution of pure nitrate of 
silver, and plunge this also into the sample, when 
either a fine yellow cloud will be formed, or at 
first merely a white curdy precipitate. After a 
second or third immersion of the nitrate rod, a 
central yellow spot will be perceived, surrounded 
with the white chloride of silver ; and after an- 
other immersion the yellow cloud on the surface 
will become very evident. Another modification 
of this process is, to drop a little of the suspected 
fluid on white writing-paper, and to draw several 
times over it a stick of lunar caustic ; if arsenic 
be present it will leave streaks that will assume a 
bright yellow color when brushed over with liquid 
ammonia ; if the contrary be the case they will 
gradually fade and turn black. (Dr. Paris.) 

III. Ammoniacal sulphate of copper. A dilute 
solution of this salt, added to another containing 
arsenious acid, gives a green precipitate of arse- 
nite of copper. 

Susc. TT^V?)"* (Devergie.) 

IV. Ellis's Test. This consists in forming ar- 
seniiireted hydrogen gas in a Marsh's apparatus, 
or even in a common flask, and passing it through 
a horizontal tube containing slips of copper-leaf or 
riband, and having the one end drawn to a capil- 
lary size, at which the gas may be inflamed and 
tested. (See fig. below.) This is not, however, 
the object of tlie lest, an will be presently seen. 
A Hitiall spirit-laiii]) must be placed under that 
part of the tube coutaiuing the copper, so as to 
render it warm, when, if arsenic be abundant in 
the gas, the copper will almost instantly become 
frosted over witli a coating of metallic arsenic. 
After continuing the heat for u few minutes the 
lamp may be withdrawn. Th(> copper on beitig 
removed from the tiilx^ will present a lieautiful 
silvery surface, and may then bo Bub:iiitted to 



further examination. (See Rensch's Test, p. 77.) 
The slips of copper are directed to be prepared for 
this purpose by heating them in a clear fire to a 
dull red, and then throwing them suddenly into 
cold water ; when wiped dry they are ready for 
being placed in the horizontal tube for testing. 




a, Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric 
acid, and zinc. 

b, Portion of tube holding slips of copper. 

c, Spirit-lamp. 

d, Support. 

Remarks. Mr. Robert Ellis has since found that 
the oxide of copper may be employed in the same 
way, and possesses some advantages over the 
metal. Susc. About yooWo- 

V. Lassaigne's Test. (Adopted by the French 
Academy.) This consists in passing the arseniu- 
reted hydrogen, generated in a flask or Marsh's 
apparatus, through a solution of nitrate of silver. 
(See eng.) Black flocculi of metallic silver are 
deposited, and arsenious acid remains in solution 
mixed with nitric acid. A little dilute hydrochlo- 
ric acid must now be added to precipitate any re- . 
maining nitrate of silver, when the liquid, after 
filtration, may be tested for arsenic in the usual 
way. Susc. ^oooooo- (Chem. Gaz., I. 6.) 




a, Bottle containing dilute sulphuric acid, zinc, and sus- 
pected fluid. 

b, Funnel for supplying the bottle with acid, 
c c, Supports. 

d, Tube filled with asbestos. 

e, Bent tube to convey the liberated gas. 

/, Glass vessel containing a solution of nitrate of silver. 

VI. Lirne Test. Lime water occasions a white 
precipitate of arsenite of lime in a solution of ar- 
senious acid, soluble in most acids, and in an ex- 
cess of the arsenious solution. Susc. tt^^Vo- (De- 
vergie.) It is inapplicable when acids, oxalates 
tartrates, or carbonates are present. 

VII. Mars/i's Test. Si/n. Ar.'^eniureted hy- 
dro'^rn test. This test consists in the production 
and snbs<'quent deeomposition of arseniureli^d hy- 
drogen. The principle of its action depends ou 



ARS 



77 



ARS 



the property possessed by nascent hydrogen, of 
taking the metal from a sohition of arsenious acid. 
The process is as follows : Some of the suspected 
liquid is mixed with dilute sulphuric acid and 
poured upon some pieces of zinc previously placed 
in the apparatus ; hydrogen gas is immediately 
evolved, and if arsenic be present unites with it, 
forming arseniureted hydrogen gas, which may be 
recognised as follows : — 

1. It possesses a garlic-like smell. 

2. It burns with a bluish-white flame, and emits 
a whitish smoke. 

3. When a piece of window-glass, or a white 
porcelain plate or saucer, is held a short distance 
above the flame, arsenious acid, under the form of 
a fine pulverulent film, is deposited thereon. 

4. When the plate is held in the flame, a black- 
ish deposite of metallic arsenic acid is obtained. 

*j,c* Both these deposites may be obtained simul- 
taneously by holding nearly vertically over the 
flame a glass tube 8 or 10 inches long, and fths 
of an inch in diameter. 

5. A solution of arsenious acid may be obtained 
by letting the flame play upon 3 or 4 drops of 
water, placed on the under side of the piece of 
glass or china, to which the liquid tests may be 
then applied. Another plan is to apply drops of 
the liquid tests to the plate as above, and to let 
the flame play on them successively. 

6. The true arsenical spot is soluble in nitric 
icid, and gives with nitrate of silver a dull Yed 
precipitate ; and when heated is turned reddish- 
irown by the action of sulphureted hydrogen. 

7. When a tube through which the gas is made 
to pass is raised to a dull red heat at a certain 
part by means of a spirit lamp, a crust of metallic 
arsenic is deposited beyond the flame, on the 
cooler portion of the txihe. The glass of which 
the tube is made should be of the most infusible 
kind. The mode of conducting this experiment is 
represented in the eng. at p. 76, omitting the cop- 
per wire. 

Remarks. Care should be taken not to hght the 
jet of gas before all the air is expelled from the 
apparatus, as without this precaution an explosion 
may take place. TTis following figure represents 




a a. Bent glass tube, containing dilute sulphuric acid, 

zinc, and suspected fluid. 
b, Stopcock and jet. 
c d. Support. 

e e. Bands to i<eep the tube upright. 
/, Plate of glass to receive the st;iin. 



the usual form of Mr. Marsh's apparatus, as well 
as the mode of its application in analysis ; but a 
simple wide-mouthed bottle, furnished with a tube 
and cock, will answer quite as well or better, as 
the fluid is less liable to froth than in a nar- 
row tube. Even a common medicine-vial, fur- 
nished with a tobacco-pipe for a burner, may be 
used when no more convenient apparatus is at 
hand. 

Some objections have been raised to this mode 
of testing, from the great frothing which occurs in 
organic mixtures, and from antimony and imper- 
fectly charred organic matter also forming crusts 
somewhat resembling those produced by arsenic. 
But this objection is invalid, because there are 
easy means of discriminating between true arsen- 
ical spots or deposites and false ones. (See the Re- 
duction Test, p. 7S.) Another objection is, that 
both zinc and sulphuric acid sometimes contain 
arsenic ; but this is frivolous, as it only becomes 
necessary to observe that the substances employed 
be perfectly pure, which may be proved by testing 
the hydrogen evolved from the apparatus, before 
adding the liquid for examination. 



Siisc. 



(Commissioners of the French 



Academy ;) xooVoT" (^lohr. ;) weak traces at 
TnTTFTrrrn* (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. ;) the yig- 
of a grain. (Dr. Thompson.; It may be observed 
that the 7th, and 3d, or 4th method of using 
Marsh's apparatus, may be employed simulta- 
neously ; the former possesses the advantage of 
not requiring constant attention. Lassaigne's and 
Ellis's tests are modifications of Marsh's. 

VIII. Morton's Test. Tliis consists in immers- 
ing in the suspected fluid two platina plates, con- 
nected with the poles of a good galvanic battery. 
The hydrogen liberated at the negative electro('e 
must be collected and examined in the same way 
as described in the last article. Remarks. The 
advantage of this apparatus is, that it obviates the 
use of zinc and sulphuric acid, and thus prevents 
the introduction of arsenic by either of those sub- 
stances. This advantage is, however, rather ap- 
parent than real, as, with proper care, such ne^jd 
never be the case. Susc. ^ o4o-o. (Morton.) 

IX. Rensch's Test. Syn. Cupro-arsenical 
test. If arsenic is contained in any acid, as, foi 
instance, in phosphoric, sulphuric, acetic acid, &lc., 
and this be boiled with metallic copper, the lattej 
will remain perfectly bright ; an aqueous solution 
of arsenious acid (As^ O^) likewise does not readily 
act on copper ; if, however, a few drops of con- 
centrated muriatic acid be allowed to run over the 
surface of the sheet of copper, the liquid behig 
still hot, the copper will be instantly covered wiih 
the characteristic iron-gray film of arsenic. 

A solution, diluted to 100,000 .times, was pre- 
pared from another solution of arsenious acid, di- 
luted to YoVn j these were mixed, with the utmost 
precision, with equal parts of concentrated and 
perfectly pure muriatic acid and distilled water, 
and different test liquids made with the fonner, 
until diluted to ^nnlooo of its contents. Bv di- 
luting with 500,000 parts of water, containing, 
therefore, y- ,, n o o o o of ^ grain of arsenic, the cop- 
per plate, after the liquor previously boiled had 
been allowed to stand for half an hour, was for the 
greater part covered with an extremely thin but 



ARS 



78 



ARS 



perceptible film of arsenic. As a controlling ex- 
periment, a perfectly similar plate was treated 
with dilute muriatic acid alone ; this remained, 
however, quite unchanged ; but it must be ob- 
served, that in the case of the copper remaining 
for several hours in the liquor under the influence 
of the atmosphere, it becomes covered with a 
black hue, perhaps an undissolved chloride of cop- 
per; this, however, can never cause mi-sconcep- 
tion, since, if arsenic be really contained in the 
liquor, it will be completely precipitated after the 
lapse of half an hour, during which space of time 
metallic copper preserves its lustre in the acid 
liquor. In masticated food, taken from the con- 
tents of the stomach and boweis, arsenic may be 
as easily detected ; they have only to be digested 
with dilute muriatic acid, and treated with a plate 
of copper. In order to detect the arsenic by an- 
other process, the copper plate must be rinsed with 
water, carefully dried over a flame, and then 
placed in a tube 15 inches long, and drawn out to 
a point at one extremity ; a small bent tube, pro- 
vided at the end with a pierced cork, being her- 
metically adapted thereto. The place where the 
copper plate lies must then be heated by the spirit- 
lamp, when the arsenious acid will sublime in 
small but perceptibly glittering crystals. If the 
point be then closed by fusion, the arsenious acid 
may be examined as such, or it may be dissolved 
in muriatic acid, and tested with nitrate of silver 
and sulphureted hydrogen, or in Marsh's appa- 
ratus. If it be intended to obtain metallic arsenic, 
and not arsenious acid, the small tube must be 
connected with a hydrogen apparatus, and heated. 
The arsenic will then deposite in its metallic form 
on any cold object. (Sachsisches Gew. Bl.) 

Remarks. The suspected liquor sheuld be kept 
perfectly acidulous durir-j the whole period of the 
ebullition ; " f 3ij of muriatic acid, to ^viij of the 
liquid, are generally sufficient, but if the organic 
matter be an animal texture in a state of decay," 
a much larger quantity will be required. (Chris- 
tison.) Copper leaf cut into small strips is the 
most convenient form of using that metal. When 
the quantity of arsenic in the suspected fluid is 
supposed to be small, nearly half an hour should 
elapse before the copper should be removed. 
(Christison.) By means of this test, Dr. Christison 
discovered arsenic in the stomach 4 months after 
interment. Susc. y qooooo - (Rensch.) 



> 



m^) 



c 



a, The arsenical mixture. 
h. Arsenical ring. 



3) 



X. Reduction Test, If arsenious acid be well 
mixed with an equal weight of newly-burnt char* 
coal, or half its weight of black flux, and the mix- 
ture be placed at the bottom of a small glass tube, 
and heated in the flame of a spirit-lamp or candle, 
metallic arsenic will sublime, and on reaching the 
cooler portion of the tube, again condense, in the 
form of a metallic crust or ring. Any common 
test-tube, of small diameter, may be employed for 
this purpose, but the reduction-tube of Berzelius 
is perhaps the most convenient. Care must be 
taken, whatever shaped tube may be used, to 
avoid soiling its sides in the operation of inserting 
the mixture ; as, unless the tube be quite clear and 
dry, the experiment will not succeed. The pre- 
ceding figures represent the kind of tubes gener- 
ally used in this method of testing. 

The metallic ring, or crust, is proved to be ar- 
senical, — 1, by the brilliancy of its outer surface 
often resembling a polished steel mirror. 

2. The crystalline and grayisJi-white appear- 
ance of its inner surface. 

3. Its volatility when heated, shown by its es- 
caping from the hot portion of the tube and resting 
on the cooler part, further on. 

4. Its conversion into minute octohedral crys- 
tals of arsenious acid, when repeatedly chased up 
and down the tube, by the cautious application of 
the flame of a spirit-lamp, first to one part, and 
then to another. This is best eiFected by holding 
that part of the tube to which the arsenic adheres, 
about I of an inch above the flame, and in such a 
way that the metal may be slowly sublimed. The 
character of these crystals, with respect to vola- 
tility, lustre, transparency, and form, is so exceed- 
ingly well marked, that a practised eye may safely 
identify them, though their weight should not ex- 
ceed the j~ part of a grain. (Liebig and Greg- 
ory.) The form of the crystals is very evident 
with a microscope of 4 powers, (200, Wackenro- 
der.) The oxide of antimony never forms octo- 
hedrons, but only prisms. (Wackenroder.) The 
tube is of course broken for this purpose. 

5. The film being converted into arsenious acid 
as in the last case, may be dissolved in hot distilled 
water, and tested by any of the usual chemical 
reagents. 

Remarks. The above characteristics will fully 
show the nature of the film deposited in the reduc- 
tion-tube. In operating in this way it is always 
necessary to heat the upper portion of the mixture 
first, and then to expose the bulb or bottom of the 
tube to the full flame. Any substance containing 
arsenic may be tested in this way, but if it be a 
sulphuret, the black flux must be employed, as 
charcoal alone is insufficient. This test is usually 
regarded as decisive, as we here actually obtain 
the arsenic in a solid form, which may be recog- 
nised by the most unequivocal, characters. 

XI. Sulphureted Hydrogen.. This substance, 
passed through a solution of arsenious acid, imme- 
diately changes it to a yellow color ; a turbidness 
sliortly ensues, and a bright yellow precipitate of 
sesquisulphuret of arsenic or orpimont subsides af- 
ter heating the liquid, and may be collected on a 
filter. It is necessary to acidulate the fluid with 
acetic or hydrochloric acid before applying the test, 
unless it be already very sour, when it should be 
first neutralized by an alkali, and then acidulated. 



ARS 



79 



ARS 



The transmission of the gas should be continued 
for at least half an hour. The precipitate is known 
to contain arsenic : 1, From its yellow color ; 2, 
Its solubility in liquid ammonia forming a colorless 
Bolution ; and, 3, by yielding metallic arsenic when 
mixed with the black flux and submitted to the 
reduction test. 

Remarks. When the sulplmret is very small in 
quantity, it is better to wash it in a little water, 
and to dissolve it in liquid ammonia, which may 
be then driven off in a watch-glass or capsule, 
after which it may be tested as before. (Devergie.) 
The engravmg represents the mode of executing 
this test. 




Mode of passing sulphurated hydrogen through an ar- 
•enical solution. 

XII. Voltaic Test. The voltaic battery, made 
to act by two wires on a little arsenious solution, 
placed on a piece of window glass, developes me- 
tallic arsenic at the negative pole, and if the wire 
be formed of copper, it will become whitened and 
polished like silver, in consequence of the forma- 
tion of a tombac alloy. 

XIII. Wollaston^s Method was to concentrate, 
by heat, in a capsule, a little of the suspected 
Uquid, having previously filtered it if necessary, 
then to place it in the middle of a bit of window 
glass, and to draw lines with the fluid in different 
directions, so as to form a starlike figure. To one 
of these a particle of weak solution of ammoniacal 
nitrate of silver was added ; to another ammonia- 
cal acetate of copper ; to a third the deuto-acetate 
of iron ; to a fourth ammonio-acetate of cobalt ; 
sulphureted hydrogen to a fifth, and lime-water to 
a sixth ; a drop of sirup of violets to a seventh, and 
the tv;o wires of a galvanic battery to the opposite 
edges of the whole. Thus with one drop of solu- 
tion many exact experiments may be made. (Ure.) 

General Rejiarks. Detection of arsenic in 
organic mixtures, ^c. Most of the previous tests 
are only applicable, with any degree of certainty, 
to pure solutions of arsenious acid, or to those that 
are but slightly colored or contaminated with or- 
ganic matter. The tests depending on the extrica- 
tion of arseniureted hydrogen are partial ex- 
ceptions to this rule ; but even in them, if the sus- 
pected liquid be not nearly limpid, so much frothing 
will ensue as to render the process impracticable. 
In this respect Rensch's test, perhaps, possesses the 
advantage over the rest, as it may at once be ap- 
p'i3<d to mixtures containing organic matter, with- 



out the latter undergoing any previous preparation. 
The reduction test is only applicable to solid ar- 
senious acid, or to some of the compounds of 
arsenic which are obtained by means of the other 
tests. It has long been an object with chemists 
to remove organic matter from solutions, so as to 
render them sufficiently clear, light colored, and 
limpid, to permit of the action of reagents. Va- 
rious means have been proposed for this purpose, 
some of which I shall notice below. Suppose a 
case of poisoning, the proceeding should be as fol- 
lows : — The stomach being laid open, an examina- 
tion should be made for any particles of powdei 
which it may contain in an undissolved state ; if 
any can be found they must be collected and tried 
by the reduction test as before described. Should 
no solid particles be discovered, the stomach should 
be cut into small pieces, and with its previous con- 
tents be boiled in a glass vessel with distilled water 
for half an hour, a little potassa or ammonia being 
added. The liquid may now be filtered, first 
through muslin and then through paper, and again 
boiled with* a little acetic acid, after which it must 
be filtered a second time. In this state the liquid 
is usually clear enough to be tested with the am- 
monio-nitrate of silver, when, if this test act freely, 
the process of testing with other reagents may be 
proceeded with ; but if, on the contrary, the indica- 
tion be feeble, the liquor should be gently evapora- 
ted to drjmess, and redissolved by boiling in repeated 
portions of distilled water, when, after being once 
more filtered, it will generally be sufficiently limpid 
for the perfect application of the tests. (Christison, 
Devergie.) 

It has been recommended to add to the organic 
matter contained in a porcelain capsule, one-sixth 
of its weight of strong, pure sulphuric acid, and to 
heat the mixture until vapors of the acid begin to 
appeal, constantly stirring with a glass rod during 
the whole time ; the heat is to be continued until 
the charcoal thus formed becomes friable, and 
almost dry, when it must be cooled a little, and 
strong nitric or nitro-muriatic acid added by means 
of a pipette ; the evaporation must then be contin- 
ued to dryness. The residuum boiled with distilled 
water, and the solution filtered, will be ready for 
testing. (Danger and Flandin.) 

Another plan is to boil the suspected fluid con- 
taining organic matter, with pure diluted sul- 
phuric acid, until it becomes limpid, and then to 
filter, when the usual tests may be applied. 
(Fownes.) When there is much gelatine in the 
liquid it may be got rid of by adding an infusion of 
nut-galls, which will precipitate it. (Fownes.) 

The last plan I shall mention is that of evapo- 
rating the suspected liquid to dryness, and then 
submitting it to the reduction test. 

The following tables, taken fronl the " London 
Dispensatory," showing the reaction of several re- 
agents on varioiyg organic solutions containing 
poison, will, in many cases, save the trouble of 
preparing the fluid previously to testing ; or at least 
they offer a ready means of confirming the truth 
of any more exact method of analysis. 



ARS 



80 



ARS 



Comparative Table of the Precipitates obtained from Solutions of Arsenious Acid, of Bichloride 
of Mercury, of Potassio-Tartrate of Antimony, and of Chloride of Barium, with different Tests.— 
By Dr. A. T. Thomson. 



TEST I. WATER SATURATED WITH SULPHURETED HYDROGEN GAS. 





Precipitates from 


Precipitates from 


Precipitates from 


Precipitates from 


Solvents. 


Solutions of 


Solutions of 


Solutions of 


Solutions of 




Arsenious Acid. 


Corrosive Sublimate. 


Tartar Emetic. 


Chloride of Barium. 


Water ... 


Bright lemon yellow, 


Yellow at the instant of 


Orange, curdy, partly sus- 


Heavy, and of a dirty 




deepened by the addi- 


its formation, but soon 


pended, partly thrown 


dark brown color. 




tion of a few drops of 


becoming blackish.— 


down. Ultimately bright 






strong acetic acid.* 


On shaking the tube 
it changes to a dirty 
white. 


orange, t 




Broth 


Scarcely any at first, but 


Whitish yellow at first, 


Pale orange at first, soon 


Dirty pale brown, heavy. 




on adding a few drops 


quickly changing to 


changing to a deeper 






of strong acetic acid, a 


mixed clots of yellow, 


bright orange. 






pale yellow. 


black and white. 






Milk 


Little change ; but on the 


Light ochre, requiring for 


Golden yellow, with a 


Dirty nankeen, witn a 




addition of a drop of 


its formation a large 


shade of orange. 


shade of brown. 




strong acetic acid, a 


quantity of the test. 








straw-colored precipi- 








Tea 


At first very pale yellow ; 


Brownish white and yel- 


Deep orange, curdy, slow- 


Dirty light brown, deep- 




after some time, a pale 


low, mixed. 


ly formed : the super- 


ening as it fell. 




greenish yellow. The 




natant fluid yellow. 






precipitate was curdy.f 








Madeira 


Turbid, pale yellow, the 


Muddy, gradually display- 


Pale orange, long sus- 


The chloride mixed with 


Wine 


color of the wine de- 


ing small floating black 


pended. 


white wine is milky 




stroyed. 


flocculi. 




Not tested. 


Port Wine 


Turbid, pale yellow ; 
the precipitate slowly 
formed. 


Nearly as in the white 
wine, like clouds 
through the purple of 
the wine. 


Dark, dirty, orange brown. 


Pale brown, heavy. 


Coffee ... 


A deep golden yellow. 


Brownish black. 


Deep orange-brown. 


Not tested. 


Gruel 


Pale yellow, suspended. 


Light brown, slowly 
formed. 


Pale orange. 


Not tested. 



II. SOLUTION OF SULPHURET OF POTASSIUM. 



Water.... 


White, with a faint tint of 


Black, mottled with yel- 


Bright orange. 


Deep olive-green. 




sulphur-yellow, when 


low. 




* 




a large quantity of the 










test wf!s used.§ 








Broth 


Pale, but bright, sulphur- 


Clotted, heavy, black, 


Dull orange, heavy. 


Pale brown, partly sus- 




yellow. 


mottled with gray. 




pended. 


Milk 


Bright golden-yellow. 


Black, clotted. 


Orange. 


Brown, greenish when 
the mixture was sha 
ken. 


Tea 


A beautiful yellow. 


Brownish-black. 


Reddish orange, floccu- 

lent. 
Deep brownish-orange. 


Not tried. 


Coffee ... 


A deep golden-yellow.|| 


Nearly black. 


Not tried. 


Madeira 


Sulphur-yellow. 


Dirty white, or slate col- 


Beautiful bright orange. 


Vide 1st Table. 


Wine 




or. 






Port Wine 


Fawn color. 


Slate color, with violet 
supernatant fluid.1T 


Dark brown, with a tinge 
of orange. 


Violet, heavy. 


Gruel .... 


Bright queen'i yellow. 


Black dense clots.** 


Orange clotted. 


Dusky yellowish-green. 



♦ This precipitate, dried upon a filter, and heated with 
tome caustic potassa in a slender test tube, is decomposed 
in a few seconds, forming a sulphuret of potassium, while 
the arsenic is volatilized in its metallic form, and adheres 
to the sides of the tube. (Orfila.) 

t All substances containing tannic acid in solution 
grofttiy impair the solvent intluence of fluids on arsenious 
acid. 

I Dr. Pereira states, thnt, when the solution of the 
•artar emntlc is very dilute, and the sulphuretod hydro- 
gen gas [lasscd through it only for a frw seconds, the 
prccii)itiitc is of a lemon yellow, closely rcscmlilinj; that 
produced by arsenious acid. (Med. Ga/.., Ai)ril, IKUi.) 

^ This Hulphuret, uddod to a solution of the phosphates, 



throws down a greenish-yellow precipitate, the superna 
tant fluid being yellow and turbid. 

II Lime water, also, added to coffee containing arsenious 
acid, throws down a yellow precipitate; although it pre- 
cipitates the watery solution of arsenious acid white. 
(Orfila.) 

ir Corrosive sublimate cannot be exhibited in port wine 
with an intention to conunit murder, (except by a self- 
murderer,) as it changes the color of the wine to pale 
violet. 

** All the precipitates by the sulphuret, when dried, 
and heated in a tube with iron filings, afford niotallic 
mercury, which forms globules on the sides of the 
tube. 



ARS 



81 



ARS 



III. SOLUTION OF AMMONIACO-SULPIIATE OF COPPER. 





Precipitates from 


Precipitates from 


Precipitates from 


Precipitates from 


Solvents. 


Solution-; of 


Solutions of 


Solutions of 


Solutions of 




Arsenious Acid. 


Corrosive Sublimate. 


TarUir Emetic. 


Chloride of Barium. 


Water.... 


Beautiful grass-jrreen. Tt 
completely disappeared 
on the addition of a 
few drops of strong 
acetic acid.* 


White, thick, and heavy. 


Pale whitish-blue, very 
little thrown down. 


Copious whitish-blue. 


Broth 


Beautiful pale green, sus- White, curdy, partly sus- 


Pale whitish-blue, with a 


Opaque, glaucous. 




pended.! 


perided, partly thrown 
down. 


tmt ol green. 




Milk 


Pale grayish-green. 


Bluish-white, curdy. 


Whitish-blue. 


Curdy white, with a tinge 
of blue. 


Tea 


Obscure olive, but scarce- 


Dirty yellowish white. 


Muddy, pale bluish-green. 


Grayish, heavy, superna- 




ly a precipitate. 


curdy. 




tant fluid, yellowish- 
green. 
Not tried. 


Coffee.... 


Dark grass-green.J 


Dirtv white. 


Dirty bluish-green. 


Madeira 


Grayish, with a slight 


Heavy clotted white, with 


^ruginous blue. 


Vide 1st Table. 


Wine 


tinge of green. 


a tint of green. 






Port Wine 


Clotted, heavy, dark 
greenish-gray. 


Heavy, clotted, bluish- 
gray. 


Heavy, dirty slate-blue. 


Dirty violaceous-gray. 


Gruel.... 


Beautiful grass-green. 


Pale bluish-white. 


Pale bluish-green. 


Pale bluish-green. 



IV. SOLUTION OF AMMONIACO-NITRATE OF SILVER. 



Water.... 


Copious bright sulphur- 


Dull yellowish white, 


Pale brown. 




White. heavy ; soon 




yeWowA 


clotted, changing to 
dirty- white. 






blackening. 


Broth 


White, (owin2 to the 


White, copious.^ 


Brownish, mixed 


with 


White, dense, curdy. 




chloride of sodium,) but 




much muriate of 


sil- 






yellow when treated 




ver. 








with nitric acid. 










Milk 


White, with a 'tint of 
yellow. 


Dirt)'-white. 


Very pale, scarcely 
ble brown. 


vlsi- 


Not tried. 


Tea 


Yellowish white, which 
soon blackens. 


Dirty-white. 


Dirty-brown. 




Not tried. 


Coffee.... 


Yellow, remaining un- 
changed. 


White, changing to black. 


Not tried. 




Not tried. 


Madeira 


Pale sulphur-yellow. 


Dirtv-white, changing to 


White. 




Vide 1st Table. 


Wine 




black. 








Port Wine 


White, becoming brown 
on exposure to the light. 


Idem. 


Dirty-white. 




Heavy, dirty-white. 


Gruel .... 


Yellowish. 


Dense, dirty-white clots. 


Not tried. 




Dense, clotted-white. 



Caution. The result of no single test shoitld be 
depended on. Those most to be relied on are the 
Reduction test, RenscK's test, and with proper 
precautions those depending on the liberation of 
arseniureted hydrogen; also among the liquid 
tests, the ammoniacal acetate and sulphate of cop- 
per and nitrate of silver. Otto has lately shown 
that wJien a poisonous mass of white of egg and 
potatoes is boiled with a lye of potassa and after- 
wards acidulated with, muriatic acid, no precipitate 
IS produced by sulphureted hydrogen. This re- 
sults from the action of potassa on proteine bodies 

* This test is capable of detecting arsenious acid in a 
solution containing — -^X__ of its weight. (Orfila.) 

t It has been suggested that onions, boiled in broth, or 
eaten so as to impregnate with their qualities the contents 
of the stomach, might produce the same eftects on ammo- 
niaco-sulphate of cop()er, as if arsenious acid were pres- 
ent ; but although the fluid is tinged a green color, yet no 
precipitate forms. 

X Dr. Porter, of South Carolina, says, that sulphate of 
copper with ammonia produces the same colored precipi- 
tate in coflee which contains no arsenious acid. (Ameri- 
can Journal of Science, vol. iii. p. 354.) 

^ A similar precipitate is formed by nitrate of silver, in 
a solution of any of the phosphates, and with chromate 
of potassa ; but the fact of the precipitate being occasioned 
11 



forming a sulphuret of potassium, the sulphur of 
which being liberated by the acid, throws down the 
arsenic, which is then removed by filtration. Hence 
it would appear a bad plan to boil such substances 
with potassa, Jis recommended by Cliristison and 
Devergie. 

ARSENIC, ANTIDOTES TO. The hy- 
drated sesquioxide of iron, in the gelatinous state, 
appears to be the only substance yet discovered 
worthy of being considered as an antidote to arse- 
nic. It should be given in doses of a tablespoonful 
every ten minutes. Lune-water and chalk and 

by arsenious acid is easily ascertained by testing a fresh 
portion of the solution with lime-watef. If it contain ar- 
senious acid, a copious white precipitate will be thrown 
down ; if a phosphate only, there is scarcely any change, 
or at the most a translucent flocculent precipitate, wliich 
remains long suspended. A method of employing this test 
was suggested by Dr. Paris: namely, to put ui)on a piece 
of clean white paper a broad streak of the su!«])octed fluid, 
and then run lightly over it a stick of lunar caustic ; or 
the streak may be brushed lightly over with liquid ammo- 
nia, immediately after the application of the caustic ; if 
arsenious acid be present, a bright queen's yellow is in- 
stantly produced, which remains permanent for nearly an 
hour; but when the lunar caustic produces a bright yel- 
low before the ammonia is applied, we may suspect the 
presence of some phosphate. 



ASP 



82 



ASP 



water have also been recommended. Opium, 
camphor, and ether, may be employed as after 
remedies, to recruit the nervous system. 

Remarks. The first endeavor, in cases of poi- 
soning by arsenic, should be to remove, if possible, 
the poison from the stomach ; for this purpose 
strong emetics or the stomach-pump should be had 
recourse to, after which the hydrated sesquioxide 
of iron may be administered. 

ARSENITES. Salts formed of the previous 
acid (arsenious) and the bases. The alkaline ar- 
senites may be prepared by saturating a solution 
of the acid, with another of the base, and most of 
the insoluble arsenites may be made by adding a 
soluble salt of the metal to a solution of the ar- 
senite of potassa or ammonia. 

ARSENIURETED HYDROGEN. A com- 
pound of arsenic and hydrogen, discovered by 
Scheele. 

Prep. Melt metallic arsenic with an equal 
weight of grain zinc, reduce the alloy to coarse 
powder, place it in a gas bottle, and pour over it 
strong muriatic acid. (Soubeiran.) It must be 
collected in the pneumatic trough. 

Prop. Inflammable, extinguishes combustion, 
and destroys life. At a red heat it deposites its 
arsenic in the metallic state. 

ARTICHOKE. This esculent resembles aspar- 
agus in its general properties, but it is said to be 
more nutritious and diuretic. It is dressed in 
several ways according to the fancy of the cook. 
See AsAFCETiDA, p. 83. 

ASAFCETIDA CLYSTER. Prep. Asafoet- 
fda i gramme ; yelk of 1 egg ; water ^ pint. 
Proc. Dissolve. Use. This quantity is sufficient 
for 10 or 12 clysters for children under 1 year ; 5 
or 6 for those under 3 years ; and 2 or 3 for those 
under 7. Two clysters are prescribed daily in 
hooping-cough. 

Remark. M. Reiken has found this more suc- 
cessful in removing hooping-cough than any other 
remedy. To ensure success, it should not be ad- 
ministered until the feverish symptoms have 
passed. M. Reiken sometimes uses an ointment 
of asafoetida, as well as the clyster. 

ASARABACCA SNUFF. Syn. Cephalic 
Snuff. Prep. Asarabacca leaves and Lundyfoot 
snufF, of each 1 oz. ; lavender flowers, 1 drachm ; 
essence of bergamotte and oil of cloves, of each 2 
drops. Proc. Grind the lavender with the snuff* 
and leaves to a fine powder, then add the perfume. 

Remarks. This is a great improvement on the 
old form with herbs. It is an excellent errhine, 
and is much recommended in headaches, dimness 
of sight, &c. 

ASARINE. A substance resembling camphor, 
obtained froni the root of the Asarum Europiuum, 
(Asarabacca,) by distillation along with water. 

ASBOLINE. A substance found by'^^Bracon- 
not in soot, and on wiiich he thinks the anthel- 
mintic virtue of the latter depends. Berzclius 
regards it as impure acid pyrctine. 

ASCARIDES. Small Ihread worms that pro- 
duce a disagrcc'ihle irritation near \\w oxtr(>mily 
of the amis. They arc best removed by mild pur- 
gntivea and the use of a clyster of aloes, 

AS(;A RIDES, ELECTUARY FOR. Jng 
FlowcrH of sulphur, 4 oz. ; powdered jalap, 1 oz. 
powdered bark, 1 oz. ; sirup of buclaiiorn, q. s 



Proc. Make them into an electuary. Dose. Tw» 
or three teaspoonfuls every morning. 

ASH-BALLS. The ashes of various plants, 
especially ferns, damped and made into balls. 
Use. As '-. «ubstitute for soap in washing, and to 
clean paintmg. 

ASPARAGIN. Syn. Asparamide. Altheine 
Agedoile. a substance found in the potato, 
marshmallow, liquorice, asparagus, and some other 
vegetables. 

Prep. Boil the expressed juice of the asparagus, 
filter, and evaporate. 

II. Macerate the bruised root of the marshmal- 
low with milk of lime ; filter, precipitate with car- 
bonate of ammonia, and evaporate. 

Prop. In its purest state it forms large prismatic 
crystals, soluble in water and proof spirit. Alkalis 
and acids, with the aid of heat, convert it into 
ic acid. 

ASPARAGUS. Qual, ^c. A very nutritious 
article of food, possessing slightly diuretic proper- 
ties, and little disposition "^o induce flatulence- 
Asparagus is cooked by boilmg, which is done at. 
quickly as possible, without breaking the heads, 
and is served with melted butter. The head, or 
upper part, is that which is eaten. Sometimes the 
lower or white enc^is removed before boiling. Many 
nice little side-dishes are made with asparagus : 
among which the following may be classed : — Cut 
off the top of a French roll and take away all the 
crumb, then fry it brown in butter, and fill it with 
a hot mixture of cream and yelk of egg, previously 
stirred together over the fire until thickened, and 
then beat up with the boiled tops of asparagus, and 
a little salt and nutmeg. Place on the top of the 
roll that was cut off, and over all stick in a few of 
the greenest heads of asparagus. This is called 
" asparagus forced." 

ASPARAGUS, CULTIVATION OF. 
Choose that situation which is the longest exposed 
to the sun during the heat of the day. Dig a pit 
5 feet deep, and sift the mould through a searce, 
having about 6 holes to the inch ; then fill up the 
bed with the following layers: 1, — 6 inches of 
good dung; 2, — 6 inches of turf; 3, — 6 inches of 
dung ; 4, — 6 inches of sifted earth. Repeat the 
layers in the same order a second time. Then fill 
up the last foot with a mixture of equal parts of 
sifted earth and dung. Now divide the ground 
into beds, 5 feet wide, by paths made of turf, laid 
down 18 inches wide and 9 inches deep. The 
plants must be set in March, 15 inches asunder 
placing the bud or top of the root about 1^ inchet 
beneatli the surface, and spreading the roots out 
as much as possible. Mark the place where each 
plant is set, by placing a small i)iece of stick in 
the spot. As soon as the bod begins to sink, a lYnv 
spadefuls of fine sand may be thrown over it, 
especially on the spots where the plants are set. 
Should some of the plants die, their places may 
be supi)lied by others, set later in the season. The 
plants should bo 2 years old when transplanted, 
and in 3 yeai-s may be cut for the table. 

Remarks. A bod of this kind will last 30 years 
or longer. The young plants are raised from se?d, 
set two together, about 1 inch deep and 9 inches f 
apart, in bods of good earth, removing the weak- ' 
est of the two plants in the ensuing spring. A 
little good dung may be acattored over tlio beds in 



ASS 



83 



ASS 



autumn. The male plants alone should be se- 
lected for transplanting. During winter, aspara- 
gus may be raised by the use of tan in hotbeds. 

ASPHALTUM, PREPARED. Syn. Liquid 
AspHALTUM. Prep. I. Melt Scio turpentine 2 oz. ; 
then add powdered asphaltum 1 oz. When mixed, 
remove the vessel from the fire, cool a little, and 
add oil of turpentine until it be reduced to a proper 
consistence. 

II. (Wilson's.) Melt 1 oz. of asphaltum ; then 
add 2 oz. of balsam of copaiba. Remove it from 
the fire, and thin with turpentine. 

Remarks. The turpentine must be heated be- 
fore adding it to the other ingredients, as if cold, 
they will set before it can be mixed in. Use. As a 
black japan or varnish. An excellent glazing color. 

ASPHALTUM, FACTITIOUS. A substance 
under this name, and which is also often sold for 
genuine asphaltum, is made from the bottoms of 
Barbadoes tar, by heating them until quite hard. 
Color and hardness inferior to asphaltum. 

ASSAY, (ASSAYING.) Syn. Coupella- 
TioN, (Fr.) Atreiben auf der Capelle, (Ger.) 
The method of determining the quantity of pure 
gold and silver in the alloys of these metals. This 
art requires great skill and experience in its per- 
formance ; and from the costliness of the precious 
metals, and their general employment in the man- 
ufacture of coin, plate, jewellery, «fcc., is of the ut- 
most importance. At the Royal Mint of England 
there are two assay-masters — the master's assayer 
and the king's assayer. The business of the for- 
mer is to receive and examine the gold and silver 
ingots brought for coinage, and of the latter to ex- 
amine the melted bars previously to their being 
coined into money. When the money is coined, 
it is '' pixed" before being sent from the Mint. 
This consists in making an assay of one piece out 
of each "joiirtieyweighf^ of coin, to ascertain if 
it be of the proper standard. The king's assayer 
thus becomes responsible for the purity of all the 
gold and silver coin issued from the Mint. The 
following is a brief notice of the art of assaying. 



J_ 


J 


_ 


I 


_ 


- 


I 


^^^^n 


" 


I 


^^M^ 


V 


'^^^K 




Ji^El 


^^ 


^ 


T 


T ' 






' 0« ( i 


a 



Sectional view of the assay furnace used at the Roy? 
[int and Goldsmiths' Hall, London. 
a a. Rollers on which the furnace rests. 
b. Ash-pit. c. One of the ash-pit dampers. 

d, Grate supporting the muffle-plate. 

e, Muffle containing the cupels. 

/, The mouth-plate for the ignited charcoal. 
k, Interior of furnace containing charcoal. 
> r, Walls of the furnace. 
i, Moveable chimney for regulating draught. 



Operation of Assaying. Materials, apparatus, 
^c. — The furnace. Before an assay can be made, 
it is necessary to be provided with a suitable fur- 
nace, muffle, and cupel. The furnace used for 
assaying at the Royal Mint and Goldsmjtlis' 
Hall, London, has the following proportions, and 
is represented above. 

Dimensions. Total height 2^ feet ; from the 
bottom to the grate, 6 inches ; the grate, muffle- 
plate, and bed of loam that covers it, 3 inches ; 
the space between the grate and the bottom of the 
funnel or chimney, 21^ inches ; funnel, 6 inches. 
A furnace of any other shape and size may be 
employed, provided it will afford a sufficient heat, 
and allow the introduction of the muffle. 

The mufjie is a pot of the shape of fig. 1, made 
of clay, and furnished with an opening to admit 
the hitroduction of the cupels, and inspection of 
the process. It is placed on the muffle-plate, (see 
preceding figure,) by which it is introduced into 
the furnace. 




The cupel is a sort of shallow crucible, made of 
bone ashes or burnt bones. At the Royal Mint 
the cupels are made of the calcined cores of ox- 
horns. The powder is slightly moistened with 
water, and a circular steel mould is filled there- 
with, and after being pressed down tight, is fin- 
ished off" with a rammer, having a convex face of 
polished steel, which is struck forcibly with a 
mallet, until the mass becomes sufficiently hard 
and adherent. The cupel is then carefully re- 
moved, and exposed in the air to dry, which 
usually takes from 14 to 21 days. Fig. 2 repre- 
sents a cupel in section, and fig. 3 the tongs for 
charging the same. The best weight for cupels 
is said to be 180 to 200 grs. 



\J 



Process of assaying. The muffle, with the cu- 
pels properly arranged, being placed in the fur- 
nace, the latter is filled up with charcoal, and 
lighted at the top by placing a few^ pieces, heated 
to whiteness, on last. When the cupels have 
been exposed for half an hour, and have become 
white by heat, the lead is put into them by means 
of the tongs, and as soon as this becomes tho- 
roughly red and circulating, as it is called, the 
metal to be assaj-ed, wrapped in a small piece of 
paper, is added, and the fire kept up strongly un- 
til the metal enters the lead and circulates well, 
when the heat may be slightly diminished, and so 
regulated that the assay shall appear convex and 
ardent, while the cupel is less red — that the un- 
dulations shall circulate in all directions, and that 
the middle of the metal shall appear smooth, sur- 
rounded with a small circle of litharge, which is 
being continually absorbed by the cupel. This 
treatment must be continued until the metal be- 



ASS 



84 



ASS 



comes bright and shining, or is said to "lighten;"' 
after which certain prismatic colors, or rainbow 
hues, suddenly flash across the globules, and un- 
dulate and cross each other, and the latter metal 
soon after appears very brilliant and clear, and at 
length becomes fixed and solid. This is called 
the " brightening/' and shows that the separation 
is ended. In conducting this process, all the ma- 
terials used must be accurately weighed, especial- 
ly the weight of the alloy before cupellation, and 
the resulting button of pure metal. The difference 
gives the quantity of alloy. The preceding gen- 
eral description of the process of cupellation will 
render the following articles intelligible, without 
again entering into the minutise of the operation. 

Assayers' weights. The richness or purity of 
gold is expressed in carats. Pure gold is spoken 
of as containing 24 carats, of 12 grains each ; and 
any other sample, containing 12, 18, 22, or any 
other number of parts of pure gold, in 24 parts, is 
said to be of so many carats fine. In the process 
of assaying gold, the real quantity taken is very 
small, generally 6 or 12 grains ; and this is termed 
the " assay pound." It is nominally subdivided 
into 24 carats, and each carat into 4 assay grains, 
and each grain into quarters, so that there are 
384 separate reports for gold. When the assay 
pound is only 6 grs., the quarter of the assay grain 
will only weigh the ^^ of a grain ; hence the most 
accurate system of weighing must be adopted. 

The richness or purity of silver is either ex- 
pressed in pennyweights or lOOOths. In the first 
case, it is supposed that the mass of silver to be 
examined consists of 12 equal parts, called penny- 
weights ; so that if an ingot weighs an ounce, each 
of the parts will be 1-I2th of an ounce. Hence, 
if the mass of silver be pure, it is called silver of 
12 pennyweights ; if it contain 1-I2th of its weight 
of alloy, it is called silver of 11 pennyweights ; if 
2-12ths of its weight be alloy, it is called silver of 
10 pennyweights ; and so on in proportion for 
other qualities. It must be observed here, that 
the assayers give the name pennyweight to a 
weight equal to 24 real grains, which must not be 
confounded with their ideal weights. The assay- 
ers' grains are called fine grains. An ingot of 
fine silver, or silver of 12 pennyweights, contains, 
then, 288 fine grains ; if this ingot contain l-288th 
of alloy, it is said to be silver of 11 pennyweights 
and 23 grains ; if it contain 4-288ths of alloy, it is 
said to be 11 penny weigiits, 20 grains, &c. Now 
a certain real weight must be taken to represent 
the assay-weights : for instance, 30 real grains to 
represent 12 fine pennyweights ; this, if subdivided 
into a sufficient number of other smaller weights, 
will also represent fractions of fine pennyweights 
and grains. Thus, 18 real grains represent 6 fine 
pennyweights ; 3 real grains represent 1 fine pen- 
nyweigiit, or 21 grains ; u n^al grain and a half 
represents 12 fine grains; l-32d of a real grain 
represents a quarter of a fine grain, which is only 
l-7r)2d part of a mass of 12 pennyweights. The 
purity of silver is now more frequently expressed 
in lOOOths, which iuhuits of gre.iter accuracy. 

licniarks. An assay is thought, to ho good when 
tlie bead is of a rotuul form, with its up|»er surface 
brilliant, its lower onn granular and dead-white, 
and when it He])HruteH readily from tlu^ cupel. 
When the Bixrfacu of the bead iu du-.l and Hat, it 



shows that too much heat has been employed ; and 
if the metal be silver, some may have been lost in 
the process, by fuming or absorption. When the 
bead is spongy, and of various colors, and scales 
of litharge still remain on the cupel, and the 
metal adheres strongly to the latter, too little heat 
has been used, and the button still retains some 
lead. To remedy this, the heat should be raised, 
and a little powdered charcoal, or a few small 
pieces of paper, thrown into the cupel, until the 
metal again begins to circulate freely. It is ne- 
cessary that the lead employed in the process of 
cupellation should be perfectly pure. It ought, 
therefore, to be procured by reducing refined 
litharge. 

ASSAY OF SILVER. I. The assay pound 
(usually 12 or 20 grains for silver) of the alloy for 
examination is accurately weighed, and then 
wrapped in a small piece of paper ready to under- 
go the process of cupellation. The quantity of 
lead used is not uniform ; but depends on the na- 
ture of the alloy. It should be 16 times the weight 
of the copper presumed to be present in ^he sam- 
ple. This, however, cannot be accurately as- 
certaiiied, though an. experienced assayer is gen- 
erally able to guess very nearly the amount. If 
too much lead be used, the button obtained by 
cupellation will be too small, owing to some of the 
silver being absorbed by the cupel ; and if too little 
be used, the button will come out too large, from 
still containing some copper. The importance of 
justly proportioning the lead to the quantity of 
copper present in the alloy, cannot be too much 
insisted on. The following table exhibits the 
proper quantities adapted to silver of various de- 
grees of fineness. 

Assay Table, by M. D'Arcet. 





Proportion of 

Copper in the 

Alloy. 


Dose of Lead 


Relation be- 


Fineness of 


required, the 


tween the 


the Silver. 


weight of sil- 


Lead and Cop 




ver being one. 


per. 


Silver at 








1000 


... 


A 




950 


50 


3 


70 to 1 


900 


100 


7 


60 to 1 


800 


200 


10 


50 to 1 


700 


300 


12 


40tol 


600 


400 


14 


35 to 1 


500 


500 


16 to 17 


32 to 1 


400 


600 


do. 


26-6 to 1 


300 


700 


do. 


22-8 to 1 


200 


800 


do. 


20tol 


100 


900 


do. 


17-7 to 1 


pure copper. 


1000 


do. 


16 to 1 



Remarks. As the lead always carries off a small 
portion of the silver into the cupel, the assay gen- 
erally comes out too low, which was ascertained 
by M. D'Arcet to be equal to — 



For fine silver, 

900 
(( (( 

1000 
1000 



1 

1000 
4-3 

lOOL 
4-9 

1000 



ASS 



85 



ASS 



For 



500 
lOUO 
100_ 

looo 



4;2 

fo'oo 

0-4 

1000 



During the process of cupellation with silver, the 
button is apt to " vegetate,^' especially if it be fine 
silver, and therefore requires to be carefully 
watched ; for which purpose the cupel is usually 
kept at a convenient part of the muffle, ready to 
be drawn forward if required. It has just been 
Been that to apportion the lead correctly requires 
that the title of the silver should be known ; when 
this is not the case, it may be determined approxi- 
matively, by exposing in the cupel O'l part of the 
sample with 1 part of lead. French gold and sil- 
ver coin contain -i- of copper ; British silver coin 
consists of 1| of silver, and ^^ of copper; and 
British gold coin of 11 parts of gold and 1 of cop- 
per, or a mixture of copper and silver. 

II. Humid assay of silver, a. Dissolve 10 grs. 
of the alloy in 100 grs. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*28, 
by the aid of heat ; the solution being made in a 
tall stoppered glass tube, furnished with a foot ; 
then place it in a very delicate balance, which 
must be brought into an exact state of equilibrium, 
and add the test solution gradually and cautiously 
until the whole of the silver be thrown down ; but 
the utmost care must be taken not to exceed this 
point. The number of grains now required to"Te- 
store the equilibrium of the scales gives the exact 
quantity of pure silver present in 1000 parts of the 
sample. 

Test liquor. Dissolve 54-27 (54|) grs. of pure 
sea salt in 9945-73 grs. (or 2^ oz. and 320| grs. 
avoirdupois) of distilled v/ate. ; filter, and keep the 
liquor in a stoppered bottle for use. 

Pure sea salt. Boil together for a few minutes, 
in a glass vessel, a solution of salt with a little pure 
bicarbonate of soda ; filter ; add muriatic acid un- 
til the liquor be neutral to Htmus and turmeric pa- 
per ; then evaporate and crystallize. 

Remarks. The addition of the test liquor to the 
solution requires the utmost exactness. After each 
addition the stopper should be placed in the tube, 
and the latter violently agitated for a short time, 
when the liquor will rapidly clear and enable us to 
see when the operation is concluded. We must 
then, as a check, add a small quantity of a solu- 
tion of nitrate of silver to the liquor in the tube, 
after having first carefully taken the weight. If 
too much of the test liquor has been added, this 
will produce a fresh precipitate, and the assay can- 
not then be depended on. 

Instead of weighing the quantity of test liquor 
used, a tube graduated into 100 parts, and holding 
1000 grs., may be used instead, every division of 
which required to throw down the silver, will rep- 
resent the j-\^th of a grain. The tube being filled 
to the 0, is ready for use, and from being gradua- 
ted downward the quantity poured out may at 
once be read off. Generally speaking, however, 
measuring does not admit of the same accuracy as 
weighing. The termination of the operation is 
clearly marked, when, on adding a minute quan- 
tity of the test liquor to the silver solution, no 
cloudiness occurs. (See Alkalimetry and Acid- 

IMETRY.) 



h. The precipitate thrown down in the last ex« 
periment may be collected iu a filter of white 
paper, and dried, washed, aud weighed. The 
previous weight of the paper, deducted from the 
gross weight of the paper and silver, will give the 
quantity of chloride of silver present, which nuilti- 
plied by -7533, the weight of metal iu one grain 
of the chloride, will give the exact weight of the 
pure silver contained in the sample. 

Remarks. Mercury is the only metal whose 
presence at all interferes with the process ; the 
chloride of mercury being also thrown down by 
salt, as well as the chloride of silver. When no 
mercury is present in the precipitate, it rapidly 
becomes black on exposure to the light, but when 
it contains y^f^ or j^Vo °^ chloride of mercury, it 
remains of a dead white, with —^^-^ it is not sensi- 
bly discolored by the diffused light of a room, with 
TTnro °^^^y slightly darkened, with joVn ^^^re so, 
but with pure chloride of silver, the effect is very 
rapid and intense. When mercury is present, 
which is however seldom the case, the assay sam- 
ple must be placed in a small crucible, and ex- 
posed to a full red heat, before solution in the 
acid. For the method of assaying silver by the 
humid way, when alloyed with gold, see Gold. 
Those who wish to enter fully into the subject of 
the humid assay of silver, are referred to Gay Lus- 
sac's Essay. 

ASSAY OF GOLD. 1. This process may be 
divided into five operations. 

I. Cupellation. Either 6 or 12 grs. of the alloy 
is the weight usually taken for the assay, to which 
is added 16 parts of lead for every 1 part of cop- 
per that it is presumed to contain, though consid- 
erably more lead may be used when the sample 
does not contain any silver ; but if the reverse be 
the case, an excess of lead would lead to the loss 
of the latter metal, which ought not to be separa- 
ted until the operation of parting. When silver is 
present an additional allowance of lead, equal to 
y'-g- of its weight, is made on that account. When, 
however, the quantity of silver is small, or is not 
required to be estimated, it becomes of little con- 
sequence what weight of lead is employed, so long 
as enough be used to carry off the base metals, at 
the same time that the quantity is not too large for 
the cupel. The sample is then submitted to cu- 
pellation. This process does not require so much 
care for gold as silver, as none of this metal is ab- 
sorbed by the cupel, or lost by evaporation, and it 
will safely bear the highest heat of the furnace 
without injury. In other respects the operation 
may be conducted in exactly the same manner as 
for silver. 

II. Quartation. After gold has passed the cu- 
pel, it may still retain either of the other perfect 
metals, particularly silver. To remove the latter 
it undergoes the operations of quartation and part- 
ing. Quartation is performed by adding 3 parts 
of silver to one of the cupelled sample, and fusing 
them together, by which the gold is reduced to 
one fourth of the mass or even less ; hence the 
name. In this state nitric acid will dissolve out 
the silver, which brings us to the next operation. 

In many cases the operation of quartation is 
performed conjointly with that of cupellation, as 
in the processes of Nos. 2 and 3. 



ASS 



86 



ASS 



m. Parting. The alloy of gold and silver 
thus formed, is next hammered or rolled out, into 
a thin strip or leaf, curled up into a spiral form, 
and submitted to the action of nitric acid, sp. g. 
1-3, diluted with half its weight of water; this 
being poured off, another quantity of acid, of 
about 1-26, and undiluted, may be employed. In 
each case the acid should be boiled upon the alloy 
for about a quarter of an hour. In the first case 
the quantity of fluid should be about 2^oz., and 
in the second l^oz. The second part of the ope- 
ration of parting is called the " reprise." If the 
acid be used too strong it leaves the gold in a state 
of powder, otherwise the metal preserves its form 
throughout the process of parting. It is next 
carefully collected, washed, and dried. 

IV. Annealing. The sample of pure gold has 
now only to be annealed, which is done by put- 
ting it into a small porous crucible, and heating it 
to redness in the muffle. 

V. Weighing. The pure gold is next accurate- 
ly weighed. This weight doubled or quadrupled, 
gives the number of carats fine of the alloy ex- 
amined, without calculation. 

Remarks. The loss of weight by cupellation 
gives the amount of copper in the sample ; that 
after parting, the amount of silver, deducting of 
course the weight of silver used in the process, 
which is called the " witness." When the sample 
contains but very little gold, the dry method of 
assaying cannot be depended on, and chemical 
analysis must be had recourse to. 

2. (M. Chaudefs process.) Submit to cupel- 
lation 0-500 of the sample with 1*500 of pure sil- 
ver, and 1-000 of pure lead. Form the button 
into a strip or riband 3 inches long, and roll it into 
a cornet. Boil for 3 or 4 minutes in a matrass 
with nitric acid of 22° Baume, decant and again 
boil for 10 minutes with acid of 32° Baume, again 
decant and repeat the last boiling with a fresh lot 
of acid, at 32 B. for 10 minutes longer. Next 
wash the cornet with pure water, put it into a 
small crucible permeable to water, and submit it 
to a dull red heat in the muffle. Lastly, cool, 
take it from the crucible, and weigh it. 

Retnarks. The above is M. Chaudefs method of 
assaying fine gold. It affords very perfect results. 

3. {Old French government method.) Oper. 
" Twelve grains of the gold intended to be as- 
sayed must be mixed with 30 grs. of fine silver, 
and cupelled with 108 grs. of lead. The cupella- 
tion must be carefully attended to, and all the im- 
perfect buttons rejected. When the cupellation is 
ended, the button must be reduced by lamination 
into a plate of 1^ inch, or rather more, in length, 
and 4 or 5 lines in breadth. This must be rolled 
up upou a quill, and placed in a matrass capable 
of holding about 3 oz. of liquid, when filled up to 
its narrow part. Two oz. and a half of very pure 
aquafortis, of tlie strength of 20° of Baume's are- 
ometer, nnist then be pounul upon it ; and the 
matrass beiug placed upou hot asbes, or sand, the 
acid iruist be kept gently boiling for a (piartcr of 
an hour : the acid inust then bo cautiously de- 
canted, aud an additional quantity of IJoz. nuist 
be poured on tbe metal, aud slightly boiled for 12 
minutes. This being liki^wise ran^l'nlly decanted, 
the HMiall spiral piece of mental must \w washed 
with filtered river water, or distilled water, by fill- 



ing the matrass with this fluid. The vessel is then 
to be reversed, by applying the extremity of ita 
neck against the bottom of a crucible of fine 
earth, the internal surface of which is very smooth- 
The annealing must then be made, after having 
separated the portion of water which had fallen 
into the crucible : and, lastly, the annealed gold 
must be weighed. For the certainty of this ope- 
ration, two assays must be made in the same 
manner, together with a third assay upon gold of 
24 carats, or upon gold the fineness of which is 
perfectly and generally known." 

" No conclusion must be drawn from this assay, 
unless the latter gold should prove to be of the 
fineness of 24 carats exactly, or of its known de- 
gree of fineness ; for, if there be either loss or 
surplus, it may be inferred that the other two as- 
says, having undergone the same operation, must 
be subject to the same error." 

4. (When the alloy contains platina.) This 
alloy generally contains copper, silver, platina, 
and gold. The sample must be cupelled in the 
usual way, and the loss of weight will express the 
amount of copper ; the button, made into a rib- 
and and treated with sulphuric acid, will indicate, 
by the portion dissolved, the amount of silver 
present. By submitting the residuum to quarta- 
tion, the platina will become soluble in nitric acid. 
The loss after digestion in this menstruum will 
express the weight of that metal, and the weight 
of the portion now remaining will be that of the 
pure gold. 

5. Other methods. Assay of the touch. Jew- 
ellery, small quantities, ^c. When it is desired 
to ascertain the fineness of small quantities of 
gold, as in jewellery, &c., touch needles and stones 
are employed. The former are made in sets, con- 
taining gold of different finenesses and differently 
alloyed with copper and silver. Pieces of black 
pottery form excellent touch stones. The mode 
of using them is to mark the stone with the sam- 
ple under examination, and to compare its appear- 
ance, hardness, &c. with that produced by one or 
more of the needles. When the two are similar, 
the quality is considered to be the same. They 
are then further examined by moistening the 
stroke with aquafortis when red hot. 

General Remarks. The preceding is a brief no- 
tice of the most approved methods of assaying. 
Other ways of determining the constitution of al- 
loys exist, which are not only easier to perform, 
but far more accurate. In the dry way, the 
causes of error are numerous, and assays made 
by different persons after that plan, seldom agree 
closer than one or two thousandths, while in the 
case of silver, it often amounts to y-„^u-y or yrnro- 
Thus samples of the same silver sent by the 
French government to be assayed at different 
places, gave different results. 

At the Mint of Paris .... 895-6 

" Vienna . . . 898-4 

" Madrid . . . 893-7 

" Naples . . . 891-0 

the difference between the two extremes of which 
whereas, each of these samples really 
I'ooo *'* P'""^^ silver. It will be thus 
s(>en, as before expluiu(Hi. that the assay of silver 
always comes out too low, besides being more ex- 



l It ' 

contanied 



AST 



87 



ATR 



posed to error in tlie operation than gold. Chem- 
ical analysis, or the humid process of assay, ad- 
mits, however, of ascertaining with certainty the 
quantity of each metal in an alloy to a degree of 
exactness unattainable by the cupel. 

ASSES' MILK, SUBSTITUTE FOR. Prep. 
I. Boil together one quart of new milk, one ounce 
each of sugar-candy and ground rice, and one 
drachm of eringo root bruised. Strain. 

II. Mix together one ounce of lump sugar, the 
white of two eggs, and half a pint of the best 
milk, then add half a teaspoonful of sirup of tola, 
and mix well. 

III. Boil together a pint of water and 1 oz. of 
hartshorn shavings, until reduced to a jelly, then 
add 2 oz. of lump sugar ; dissolve ; when cold add 
1 pint of new milk, and a teaspoonful or less of 
sirup of tolu. 

Remarks. The above are among the best forms 
for this article. Others are often adopted of a 
very dirty class, as boiling snails, &c. with water, 
and so many medicaments, that I presume any 
thing but an article resembling asses' milk is pro- 
duced. Use. As a beverage, a cupful with or 
without a spoonful of rum, three or four times a 
day, or ad libitum. An old woman's remedy for 
consumption. 

ASTHMA. (From aaSnaivij), I breathe hard.) 
A disease characterized by difficulty of breathing, 
coming on by fits, accompanied by a wheezing 
sound, cough, and tightness of the chest, and gen- 
erally terminating in a copious expectoration, after 
the lapse of a few hours. Asthma is principally 
confined to the later periods of life, and appears in 
many cases to be hereditaiy. The fits vary from 
two to several hours' duration. Sometimes copious 
expectoration attends asthma, w^hich has led to its 
division into two kinds, — ^dry (asthma siccum) and 
humid, (asthma humidum.) It is brought on by 
sudden exposure from heat to cold, to unwhole- 
some effluvia, by hard drinking, full meals, vi- 
olent exercise, and by cold, damp, and foggy 
weather. 

Treatment. I. Prev. Avoid the above exciting 
causes. Seek a dry, warm, and airy situation. 
Wear flannel, keep the bowels regular, and the 
stomach in order. Cure. The severity of the par- 
oxysm may be lessened by adopting the sitting 
posture, and inhaling the vapor of hot water, or 
an infusion of cb a^omile. Emetics and diapho- 
retics, followed by mild purgatives, may also be 
administered with advantage. Various other rem- 
edies have also been recommended ; among the 
principal are tobacco and stramonium smoking. 
In using the latter herb, the root and lower parts 
of the stem are chopped up and placed in the bowl 
of a common tobacco-pipe, and a few whiiFs are 
occasionally taken. Drinking at the same time 
should be avoided. Lately the lobelia infiata, or 
Indian tobacco, has been highly extolled in asth- 
ma. The dose of the tincture is from 20 drops to 
3ij. A light nutritious diet and strictly regular 
habits should be adopted, which will often produce 
a marked improvement and effect a cure, when 
medicines have failed. The use of bark or bitters 
will tend to improve the general tone of the 
system. 

ASTHMA, DRAUGHT FOR. Prep. Vin- 
egar of squills, 3ss ; ipecacuanha wine, 15 drops ; 



cinnamon water, 1^ oz. ; mix for a draught to be 
taken three times duilv. Expectorant. 

ASTHMA, MIXTURE FOR. Prep. I. {Ex- 
pectorant.) Milk of gum ammoniacum 3 oz., sirup 
of squills 2 oz., wine of ipecacuanha 1 oz. ; mix. 
Dose. A small teaspoonful 4 or 5 times daily. 

II. (Tonic.) Infusion of cascarilla 3 oz., infu- 
sion of gentian 2 oz., simple sirup 1 oz. ; mix. 
Dose. Two tablespoonfuls 3 times a day. 

ASTHMA, PILLS FOR. I. (Expectorant.) 
Compound squill pill 20 grs., calomel 5 grs., pow- 
dered opium 3 grs. ; make them into 6 pills. 
Dose. One or two at bedtime. Expectorant, and 
sometimes laxative. 

II. (Tuvic.) Compound iron pills, 2 drachms, 
extract of gentian, 1 drachm ; mix, and divide 
into GO pills. Dose. Two night and morning. 

ASTRINGENTS, (I.\ Medicine.) Substan- 
ces that constrict the animal fibre, and coagulate 
albumen. When employed to check bleeding, 
they are called styptics. The principal vegetable 
astringents are catechu, kino, galls, and oak 
bark ; the principal mineral astringents are sul- 
phate of iron, nitrate of silver, chloride of zinCy 
sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, &lc. 

ASTRINGENT COLLYRIUM. Prep. Com- 
pound liquor of alum, ^ oz., rose water, 5^ oz., 
laudanum, 60 drops. Use. For weak eyes. 

ASTRINGENT PILLS. Prep. Alum, 6 grs., 
extract of opium, 1 gr., powdered catechu, 20 grs. ; 
divide into 6 pills. Dose. One after each motion 
in diarrhoea. 

ASTRINGENT POWDER. Powdered galls 
and burnt alum, of each equal parts, in very fine 
po-wder ; mix. Use. For piles and soft polypi of 
the nose. 

ATMOSPHERE, PURITY OF. Test. A 
simple method of ascertaining the presence of im- 
purity (caj.-bonic acid) in the atmosphere, is to 
nearly fill a glass tumbler with lime water, and to 
place it in any convenient position, as on the man- 
tel-piece of a room. The rapidity with which a 
pellicle forms on its surface, or the water becomes 
cloudy, corresponds to the amount of the carbonic 
acid present in the atmosphere that surrounds it. 
II. A little moist carbonate of lead put on a plate 
or saucer, and exposed in the same way, will turn 
black, should any sulphureted hydrogen be con- 
tained in the air. This is a very delicate test for 
that destructive gas. 

ATROPIA. Syn. Atropina. Atropine. At- 
ROPiuM. An alkaloid, or vegetable alkah, discov- 
ered in the atropa belladonna, by Brande. Prep. 
I. Make an aqueous decoction with 2 lbs. of the 
dried leaves of the deadly nightshade, press out 
the liquor, and boil them a second time ; mix the 
two waters, and add a little sulphuric acid ; then 
filter, supersaturate the liquor witli potash, collect 
the precipitate, wash with cold w^ater, and dry it. 
The product is 89 grs. This must then be purified 
by repeated solutions in dilute acid, the use of ani- 
mal charcoal, and precipitation by an alkali. Ac- 
cording to Mein and Thompson, 1 oz. of the root 
of belladonna yields 1 gr. of pure atropia. 

II. Add freshly precipitated hydrate of magne- 
sia to the filtered expressed juice of belladonna, 
evaporate to dryness as quickly as possible in a 
water bath, then pulverize the residuum, and di- 
gest it in strong alcohol ; decant the clear liquid, 



AVI 



88 



BAI 



and allow it to evaporate spontaneously. The 
crystals may be purified by repeated resolutions in 
alcohol. 

Remarks. This alkaloid is a powerful narcotic 
poison. In quantity scarcely appreciable, it occa- 
sions dilatation of the pupil, when applied to the 
eye. The ~ of a grain causes very serious effects 
in the human subject. It is volatile at common 
temperatures, and rises in vapor at 212° ; hence 
the danger of experimenting on this substance. 
Brande suffered so much from this cause, that he 
was compelled to discontinue his experiments on 
the properties of this alkali. It forms salts with 
many of the acids, which may be crystallized. 
They may be made by saturating the dilute acids 
with the bases. 

ATROFIC ACID. Richter has given this 
name to a volatile and crystallizable acid, resem- 
bling the benzoic, extracted from the atropa bella- 
donna, or deadly nightshade. (Pharm. Centr. 
Blatt. 1837, s. 614.) 

ATROPHY. Syn. Atrophia. A wasting of 
the whole body. Cause and Treatment. This is 
generally produced by the body receiving an in- 
sufficient supply of nourishment, arising from im- 
perfect digestion, diarrhoea, and in children, very 
frequently from worms. The best treatment is to 
keep the bowels regular, and to administer mild 
tonics, or alteratives, accompanied with a nutri- 
tious diet ; cleanliness, fresh air, and moderate ex- 
ercise are also essential. When worms are the 
cause, attempts should be immediately made to 
remove them. (See Anthelmintics.) 

AURANTIIN. The bitter principle extracted 
from the peel of the orange and lemon. 

Prep. The exterior peel separated from the 
white matter, should be well dried by free expo- 
sure to warm dry air, until it has nearly lost its 
fragrance. It is then to be boiled with water, and 
the liquor strained off and evaporated to dryness. 
Purify by frequent solution in alcohol. 

Prop. Possesses the bitter properties of the peel 
in a concentrated state, without any of its fra- 
grance. 

AURO-CHLORIDES. Prep. These salts may 
be prepared by mixing the terchloride of gold with 
the chloride of the base, in atomic proportions, and 
setting aside the solution to crystallize. 

Prop. Most of the auro-chlorides crystallize in 
prisms, dissolve in both alcohol and water, have an 
orange or yellow color, and are decomposed at a 
red heat. 

AURO-CHLORIDE OF HYDROGEN. 
Formed by cautiously evaporating an acid solution 
of terchloride of gold. 

AVIARY, (from avis, a bird.) A place for 
keeping birds. Situation, cj-c. In constructing an 
aviary for exotic birds, a place should be selected 
where the temperature can be kept at a proper de- 
gree throughout the year, and which is well pro- 
tected from tlie weather. This is most conve- 
niently done by choosing a space attached to the 
Bummer or hot house. When the aviary is only 
Lutendcd for birds of climates similar to our own, 
any part of tiie o[>vi\ garden may be chosen, and 
a portion closed in. Among the commoner exotic 
tirds kcj)t, in aviaries, are canaries, turtle-doves, 
parrots, and paroipK^tles ; and among those inhub- 
Kmg climates resembling Great Britain, are gold 



and silver pheasants, and the finer varieties of 
pigeons. Among aquatic birds may be mentioned 
black and white swans, Muscovy ducks, &lc., all 
of which, however, require good protection from 
the vicissitudes of the weather. 

AZOBENZIDE. Prep. Add solid hydrate of 
potassa to nitro-benzide, dissolved in alcohol in a 
retort ; apply heat and distil the red solution. The 
first portion which comes over is alcoliol, and the 
next azobenzide, which must be collected sepa- 
rately. 

Remarks. Form. Large red crystals. Discov- 
ered by Mitzcherlitz. 

AZOBENZULE. Prep. The residuum of the 
preparation of benzhydramide boiled with 100 
parts of alcohol, deposites crystals of aMtbenzule 
on cooling. Form, a white crystalline poA'der. 

AZOERYTHRINE. A substance excracted 
by Kane from Orchil. It is insoluble in alcohol, 
ether, and water; but very soluble in alkaline lyes, 
to which it imparts a port-wine color. (Phil. Trans. 
1840, p. 273.) 

AZOLITMINE. A substance extracted t^r 
Kane from litmus. It is insoluble in water and 
alcohol ; soluble in alkaline lyes. It forms the 
principal ingredient in litmus. 

AZOMARIC ACID. An acid discovered by 
Laurent during his researches on the turpentine 
of the pinus maritima. It is formed by submitting 
pimaric acid to the action of nitric acid. 

AZURE, EGYPTIAN. Prep. Carbonate of 
soda 1 lb. ; calcined flints 1^ lb. ; copper filings \ 
lb. ; all in fine powder. Proc. Mix and fuse them 
together in a crucible for 2 hours. When cold, 
reduce to an impalpable powder. 

Remarks. This is a most beautiful and perma- 
nent sky-blue color. It is used in painting, and 
as a substitute for smalts. 

AZURE, PIGMENT. Prep. Quicksilver 2 
oz. ; sulphur and sal ammoniac, of each ^ oz. 
Proc. Grind well together, and place the ingre- 
dients in a matrass, which must be exposed to a 
slow fire until an azure fume arises ; then cool and 
powder. (Mackenzie.) Remarks. This form is 
stated to produce a color nearly equal to ultrama- 
rine, but I much doubt it. 



BACHER'S PILLS. Prep. Extract of black 
hellebore and powdered myrrh, of each 1 oz. ; car- 
duus benedictus (blessed thistle) 3 oz. ; mix and 
divide into 1 -grain pills. Dose. 2 to G three times 
a day. Tonic. 

BACON. Qual When this article has been 
properly prepared from healthy meat, and is neither 
old nor rusty, it forms a very wholesome and ex- 
cellent food, especially when eaten with vegeta- 
bles. It is too strong, however, for the stomachs 
of very delicate persons, and should therefore be 
avoided by them. Choice. Good bacon has a thin 
rind, the fat has a firm consistence and reddish 
tinge ; the lean has a pleasing red color, is tender, 
and adheres strongly to the bone. Tiie streaky 
parts are the most esteemed as well as the most 
wholesome. When the fat lias a yellowish 
tint, it is rusty, or becoming so, and should be 
avoided. 

IJAl LEY'S ITCH OINTMENT. This con- 
sists of nitre, alum, sulphate of zinc, cinnabar 
olive oil, and lard, scented with the essential oils 



BAL 



89 



BAL 



of aniseed, origanum, and lavender, and colored 
with alkanet. 

BAKER'S ITCH. Syn. Psoriasis diffusa. 
Tliis disease is of common occurrence on the hands 
of bakers ; hence the vulgar name. Treat. Fre- 
quent abkition in warm water, keeping the bowels 
open with saline purgatives, and the nightly use 
of the following ointment will generally effect a 
cure. Salt food should be avoided as much as 
possible, as well as keeping the hands covered with 
dough and flour ; the latter being the cause of the 
disease. 

BAKER'S ITCH, OINTMENT FOR. Mix 
well together \ oz. of ointment of nitrate of mer- 
cury, and 1 oz. of palm oil. 

BAKING. (In Cookery.) One of the cheap- 
est and most convenient ways of dressing dinners 
for small families. Though the flavor of baked 
meat is generally considered barely equal to the 
same roasted, yet there are some joints and dishes 
to which it appears particularly suitable. Among 
these may be mentioned legs and loins of pork, 
legs and shoulders of mutton, fillets of veal, &c. 
A baked pig, if it has been occasionally basted 
with melted butter during the operation, and the 
heat has not been too great, will eat equal to a 
roasted one. Geese and ducks treated in the same 
way are also excellent. A hare prepared in the 
same way as for roasting, and basted occasionally 
with milk and melted butter, will also eat well ; so 
will various pieces of beef, especially the buttodi. 
The latter should be prepared as follows : — After 
it has been salted about a week, it should be 
washed and put into a brown earthen pan, glazed 
inside, with about a pint of water ; it should then 
be tied over with writing-paper, three or four times 
thick, and baked for 4 or 5 hours in a lightly- 
heated oven. A baked" ham is preferable to a 
boiled one ; it not only eats much tenderer, but 
cuts fuller of gravy, and has a finer flavor. Be- 
fore being baked it should be soaked in clean wa- 
ter for an hour, then wiped dry with a towel, and 
covered with a thin paste or batter. 

Much of the prejudice that exists against baking 
arises from the careless manner in which it is usu- 
ally performed by the baKers, and also from so 
many different dishes, possessing such various fla- 
vors and odors, being baked together in the same 
oven. 

BALDNESS. Cause. This is generally pro- 
duced by fever or old age, but is sometimes found 
in comparatively young persons, enjoying perfect 
health. Remarks. When the hair bulbs have dis- 
appeared, there is no means known that will re- 
store the hair, notwithstanding the daily assurances 
to the contrary, by numerous advertising impostors. 
When a disposition to baldness exists, or when the 
hair falls off" in large quantities, the constant use 
of the hair-brush, and any emollient oil or poma- 
tum, scented with some stimulating aromatic, will 
generally prove sufficient. Should this not suc- 
ceed, the head should be shaved. The following 
formulas tend to strengthen the hair, and to keep 
the head clean. 

BALDNESS, OIL FOR. Prep. Salad oil 
1 oz. ; oil of origanum 12 drops ; oil of rosemary 
10 drops ; oil of lavender 6 drops ; oil of cloves 2 
drops ; mix and shake well together. 

BALDNESS, POMMADE FOR. Prep. Beef 
12 



suet I oz. ; tincture of cantharides 1 teaspoonful • 
oil of origanum and bergamotte, of each 10 drops. 
Proc. Melt the suet, and when nearly cold, add 
the rest and stir until set. 

BALDWIN'S PHOSPHORUS. Prep. Eva- 
porate to dryness an aqueous solution of nitrate of 
lime, and continue the heat until the nitrate be 
fused, in which state it must be kept for 5 to 10 
minutes, and then poured out into an iron pot, 
previously made warm, and allowed to cool grad- 
ually ; after which, break it into pieces and put it 
into well-stopped vials. Prop. After exposure to 
the sun for some time, it emits a beautiful white 
light in the dark. 

BALLOOxVS. BALLOONING. Si/n. Bal- 
lon (Fr.) Aeronautics, (the art of sailing in 
and navigating the air.) Aerostation, {properly, 
weighing the air, but frequently used to imply 
the art of raising substances into the atmosphere 
by means of balloons.) Aeronaut, {literally, an 
air-sailor,) one who travels in a balloon. Hist. 
There appears to have been an inherent desire in 
man, from the most remote antiquity to the present 
time, to assume a similar sovereignty over the air 
that he possesses over the sea. The story of Dae- 
dalus and the fate of Icarus, must be familiar to 
every classical reader. The account of the au- 
tomaton dove, constructed by the geometer Archy- 
tas, appears to have been no fable. During the 
middle ages many attempts were made at flying, 
but it was not until the eighteenth century that 
any efforts of this nature were crowned with suc- 
cess. In the year 1782, the brothers Montgolfier 
constructed a balloon, which was inflated v/ith 
the smoke produced from the combustion of damp 
straw, and in 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the Mar- 
quis d'Arlandes ascended in a smoke balloon, from 
Paris, to an elevation of upwards of 3000 feet. In 
the beginning of 1784, MM. Charles and Robert 
ascended in a balloon filled with hydrogen gas, and 
after a flight of 90 minutes, alighted in saf^y. 
Other successful ascents followed, and no accident 
occurred until the young naturalist, Pilatre de Ro- 
zier, and his companion Remain, lost their lives in 
attempting to cross the channel from France to 
England. The machine on this occasion was 
double, having a large upper balloon filled with 
hydrogen, and a smaller one below (for the sake 
of raising or sinking the machine at pleasure) in- 
flated with smoke. At a height of 3000 feet, the 
whole apparatus was discovered to be on fire, and 
the unfortunate aeronauts were precipitated to the 
ground. The victory of Jordan over the Austri- 
ans at Fleurus in 1794, is said to have been ob- 
tained from the knowledge he acquired of the 
enemy's movements by means of a balloon. An 
ascent, very interesting to science, was made by 
Biot and Gay Lussac in 1804, when an elevation 
of upwards of 13,000 feet was attained. A similar 
ascent was made soon after by Gay Lussac alone, 
when the enormous height of 23,040 feet was 
reached, or an elevation of upwards of 4i English 
miles, being higher than the highest peak of the 
Andes. Since that time to the present numerous 
ascents have taken place in most of the principal 
towns of England, and in the majority of these 
cases, the balloons have been inflated with coal 
gas, furnished by the gas works The feat of Mr. 
Green, who ascended in a gigantic balloon from 



BAL 



90 



BAL 



Vauxhall in November, 1836, and succeeded in 
safely conducting across the cliannel to Nassau in 
Germany, not only himself, but two companions 
and a ton of ballast, must he within the recollec- 
tion of every one, and the more recent "jugglery" 
of Mr. Henson and his ''phantom" aerial machine, 
must be still more familiar. 

Principles of Ballooning. The weight of the 
body of air which a balloon displaces, must exceed 
the gross weight of the balloon and all its append- 
ages. Pure hydrogen is 16 times lighter than 
common air at the earth's surface ; but when pre- 
pared on the large scale for ballooning, it is only 
from 7 to 11 times lighter. (Cavendish.) Hence a 
bag, filled with this gas, will ascend to a position 
in the atmosphere where the latter possesses a sim- 
ilar density to itself, allowing, of course, for the 
addition to the gravity of the gas, occasioned by 
the weight of its envelope. It has been computed 
that a balloon of 60 feet diameter, filled with com- 
mon hydrogen gas, prepared from iron filings and 
acid, on the large scale, and being 6 times rarer 
than the atmosphere, would raise a weight of nearly 
7000 lbs., besides the weight of the gas case, while 
one of only 1^ feet in diameter would barely float, 
from the less proportion of gas to the weight of the 
case that contains it. The aerostatic power of 
balloons is proportional to their dimensions in the 
ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Balloons are 
made of larger size than required to contain the 
necessaiy quantity of gas, to allow room for its in- 
crease of bulk, as it rises into a rarer medium. A 
foot of gas, measured at the earth's surface, will 
fill a space of two feet at an elevation of 3^ miles. 
The carbureted hydrogen, suppUed by the gas- 
works, is much heavier than hydrogen gas, aud 
consequently, a balloon filled with the former has a 
much less ascensional power than when filled with 
the latter. Materials, ^c. The fabric, of which 
air balloons are made, is strong, thin silk, covered 
with a varnish of Indian rubber. Fire balloons 
(on the small scale) are generally made of silver 
paper, and inflated by burning spirits of wine, by 
means of a sponge dipped therein, and suspended 
just within the mouth of the balloon. The follow- 
ing table of the diameters, surfaces, and capaci- 
ties of spheres, as well as the remarks that follow, 
are taken from the Chemical Dictionary of Dr. 
Ure. 

Table showing the relations between the diame- 
ters, surfaces, and capacities of spheres. By 
Dr. Ure. 



Diameters. 


Surfaces. 


Civpacities. 


1 


3-141 


0-523 


2 


12-567 


4-188 


3 


28-274 


14-137 


4 


50-265 


33-51 


5 


78-54 


65-45 


10 


311-1.59 


.523-6 


15 


7()(;-!) 


1767-1 


20 


1256-6 


4181)- 


25 


l!)63-5 


8181- 


30 


2827- 


11137- 


40 


5026- 


33510- 



Remarks. Having ascertained by cxporiiiuMit 
He weight of a square foot of the varnished cloth, 



we find, by inspection in the above table, a multi- 
plier, whence we readily compute the total weight 
of the balloon. A cubic foot of atmospheric air 
weighs 527 grs., and a cubic foot of hydrogen about 
40. But as the gas employed to fill balloons is 
never pure, we must estimate its weight at some- 
thing more. And perhaps, taking every thing into 
account, we shall find it a convenient and suffi- 
ciently precise rule for aerostation, to consider 
every cubic foot of included gas to have by itself a 
buoyancy of fully one ounce avoirdupois. Hence, 
a balloon of 10 feet diameter will have an ascen- 
sional force of fully 524 oz. or 33 lbs. minus the 
weight of the 314 superficial feet of cloth ; and one 
of 30 feet diameter, a buoyancy of fully 14,137 
oz., or nearly 890 lbs. minus the weight of the 2827 
feet of cloth. On this calculation no allowance 
need be made for the seams of the balloon. 

BALLOON VARNISH. I. Good boiled lin- 
seed oil, if allowed a sufficient time to dry and 
harden, forms an excellent varnish for balloon cases. 

II. Indian rubber 1 lb., (cut small ,;) oil of tur- 
pentine 6 lbs. ; boiled drying oil 1 gallon. Proc. 
Digest the Indian rubber in the turpentine, in a 
warm place, for a week, frequently shaking the 
vessel during the whole time, then place it in a 
water bath and gradually heat it until the solution 
be completed ; next add the oil, previously made 
warm, gently simmer for five minutes, stirring all 
the while, after which closely cover it over, and 
when cold strain it through flannel. 

III. Ing. Birdlime 1 lb. ; boiled linseed oil 3 
pints ; turpentine q. s. Proc. Boil the birdlime 
with 1 pint of the oil in an iron pot, over a slow 
fire, for about half an hour, or until the former 
ceases to cackle, then add the rest of the oil, pre- 
viously heated, and again boil for about one hour, 
stirring well all the time, being careful that it does 
not boil over, as it is very liable to do so. When 
it has boiled sufficiently, may be known by its ad- 
mitting of being drawn into threads between two 
knives. As soon as this occurs, remove the pot 
from the fire, and when cooled a little, add a suf- 
ficient quantity of spirits of turpentine (warm) to 
reduce it to a proper consistence, and work i1 well 
up. 

Remarks. These varnishes are better applied 
lukewarm to the silk, previously stretched out 
tight. In about 24 hours they will dry. 

BALLS, ALTERATIVE, (for Horses.) 
Prep. 1. Ing. Calomel ^ oz. ; powdered aloes 1^ 
oz. ; starch 6 oz. ; soft soap 8 oz. Proc. Make 
them into a mass, and divide into 12 balls. Use. 
To improve the constitution. 

II. ///"■. Tartar emetic and ]>owdered ginger, of 
each 5 oz. ; powdered o])ium and calomel, of each 
1 oz. ; treacle to mix. Divide into 16 balls. 

III. Powdered Barbadoes aloes, ginger, and 
liquorice, of each 2 oz. ; all in powder ; Castile 
soap 2 oz. ; treacle to mix ; divide into 6 balls. 
Use. For grease. 

IV. Barbadoes aloes, emetic tartar, and liquor- 
ice, of each 1 oz. ; Castile soap, 2 o-/. ; treacle to 
mix. For 4 balls. Use. P^or strangles. 

V. Calomel, sulphuret of antimony, and pow- 
dered opium, of each ^ oz. ; powdered guu> giuiia- 
cuu\ 2J^ oz. ; Castile soap 12 oz. ; treacle t'') mix. 
Divide into 12 balls. Use. For weak howiua with 
a bad cou«titution. 



BAL 



91 



BAL 



VI. Calomel i oz. ; cascarilla and rhubarb, of 
each 1 oz. ; aloes and soap, of each 4 oz. ; treacle 
to mix. For 12 balls. Use. For weak horses. 

BALLS, ANODYNE, (for Horsks.) Opium 
and camphor, of each -J oz. ; aniseed powder 2 oz. ; 
ginger 1 oz. ; oil of caraways -J oz. ; Castile soap 
li oz. ; treacle to mix. Divide into 3 balls. Warm- 
ing, Composing. 

BALLS, ASTRINGENT, (for Horses.) L 
Opium \ oz. ; carbonate of soda 1 oz. ; powdered 
cassia and ginger, of each i oz. ; powdered gen- 
tian 2 oz. ; treacle to mix. For 4 balls. Tonic 
and binding. 

II. Opium i oz. ; ginger \ lb. ; prepared chalk 
i lb. ; treacle to mix. For 10 balls. For loose- 
ness. 

III. Guiii catechu | oz. ; powdered ginger 1 
oz. ; powdered liquorice 2 oz. ; soft soap to mix. 
For 3 balls. Astringent and tonic. 

BALLS, BITTER. Ing. Powdered gentian 
2 lbs. ; extract of gentian 1 lb. ; treacle q. s. Proc. 
Beat the ingredients to a hard mass, and make it 
into ^ lb. rolls. Use. Substituted for hops by fraud- 
ulent brewers. 

BALLS, BLACK. S^/n. Blacking Balls. I. 
Beeswax 8 oz. ; resin 1 oz. ; tallow ^ oz. ; melt to- 
gether, then add gum arabic IJ^ oz. ; dissolved in 
water 2 oz. ; and as much lamp-black as neces- 
sary to color ; stir until nearly cold, then run it 
into tin moulds. 

II. Lard and wax, each 1 oz. ; ivory black, 
lampblack, and brown sugar, of each 8 oz. ; best 
size 4 oz. ; mix as above. 

III. Ivoiy black 16 oz. ; gum tragacanth 2 oz. ; 
sugar candy 4 oz. ; water 16 oz. ; mix with heat. 

IV. Ivory black and lampblack, of each 16 oz. ; 
thick mucilage of gum arabic 7 oz. ; brown sugar 
6 oz. ; melted glue 1 oz. ; water 1 quart, as above. 

V. Suet 4 oz. ; beeswax and sweet oil, 1 oz. 
each ; sugar candy and gum arabic, both in fine 
powder, 1 drachm each ; melt together over a 
slow fire, then add one tablespoonful of turpentine, 
and enough lampblack to produce . a good color. 
Mould as above. Use. For blacking leather. 

BALLS, BREECHES. Ing. Bath brick 1 
lb. ; pumice-stone -J lb. ; all in fine powder ; ox- 
gall 6 oz. Proc. Make them into a paste, with a 
little water, if required, and mould them of any 
shape you please. 

II. Mix together equal parts of whiting and 
pipeclay, to which some coloring may be added. 
Remarks. Rose pink, yellow ochre, umber, Irish 
slate, or any other similar coloring matter may be 
added to produce the desired tint. 

BALLS, CAMPHOR, (for Horses.) I. Cam- 
phor 1 oz., (reduce it to powder by adding a little 
spirit and rubbing it in a mortar ;) powdered nitre 
4 oz. ; liquorice powder 1 oz. ; treacle to mix. For 
4 balls. Anodyne and diuretic. 

II. Omit the nitre, and add 4 oz, more liquorice 
powder. Anodyne. 

BALLS, CLOTHES. L Pipeclay 2 lbs. ; ful- 
ler's earth 1 lb. ; whiting ^ lb. ; white pepper 3 oz. ; 
mix with water. 

II. Fuller's earth 2 lbs. ; curd soap 1 lb. ; ox- 
galls sufficient to make a stiflf dough, with which 
form balls. 

Use. To remove grease from cloth and to clean 
slothes. 



BALLS, COLIC, (for Horses.) Powdered 
opium \ oz. ; Castile soap and camphor, each 
1 oz. ; powdered ginger and cassia, each ^ oz. ; 
liquorice powder 2 oz. ; treacle to make 4 balls. 

BALLS, CORDIAL, (for Horses.) Aniseed, 
caraway-seed, and cumin-seed, of each 4 lbs. ; 
ginger 2 lbs. ; all in powder; treacle q. s. to mix. 
Product 21 lbs. To be made up into balls weigh- 
ing IJ oz. each. 

II. Powdered ginger 1 lb. ; liquorice powder 3 
lbs. ; whiting 2 lbs. ; powdered opium 1 oz. ; oil of 
caraway ^ oz. ; oil of cassia ^ oz. ; oil of nutmegs 
and cloves, each 1 drachm ; treacle to mix. Di- 
vide into balls 1^ oz. each. 

III. Starch and powdered ginger, of each ^ lb. ; 
oils of caraway, cassia, and cloves, of each ^ oz. ; 
treacle to mix. Divide into 12 balls. Use. As a 
cordial after looseness, (especially No. II.,) during 
colds, &c. 

BALLS, COUGH, (for Horses.) I. Cordial 
ball mass 4 lbs. ; gum ammoniacvim 4 oz. ; pow- 
dered squills 1 oz. ; treacle to mix. Divide into 4 
dozen balls. 

II. Powdered ipecacuanha 1 oz. ; powdered 
squills, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each i oz. ; 
liquorice powder 16 oz. ; treacle to mix. For 12 
balls. 

III. Gum ammoniacum 3 oz. ; powdered squills 
1 oz. ; camphor f oz. ; opium ^ oz. ; powdered 
ginger 2 oz. ; oil of aniseed 5 drachms ; treacle to 
mix. For 8 balls. 

BALLS, CREAM. White curd soap 1 lb.; 
powdered starch 3 oz. ; beat together, weigh into 
1 oz. balls, and roll them in powdered starch. Use 
For cleaning the hands. 

BALLS, DIAPHORETIC, (for Horses.) 
I. Antimonial powder 1 oz. ; camphor J oz. ; 
starch 6 oz. ; mix with treacle, and divide into 6 
balls. 

II. Tartar emetic and camphor, of each -J oz. ; 
liquorice powder 2 oz. ; make them into two balls, 
with treacle. 

III. Camphor 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac 3 oz. ; li- 
quorice powder 2 oz. ; oil of aniseed ^ oz. ; soft 
soap 8 oz. ; beat together, and divide into 6 balls. 

BALLS, DIURETIC, (for Horses.) I. Soft 
soap and Venice turpentine, of each 4 oz. ; pow- 
dered nitre 2 oz. ; oil juniper, ^ oz. ; liquorice pow- 
der 3 oz. Divide into 8 balls. 

II. Powdered nitre, rosin, and soft soap, of each 
4 oz. ; liquorice powder 5 oz. ; oil of juniper 1 oz. ; 
treacle to mix. For 12 balls. 

III. Powdered rosin 6 lbs. ; nitre 4 lbs. ; soft 
soap and Venice turpentine, of each 1 lb. ; oil of 
juniper 1 oz. ; treacle to mix. Weigh into If oz. 
balls. 

BALLS, FARCY, (for Horses.) Corrosive 
sublimate 10 grains ; liquorice powder 1 oz. ; oil 
of aniseed ^ a drachm ; mix with treacle for 1 ball. 

11. Calomel 1 oz. ; powdered opium ^ oz. ; 
liquorice powder 12 oz. ; mix with treacle for 12 
balls. 

BALLS, FEVER, (for Horses.) Tartar 
emetic 2 oz. ; nitre 8 oz. ; liquorice 6 oz. ; all in 
fine powder ; mix with treacle for 12 balls. 

II. Nitre and tartar emetic, of each 1 lb., in 
fine powder ; powdered digitalis 4 oz. ; antimonial 
powder 8 oz. ; liquorice pow^der 1^ lb. ; treacle to 
mix. Divide into balls weighing 1 oz. 3 drs. each. 



BAL 



92 



BAL 



BALLS, FURNITURE. I. Melt together in 
a pipkin 1 lb. of beeswax and ^ oz. of alkanet root 
until the former be well colored ; then add linseed 
oil and spirits of turpentine, of each \ pint. Strain 
through a piece of coarse muslin. 

II. Linseed oil 1 pint, alkanet root 2 oz. ; heat 
them together until a proper color be produced, 
strain, and add yellow wax 1^ lb., and rosin 2 oz. 
Use. For polishing furniture. 

BALLS, GARLICK, (for Horses.) Garlick 
1 oz. ; liquorice powder enough to make a ball. 
Use. For chronic coughs. 

BALLS, GRIPE, (for Horses.) Liquorice, 
black pepper, ginger, and prepared chalk, all in 
powder, of each 4 oz. ; oils of caraway, cloves, and 
cassia, of each 1 drachm; treacle to mix. For 12 
balls. 

BALLS, INFLUENZA, (for Horses.) Bar- 
badoes aloes, nitre, and Venice turpentine, of 
each 1 lb. ; gentian 2 lbs. ; ginger ^ lb. ; treacle 
to mix. Divide into 1^ oz. balls. 

BALLS, LAXATIVE, (for Horses.) I. Aloes, 
ginger, and soft soap, of each 3 drachms ; mix 
with treacle for 1 ball. Cordial and laxative. 

II. Flowers of sulphur | lb. ; powdered antimo- 
ny 2 oz. ; calomel 1 oz. ; powdered ginger 3 oz. ; 
treacle to mix for 12 balls. 

BALLS, MANGE, (for Horses.) Crude an- 
timony 2 oz. ; calomel 1 oz. ; opium ^ oz. ; flow- 
ers of sulphur 1 lb. ; mix with treacle and divide 
into 12 balls. Remark. A piece the size of a horse 
bean to that of a small nut, is a capital medicine 
for dogs. 

BALLS, MERCURIAL, (for Horses.) 
I. Calomel 1 oz. ; aloes 2 oz. ; rhubarb | oz. ; 
liquorice powder 14 oz. ; treacle to mix. l)ivide 
into 12 balls. Laxative and alterative. 

II. Strong mercurial ointment -J lb. ; powdered 
ginger 3 oz. ; liquorice powder 10 oz. ; treacle to 
mix for 12 balls. 

BALLS, PHYSIC. Syn. Purging Balls, 
(for Horses.) Barbadoes aloes 5 oz. ; hard soap 
3 oz. ; ginger and olive oil, of each 1 oz. ; melt 
together in a ladle, and while warm, divide into 6 
balls. 

II. Aloes and hard soap, of each 5 oz. ; pearl- 
ashes 1 oz. ; powdered ginger 2 oz. ; melt as above 
for 8 balls. 

BALLS, SCOURING. I. Ing. Curd soap 8 
oz. ; oil of turpentine and ox-gall, of each 1 oz. 
Proc. Melt the soap, and when cooled a little, 
stir in the rest, and make it into cakes while warm. 

II. Soft soap and fuller's earth, each 1 lb. ; beat 
them well together in a mortar, and form into 
cakes. Use. To remove grease, &c., from cloth. 
The spot first moistened with water is rubbed with 
the cake, and allowed to dry, when it is well rub- 
bed with a little warm water, and afterwards 
rinsed or rubbed off clean. 

BALLS, STOMACHIC, (for Horses.) Pow- 
dered gentian, 4 oz. ; powdered ginger and carbon- 
ate of soda, each 2 oz. ; soft soap 8 oz. ; mix and 
divide into 8 balls. 

II. i'owdered quassia, myrrh, soda, aloes, and 
rhubarb, of each 2 drachms ; oil of cloves 10 drops ; 
treacle to mix for 1 ball. 

I II. Aloe.s ) oz ; rhubarb and ginger, each ^ oz. ; 
calomel 1 drachm; oil of caraway 10 drops; soft 
soap 3 drachms ; for 1 ball. 



BALLS, STRENGTHENING, (for Horses.) 
Powdered calomba and cascarilla, of each \ oz. ; 
soft soap I oz. ; chalk ^ oz. ; make into a ball, /or 
looseness, ^c. 

II. Powdered gentian 2 oz. ; sulphate of iron 
and myrrh, of each 1 oz. ; liquorice powder 4 oz. ; 
treacle to mix. For 8 balls. 

BALLS, SULPHUR, (for Horses.) Flowers 
of sulphur 1 lb. ; powdered antimony 3 oz. ; red 
sulphuret of mercury (pure) 2 oz. ; powdered gum 
1 oz. ; treacle to mix. For 12 balls. Said to 
make the coat sleek ; also for mange, &c. 

BALLS, SWEET. Syn. Pomambra. I. Ing. 
Florentine orris root 3 oz. ; cassia 1 oz. ; cloves, 
rhodium wood, and lavender flowers, of each J oz. ; 
ambergris and musk, of each 6 grs. ; oil of ver- 
bena 10 drops. Proc. Make them into* balls with 
mucilage of gum tragacanth made with rose- 
water. 

II. Gum benzoin and styrax, of each 1 oz. ; 
cloves and cassia, of each \ oz. ; musk and civet 
5 grs. ; balsam of Peru, oil of verbena, oil of rho- 
dium, otto of roses, and true neroli, of each 10 
drops ; Florentine orris root 2 oz. Proc. Reduce 
the dry articles to powder, then add the essences, 
and make the whole into balls with essence of jcls- 
mine, jonquil, violet, and tuberose, of each equal 
parts. 

III. Plaster of Paris 4 oz. ; sandal wood, cype- 
rus root, and cloves, of each ^ oz. ; gum benzoin 
and styrax, of each 1 oz. ; ivory-black 2 oz. ; musk 
and civet, of each 1 scruple ; ambergris 10 grains ; 
balsam of Peru ^ oz. ; oil of cassia 10 drops; oil 
of rhodium ^ a drachm ; essence of jasmin i oz. ; 
essence of neroli ^ a drachm ; otto of roses 15 
drops ; mucilage made with orange-flower water 
to mix. Proc. Make them into beads, and pierce 
them while soft. 

Use. Worn in the pocket as a perfume. Some 
persons varnish them, but that keeps in the smell. 

BALLS, TONIC, (for Horses.) Gentian i 
oz. ; opium ^ a drachm ; cascarilla, myrrh, and 
carbonate of soda, of each 1 drachm ; soft soap ^ 
oz. Form into a ball. 

II. Calomba 2 oz. ; cassia \ oz. ; allspice ^ oz. ; 
treacle to make 2 balls. 

III. Powdered bark 8 oz. ; gentian 2 oz. ; salts 
of tartar 1 oz. ; opium ^ oz. ; liquorice powder and 
iron filings, of each 3 oz. ; treacle to make 12 balls. 
If the horse is costive, omit the opium. 

IV. Sulphate of iron 4^ oz. ; powder of calom- 
ba 5 oz. ; do. of cascarilla 3 oz. ; soft soap 8 oz. 
For 12 balls. 

V. Sulphate of iron, myrrh, and gentian, of 
each, ^ oz. ; ginger ^ oz. ; carbonate of soda 3 
drachms ; treacle to make 1 ball. The last three 
are suited for washy horses. 

VI. Gentian 8 oz. ; ginger 4 oz. ; opium | oz. ; 
nitre 3 oz. ; oil of caraway ^ oz. ; liquorice powder 
and treacle to make 12 balls. For excessive stal- 
ing. 

VII. Sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper, 
of each, 1 drachm; Venice turpentine 1 oz. ; gin- 
ger and cassia, of each, \ oz. ; liquorice powder to 
make 2 balls. For incontinence of urine. 

BALLS, WORM, (for Horses.) I. Aloes 
f) drachms ; Castile soap ^ oz. ; calomel and gin- 
ger, of each, 1^ drachms; oil of cloves and cassiai | 
of each, G drops ; treacle to make a ball. II. ^ 



BAL 



93 



BAL 



Aloes, powdered tin, ginger, and soft soap, of 
each, i oz. ; oil of cloves 15 drops. Make a 
ball. 

BALLS, WASH, (Mottled.) I. (Red.) Cut 
white curd or Windsor soap, not too dry, into 
small square pieces, and roll them in a mixture 
of powdered bole and starch, or bole alone ; then 
squeeze them into balls without mi.xing the color 
more than is necessary. 

n. (Blue.) Roll the pieces in powdered blue, 
and proceed as before. 

IIL (Green.) Roll the pieces in a mixture of 
powdered blue and yellow ochre. 

Remarks. In this way, by varying the color of 
the powder, mottled wash-balls of any color may 
be produced. 

BALM OF GILEAD. Syn. Balsam.^leon. 
Opobalsam. Oil of Balsam. Balm of Mecca. 
Balsamum Judaicum. The genuine balsam of 
Mecca is the juice of the amyris gileadensis, and 
is obtained by cutting the bark of the tree with 
an axe. It is both scarce and costly, and none 
of it ever reaches this country as an article of 
connnerce. " There are only two shops in Oou- 
stantiuople at which the genuine balsam can be 
obtained. Its price is exorbitant, one grain being 
charged 5 Tui-kish piastres = Is. O^d." That 
which is sent to England is obtained by boiling 
the twigs of the balsam tree in water. The real 
balsam of Mecca is of a clear gold color, and 
possesses a penetrating and delicate fragrance, 
and a sharp bitter astringent taste. A drop let 
fall on the surface of hot water spreads itself over 
the whole surface, like a thin film of oil, and 
again contracts on the water cooling. It dissolves 
completely in fatty and essential oils, which then 
assume the peculiar flavor of the balsam. Use. 
It is thought to be antiseptic, stimulant, and vul- 
nerary, and that its fumes prevent barrenness. It 
is employed in the east as a cosmetic and per- 
fume. VVhen applied to the skin it causes redness 
and swelling. 

BALM OF GILEAD, FACTITIOUS. The 
article met with in trade under the name of balm 
of Gilead is either the article alluded to above or 
a spurioas kind prepared by one of the formulae 
below. 

I. Ing. Yellow rosin 10 oz. ; tincture of ben- 
zoin and oil of lemons 3 oz. each ; oils of cara- 
ways and rosemary, of each, 2 oz. Proc. Melt 
the rosin ; then remove it from the heat, and stir 
in the tincture ; lastly, add the essential oils. 

II. Yellow rosin 1 lb. ; gum benzoin (bright) 
4 oz. ; best liquid styrax 2 oz. ; essence of lemons 
3 oz. ; oil of rosemary 2 oz. ; oils of caraways and 
cassia, each, 1 oz. Proc. Keep the rosin melted 
by a gentle heat for 15 minutes ; then remove the 
heat, and add the benzoin, previously powdered 
and rubbed up with an equal weight of tincture 
of benzoin, and when thoroughly incorporated add 
the rest ; reduce it to a proper consistence with 
spirit of wine, and strain through flannel. 

IIL Balsam of Canada 16 oz. ; gum benzoin, 
Dright and clear, 5 oz. ; oils of lemons, rosemary, 
and cassia, of each, ^ oz. Powder the benzoin, 
and well mix it with the Canada balsam ; then 
place the mixture in a flask, and after closing the 
mouth expose it to the heat of a water-bath, until 
thtt liquid will dissolve no more of the benzoin ; 



next allow it to settle until clear and cold, and 
then add the essences. 

BALSAM. Syn. Baume, (Ft.) Balsame, 
(Ger.) Balsams are semi-liquid resinous sub- 
stances, having for the most part the consistence 
of honey. Some, however, are solid, and the 
greater number harden by exposure to the air and 
age. They are generally aromatic, soluble in al- 
cohol, partly soluble in ether, and not at all so in 
water. Their usual constituents are resin and 
benzoic acid, mixed with a large portion of aro- 
matic essential oil. Some of the substances false- 
ly called balsams contain no benzoic acid, as the 
balsam of copaiba, «&c. ; and many preparations, 
from the presumption that they possess balsamic 
qualities, have also received this name. 

BALSAM, ACOUSTIC. Prep. I. Tincture 
of benzoin, tincture of castor, and tincture of 
opium, of each, 1 oz. ; essential "^il of asafoetida 
5 drops. Mix. 

II. (Baume's.) Tinctures of ambergris, asa- 
foetida, castor, and opium, of each, 1 oz. ; tere- 
binthinated balsam of sulphur and oil of rue, of 
each, 15 drops. Mix. 

Use. In atonic deafness, 1 or 2 drops poured 
into the ear ; or a piece of cotton wool moistened 
there-with, is introduced instead. 

BALSAM OF AMBER. The thick oil left 
in the retort after rectifying oil of amber. The 
properties are similar to oil of amber. 

BALSAM, ANODYNE, (BATE'S.) Prep 
Castile soap, in shavings, 3 oz. ; camphor 2 oz. ; 
powdered opium ^ oz. ; hay saffron and oil of rose- 
mary, of each, 1 drachm ; rectified spirit 1 pint. 
Proc. Digest (with agitation) for 10 days. 

II, Soft soap 1-| lb. ; powdered opium and cam- 
phor, of each, \ lb. ; oil of rosemary ^ oz. ; recti- 
fied spirit 1 gallon. As above. 

III. Opodeldoc 3 oz. ; laudanum 1 oz. ; mix. 
Use. As an anodyne and rubefacient for sprains, 
&c. Dose. 20 to 40 drops. 

BALSAM, CANADA. This balsam is the 
product of the Canadian balsam fir, (the abies 
balsamea.) a tree of very common growth in Can- 
ada and the State of Maine, (U. S.) When fresh, 
it has the consistence of thin honey, an agreeable 
odor, an acid taste, and a pale yellow color, near- 
ly white. 

Pur. It should be perfectly transparent, and 
soluble in rectified oil of turpentine, with which it 
forms a beautiful glassy and colorless varnish, 
which is much used for preparing a semi-transpa- 
rent copying-paper. A factitious kind is sold, but 
is wholly deficient of some of the properties of the 
genuine balsam. 

BALSAM, CANADA (FACTITIOUS.) 
Prep. Dissolve 3 lb. of clear yellow resin in 1 
gallon of oil of turpentine ; then add ^ pint of 
pale linseed oil, and \ oz. each of essence of lemon 
and oil of rosemary. 

BALSAM OF COPAIBA. The oleoresinous 
juice of the copaifera officinalis. 

Pur. As this substance is frequently adultera- 
ted, and sometimes a factitious article is sold in- 
stead, it becomes important to be able to ascertain 
its purity. 

1. The Ed. Ph. states that it should be " trans- 
parent, free of turpentine odor when heated, sol- 
uble in 2 parts of alcohol, and dissolve one fomth 



BAL 



94 



BAL 



of its weight of carbonate of magnesia when heat- 
ed, and continue translucent." 

2. Place a drop of the balsam on a piece of un- 
sized paper, and heat it until all the essential oil 
be expelled ; it should then form a semi-transpa- 
rent well-defined spot; but if the balsam has 
been adulterated with a fat oil, it will be sur- 
rounded by an oily areola. (Chevallier.) 

3. Shaken with liquid ammonia, sp. gr. -965, it 
becomes clear and transparent in a few moments. 
(Planche.) 

4. 2^ parts of balsam with 1 of hquor of am- 
monia, form a transparent mixture, which may 
be heated to 212° without becoming opaque. 
(Vigne.) 

5. Boiled with 50 times its weight of water for 
1 hour, it should lose at least half its weight. 
(Vigne.) 

6. Two samples of balsam from Para, which 
were considered to have been purposely adultera- 
ted with rancid oil of almonds, dissolved well in 
alcohol, but combined badly with magnesia and 
ammonia. Direct experiments showed that pure 
copaiba balsam may be adulterated with 50 per 
cent, of a fat oil (nut oil, almond oil) Avithout its 
ceasing to give a clear solution in 2 parts of alco- 
hol. Only after 12 to 15 hours does the oil sepa- 
rate. Excess of alcohol separates the oil in all 
cases. It is evident, therefore, that under certain 
circumstances an unadulterated balsam may be 
insoluble or of difficult solution in alcohol ; an 
adulterated one, on the contrary, may be soluble. 
The best test for detecting the fat oils would be 
alcohol to which some caustic potash has been 
added. (Journ. de Pharm., 1842, p. 52.) 

Use. Balsam of copaiba is considered detersive, 
vulnerary, diuretic, and astringent ; and appears 
to possess a sort of specific power over diseases 
of the mucous membranes of the urino-genital 
organs. Dose. 20 to 60 drops on sugar, or float- 
ing on water, to which 30 or 40 drops of elixir of 
vitriol has been added. It may be taken 3 or 4 
times daily, if the stomach will bear it. A few 
drops of sweet spirits of nitre and laudanum are 
a good addition to allay the nausea. It is also 
given in the form of sirup, mixture, pills, and 
clyster. 

Remarks. Numerous preparations of this article 
are continually being puffed off by certain adver- 
tising druggists ; as " soluble copaiba" " specific 
solution" " salt of copaiba," &i-c. ; but none ap- 
pear to possess equal activity and certainty to the 
natural balsam. As the whole virtue of copaiba 
as a medicine depends upon the essential oil it con- 
tains, tlie vahie of any of these preparations may 
be estimated by the quantity of that article which 
is found in them. In the case of the first two ar- 
ticles above mentioned, the quantity is very small 
indeed, and in the latter it is w/iolly deficient. 
Hence the large doses of those articles that may 
be takf'U with impunity, as far as their balsamic 
properties go, always, of course, excepting (he 
danger of burning a iiuh! tinongb tlie coals of Die 
stoniucli with the large (juantity of caustic potassa 
wliicli tlicy usually contain. 

BAJ.SAM COPAIBA, ENEMA OF. (Vkl- 
PEAU.) Prep. Balsam of copaiba \ oz. ; yelk of 1 
egg ; distilled water 8 oz. Make an emulsion, and 
add VU to 30 drops of laudanum. 



BALSAM OF COPAIBA, FACTITIOUS 

Prep. Powdered gum benzoin 4 oz. ; castor oil 1 
gallon ; yellow rosin 3 lbs. ; balsam of Canada 2 
lbs. ; oil of juniper 2 oz. ; oil of savine 1 oz. ; es- 
sences of orange and lemon, of each ^ oz. Proc. 
Melt the rosin, then add a little of the castor oil 
and the powdered benzoin, and withdraw the heat ; 
when well mixed add the remainder of the castor 
oil, and when nearly cold the essences ; mix well, 
and filter through a Canton flannel bag, adding a 
little coarsely -powdered charcoal. 

II. Balsam of Canada 8 lbs. ; yellow rosin 2 
lbs. ; castor oil 3 lbs. ; oil of juniper \ oz. ; essen- 
tial oil of almonds 15 drops ; oil of savine 20 drops- 
As above. 

III. Balsam of Canada 9 lbs. ; yellow rosin 1 
lb. ; Venice turpentine 2 lbs. ; oils of rosemary, 
juniper, and savine, 1 drachm each; essential oil 
of almonds 15 drops. 

IV. Balsam of Canada 3 lbs. ; Venice turpen- 
tine 1 lb. ; oils of fennel, juniper, and savine, of 
each q. s. 

Remarks. The above compounds may easily 
be distinguished from the genuine balsam, by any 
one acquainted with the characteri&. ^s of the 
latter. 

BALSAM OF COPAIBA, REDUCED. Bal- 
sam of copaiba 4 lbs. ; castor oil 3 lbs. Mix. 

II. Balsam of copaiba 7 lbs. ; castor oil 4 lbs. ; 
yellow rosin 2 lbs. 

III. Equal parts of balsam of copaiba and bal- 
sam of Canada mixed together. 

IV. To the last add 2 lbs. of Venice turpentine. 

V. Balsams of Canada and copaiba, and nut or 
castor oil, equal parts. 

VI. Copaiba 7 lbs. ; nut oil 3 lbs. ; yellow rosin 

2 lbs. ; balsam of Canada 1 lb. 

Remarks. The above are the forms for the re- 
duction of copaiba balsam, that have from time to 
time been circulated in the drug trade. For the 
mode of distinguishing such compounds from the 
pure balsam, see Balsam of Copaiba. 

BALSAM OF COPAIBA, RESIN OF. The 
residuum left from the process of distilling the oil 
of copaiba from the balsam. (See Oils, Oil of 
Copaiba.) Prop., Use, ^c. It consists principally 
of copaibic acid. It has been recommended for 
gonorrhoea, but appears to be nearly inert. I once 
foolishly swallowed, out of bravado, nearly | oz. 
of this resin, without experiencing any sensible ef^ 
fects in consequence. 

BALSAM OF COPAIBA, SIRUP OF. Prep 
Rub 4 oz. of copaiba with 32 grs. of calcined mag- 
nesia, G4 drops of oil of peppermint, and a little 
simple sirup ; when thoroughly mixed, add enough 
of the latter to make up the whole quantity to 
()2 oz. 

BALSAM, GODBOLD'S VEGETABLE. 
Prep. Lump sugar 1 lb. ; vinegar ^ pint ; garlic ^ 
oz. ; tincture of tolu 1 teaspoonful ; rectified spirit 

3 oz. Proc. Stt>ep the garlic in the vinegar for 
3 or 4 days, then strain otl" the clear and dissolve 
the sugar tlienMu, after wliieh add the other ingre- 
ditMils and shake (heni well together. 

BALSAM, GREEN. Prep. Linseed oil 8 oz. ; 
gum elemi 2 oz. ; verdigris powdered ^ oz. Proc. 
Melt together and strain. Use. The same as 
green oil. 

BALSAM OF GUAIACUM. Prep. Gum 



BAL 



95 



BAL 



guaiacurn in coarse powder 16 oz. ; balsam of Pe- 
ru i oz. ; rectified spirit 1 quart. Proc. Macerate 
for 10 days, frequently shaking the mixture. 

Use. As a diaphoretic. Dose. 30 to 60 drops. 
Externally antisuppurative. 

BALSAM OF HONEY. Prep. I. Balsam 
of tolu 2 oz. ; gum storax and powdered opium, of 
each \ oz. ; honey 8 oz. ; rectified spirit 1 quart. 
Proc. Mix well together, and agitate occasionally 
for 3 or 4 days, then decant the clear and filter 
the residuum. Use. As a pectoral, in tickling 
coughs. Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

II. {HiWs.) a. Balsam of tolu 1 lb. ; honey 2 
lbs. ; rectified spirit 1 gallon. Dissolve. 

b. Balsam of tolu 1 oz. ; styrax 1 drachm ; opi- 
um 2 drachms ; honey ^ lb. ; rectified spirit 1 pint, 
as above. Dose. Half to a whole teaspoonful. As 
a pectoral in coughs and colds. 

BALSAM OF LEAD. Prep. Sugar of lead 
2 oz. ; oil of turpentine 1 pint. Proc. Heat them 
together for half an hour, and then pour off the 
clear. Use. As a cooling external application. 

BALSAM, LOCATELLE S. Prep. I. Yel- 
low rosin, olive oil, and Venice turpentine, of each 
1 lb. ; shavings of red Sanders wood 1 oz. Proc. 
Boil to the consistence of a thin ointment, and 
strain. 

II. Yellow wax 4 oz. ; olive oil and Venice tur- 
pentine, of each 1 lb. ; alkanet root 2 oz. ; as last. 

Use. As a pectoral in coughs and colds. Dose. 
J to 1 teaspoonful mixed with the same quantity 
of conserve of roses. 

BALSAM, PECTORAL. Prep. Tincture of 
tolu, and compound tincture of benzoin, of each 2 
oz. ; rectified spirit 4 oz. Mix. Use. As a pec- 
toral in couglis and colds. Dose. A teaspoonful. 

BALSAM OF PERU. Prep, and Source. 
Genuine balsam of Peru is obtained by boiling the 
bark and branches of the myrospermum peruiferum 
in water. It should possess the following charac- 
teristics : 

Pur. and Tests. I. Balsam of Peru should have 
a consistence and appearance resembling treacle, 
and an aromatic odor between that of benzoin and 
vanilla. 11. It should be entirely soluble in alco- 
hol. III. It should undergo no diminution in vol- 
ume when agitated with water. IV. 1000 parts 
of the balsam should saturate exactly 75 grains of 
pure crj-stallized carbonate of soda. V. Its sp. gr. 
should not be less than 1-150, nor more than 1-160. 

Remarks. Like most other costly articles, it is 
both imitated and adulterated. The following are 
the formulai adopted for this purpose, but the arti- 
cles so produced will not answer to the above tests. 

BALSAM OF PERU, FACTITIOUS. Prep. 
Balsam of tolu 1 lb. ; gum benzoin 3 lbs. ; liquid 
storax 1 oz. ; rectified spirit q. s. Proc. The gum 
benzoin in coarse powder is dissolved in a little of 
the spirit, and then mixed up with the balsam of 
tolu and storax, adding as much spirit as is neces- 
sary to reduce it to a proper consistence. 

BALSAM OF PERU, REDUCED. Prep. 
Balsam of Peru 3 lbs. ; balsam of tolu 2 lbs. ; rec- 
tified spirit enough to -educe it to a proper consist- 
ence. As above. 

II. Balsam of Peru 3 lbs. ; gum benzoin (dis- 
solved in the least quantity of spirit possible) 1 lb. 
As above. 

BALSAM, RIGA. Syn. Baume de Carpa- 



THES. (Fr.) Balsamum Libani. (Lat.) True Ri- 
ga balsam is a pellucid white fluid, obtained from 
ihe shoots of the pin us cembra. It smells and 
tastes strongly of oil of juniper, and like that arti- 
cle is powerfully diuretic and vulnerary. The 
bottoms of oil of juniper thinned with spirit are 
generally sold for it. The spiritus turionum pini 
is also commonly called Riga balsam. 

BALSAM, RIGA. Syn. Spiritus Turionum 
Pini. Prep. I, Young shoots of Scotch fir (col- 
lected in March) 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit and water, 
of each 5 pints. Proc. Bruise the fir-shoots and 
macerate in the spirit and water for 3 or 4 days, 
then distil 1 gallon. 

II. {Extemporaneous.) Mix together, rectified 
spirit 8 oz. ; oil of juniper and compound tincture 
of benzoin, of each 1 oz. ; agitate well and filter. 
Prop., Use, ^c. Stimulant and diuretic : also 
used for sprains and bruises. 

BALSAM OF SULPHUR. Syn. Oil of Sul- 
phur. SuLPHURETED OiL. Prop. I. Flowers of 
sulphur 1 lb. ; olive oil 8 lbs. Proc. Heat them 
together in a large iron pot, and stir until they 
combine. (P. E.) 

II. Flowers of sulphur 1 lb. ; linseed oil 1 gallon. 

BALSAM OF SULPHUR, ANISATED. 
Prep. I. Dissolve 1 oz. of flowers of sulphur in 4 
oz. of oil of aniseed. 

II. Balsam of sulphur 12 oz. ; oil of aniseed 4 
oz. Mix. 

Use, Dose, <^c. Balsam of sulphur is said to 
possess expectorant and diaphoretic qualities, and 
has been given in doses of 40 to 50 drops, in dis- 
eases of the lungs, and used externally as an ap- 
plication to foul ulcers. Its disagreeable taste and 
smeli have, however, almost precluded its use. The 
last two formulae are pectoral, in doses of 10 to 30 
drops. 

BALSAM, THIBiVULT'S. Prep. MyiTh, 
aloes, and dragon's blood, of each 1 drachm ; 
flowers of Saint John's wort 1 handful ; spirit of 
wine ^ a pint ; Canada balsam ^ oz. Proc. Di- 
gest the flowers in the spirit for 3 days, then express 
the liquor and dissolve the other ingredients therein. 
Use. To heal cuts and wounds, and to stop bleeding. 
Internally diuretic, in doses of 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls ; 
given in gonorrhoea. 

BALSAM OF TOLU. This substance is ob- 
tained from the myrospermum toluiferum, and 
when fresh, is a soft, translucent, tenacious, and 
resinous-looking mass, of a reddish or yellowish 
brown color, a fragrant odor, and a sweetish taste. 
It is perfectly soluble in alcohol, forming a trans- 
parent solution. By exposure to the air it becomes 
hard and brittle. It is frequently adulterated, in 
which case it has a iveaker smell, is less soluble in 
alcohol, and the tincture formed with that fluid 
is opaque. 

BALSAM OF TOLU, FACTITIOUS. Prep. 
Orange shellac and gum benzoin, of each 1 lb. in 
coarse powder ; dissolve in rectified spirit 5 lb., (in 
a close vessel ;) filter and distil off the spirit until 
the residuum has a proper consistence, then add a 
few drops of the oils of cassia and nutmeg, dis- 
solved in a little essence of vanilla. 

BALSAM OF TOLU, (REDUCED.) L Bal- 
sam of tolu 1 lb. ; mix it by a gentle heat in a 
close vessel with 1\ lb. of the brightest and clearest 
pieces of gum benzoin reduced to a coarse powder, 



BAR 



96 



BAR 



and soften with a little tincture of vanilla and spi- 
rit of wine. 

II. Equal parts of balsam of tolu, benzoin, orange 
shellac, and spirit of wine, mixed together by a 
gentle heat, and flavored with a little essence of 
.atorax and essence of vanilla. 

BALSAM OF TURPENTINE. Prep. Melt 
by a gentle heat black rosin 1 lb. ; remove the 
vessel from the fire and add oil of turpentine 1 pint. 

BAMBOO, ENGLISH. This is a sort of 
pickle prepared from the young shoots of elder in 
spring. Prep. The outer skin is peeled off", and 
they are immersed in salt water for 12 or 14 hours, 
then boiled in vinegar for a few seconds ; they are 
next put into a jar with a little white pepper, gin- 
ger, mace, and pimento, and vinegar (boiling hot) 
poured over them ; the jar is then well covered 
up, and set for about 2 hours in a hot place by the 
fireside, where it is kept scalding until the pickle 
is done. 

Use. For making Indian pickle, also eaten with 
boiled mutton. The clusters of elder flowers, just 
before they open, also make a beautiful pickle. 

BANDANNA. This is a species of cahco 
printing distin^ruished by light, or white figures or 
spots on a dark ground, and has been practised in 
India from time immemorial. Formerly bandanna 
handkerchiefs were wholly imported from India, 
but of late years those of British manufacture 
have entirely superseded them. The latter are not 
only much cheaper, but also vastly sujierior in 
quality. At the works of Messrs. Monteith and 
Co. at Glasgow, no less than 1600 pieces, or 19,200 
yards of cotton, are cmiverted into bandannas in 
the short space of 10 hours, by the labor of only 
4 workmen. The machinery employed for this 
purpose is of the most ingenious description. 

{Process of printing Bandannas.) A series of 
presses are arranged furnished with lead plates, out 
of which the pattern is cut, the pieces of cotton, 
dyed (generally) of a Turkey red, are then placed 
in, several at a time, and the presses put in action 
by hydraulic machinery, by which every part of 
the cloth, except where the pattern has been cut 
out of the lead plates, receives a pressure of up- 
wards of 300 tons. A clear solution of chloride of 
lime is now admitted to the pattern, by properly 
arranged pipes, and after it has removed the color, 
which it does very rapidly, a stream of water is 
passed through the pattern, to wash oflTthe bleach- 
ing solution, when the operation is complete. The 
pieces of cloth are then removed from the presses 
and others substituted, to undergo a similar opera- 
tion. 

BARBAROSSA'S PILLS. These are sup- 
posed to have been the first mercurial preparation 
employed in medicine. They consisted of quick- 
silver, rinibarl), nuisk, and amber. 

BARCLAY'S ANTIBILIOUS PILLS. Prep. 
Colocynth 2 drachms ; extract of jalap 1 drachm ; 
almond soap 1^ drachms; gum giuiiacum 3 
drachms ; emetic tartar 8 grs. ; oils of juniper, 
caraway, and rosemary, of each 4 drops. Proc. 
Mal<(^ the iiigri'diciits iiilo a mass with sirup of 
buckthorn, and divide into (54 pills. 

BARIOGKS WATER. Prep. Alum, carbon- 
ate ol' liine, and hard Spanish soap, of each 2 grs. ; 
common salt 4 grs. ; drii'd carbonate of soda 20 
grs. ; Hul])hiu-et of potassium 1 G grs. ; water 1 quart. 



Proc. Reduce the solid ingredients to powder, and 
boil them in the water until the fumes of sulplm- 
reted hydrogen begin to be evolved, then add 
enough water to make up 1 gallon. Use. As a 
medicated lotion or bath in cutaneous diseases, 
from the slightest eruption to the most obstinate 
cases of leprosy. Remarks. The above are the 
proportions for 1 gallon, but when a larger quan- 
tity of water is wanted, a proportionate weight of 
the materials may be dissolved in a little of the 
water, as above, and then added to the bath. This 
was the medicated warm bath used by the Empe- 
ror Napoleon. 

BARIUM. The metallic base of the earth ba- 
ryta, discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1808. 

Prep. Make a paste with carbonate of baryta 
and water, and place a globule of mercury in a 
little hollow, formed in its surface. The whole 
must be then laid on a small platina tray, con- 
nected with the positive pole of a galvanic battery, 
of 100 double plates, while the negative wire must 
be inserted into the globule of mercury. An amal- 
gam of barium is formed, which, on being heated 
in a vacuum, parts with its mercury and leaves 
the former metal pure. 

Prop., ^c. A dark gray colored metal, posses 
sing little lustre, and decomposed by both air and 
water, absorbing oxygen, which converts it into 
the earth baryta. 

BARIUM, BROMIDE OF. Prep. Boil to- 
gether protobromide of iron and moist carbonate 
of baryta, in excess, evaporate the filtered solution 
and heat the residue to redness. Remarks. By 
the careful evaporation of a solution of this sub- 
stance prismatic crystals may be obtained. It 
dissolves freely both in water and alcohol. 

BARIUM, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Muriate 
OF Baryta. Hydrochlorate of ditto. Prep. 
I. Carbonate of baryta §x ; muriatic acid ^ pint ; 
water 1 quart. Proc. Dilute the acid with the 
water, then dissolve the carbonate of baryta in it ; 
evaporate and crystallize. (P. L.) 

II. Sulphate of baryta ib ij ; powdered charcoal 
^iv ; muriatic acid q. s. Proc. Heat the sulphate 
of baryta to redness, then cool and powder ; next 
add the charcoal, and expose the mixture in a 
covered crucible for three hours to a low white 
heat ; cool and powder ; lastly, dissolve in water, 
filter, and add muriatic acid until etFervescence 
ceases. The solution may now be evaporated and 
crystallized as before. (P. E.) 

Prop. Form ; crystalline plates or tables, solu- 
ble in water, and fixed in the air. It communi- 
cates a greenish yellow color lo flame. Use. 
Principally as a test for sulphin-ic acid, its solution 
causing a white precipitate in another, containing 
oil of vitriol or a sulphale. It has been given in 
scrofula, scirrhous cancer, skin diseases, &c. It is 
poisonous. Its antidotes are the same as those 
for baryta. 

Remarks. The process of the London College 
is the simplest and most convenient. That of the 
Edinburgh requires lo be conducted under a chim- 
m>y, or in a strong current of air, (o carry otVllio 
sul[)luir('ted hydrogen, evolved in large quiuitities, 
during the process. Tlie form of the P. D. is sim- 
ilar to the I'^dinburgli. 

BARIUM, FLUORIDE OF. S,/n. IIvdro- 
FLUoiiATE OF Barvta. A vvhito powdcr formed 



BAR 



97 



BAR 



ay digesting freshly-precipitated carbonate of ba- 
ryta in hydrofluoric acid in excess. 

BARIUM, IODIDE OF. Syn. Protiodide 
OF Barium. Hydriodate of Baryta. Prep. 
I. Dissolve sulphuret of barium in water, and add 
iodine gradually, in excess, then filter and evapo- 
rate. (Phillips.) 

II. Decompose an aqueous solution of iodide of 
iron by freshly-precipitated carbonate of baryta ; 
filter, evaporate, and crystallize. 

Use. An ointment made with4grs. of the iodide 
to 1 oz. of lard has been used in scrofula. 

BARIUM, OXIDES OF. I. (Protoxide of 
Barium. Syn. Oxide of Barium. B.vrytes. 
Baryta.) When the metal, barium, is exposed to 
the action of either dir or water tliis oxide is the 
sole product. 

Prep. a. Strongly ignite the pure crystallized 
nitrate of baryta in a covered crucible. 

h. Ignite, as before, a mixture of carbonate of 
baryta and charcoal in a blacklead crucible. 

c. (Hydrated.) Precipitate a solution of either 
muriate or nitrate of baryta with another of caustic 
potassa or soda. 

Prop. Obtained by the first two processes it forms 
a grayish white powder, having a very caustic and 
alkaline taste, and slaking, on the addition of wa- 
ter, like quicklime, but with the evolution of more 
heat. It then forms a bulky white powder, re- 
sembling that prepared by the last formula. ^It 
rapidly passes into the state of carbonate on expo- 
sure to air. Use. As a test for carbonic acid and 
for the formation of some salts. Ant. It is veiy 
poisonous. The best antidotes are water soured 
with sulphuric acid, or a solution of sulphate of 
soda, or sulphate of magnesia. 

II. (Peroxide of Barium. Syn. Deutoxide 
OF Barium.) Prep. a. Heat pure baryta to a dull 
red, and pass pure dry oxygen gas over it. 

b. Heat pure baryta as above in a platina cruci- 
ble, then gradually add one-fourth of its weight of 
chlorate of potassa. Afterwards wash off the chlo- 
ride of potassium formed with cold water. The 
deutoxide remains as a white powder. 

c. Heat nitrate of barj^ta to redness in an earth- 
enware retort, having a tube attached to its nose, 
to convey off the liberated gases, to a trough of 
water, and continue the heat until nitrous fumes 
are no longer evolved. Uses. To make the oxy- 
genized acids and peroxide of hydrogen. (Quesne- 
ville.) . 

BARIUM, PHOSPHURET OF. This is 
formed by exposing its constituents mixed together 
in atomic proportions, to a gentle heat in a glass tube. 

BARIUM, SULPHURET OF. Prep. Mix 
together equal parts of sulphate of baryta and 
wheat flour or charcoal, and expose the mixture to 
a full white heat in a covered crucible. When 
cold dissolve in water, filter, evaporate, and ciys- 
tallize. Prop. Decomposed by exposure in solution 
to the air. Use. To form baryta and its salts and 
in organic analysis. 

BARK, BRITISH. Syn. Oak Bark. The bark 
of the young branches of the oak has been pro- 
posed for the more expensive productions of South 
America. The leaves also contain a large quantity 
of astringent matter. Mr. Stuart, who first brought 
oak bark into notice, says that it is a certain re- 
medy for scurvy. 

13 



BARLEY. Qual. Next to wheat, barley may 
be considered the most valuable grain to man, both 
for the purposes of food and for forming several bev- 
erages in general consumption. (Malt liquors, 
&.C.) It forms good wholesome bread, especially 
for persons who otherwise live luxuriously, but for 
those who live abstemiously wheaten bread is pre- 
ferable. 

BARLEY, CULTIVATION OF. After wheat, 
barley may be considered the most important grain 
crop, especially in light and sharp soils, but it " is 
a tender grain, and easily hurt in any of the stages 
of its growth, particularly at seed-time ; a heavy 
shower of rain will then almost ruin a crop on the 
best-prepared laud ; and in all the after-processes, 
greater pains and attention are required to ensure 
success than in the case of other grains. The har- 
vest process is difficult, and often attended with 
danger ; even the thrashing of it is not easily exe- 
cuted with machines, because the awn generally 
adheres to the grain, and renders separation from 
the straw a troublesome task. Barley, in fact, is 
raised at a greater expense than wheat, and gene- 
rally speaking is a more hazardous crop. Except 
upon rich and genial soils, where climate will al- 
low wheat to be perfectly reared, it ought not to 
be cultivated. 

" Barley may be divided into two sorts, early 
and late ; to which may be added a bastard varie- 
ty, called bear or bigg, which affords similar nutri- 
ment or substance, though of inferior quality. Early 
barley, under various names, was formerly sown 
in Britain, upon lands that had been previously 
summer fallowed, or were in high condition ; but 
this mode of culture being in a great measure re- 
nounced, the common sort, which admits of being 
sown either early or late, is now generally used. 

" The most proper seed-season is any time in 
April, though we have seen good crops produced, 
the seed of which was sown at a much later period." 

Barley is generally sown after turnips and fre- 
quently after peas and beans, but seldom after 
wheat or oats. The quantity of seed varies with 
the quality of the soil. Upon very rich land eight 
pecks per acre are commonly sown, and frequently 
ten or twelve, whilst upon poor lands a larger quan- 
tity is sometimes given. Enough seed should be 
sown to ensure a full crop without offsets, which 
are always produced if too little seed is used. 

The harv^esting of barley requires much care 
even in good seasons, while, in bad ones, it is very 
difficult to save it. It must be cut before the straw 
gets brittle, and must be suffered to remain in the 
field until the grain is hardened, and the straw suf- 
ficiently dry. If stacked too soon it is apt to heat. 
A good way to prevent this is to form an opening 
tlirough the stack from top to bottom. This open- 
ing is generally made by placing a large bundle of 
straw in the centre of the stack, when the build- 
ing commences, and, in proportion as it rises, the 
straw is drawn upward, leaving a hollow behind, 
which, if one or two openings are left m the side of 
the stack near the bottom, ensures so complete a 
circulation of air as not only to prevent heatmg, 
but to preserve the grain from becoming musty. 

BARNS AND OUTHOUSES FROM 
MITES AND WEEVILS, TO FREE. {Ger- 
man method.) Let the walls and rafters, above 
and below, of such granaries be covered completely 



BAR 



98 



BAR 



with quicklime, slaked in water, in which trefoil, 
wormwood, and hyssop, or nux vomica have been 
boiled. This composition should be applied as hot 
as possible. " A farmer who had his granaries 
empty in June last, collected quantities of the 
largest sized ants in sacks, and scattered them 
about the place infested with weevils. The ants 
immediately fell upon and devoured them all." 

BAROMETER. (From Bapos weight and ustoov, 
measure.) An instrmnent for measuring the weight 
and pressure of the atmosphere, commonly termed 
a weather-glass. Tliis instrument is made of va- 
rious shapes, but the principle of its construction is 



the same in each, and consists of a column of mer- 
cury, supported in vacuo, in a glass tube, by the 
pressure of the atmosphere on its surface The 
following engravings represent the principal varie- 
ties. The several shapes have arisen from the at- 
tempts which have been made from time to time 
to improve this instrument, either by increasing its 
range or portability. None, however, equal the 
old forms proposed by Torricelli, and represented 
by the figures 1 and 2. The same letters apply to 
a similar portion of each figure ; the references at 
foot will therefore sufficiently explain the peculia- 
rities of their construction. 




1. Torricelli's cistern barometer. 

2. syphon ditto. 

3. Huygen's barometer. 

4. • modified. 

5. Wheel barometer. 

6. Bernoiiilli's syphon ditto. 

7. Aminton's conical ditto. 

8. Gay Lussac's ditto. 

9. Ditto, modified by M. Bunten 

The wheel barometer (fig. 5) is the one most 
commonly used, especially as a weather-glass, but 
it is not to be depended on, as it neither indicates 
the absolute height of the mercurial column, nor 
its variations with sufficient accuracy for any phi- 
losophical purpose. Even as a weather-glass it is 
the worst of all the common forms of the barome- 
ter. For travelling the la^ is perhaps the most 
unexceptionable. 

The Construction of a Barometer may be 
divided into five operations, in each of which the 
utmost skill and care are required. The materials 
must be of the best quality. Not only must the 
mercury be perfectly pure and free from air, but 
the tube must be quite dry and clean, and its inner 
surface must be smooth and regular. 

1. The tubes foa* barometers should be hermeti- 
cally sealed immediately after their manufacture 
at the glasshouse, and kept in this state until they 
are wanted for filling. By this plan they may be 
kept clean for any length of time, whereas if they 
are left with one end open they become sullied 
with dust and smoke, which, on account of the 
smallness of tlioir diameters, can never be perfectly 
removed. When wanted for use they may be 
opened with a file, aflcr which care must bo taken 
not to breathe into them, and washing them out 
with spirit of wine, &.C., especially avoided. When 
cleaning is absolutely necessary, it should bo done 
by means of a clean, dry linen rag, and a piece of 
wire, obstM-ving not to let the end of the wire scralcii 
the glass, as, if it does, snch tubes will generally 
be foinid broken, if laid aside for a siiort time, or, 
what U worse, they will break during the process 
of fillintj them. The bent tubes are perfectly cylin- 



a, Tube containing a column of mercury. 

b, Mercurial cistern. 

c, A column of mercury supporting another of water, d. 

e e, Weights, one of which floats on the surface of the 
mercury, and by means of the cord / moves the 
index g: 

h, Graduated dial. 

k, Capillary hole diilled laterally to admit air. 



drical, 33 inches in length, and the diameter of 
their bore never less than 2 to 2^ lines, as the ca- 
pillary attraction and friction increases in an inverse 
ratio to the capacity of the tube. The thickness 
of the glass should not greatly exceed half a line. 

2. The mercury must be perfectly pure, which 
should be ascertained before using it, as, if it be 
adulterated with common metals, as is frequently 
the case, its fluidity is lessened, and its tendency 
to oxidize increased. When it cannot be got un- 
adulterated it should be rectified in an iron retort ; 
or pure cinnabar, mixed with half its weight of iron 
filings, may be treated in the same way, when 
pure mercury will distil over. (See Mercury.) 

3. Filling the tube is performed by pouring the 
mercury into it, having previously boiled it in a 
porcelain or iron vessel, to expel the air. The 
tube is then exposed to a gradually increasing heat 
over a chafing-dish of charcoal until the mercury 
boils, and all the air in the tube is extricated ; it is 
now allowed to cool and again filled up with mer- 
cury, and the exposure over the chafing-dish re- 
peated ; when again perfectly cool it may be filled 
up with a little freshly-boiled mercury, and is then 
ready for fixing in its frame. 

4. The tube filled as above must next he placed 
in its frame, for which purpose the open end is 
perfectly stopped, and it is inverted into a small 
trougli of prepared mercury ; or if it be of the 
syphon kind, simply inverted and fixed in its frame. 

.'). The fj^raduafcd scale has now to be adjusted 
to the tube. Tiiis is usually done by means of a 
tangent screw, which permits the scale to be raised 
or lowered, until its zero exactly corresponds to the 
lower surface of the mercury ; but in many case* 



BAR 



99 



BAR 



the cistern is raised or lowered by means of screws 
arranged for that purpose. Tlie best mode of ob- 
taining an exact adjustment of the surface of the 
mercury to the zero of tlie tube, is tliat adopted by 
the celebrated French artist, Fortin. An ivory 
needle is attached to the scale pointing downwards, 
its point being exactly on a level with the zero of 
the scale. The image of the needle i*? clearly 
reflected from the surface of tne mercury in the 
cistern, and either the scale or cistern is raised or 
lowered, until the pouit of the needle and its image 
exactly coincide. 

Use. This instrimient is employed for ascertain- 
mg the amount of atmospherical refraction in astro- 
nomical calculations, in measuring altitudes and in 
prognosticating the weather. For the latter pur- 
pose, on land, it frequently proves a false prophet, 
but at sea, (according to Dr. Arnot,) the case is 
widely different, and its monitions are worthy of 
attention. (Elem. Nat. Phil. i. 353.) 

Remarks. The above is a brief outline of the 
method of constructing barometers, and in propor- 
tion to the skill therein exercised will be the accu- 
racy of the instrument. However cleverly this 
may have been performed, it is nevertheless found 
that these instruments gradually suffer deterioration 
from the external air insuiuating itself between the 
mercury and the glftss tube, thus lessening the per- 
fection of the vacumn. Various plans have been 
proposed to remedy this inconvenience and source 
of error. Professor Daniels lines the bottom of the 
tube with platinum to the extent of about ^ of an 
inch; this has proved quite sufficient. Dr. Ure 
uses platinum foil for the same pm-pose. It is 
usual, as I have above described, to boil the metal 
after its introduction into the glass tube, but some 
persons disapprove of this practice in consequence 
of the mercm-y absorbing a little oxygen during the 
process, and instead thereof, they strongly heat the 
glass tube and pom* in the mercury very hot. 

BAROMETER, PORTABLE, (Simple.) This 
instrument consists in general of a tube of the usual 
length, passing through the upper parts of a wooden 
cistern, to which it is glued, and the bottom of 
which is made of leather. The tube being filled 
with mercury, which has been previously w^ell 
purged of air, and placed in a proper position, the 
superfluous mercury descends into the cistern, and 
assumes a level in the tube corresponding with the 
weight of the external air. The surface of the 
mercury in the cistern is adjusted to the same level 
by a screw, which presses more or less against the 
flexible leather at the bottom, and raises or de- 
presses it at pleasure. From the line of this level, 
which is called zero, the scale commences, and is 
reckoned upwards to the height of about 32 inches ; 
the actual divisions of the scale begin at about 15 
inches. 

Remarks. The most accurate portable barome- 
ters are those of Gay Lussac and Bunten, (Figures 
8, 9.) "When set on universal joints and well 
balanced, they are the most perfect instruments 
for ships that have been yet constructed. 

BAROMETER, TROUGHTON'S IMARINE. 
The tube of this instrument consists of two parts, 
joined together about 5 inches below the top ; the 
bore in the upper part being about -^- of an inch, 
and in the lower part only yjf-jy. By this construc- 
iion, partly from the diiference of the bores, and 



partly from the greater friction in the lower end, 
the motion of the mercury is so nmch retarded, 
that any impulse given by the ship, having a ten- 
dency to raise it, will scarcely have produced a 
sensible effect, before an opposite impulse will be 
given, having a tendency to depress it. To coun- 
teract more effectually the effects of the ship's mo- 
tions, the instrnme"* 's suspended in gimbals. 

BAROMETER, THE VIAL. Prep. Take 
a common vial and cut off the rim and part of the 
neck, by means of a piece of cord passbJ round it, 
and moved rapidly to and fro, in a sawing direc- 
ti(^ ; the one end being held in the left hand and 
the other fastened to any convenient object, while 
the right hand holds and moves the vial ; when 
heated, dip it suddenly into cold water, and the part 
will crack off; or separate it with a file. Then 
nearly fill the vial with clean water, place your 
fiugtr :n the mouth and invert it ; withdraw your 
finger dnd suspend it in this position with a piece 
of twine. In dry weather the mider surface of the 
water will be level with the neck of the bottle, or 
even concave ; in damp weather, on the contrary, 
a drop will appear at the mouth and continue until 
it falls, and is then followed by another in the same 
way. 

Barometrical corrections. Cistern barometers 
formed of tubes of very small diameters, require 
what is called " correction for capillarity." 



The following Table is taken from the 
clopaedia Britannica." 



Ency- 



Diam. of Tube. 


Depression. 


Inches. 


Inches 


0-10 


0-1403 


0-15 


0-0863 


0-20 


0-0581 


0-25 


0-0407 


0-30 


0-0292 


0-35 


0-0211 


0-40 


0-0153 


0-45 


0-0112 


0-50 


0-0083 


0-60 


0-0044 


0-70 


0-0023 


0-80 


0-0012 



Remarks. It will be seen, that as the tube in- 
creases in diameter, so the depression of the mer- 
cury lessens. Syphon barometers that have each 
of their legs of equal size, require no correction, a^ 
the depression is equal at both ends. A correction 
is also made for temperature in nice obsen^ations, 
but this is of too scientific a nature to be entered 
into in the present work. 

BAROMETRICAL RULES FOR PROG- 
NOSTICATING THE WEATHER. 

1. After a continuance of dry weather, if the 
barometer begins to fall slowly and steadily, rain 
will certainly ensue ; but if the fine weather has 
been of long duration, the mercury may fall for 2 
or 3 days, before any perceptible change takes 
place, and the longer time that elapses before rain 
comes, the longer the w^et weather is likely to last 

2. Conversely, if, after a great deal of wet 
weather, with the barometer below its mean 



BAS 



100 



BAT 



height, the mercury begins to rise steadily and 
slowly, fine weather will come, though 2 or 3 wet 
days may first elapse ; and the fine weather will be 
the more permanent, in proportion to the length 
of time that passes before the perceptible change 
takes place. 

3 On either of the two foregoing suppositions, 
if the change immediately ensues on the motion 
of the mercury, the change will not be permanent. 

4. If the barometer rises slowly and steadily for 
two days together, or more, fine weather will come, 
though for those two days it may rain incessantly, 
and the reverse ; but if the barometer rises for two 
days or more dviring rain, and then, on the ap- 
pearance of fine weather, begins to fall again, the 
fine weather will be very transient, and vice versa. 

5. A sudden fall of the barometer in spring or 
autimm indicates wind ; in summer, during very 
hot weather, a thunder-storm may be expected ; 
in winter a sudden fall after frost of some conti- 
nuance, indicates a change of wind with thaw and 
rain ; but in a continued frost a rise of the mercury 
indicates approaching snow. 

6. No rapid fluctuations of the barometer are 
to be interpreted as indicating either dry or wet 
weather of any continuance ; it is only the slow, 
steady, and continued rise or fall, that is to be at- 
tended to in this respect. 

7. A rise of the mercury late in the autumn, 
after a long continuance of wet and windy wea- 
ther, generally indicates a change of wind to the 
northern quarters, and the approach of frost. 

BARYTA. Syn. Protoxide of Barium. 
Oxide of ditto. (See Barium.) 

BARYTA, SALTS OF. Prep. All the 
soluble salts of baryta may be made by solution of 
its carbonate or hydrate in the dilute acids, and 
the insoluble salts, generally, by the double de- 
composition of its muriate, by a soluble salt of the 
acid. 

BARYTA, TESTS FOR, AND ITS SALTS. 
I. This earth forms an alkaline solution with 
water. II. Baryta in solution, and all its salts, 
give a white precipitate in alkaline carbonates and 
sulphates, and sulphuric acid ; the last two being 
insoluble in both acid and alkaline menstrua. 

BARYTA, ALLOXANATE OF. Prep. Add 
barytic water to an aqueous solution of alloxan. 
Heated to 140^ until the precipitate formed, 
ceases to be redissoived on stirring ; then cool and 
collect the crystals, and repeat the process of add- 
ing barytic water to the mother liquor, which will 
thus furnish several crops of crystals. Use. To 
form some salts. 

BARYTIN. A now vegetable base discovered 
by Simon, in the rhizomes of white hellebore. It 
is precipitated from its solutions by sulphuric acid 
and the sulpiiatcs, like baryta, hence the name ; 
and this property alFords a means for its separa- 
tion. 

BASE, (in CiiKMisTRY.) A term applied to 
metallic oxides, (from their forming suits wilh 
acids,) and to the principal conslituent of a com- 
pound. Thus: soda is called the huso o^ sulphate 
of soda, (;r;iiuber salts ;) (/iiiiiinc tlu^ hiise of disiil- 
pliate of </iiiiiliie, cj-r. Forms will be found iu 
tliis hook for the i)rej)araliou of the princi])al bases, 
AH well as Ihrir salts. 

BASILICON, BLACK. Prep. Yellow wax 



1 lb. ; black rosin and olive oil, ot each 2 lbs. Proc. 
Melt together and strain through a piece of canvass. 
Remarks. This old preparation is similar to the 
resin cerate of the Loudon Pharm., with the ex- 
ception of containing black instead of yelloiv rosin. 
Linseed oil, used instead of olive oil, comes cheaper, 
and is preferred by many persons. 

BASSORIN. Svn. Insoluble Gum. The in- 
soluble portion of gum tiagacanth, &c., after the 
soluble part has been removed with water. Prep. It 
is best prepared by soaking gum bassora in a large 
quantity of hot water, and filtering off the clear 
portion. 

BATEMAN'S PECTORAL DROPS. Prep. 
Paregoric 10 oz. ; tincture of castor 4 oz. ; lauda- 
num 1 oz. ; tincture of safiron or cochineal ^ oz. ; 
oil of aniseed 15 drops. Mix. Dose. A teaspoon- 
ful or more in coughs and colds. 

BATEMAN'S ITCH OINTMENT. Prep. 
Carbonate of potassa 1 oz. ; red sulphuret of mer- 
cury \ oz. ; hog's lard and flowers of sulphur, of 
each 22 oz. ; bergamotte 60 drops ; rose-water 2 
oz. Proc. Mix the potassa and powders w 'h a 
little of the lard, and rub them well together, then 
add the remainder of the lard, previously softened 
by heat, and afterwards the rose-water gently 
warmed ; stir until cold. 

BATHS, BATHING. Qeneral Remarks. 
The practice of bathing is not only an act of 
cleanliness, but is eminently conducive to health. 
The delicate pores of the skin soon become choked 
by the solid matter of the perspiration and the ac- 
cumulation of dirt, and require frequent ablution 
with water, to preserve their natural functions in 
a state of activity. The mere wearing of flannel 
and washing the more exposed parts of the body, 
and the daily use of clean linen, is but an imper- 
fect attempt at cleanliness, without being accom- 
panied by entire submersion of the body in water. 
The phlegmatic Englishman, unlike his lively 
French neighbor, seems perfectly incredulous on 
this point, and would sooner spend his sixpence or 
his shilling in a glass of grog, or a ride to Green- 
wich, than in the healthy recreation of the bath. 

Bathing is not only conducive to cleanliness, 
but to both the physical and mental health. The 
body cannot be in a state of lively health, while 
the proper oflices of the skin are interfered with, 
any more than would be the case with either of 
the other excretory organs, placed in a like condi 
tion. Nor can the mind, dependent as it is on the 
organization of the body, escape unharmed, when 
the animal functions are imperfectly performod. 
Intellectual and moral vigor are universally promo- 
ted by the imperceptible yet controlling influence 
of the physical system, and he who would increase 
the former, cannot go oh a safer metliod than that 
which tends to preserve or improve the health. 

" On the continent, ' Maisoiis des Bains,' or 
bathing-houses, are almost as numerous as tlie 
chemists and druggists are in this country. The 
inference necessarily is, that bathing in France is 
as much patronized as physic is in England. The 
French need the latter less, because they live 
m()r(> temperately, are less ground down to think 
and work ; and because they pertorm general per- 
sonal al)lution (to the benefit of one of the mos* 
im|)ortant functions of life, namely, free perspira- 
tion) with as nnich zeal as though it were a re- 



BAT 



101 



BAT 



ligious duty. The inducement to such frequent 
use of the warm bath among our neighbors, may 
be fancied to be the low charges for bathing, and 
the httle vahie the Messieurs attach to their own 
time. The first notion is a fallacy. Warm bath- 
ing on the continent is not cheaper in comparison 
with all the other necessaries or luxuries of life, 
viewed in connection with a forei;~ner's resources, 
than it is in England. With regard to the ap- 
parently little importance they attach to their own 
time, they are wise enough to discover, that life is 
not one jot sweeter by passing sixteen hours a day 
behind the desk or counter, to the exclusion of all 
recreation, except recreation be to count the gains of 
such exilement ; or to indulge the hope of amassing a 
sufficiency to do the ' importanf at the close of a 
wearied life, when and which the infinnities of age 
forbid to enjoy. A Frenchman lives, works, and 
enjoys himself to the last. Prince Talleyrand 
died in armor; his life was a bouquet in which 
all but the sweetest flowers were excluded. A 
Frenchman takes the bath for the mental and bodily 
gratification it affords ; he can appreciate the 
luxury of it, while at the same time he is sensible 
of its healthfulness. An Englishman is such a 
stiffnecked fellow, that in most things, he will 
only do that which pleases him best, and his 
standard of pleasm-e is estimated by that which 
adds most to his hoard, and which gives the great- 
est amount of satisfaction to the inward man. 
Advise him to take a warm bath ; the answer is, 
he cannot spare the time, and he hates the bother 
of uncravating, &c. The waste of the one and 
the trouble of the other add not to his income, 
whatever they may to his health. The roast beef, 
the brandied wines, and the London-brewed are 
his stomach's deities, the minor godships being blue 
pills and black draughts! The latter are indispens- 
able attendants upon the former, to temper down 
Mr. Bull, lest he become a giant in noses and car- 
buncles. A Frenchman knows no ill but what 
pleasure denies ; he rarely has dyspepsia, gout, 
rheumatism, or fevers. Half his life is spent in 
Elysium, — half ours in Purgatory. Indigestion, 
headaches, restless nights — the blues when awake, 
and the terribles when asleep — fall to the lot of 
the mind-absorbed and grossly-fed Londoner, while 
our lively Parisian, with his light meal and still 
more lightsome body, finds trouble only in broken 
Ihnbs, or positive starvation." 

The warm bath, especially, is one of the most 
valuable, but most neglected remedies which we 
possess. It is generally imagined by Englishmen, 
that bathing is but little fitted for their country, 
owing to the changefulness of the climate, and 
that to attempt to place a sick man in a bath in 
any other than^ the mildest weather, would be to 
subject him to all the horrors of " sniffling, sneez- 
ing, coughing, and relapse." But that such re- 
sults of bathing have no existence beyond the 
minds of the fearful, ignorant, and prejudiced, 
must be acknowledged by every candid person. 
Even the cold bath, as in the treatment termed 
" hydropathy," is beneficial when applied with 
judgment ; and it is only when common discretion 
is not exercised, that bathing under any shape 
ever proves injurious. 

Some persons are very susceptible of taking 
eold, and are themselves " living barometers ;" 



but even to them warm bathing would prove ad- 
vantageous. One half of the rlieumatic twinges, 
swollen limbs, and cramped joints that occur in 
such persons, would give way before proper per- 
severance and confidence in this remedy. 

Whenever in delicate persons the cold bath is 
deemed proper, the warm, tepid, and cool bath 
may be used as a '^reparative, and when the for- 
mer is at length adopted, it should be at first only 
for one or two minutes at a time, gradually in- 
creased to a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes ; 
care being taken never to remain immersed suf- 
ficiently long to induce a sensation of cold on com- 
ing out. A healthy reaction should follow the 
bath, and a pleasing glow of warmth should diffuse 
itself over the surface of the body. If this be not 
the case, the bath has either been indulged in too 
long, or been injudiciously taken. When any 
symptoms appear that contra-indicate the use of 
the cold bath, the tepid, warm, or vapor bath may 
be substituted, according to circumstances. 

In conclusion, I may remark, that bathing, es- 
pecially in water at a temperature nearly similar 
to that of our bodies, (tepid bath,) is at once .ne 
of the most cleanly and health-preserving luxuries, 
or, I should say, necessaries of life. The following 
short notice of each description of bath, is all the 
space that can be spared for this subject. 

I. Affusion of cold water over the surface of 
the body, has been adopted with success, for ar- 
resting the progress of some fevers. In scarlatina, 
&c., sponging the body with tepid water, or water 
mixed with vinegar, has been employed iiistead. 

II. Air bath. a. (Cold.) The mere exposure 
of the body in a state of nudity to the atmosphere, 
forms the common air bath. It has been found 
useful in allaying slight degrees of febrile excite- 
ment, and to act as a mild tonic, when not too 
long continued. 

b. {Hot.) This consists in placing the patient 
in an apartment to which heated air is admitted. 
It is generally considered to be more stimulant 
than the vapor bath ; it produces a powerful per- 
spiration, and has been recommended in cholera, 
congestive fevers, rheumatism, scaly skin-dis- 
eases, &c. 

III. Chlorine bath. Water holding in solution 
a small quantity of chlorine gas. Its action has not 
been much examined. I may mention here, that 
I have seen several cases of itch cured by two or 
three immersions in a warm bath, to which a lit- 
tle chloride of lime has been added. 

IV. Cold bath. The temperature of this bath 
varies from 45° to 85°. It is considered tonic and 
stimulant, when not too long continued. To pro- 
duce its full effects, the patient should feel a plea- 
sant glow upon the surface of the body, imme- 
diately on coming out of the water. If a sensation 
of coldness or shivering follows, it should not be 
repeated. The duration of the immersion may 
vary from two minutes to a quarter of an hour, 
depending upon the temperature of the water, and 
the feelings of the bather ; the latter period not 
being too long, provided swimming or violent ex- 
ercise be adopted in the bath. The temperature 
of the water of the rivers, and on the coast of 
England, varies in summer from 55° to 70°. 

The following hints on cold bathing may be in- 
teresting to the reader 



BAT 



102 



BAT 



1. "In using the cold bath, it is of essential 
importance to know that there is no truth in the 
vulgar opinion, that it is safer to enter the water 
when the body is cool, and that persons heated by 
exercise, and beginning to perspire, should wait 
till they are perfectly cooled. 

" It is a rule liable to no exception, that mode- 
rate exercise ought always to precede cold bath- 
ing ; for neither previous rest, nor exercise to a 
violent degree, is proper on this occasion. 

2. " The duration of cold bathing ought to be 
short, and must be determined by the bodily con- 
stitution and sensation of the individual ; for 
healthy persons may continue in it much longer 
than valetudinarians. In summer it may be en- 
joyed for an hour, when in spring or autumn, one 
or two minutes will be sufficient. Under similar 
circumstances, cold water acts on aged and lean 
persons with more violence than on the young and 
corpulent ; hence the former, even in the hottest 
days of summer, can seldom with safety remain in 
the bath longer than a quarter of an hour ; while 
the latter are generally able to sustain its impres- 
sions for a much longer period. 

3. " The head should first come in contact with 
the water, either by immersion, by being showered 
upon, or by covering it for a minute with a wet 
cloth, and then plunging head foremost into the 
water. 

4. " As the immersion will be less felt when it 
is effected suddenly, and as it is of consequence 
that the first impression should be uniform over 
the body, the bath ought not to be entered slowly 
or timorously, but with a degree of boldness. A 
contrary method, in some constitutions, is danger- 
ous, as it propels the blood from the upper to the 
lower parts of the body, and thus predisposes to a 
fit of apoplexy. For these reasons, the shower 
bath is attended with considerable advantages, 
because it transmits the water quickly over the 
whole body. 

5. " The morning is the proper time for using 
the cold bath, unless it be in a river ; in which 
case the afternoon, or from one to two hours be- 
fore sunset, will be more eligible. On the whole, 
one hour after a light breakfast, or two hours be- 
fore, or four after dinner, are the best periods of 
the day for this purpose. 

6. " While the bather is in the water, he should 
not remain inactive, but apply brisk and general 
friction, and move liis arms and legs, to promote 
the circulation of the fluids from the heart to the 
extremities. It is extremely imprudent to con- 
tinue in tlie water till a second chilliness attacks 
the body. 

7. " Immediately after leaving the bath, it is 
nscessary tiiat the bather should quickly wipe his 
body dry with a coarse dry clofh. He should not 
afterwards sit inactive, but if the season permit, 
he ought to take gentle exercise, till tlie usual cir- 
culation, and the customary action of the muscles, 
be rcstorf'd. 

8. " The best j)laco for cold bathing is in the 
sea, or a clear river ; but wlifre neither of these 
can be conveniently had, the shower bath may be 
used. 

9. " The principal advantages to bo expected 
from cold bathing, besides the salutary exercise, 
aro cither the reduction of cxcoHsivo boat, or the 



producing of a salutary reaction of the system. la 
the former, it has been found useful in several fe- 
vers. Affusion, however, in those cases, is most 
advisable, and more efficacious in reducing the 
morbid temperature, than immersion. But the 
cold affiision must not be employed in the cold 
stage. As soon as the hot fit is formed, the cold 
affusion is to be used immediately, and repeated" 
occasionally. In the sweating stage, it is to be 
cautiously avoided. 

" In nervous diseases, too, the cold bath has 
sometimes been of semce. 

" In gouty and rheumatic complaints, in dis- 
eases of the hip-joint, lumbago, or sciatica, after 
the removal of those complaints by the use of the 
vapor or hot bath, and in conjunction with other 
remedies, the alternation of the cold with the va- 
por bath fortifies the constitution against a return 
of such attacks, 

10. " The best preparation for cold bathing, is 
to begin with a warm, then a tepid, and after- 
wards a cool bath ; after this course the bather 
may in general plunge with safety into the cold 
bath. In most cases, a bath every second day, 
from the commencement of the warm bathing to 
the end of a fortnight, will be sufficiently frequent ; 
afterwards the cold immersion may be continued 
daily." 

V. The douche consists in the projection of a 
stream of cold water from a tube upon any part 
of the body. It is powerfully sedative, and has 
been long employed in inflammation of the brain. 
It should be used with caution, as its action is so 
powerful that a full inflammatory pulse frequently 
sinks into one almost imperceptible, in a very short 
space of time. It is one of the principal methods 
of applying cold water adopted by the hydropa- 
thists. 

VL Medicated haths. These consist of water 
holding in solution various medicinal substances ; 
as wine-baths, milk -baths, soup-baths — these have 
been used to convey nourishment to the body ; 
sulphureous baths, mercurial baths, &c., used in 
skin diseases, syphilis, &-c. ; aromatic and chaly- 
beate baths, employed as tonics ; acid baths, some- 
times used to remove the effects of mercury, &c. 

VII. Nitromuriatic bath. Prep. Mix 3 fluid 
ounces of muriatic acid with 2 fluid ounces of ni- 
tric acid, and 5 fluid ounces of distilled water, and 
add 3 ounces of the above mixture to every gallon 
of water in the bath. Should the bath prick the 
skin, a little more water may be added. 

Remarks. This bath was first introduced as a 
remedy for liver complaints. It must be contained 
in a wooden vessel, and may be used as a hip, 
knee, or foot-bath, a knee-bath being the one gen- 
erally adopted in England. The inventor. Dr. 
tScott, once plunged the Duke of Wellington up to 
his chin in a bath of this kind in India, and thus 
cured him of a severe hepatic affection. 

VIII. Sulphitr bath. a. The patient is placed 
(not including the head) in a species of box, at the 
bottom of wliich is put a piece of hot iron, on 
which a little sulphur is thrown, great care being 
tak(>n to avoid the escape of the fumes, and tho 
iniuilatiou of the same by either the patient or the 
attendants. Another method is to dissolve a little 
sulphuret of potassium in tho water of a conunou 

1 warm bath. Tho proportion is 1 oz. of the sul 



BAT 



103 



BAT 



phuret to 8 gallons of water. This form of the 
bath is not, however, quite as efficient as the gase- 
ous one first described. 

h. {Dupui/tren's gelati no-sulphurous bath.) 
This is formed by dissolving 1 oz. of the sulphuret 
of potassium and 4 oz. of Flandere glue, iu every 
8 gallons of the water of a warm bath. It is an 
imitation of the celebrated waters of Bareges, the 
glue supplying the place of the baregine found in 
the latter. 

Remarks. The sulphur-bath under any form is 
a powerful remedy in ever>' description of skin 
disease. Leprosy, the most obstinate of all, has 
been cured by it. The common itch requires only 
one or two applications of the sulphur-bath to 
eradicate it entirely. All forms of scurf, whether 
on the face, head, or body, yield to its influence. 
Local irritation occasioned by minute pimples, or 
inflammatory patches of disordered skin, is speed- 
ily subdued and removed. Scrofula, and also those 
affections for which the warm or vapor baths have 
been recommended, will derive pow^erful assistance 
from the sulphur -bath. 

IX. Tepid bath. The temperature of this bath 
varies from 85° to 92° Fahr., 86° being considered 
a medium temperature. Its action on the body is 
intermediate between that of the warm and cold 
baths, and is admirably adapted for the purposes of 
cleanliness, and promoting the healthy action of 
the skin. It is frequently employed as a prepara- 
tive to cold bathing. 

X. The icarm bath has a temperature of from 
92° to 100° Fahr., or about that of the human 
body. 

Retnarks. The warm bath is a^ once the most 
luxurious and . effective mode of bathing, and if 
taken under proper restrictions, is highly conducive 
to health. If only on the grounds of personal 
cleanliness, this species of bathing has the highest 
claim on our attention. " The sensations attend- 
ant upon immersion in a warm bath are most de- 
licious. Its effect is, first to increase the circula- 
tion of the blood, and to determine it to the skin ; 
after a few minutes an agreeable and universal in- 
crease of heat is experienced ; the face, and fore- 
head generally, are soon bedewed with perspira- 
tion : a pleasing and prevailing calm is felt, men- 
tally and physically ; and after remaining in some 
12 or 15 minutes, coming out and dressing, the 
refreshing feeling and consciousness of personal 
purity give rise to associations of the most happy 
character. The warm bath may be taken at any 
time during the day : it is perhaps better to em- 
ploy it upon an empty stomach, or before a meal, 
rather than after one. The temperature should 
be from 98° to 100° ; the time of immersion should 
not exceed 15 minutfts. The old idea that it is 
relaxing, is erroneous, except where persons re- 
main in for hours, as some people do, or where it is 
taken too often." 

The warm bath, in a medical point of view, is 
especially adapted to general torpor of the system, 
liver and bowel complaints, hypochondriasis, hys- 
terical affections, morbid suppressions, dry skin, 
nearly all cutaneous and nervous diseases, chronic 
rheumatism, &c. As a tonic or stimulant after 
excessive fatigue, great mental excitement, or 
physical exertion, it is unequalled, and furnishes 
one of the most wholesome, and at the same time 



luxurious sources of refreshment we are acquainted 
with. 

XI. The vapor-bath consists in vapor being ad. 
mitted to the apartment, and thus not only is the 
body immersed in it, but it is inhaled as well. It 
is used at different temperatures, known by the 
name of tepid, when the temperature varies from 
90° to 100° ; war}n, when from 100° to 112° ; 
and hot, from 110° to 130° ; but when the vapor 
is not inhaled, the heat of the latter may be raised 
to 160°. 

Remarks. The principal action of the vapor- 
bath is to produce a copious diaphoresis. In fact, 
it is the most powerful diaphoretic agent known. 
It is a certain specific for a cold ; and in all those 
cases wherein warm bathing is recommended, the 
vapor-bath ranks highest. It constitutes the most 
powerful pharmaceutical remedy existent : com- 
bined with friction, or shampooing, its utility in 
cases requiring an additional action, as in con- 
tracted muscles, tendons, &,c., is much increased ; 
" and instances are numerous, where the lame 
have thrown aside their crutches, and the bed- 
ridden have again mixed with the world, after a 
few applications of this bath." " It is no uncommon 
thing to hear a patient start and shriek with ag- 
ony before entering the bath, and to receive his 
congratulations and thanks on his coming out: 
they will oftentimes exclaim, — ' It is wonderful I 
I could not hate believed it — I am well — / can 
walk — / can jump ." " 

The vapor-bath is administered in chronic rheu- 
matism, stiff joints, long-continued indigestion, 
gout, lumbago, sciatica, scrofulous swellings, fever, 
skin diseases, «fcc., but should be avoided in acute 
inflammations, and for persons of a very full and 
excitable habit of body. 

XII. The shower-bath. This may be regarded 
as a modification of the cold bath or plunge bath, 
and its effects are similar. The cold shower-bath 
is however less alarming to nen^ous persons, and 
less liable to produce cramp, than cold immersion: 
it may be considered as the best and safest mode 
of cold bathing, and is recommended in many ner- 
vous complaints. 

It has also afforded relief in some cases of in- 
sanity. 

Where the saving of expense is an object, or a 
regular shower-bath is not to be procured, a large 
common watering-pot filled with cold water may 
be used as a substitute. Let the patient sit un- 
dressed upon a stool, which may be placed in a 
large tub, and pour the water from the pot over the 
head, face, neck, shoulders, and all parts of the 
body, progressively down to the feet, until the 
whole has been thoroughly wetted. 

BATHS, TO HEAT. Various methods have 
been proposed for this purpose, but "they are for the 
most part expensive and unsuited to private fami- 
lies. The following plan, however, is an exception 
to the above, and will be found at once cheap and 
convenient. 

Italian plan of warming baths. This consists 
in immersing in the bath a sort of u or syphon- 
shaped sheet iron tube, furnished with a little fire- 
place, near the bottom, for the purpose of burning 
charcoal. In the following figure is given a rep- 
resentation of this simple apparatus and its appli- 
cation. 



BAT 



104 



BEA 



5^ 




a, Bath tub. 

b, The larger arm of the warming-tube by which the 
charcoal is introduced, and by which the fumes fly off. 

c, The smaller arm to admit air to support the com- 
bustion. 

d, The fire-grate, to support the burning charcoal. 

BATHS, THE SITUATION OF. This 
should always be, if possible, near the principal 
bedrooms on the same floor, for the sake of ready 
access to them, and in a place where plenty of 
good water can be procured. 

BATHS, (in Chemistry.) These mostly con- 
sist of water or alkaline solutions, in which vessels 
are placed containing substances that it is desirous 
to submit to a limited degree of heat. The high- 
est temperature that can be given to any substance 
contained in a vessel placed in another of boiling 
water, is about 205 or 206° ; but by adding one- 
fifth of salt to the bath, a heat of 212° may be 
obtained. Baths of fusible metal, saturated solu- 
tions of salt, sand, and (on the large scale) steam, 
are also used. (See Boiling Point.) 

BATH METAL. Prep. Melt together, under 
charcoal, 1 lb. of brass, with 4^ oz. of spelter. 

BATH PIPE. Prep. Powdered white sugar 
1 lb. ; Italian juice (dissolved in a little water) 2 
oz. ; powdered gum arabic 1 oz. Proc. Make 
them into a stiff mass with warm water, and roll 
it into the usual form. 

BATTER, (in Cookery.) A mixture of flour, 
milk, eggs, oil, or butter, and frequently spices, 
beat together to a thin paste. Use. To cover va- 
rious articles during the operation of cooking, and 
also to form puddings. 

BATTERY, GALVANIC OR VOLTAIC. 
An instrument or apparatus for the production of 
an electrical current by chemical decomposition. 

One of the most useful forms of the galvanic 
battery is that proposed by Professor Daniell, and 
commonly known by his name. Its peculiar ad- 
vantages arise from its action continuing without 
interruption for a long time, henco the name of 
constant battery that has been applied to it. The 
following figure will explain its construction. 

Between the membrane and the copper cylinder 
is poured a saturated solution of blue vitriol, and 
in tne aiaphragm or cylinder B, dilute sulphuric 
acid of the s. g. of 1-1. 'JG made with about 1 part 
of oil of vitriol aiul 7 or 8 of water. The battery 
is now ready to bo applied to the purposes of elcc- 
trotyping, for which one is quite sufricient ; six of 
these, simple butteries will form u circle of consid- 
erable jjowcr, and about 20 will produce one suf- 
ficiently strong for most experiments of dejuonstru- 
tioii ami research. 




./?, A copper cylinder filled with a saturated solution of 
sulphate of copper. 

B, A smaller porous cylinder or membrane, containing 
a mixture of 1 part of oil of vitriol and 7 of water. 

C, A rod of zinc supported in the smaller cylinder by the 
cross-piece i. 

D, A shelf full of 'small holes, for supporting cry^stals of 
sulphate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solution, 

e and /, Screws and caps to connect the wires g an?* 
with the battery. 
g-, The positive wire. 
h, The negative wire. 

ir Another permanent battery of considerable 
powei is formed by arranging a series of cells, 2 
inches in diameter, in each of Avhich is placed a 
smaller cell, of 1 inch in diameter. The latter are 
filled with a solution of sulphuret of potassium, of 
the sp. gr. 1-14, and the former with nitric acid, of 
the sp. gr. 1-35, the pairs are then connected to- 
gether with small discs of platinum foil. 

III. Professor Jacobi has lately described a 
Yery simple, cheap, and convenient ioxm of battery 
said to be discovered by a Russian prince, but 
wh'ch is, in reality, only an adaptation on the 
small scale, of the terraqueous battery of Mr. 
Bain, by which he works his telegraph. This new 
battery is formed by immersing a plate of zinc and 
another of copper, in common garden mould, 
placed in a flower-pot, when, on completing the 
circuit, a powerful current of electricity is pro- 
duced. All that is necessary to keep up the ac- 
tion of the battery is to moisten the earth with a 
little water. The plates should be placed equi- 
distant from each other, and the sides of the pot. 
The professor has had a battery of twenty of them 
at work for a month without their activity being 
apparently diminished. 

BEANS. Qual. A wholesome esculent, when 
eaten in the green state, and w^ell cooked, but apt 
to produce flatulence unless combined with spices. 
In the dried or ripe state they are more difficult oi 
digestion, and are apt to distend the stomach. 
Beans are mostly cooked by boiling in water, to 
which a little salt of tartar has been added, to pre- 
serve their green color. 

BEANS, CULTIVATION OF. Beans should 
succeed a grain crop, provided the ground is in 
decent order, and not worn out by previous work- 
ing. Less than four bushels of seed ought not to be 
used per acre, and this is best sown by running the 
drill-barrow after every third plough ; afterwards 
harrowing before the young plants reach the sur- 
face. 

Dung is frequently given to beans, especially 
when they succeed wheat, that had not received 
manure. It is best applied on the stubble, before 
the winter ploughing is given, or it may be thrown 
into the drills with the seed. Beans require hoeing 
or earthing up, which is sometimes done by hand 
or plough ; tliey also require weeding, which must 



BEE 



105 



BEE 



be done by hand, after the hoeing. Before beans 
are cut they sliould be well ripened, and may be 
generally harvested at the end of September or 
beginning of October. They should be cut with 
the sickle and tied in sheaves, and in stacking 
them a " hole" or air funnel, should be left in the 
centre of the stack, in such a manner that a cur- 
rent of air may pervade the whole. (See Baiiley.) 

BEAR'S GREASE. This fat is much esteem- 
ed for promoting the growth of the hair, but in 
reality possesses no superiority over any other ani- 
mal fat. The mass of that which is sold in Eng- 
tand is hog's lard. The quantity annually con- 
sumed in Great Britain and exported, is estimated 
at several tons, being a larger quantity than all the 
bears at present procurable in Europe would sup- 
ply, if slaughtered and roasted for their fat. 

BEARS GREASE. (FACTITIOUS.) Prep. 
Hog's lard 16 oz.; flowers of benzoin and palm 
oil, of each \ oz. Proc. Melt together until com- 
bined, and stir until cold. Remarks. This article 
does not readily become rancid by age, and may 
be scented at pleasure. 

BECHAMEL, (in Cookery.) A variety of 
fine white broth, or consommee, thickened with 
cream. Proc. Cut lean veal and ham or bacon 
into small slices, put them into a stewpan with a 
good piece of butter, an onion, a blade of mace, a 
few mushroom-buttons, a bit of thyme, and a bay- 
leaf; fry the whole over a very slow fire, but not 
to brown it : thicken it with flour. Add an equal 
quantity' of good veal or mutton broth, and cream. 
Let it boil gently one hour, stirring it all the time. 
Strain it through a soup-strainer. 

BEECHWOOD MAHOGANY. Prep. Dis- 
solve 2 oz. of dragon's blood and 1 oz. of aloes in 
1 quart of rectified spirit of wine, and apply it to 
the surface of the wood previously well polished. 

II. Wash over the surface of the wood with 
aquafortis, and when thoroughly dry give it a coat 
of the above varnish. 

III. Boil 1 lb. of logwood chips in 2 quarts of 
water, and add 2 handfuls of walnut peels ; boil 
again, then strain, and add 1 pint of good vinegar, 
as above. 

BEEF. Qual. The flesh of a bullock, not 
past the middle age, is yerv nutritious, and espe- 
cially adapted to persons of good appetite, or that 
labor, or take much exercise. It is also well suit- 
ed for persons of delicate constitutions, if not over- 
cooked, and left full of gravy, in which case it will 
sit lightly on the stomach, and its fat prove almost 
as digestible as that of veal. 

Choice. Ox beef is considered the best, and may 
be known by having a fine smooth open grain, a 
good red color, and a tender texture. The fat 
should look whitish yellow, or but slightly yellow. 
Cow beef has a closer grain than ox beef, and the 
lean a deeper red ; bull beef is closer still, the fat 
hard and skinny, the lean of a deep red, and it has 
a stronger smell. Heifer beef resembles ox beef, 
except in being smaller, for which reason it is pre- 
ferred in som ■ families. The best roasting pieces 
are the sirloin and the long ribs, but the short ribs 
and the silver side of the round are also sometimes 
roasted, but do not turn out so well. These pieces 
are much improved by being steeped for three 
or four hours in a marinade made with three 
pai"ls of water and one of vinegar, before roasting. 
14 



BEEF A-LA-MODE. . Prep. I. " Cut out 
the bone from the beef, and convert it, with the 
trimmings, into gravy ; then stuii" the orifice with 
rich forcemeat. Half roast it, and before it is put 
into the stewpan, lard the top with diied and 
pickled mushrooms, adding mushroom-powder in 
the orifices ; then put in two quarts of gravy from 
the bones, a large onion stuck with cloves, and 
two carrots cut in slices. When the beef has 
stewed till it is quite tender, strain and thicken 
the sauce, add to it a glass of wine, mushrooms, 
and oj'sters, and sippets of fried paste : either the 
mushrooms or oysters may be omitted, if the fla- 
vor of either should not be desirable." 

II. " Take 3 lbs. of the rump, or any part of 
the beef which will stew well ; trim it nicely, and 
out ofl" all the fat. Chop all sorts of sweet herbs 
together very finely, with a little shalot, and a 
great deal of spice, and put them into a saucer of 
vinegar, that has been rubbed with garlic. Cut 
fat bacon into long slips and dip it into the herbs 
and vinegar ; lard the beef regularly on both sides, 
if necessar)-, in order that it should be thoroughly 
flavored ; rub the beef over with the herbs and 
spice ; flour the meat, itiJ a piece of butter, thp 
size of a walnut, rolled in flour, and a pint of 
water. Bake the beef in an oven, strain the gra- 
vy, which will scarcely require either thickening 
or browning, and serv^e it up with pickles on the 
top. It is most excellent when cold, but should 
be sei-yed up hot at fii-st. The gravy^ niay be 
boiled to a glaze if necessary". It will require a 
good deal of spice ; a teaspoonful of cayenne pep 
per, one of white pepper, a saltspoonful of allspice, 
half the quantity of pounded cloves, and a blade 
of ntace pounded, or the mixed spices may be 
used." 

BEEF, COLLARED. " Take the best part 
of a shin of beef, of which soup has been made, 
(for it must be stewed until very tender,) and an 
ox-tail, also well-stewed ; cut them into small 
pieces, season them well, add a glass of wine and 
a glass of ketchup, and put it into a stewpan cov- 
ered with a part of the liquor in which the ox-tail 
has been boiled ; stew it for about twenty minutes, 
and then put it into a mould. It must be very 
cold before it is turned out. This is a good way 
of employing the beef and heel when soup or jelly 
is made ; a few chopped sweet herbs may be add- 
ed, and hard eggs cut into slices, or pickles, such 
as sliced cucumbers, intermingled. The flavor 
may be varied in many ways." 

BEEF, D U T C H. Prep. Cover lean beef 
with a mixture of treacle and moist sugar, for 
three days, then salt it well with common sal< 
and saltpetre, rubbed well in, and turn it well ev- 
ery day for a fortnight. It must then be rolled 
tight in a coarse cloth, and submitted to hea\'y 
pressure, after which it is to be hung up in 
wood smoke, and turned every day. If after 
boiling it be well pressed it will grate or cut 
in " shivers" equal to the finest Dutch beef. 
One pound of salt is enough for twelve pounds 
of beef. 

BEEF, HAMBURGH. Prep. This is pre- 
pared by pickling the beef for three weeks, with a 
mixture of 1^ lb. of salt, 1 lb. of treacle, and l^oz. 
of saltpetre, well rubbed in, after which it is dried 
in wood smoke. The ribs is the part generally 



BEE 



106 



BEE 



used, of which the above pickle will be enough 
for 15 to 18 lbs. 

BEEF, HUNG. Prep. I. Choose a piece of 
beef with as Httle bone as you can, (the flank is 
best,) sprinkle it, and let it drain a day ; then rub 
it with salt and saltpetre, but only a small propor- 
tion of the latter ; and you may add a few grains 
of cochineal ; all in fine powder. Rub the pickle 
every day into the meat for a week, then only 
turn it. 

It will be excellent in eight days. In sixteen 
drain it from the pickle ; and let it be smoked at 
the oven's mouth when heated with wood, or send 
it to the baker's. A few days will smoke it. 

A. little of the coarsest sugar may be added to 
the salt. 

It eats well boiled tender with greens or carrots. 
If to be grated as Dutch, then cut a lean bit, boil 
it till extremely tender, and while hot put it under 
a press. When cold, fold it in a sheet of paper, 
and it will keep in a dry place two or three 
months, ready for serving on bread and butter. 

II. Rub the beef with one eighth of its weight 
of salt, to which a little saltpetre has been added, 
then put it into a tub or other suitable vessel, 
place a board over it, and pile heavy weights upon 
tt ; let it remain so for fourteen to twenty days, 
then take it out and hang it up for three weeks or 
a month to dry. 

BEEF, HUNTER'S. Prep. To a round of 
beef, weighing twenty-four pounds, take three 
ounces of saltpetre, three ounces of the coarsest 
sugar, an ounce of cloves and nutmeg, half an 
ounce of allspice, and three handfuls of common 
salt, all in the finest powder. Allow the beef to 
hang two or three days, remove the bones, then 
rub the spices well into it, continuing to do so ev- 
ery day for two or three weeks. Before dressing 
it, dip it into cold water to take off the loose spice. 
Bind it up tightly with tape, and put it into a pan 
with a teacupful of water at the bottom ; cover 
the top of the meat with shred suet, and cover the 
pan Avith a coarse crust, and brown paper over it. 
Let it bake five hours, and when cold take off the 
paste and the tape. 

BEEF, LEICESTER SPICED. Prep. Take 
a round of beef, rub in a quarter of a pound of 
saltpetre, finely pounded ; let it stand a day, then 
season it with half a pound of bay-salt, an ounce 
of black pepper, and the same of allspice, both 
founded. Let it lie in the pickle a month, turn- 
ing it every day. 

BEEF, PICKLED. Prep. Rub each piece 
of beef very lightly with salt ; let them lie singly 
on a tray or board for 24 hours, then wipe them 
very dry. Pack thorn closely in a tub, taking 
care tliat it is perfectly sweet and clean. Have 
the pickle ready, made thus: Boil four gallons of 
soft water witli ten pounds of coarse salt, four 
ounces of saltpetre, and two pounds of coarse 
brown sugar; let it boil 15 minutes, and skim it 
while boiling very clean. When perfectly cold 
pour it on the beef, laying a weight on tiie lop to 
kec]) tlie meat iiiulcr th«^ pickle. This (juanlily is 
Buflicitiit for 100 lbs. of beef if closely ])acked. 

BICEF, POTTED. Prep. Cut the beef small, 
add to it some melted butter, 2 anchovies, boned 
and washed, and a little of the best j)e|)per, 
^11 pounded very fine. Beat the Tvhole well to- 



gether in a marble mortar, until the paste is very 
smooth and yellow colored, then put it into pots 
and pour clarified butter over it, about | of an 
inch deep. 

BEEF, WELSH. Prep. Rub two ounces of 
saltpetre into a round of beef, let it remain an 
hour, then season it with pepper, salt, and a fourth 
portion of allspice ; allow the beef :o stand in the 
brine for ^ 5 days, turning it frequently. Work it 
NeW with pickle ; put it into an earthen vessel, 
with a quantity of beef-suet over and under it, 
cover it with a coarse paste and bake it, allowing 
it to remain in the oven for 6 or 8 hours. Pour 
off the gravy, and let the beef stand till cold. It 
will keep for two months in winter, and will be 
found useful amid the Christmas fare in the coun- 
try. 

BEER, ALE, and PORTER. Qual, ^c. 
Pure malt liquor, which has undergone a perfect 
fermentation, is perhaps the most wholesome bev- 
erage that can be drunJi: provided it be not taken 
in excess. Malt liquor bears different names ac- 
cording to its strength and .-jolor. Ale is the 
most nutritious variety, but good porter frequently 
agrees better with bilious constitutions. The most 
wholesome and perhaps the least exceptionable 
beverages prepared from malt are those known as 
East India, Scotch, and Bavarian ales. A late 
writer has described good beer as nutritious, from 
the sugar and mucilage it contains ; exhilarating, 
from its spirit ; and strengthening and narcotic, 
from its hops. The stronger varieties of ale con- 
tain 7 to 8 per cent, of absolute alcohol ; average 
strong ale 5 to 6 per cent. ; brown stout 6 to 7 
per cent. ; London porter 3^ to 4 per cent. ; and 
table beer 1 to 2 per cent. (See Brewing, Ale 
AND Malt Liquor.) 

BEER, AMBER. Prep. Amber is now out 
of fashion, but formerly was drunk in great quan- 
tities, in London, mixed with bitters, and called 
purl. The proportions of malt were three quar- 
ters amber, and one quarter pale, with six pounds 
of hops to the quarter. The first liquor is usually 
turned on at 170°, and the second at 185°. The 
worts are boiled together for two hours. It is 
tunned at 64°, and after 24 hours roused every 2 
hours, till the heat is increased to 74°. It is then 
skimmed every hour for 6 hours and cleansed, and 
generally used as soon as it has done working in 
the barrels. 

BEER, BRAN. A veiy good article of table 
beer may be brewed from bran, especially if it be 
mashed with about j-^ of its weight of good malt, 
A proportionate quantity of liops must bo used, and 
the addition of a little moist sugar will vastly im- 
prove it. Bran will yield from 16 to 20 lbs. per 
barrel, with proper management. 

BEER, CHEAP. " No production of this coun- 
try abounds so much with saccharine matter as 
the shells of green peas. A strong decoction of 
them so much resembles, in odor and taste, an in- 
fusion of nuilt (termed wort) as to deceive a brew- 
er. This decoction, rendered slightly bitter with 
the wood sage, and afterwards fermented with 
yeast, atlords a very excellent beverage. The me- 
thod employed is as follows: 

" Fill a boiler with the green shells of peas, pour 
on water till it rises half an inch above tlio c.hells, 
and sinnner for three hours. Strain off the liquor, 



BEE 



107 



BEE 



and add a strong decoction of the wood sage, or 
the hop, so as to render it pleasantly bitter ; then 
femient in the usual manner. The wood sage is 
the best substitute for liops, and being free from 
any anodyne property is entitled to a preference. 
By boiling a fresh quantity of shells in the decoc- 
tion before it becomes cold, it may be so thoroughly 
impregnated with saccharine matter as to afford a 
Hquor. when fermented, as strong as ale." 

BEER, POTATO. An excellent beverage may 
be prepared by mixing the pulped potatoes with 
about j^V of their weiglit of good barley malt, and 
mashing with water at 160°, keeping it at the 
same temperature for 4 hours ; after draining off 
this wort, a second mash must be made at 180° 
for 1 hour ; the mixed worts must be then boiled 
with a little hops, cooled and fermented. 

BEER, SPRUCE. I. (White.) Ing. Water 10 
gallons ; sugar 10 lbs. ; essence of spruce \ lb. ; 
yeast ^ pint. Proc. Dissolve the sugar and es- 
sence of spruce in the water, previously warmed ; 
then allow it to cool a little, and add the yeast, as 
in making ginger-beer ; bottle immediately in half- 
pmt bottles. 

II. (Brown.) For sugar use treacle. Remarks. 
Spruce beer is a pleasant beverage, when well pre- 
pared, and possesses slightly diuretic properties. 

BEER, SUGAR. Prep. Mash a peck of bran 
m 10 gallons of boiling water for 2 hours, draw off 
the wort, add 7 lbs. of moist sugar, and boil it with 
a \ lb. of hops ; then cool it down and add a little 
yeast. It may be put into the cask the next day, 
and in 3 days more it may be bunged down. At 
the expiration of 6 or 8 days it will be fit to drink. 
This beer will not keep long. 

BEER, SUGAR AND MALT. Prep. cjc. 
It has been found that 100 lbs. of good moist sugar, 
mixed with 1 quarter of malt, will produce an equal 
quantity of wort, and of the same quality, as 2 
quarters of malt would do under similar treatment. 
The best plan is to add the sugar to the wort from 
the malt, after it is let down from the mash-tun. 
In other respects the brewing is the same as from 
malt alone. 

BEER, TREACLE. Prep. Boil i lb. of hops 
with 14 lbs. of treacle in 36 gallons of water for 1 
hour : then strain off the wort and add, when near- 
ly cold, i a pint of yeast ; the next day it may be 
put into a cask or bottled. 

II. Hops 1 oz. ; treacle 1 lb. ; water 1 gallon. 
As above. Remarks. A cheap and pleasant bev- 
erage when well made. It will not keep for any 
length of time. 

BEER, TABLE. Prep. I. Malt 1 bushel; 
hops I lb. Draw off \\ barrel of wort at three 
mashmgs. (See Brewing.) 

II. Alalt 8 bushels ; hops 7 lbs. ; sugar coloring 
7 lbs. ; Spanish juice 1 lb. ; treacle 14 lbs. To pro- 
duce 10 barrels, or five times the malt. 

BEER, TWOPENNY (or simply, Twopenny.) 
Prep. Malt 3 bushels ; hops 2 lbs. ; Spanish juice 
2 lbs. ; treacle 14 lbs ; capsicum ^ oz. To produce 
1 barrel, or three times the malt. Drank in cold 
weather as a stimulant, frequently when only a 
week o'.d. 

BEES. In addition to what has been said under 
the article Apiary, the following will no doubt 
prove interesting to the reader. 

Mr Cobbelt on the management of Bees. The 



best hi^es are those made of clean unblighted rj'e« 
straw. A swarm should always be put into a new 
lii^e, and the sticks should be new that are put 
into the hive for the bees to work on ; for, if the 
hive be old, it is not so wholesome ; and a thou- 
sand to one but it contains the embryons of moths 
and other insects injurious to bees. Over the hive 
itself there should be a cap of thatch, made also of 
clean rye-straw ; and it should not only be new 
when first put on the hive, but a new one should 
be made to supply the place of the former one 
every three or four months ; for, when the straw 
begins to get rotten, as it soon does, insects breed 
in it, it smells bad, and its effect on the bees is 
dangerous. 

The hives should be placed on a bench, the legs 
of which mice and rats cannot creep up. Tin 
round the legs is best. But even this will not keep 
down ants, which are mortal enemies of bees. To 
keep these away, if they infest the hive, take a 
green stick and twist it round in, the shape of a 
ring, to lay on the ground, round the legs of the 
bench, and at a few inches from it ; and cover this 
stick with tar. This will keep away the ants. 

Besides the hive and its cap, there should be a 
sort of shed, with top, back, and ends, to give ad- 
ditional protection in winter ; though, in summer, 
hives may be kept too hot, and in that case, the 
bees become sickly, and the produce light. The 
situation of the hive is to face the south-east ; or, 
at any rate, to be sheltered from the north and 
the west. From the north always, and from the 
west in winter. If it be a very diy season in sum- 
mer, it contributes greatly to the success of the 
bees, to place clear water near their home, in a 
thing that they can conveniently drink out of ; for, 
if they have to go a great way for di-ink, they have 
not much time for work. 

It is supposed that bees live only a year ; at any 
rate, it is best never to keep the same stall, or fa- 
mily, over two years, except it be wanted to in- 
crease the number of hives. The swarm of this 
summer should always be taken in the autumn of 
the next year. It is whimsical to save the bees 
when the honey is taken. They must be fed ; and 
if saved, they will die of old age before the next 
fall ; and though young ones will supply the place 
of the dead, this is nothing like a good swarm put 
up during the summer. 

A good stall of bees, that is to say, the produce 
of one, is always worth about two bushels of good 
wheat. The cost is nothing to the laborer. He 
must be a stupid countryman indeed who cannot 
make a bee-hive ; and a lazy one indeed, if he will 
not if he can. In short, there is nothing but care 
demanded ; and there are very few situations in 
the countr}^, especially in the south of England, 
where a laboring man may not have half a dozen 
stalls of bees to take every year. The main things 
are to keep away insects, mice, and birds, and 
especially a little bird called the bee-bird ; and to 
keep all clean and fresh as to the hives and cover- 
ings. Never put a swarm into an old hive. If 
wasps or hornets annoy you, watch them home iu 
the day-time ; and, in the night, kill them by fire 
or by boiling water. Fowls should not go where 
bees are, for they eat them. 

On the different kinds of hives. — 1. The com- 
mon hive. This liive is too well known to require 



BEE 



108 



BEL 



any description. It should be made of good clean 
dry straw, and sufficiently thick and firm to pro- 
tect the bees. The size of the hive should be pro- 
portionate to the size of the swarm placed in it. 
Care should be taken to avoid covering this hive 
with a hackle or turf, as it induces mice to build in 
it, and ultimately to destroy both combs and bees. 
2. Glass hives. There are various modifications of 
this useful kind of hive. That of Mr. Moulton con- 
sists in placing glasses on a board furnished with 
holes at the upper part of a straw hive of peculiar 
'construction ; when filled with honey these may 
be removed without injury to the bees or disturbing 
the economy of the hive. The first year the glasses 
are only filled once, and generally produce about 
8 lbs. of honey of superior quality ; but the second 
jear and subsequent years the glasses may be 
worked twice or oftener. 3. The double cottage 
straw hive. This hive is worked by first hiving 
the bees in the lower hive, and after 10 days clear- 
ing the opening at top and affixing thereon another 
small hive either of glass or straw. When full, the 
latter may be removed. 4. The box hive and 
hexagon box and straw hives may be worked in 
the common way, or by placing a glass hive over 
it. The management is very similar to the pre- 
ceding varieties. 

Bee-Jlowers. Bees seldom fly more than a mile 
for their food ; it is therefore advisable to encourage 
the growth of such flowers as they appear to be 
most attached to. The following are said to be 
the most favorable for pasturage, and those that 
blossom early should be preferred : 

Shrubs, ^c. Flowers. 

Rosemary, Mignonnette, 

Broom, Lemon thyme, 

Heath, Borage, 

Furze, White clover, 

' Fruit-blossoms. Bean-flowers. 

Swarming. As soon as a stock has increased to 
a certain number, which can barely find accom- 
modation in the hive, an inclination to swarm is 
evinced as soon as a queen bee is ready to lead 
them. When the bees begin to carry in farina, or 
pellets on their thighs, it denotes that they have 
commenced breeding, which frequently begins in 
February, and does not finish till October. The 
indication of swarming is the clustering of the bees 
in great numbers below the resting-board. They 
never rise but in fine weather, and most frequently 
about noon ; it becomes therefore necessary to ob- 
serve the hives well during the swarming season, 
or from April to July. A second cast may gene- 
rally be expected within 3 or 4 days after the first, 
but the interval seldom exceeds 8 or 10 days. 
Should a stock overswarm itself, it will perish un- 
less strengthened ; for this purpose, the nuniber of 
bees that enter the liivo should bo carefully ob- 
served. 

Hiving. The method of hiving a swarm of bees 
varies according to the* object on whicli they may 
have settled. Should they alight on the ground, 
place a new hive over Iheni, avoiding injuring any 
of the bees, or talking at the time, or breathing on 
them. Sliould they alight on a tree, the branch 
may be siuiken over tiie hive, or if small, cut off 
nnd i)laced in it, and tiio hive left on the s|)ot, 
when the remaining bees will go into it. The hive 



should then be left near to where they settle until 
the evening, when it may be gently removed to 
the bee-house. Ringing a bell, or beating an old 
kettle, is a common way of collecting the bees to- 
gether and making them alight. 

Reinforcement of weak stocks. Weak swarms 
of bees should be strengthened. This is done by 
hiving the swarms as usual, and in the evening 
striking the bottom of the hive containing^the new 
swarm smartly, on a cloth spread upon the ground. 
The bees then fall in a cluster on the cloth, when 
the liive containing the stock to be reinforced must 
be placed over them as quickly as possible ; after 
the lapse of about a quarter of an hour, they will 
have become united as one family. Another 
method is to invert the one hive and to place it in 
a bucket or pail, then to set the other hive over it ; 
by the next morning the bees in the lower one will 
have ascended into the upper. The operation of 
reinforcing stocks is very economical, as it is found 
that one strong stock will produce more honey than 
two weak ones. 

Weak stocks. Stocks weighing less than 18 or 
20 lbs. cannot be safely brought through the winter 
without feeding. The best food is a mixture :^ 
sugar and water, or equal parts of sugar and beei 

BEETLES. The common pest of our kitchens, 
to which this name is applied, is properly the blatta 
or cockroach, which is an insect of the order 
orthopterous, and not belonging to the coleopterous, 
or beetle tribe. The blatta, or cockroach, is char- 
acterized by its nocturnal appearance, retiring 
during the day to the cracks and holes in the floors 
and walls surrounding the fireplaces. It is prin- 
cipally found on the basement floor, and likes a 
warm damp situation. 

Exter. Place a few lumps of unslaked lime 
where they frequent ; or set a dish or trap, con- 
taining a little beer or sirup at the bottom, and 
place a few sticks slanting against its sides, so as 
to form a sort of gangway for the beetles to climb 
up by, when they will go headlong into the bait 
set for them. Another plan: mix equal weights 
of red lead, sugar, and flom-, and place it nightly 
near their haunts. This last mixture, made into 
sheets, forms the beetle-wafers, sold at the oil 



BEET ROOT. Qual, Use, ^c. Beet root is 
cooling, saccharine, and nutritious, and is nnich 
used for its color in cookery^ It is cooked by either 
boiling or baking, with a little vinegar and gravy, 
and is also used as an ingredient in stweral excel- 
lent winter salads. Under the name of mange\ 
wurzel it is much employed for feeding cattle. 

BEET ROOT SUGAR. Frep. This is made 
by expressing the juice of the white-rooted beet, 
and afterwards boiling the marc in water, and 
again expressing the liquor. The fluids are then 
mixed, evaporated to the consistence of a sirup, 
clarified with white of Qgg, and lastly, evaporated 
to a proper consistence. Remarks. Beet root 
yields too little saccharine juice (and that of a very 
inferior quality) to be employed as a source of 
sugar, as long as cane-sugar is procurable at its 
present rate. The marc, or cake, left after the 
process, forms an excellent food for feeding cattle, 
and especially for pigs and cows. 

BELLAlVONNIN. A volatile alkali some- 
what rosemblinfr annnonia, discovered by Luebe 



BEN 



109 



BEN 



kind in the atropa belladonna. (Phar. Centr. Blatt. 
fur 1839.) 

BELL METAL. A species of bronze applied to 
the manufacture of bells, «fcc. 

Prep. I. Melt together under powdered char- 
coal, 100 parts of pure copper, with 20 parts of 
tin, and unite the two metals by frequently stirring 
the mass. Remark. Product very fine. 

IL Copper 3 parts ; tin 1 part ; as above. Re- 
mark. Some of the finest church bells in the world 
liave this composition. 

IIL Copper 2 parts ; tin 1 part ; as above. 

IV. Copper 72 parts ; tin 26^ parts ; iron 1^ 
parts. Retnarks. The bells of small clocks or 
pendules are made of this alloy in Paris. 

Remarks. It is absolutely necessary in this pro- 
cess to keep the metals from contact with the air, 
for which purpose, the powdered charcoal is em- 
ployed. The union of the two metals in this alloy 
is so complete, that its gravity is considerably 
greater than that of the mean of its constituents, 
thus evincing chemical union to have taken place. 

The proportions of the first form are those of the 
Indian gong, so much celebrated for the richness 
of its tone. In very small bells, and in those of 
repeating w^atches, a little zinc is generally added, 
which makes them give out their tones the sharper. 
A less proportion of tin is now generally used for 
church bells, than for house or clock bells, the tones 
being thought to be rendered thereby more suitable 
to their respective purposes. The substitution"^ of 
zinc for the iron in the last formula, would (I am 
told) improve the tone. 

To give this alloy its highest degree of sonorous- 
ness, it must be subjected to sudden refrigeration. 
M. D'Arcet recommends the pieces to be ignited 
after they are cast, and then to be suddenly plung- 
ed into cold water. They are next to undergo a 
well-regulated pressure by skilful hammering, un- 
til they have assumed their intended form ; then 
to be heated, and allowed to cool slowly in the air. 
In a general way, however, bells are formed by 
simple casting. The addition of lead, and other 
metals, to this alloy, greatly lessens its sonorous- 
ness. For common purposes the third form is 
generally used. 

BENZ AMIDE. A compoimd discovered by 
Wohler aud Liebig, supposed to be formed by the 
union of the two theoretical bases benzule and 
amide, hence the name. Prep. Saturate chloride of 
benzule with dry ammoniacal gas, reduce the re- 
sulting dry white mass to a fine powder, and well 
wash it with cold water. Dissolve the residuum 
in boiling water ; the benzamide will crystallize 
out on the liquor cooling. Remarks. Benzamide 
is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and is de- 
comnosed bv both acids and alkalis. 

BEXZHVdRAMIDE. a compound discover- 
ed by Laurent. It is formed by the action of 
strong liquid ammonia, on ^V of its volume of oil 
of bitter ahnonds, at a temperature of about 112°, 
and purified by boiling in ether, for some time, 
when crystals will be deposited on cooling. These 
are again dissolved in boiling alcohol, and purified 
by filtering and crystallization. 

BENZILE. (Discovered by Laurent, who 
called it benzule, with which it is isomeric.) Prep. 
Pass chlorine gas ovir melted benzoin, until 
muriatic acid ceases to be formed ; cool and dis- 



solve in hot alcohol, which, on cooling, will deposits 
crystals of pure benzile. Prop. Soluble in alcohol 
and ether; tasteless, inodorous, volatile, and in- 
flammable. 

BEx\ZILIC ACID. (Discovered by Liebig.) 
Prep. Boil bcnzoine or benzile with a saturated 
alcoholic solution of potassa, adding more of the 
latter, as long as a blue color is produced, after 
the previous portion has been decolored by boiling. 
Then neutralize with muriatic acid, filter and add 
muriatic acid in excess ; on cooling, crystals of 
benzilic acid will be deposited. Prop. Soluble in 
water ; fusible ; with potassa and silver it forms 
benzilates of those bases, which are crj^stallizable. 

BENZIMIDE. The pearly needles and la- 
mellae, which separate under certain circumstances 
from the essential oil of bitter almonds. It was 
discovered by Laurent, and has been thought by 
some to be diy benzoate of ammonia. 

BENZOIC ACID. Syn. Floweks .*- Ben- 
zoin OR Benjamin. Prep. There are two general 
methods of procuring this acid from gum benzoin : 
one by sublimation, or the " dry way," as it is com- 
monly called ; and the other, by dissolving it out 
in the form of a salt, from which the acid is after- 
wards procured ; this has been called the " moist 
way." 

I. By sublimation. • 

a. Put 1 pound of coarsely triturated benzoin 
into an iron pot with a flat bottom, whose diameter 
is from 8 to 9 inches ; the benzoin forming therein 
a layer of from 1 to 2 inches in depth. The open 
end of the pot is then to be covered with a sheet 
of soft and loose blotting paper, (felt, Liebig.) 
which must be attached to the rim with paste. A 
cone, formed with strong and thick paper, (cart- 
ridge paper,) is then to be capped over the top of 
the pot, including the blotting paper ; and this is 
also to be attached with paste and string. The 
apparatus thus prepared, should then be placed on 
the sand-bath, and exposed from 4 to 6 hours to 
a gentle heat. After this lapse of time, it may be 
removed from the sand-bath, inverted, and the 
string detached, when beautiful white needles, ol 
a silky lustre, possessing the agreeable odor of 
benzoic acid, will be found in the paper cone. 

Prod. From 1 lb. of good benzoin 1^ to 2 oz. of 
benzoic acid may be procured. The second sub- 
limation ordered in the London Pharm. becomes 
quite unnecessary when the above method is fol- 
lowed. The following modification of the above 
is highly recommended by Ganger. 

b. Place 12 oz. of coarsely powdered benzoin 
resin, mixed with sand, in a flat iron vessel capa- 
ble of containing from 2 to 4 lbs. ; cover the mouth 
of the vessel with loose blotting paper, place there- 
in a stick to support 4 or 5 paper discs, at some 
distance above the blotting paper, horizontally 
fixed on the stick ; then tilt a paper bag in the 
form of a sugar-loaf, and formed of a double sheet 
of paper, (inward blotting paper, and outward 
sugar paper,) over it, and attach this apparatus by 
means of a string, around the briiB of the vessel. 
After 6 or 8 hours' exposure in a sand-bath, allow 
it to cool ; take out the benzoic acid from the bag 
and the paper discs, renew the paper attachea 
over the mouth of the vessel, and again arrange 
the whole as before, when it must be heated for 
some hours to a higher temperature. It is advisa- 



BEN 



110 



BEN 



ble to renew the paper for a third time. The 
white crystals are separated from the product, the 
colored crystals strongly pressed between folds of 
blotting paper, and again sublimed as before. 12 
oz. of good benzoin thus furnish from 10 to 11 
drachms of fine benzoic acid. Some benzoic acid 
may afterwards be obtained from the papers em- 
ployed. (Gauger's Report, 1842.) 

c. (Process at Apothecary's Hall.) The best 
gum benzoin is put into an iron pot, set in brick- 
work, over a proper fire, and communicating by 
a conical metal neck, with a wooden box lined 
with paper, as a receiver for the flowers. The 
sublimation is conducted rather rapidly, and the 
acid condenses in beautiful elastic prismatic crys- 
tals ; but if the process be conducted more slowly, 
the product is proportionately scaly. Prod. 10 to 
12 per cent, of flowers are thus generally procured, 
which, after being pressed in blotting paper, are 
again sublimed, and give 8 or 9 per cent, of very 
pure acid. 

II. By the moist way. 

a. (Scheele's process.) Mix intimately togeth- 
er, equal parts of finely powdered benzoin and hy- 
drate of lime, and boil for 1 hour, with 40 parts of 
water ; filter and evaporate to one -fifth ; saturate 
the lime with muriatic acid, when the benzoic acid 
win crystallize out a^ the liquor cools ; it should 
be then either washed or sublimed, after first well 
drying it. Remarks. If a perfect mixture of the 
lime and powdered gum be not first made, the lat- 
ter will run into a solid mass in the boihng water, 
and the process will fail. 1 lb. of benjamin yields 
§jj 3vj, 3ij of flowers. (Gray.) By my own ma- 
nipulations I could never succeed in procuring this 
proportion of acid. The above process is similar 
to that of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia. 

b. {Process of Stoltze.) Dissolve the resin in 
3 times its weight of alcohol, introduce the solu- 
tion into a retort, and add thereto gradually, a so- 
lution of carbonate of soda in weak spirit and 
water, until all the free acid be neutralized ; water 
equal to twice the weight of the benzoin employed, 
must be next poured in, and the alcohol removed 
by distillation. The floating resin should be now 
skimmed off the remaining liquid, and washed 
with a little water, v/hich should be added to the 
contents of the retort, which will deposite crystals 
on cooling. 

c. Boil hippuric acid for 15 minutes in nitric 
acid, sp. gr. 1-42, then add water, and allow the 
solution to crystallize ; collect the crystals, and 
purify by sublimation as above. *jit* Hippuric 
acid is manufactured from the urine of horses, 
which is evaporated to J of its original volume, 
and then mixed with muriatic acid ; after which, 
the licjuid deposites the acid, somewhat impure, 
under the form of a crystalline powder. Large 
quantities of benzoic acid iiro said to be obtained 
by the above process, but owing to its not being 
generally well purified, is of inferior quality and 
unsaleable. It may, however, bo rendered quite 
equal to that obtained froiu gum benzoin, by care- 
ful manipulation. " A maiiiif actor y of sal ammo- 
niac, near Ma>(debur^h, which uses urine, is 
able to supply Jiowers of benjamin by the cwt.'' 
(Gray.) 

Jlcniarks. The manufacture of benzoic acid has 
lately assumed cousiderublo interest from the scar- 



city and high price of gum benzoin, which is naw 
from 40Z. to 50Z. the cwt. The low price at 
which this acid has for some time past been sold, 
is barely sufficient to repay the expenses incurred 
in its manufacture. The finest gum benzoin is 
exported in large quantities to Spain, where it is 
mixed with olibanum and used as incense. Ben- 
zoic acid is at the present time very dear, being 
about Is. Ijjd. to Is. 8d. an ounce, whereas, its 
usual price averages from Is. ^cZ. to Is. 2d. the 
oz. A large manufacturer, with whom I am ac- 
quainted, made a sale some time since at Is. l^d., 
of about 300 oz., but has lately greedily taken 
back the greater portion, which remained unsold, 
at Is. 4d., besides paying all the expenses of tran- 
sit, &c. 

The product by the process of sublimation is 
generally greater than by the humid way, and is 
consequently the one usually adopted. Much, 
however, depends upon the quality of the gum 
employed. It is found to be the most economical 
to use the best benzoin, as it is richer in benzoic 
acid than the inferior kinds. 

Prop., Uses, <^c. Form ; light feathery white 
crystals; very soluble in alcohol. It is used in 
making paregoric, and is sometimes administered 
in chronic bronchial affections ; it is expectorant. 
Dose. 10 to 20 grs. in old coughs. 

Pur. 24 parts of boiling water dissolve 1 part 
of benzoic acid, and again deposite the greater 
portion on cooling. Freely soluble in alcohol, and 
in liquor of potassa, from which it is precipitated 
by adding muriatic acid. When cautiously heat- 
ed, it wholly evaporates, with an odor of benzoin. 
It is inflammable. (P. L.) 

BENZOATES. Combinations of the bases 
with benzoic acid. 

Prep. The benzoates of ammonia, soda, and 
potassa, may be made by dissolving with heat 
benzoic acid in their respective aqueous solutions, 
until they become perfectly neutral. Most of the 
other benzoates may be formed -in a similar way, 
or by adding a benzoate of an alkali to a salt of 
the base. 

BENZOINAMIDE. Syn. Hydrobenzoina- 
MiDE. A white, tasteless, inodorous, volatile pow- 
der, obtained by heating benzoin with water of 
ammonia. 

BENZOIN. Syn. Camphor of Oil of Alm- 
onds. A compound isomeric with benzule. dis- 
covered by Robiquet and Boutron Charlard. Prep. 
Mix together equal parts by measure of the raw 
oil of bitter almonds, and a solution of caustic po- 
tassa in alcohol. As soon as the liquid becomes 
full of crystals, and apparently solid, it must" be 
dissolved in alcohol, filtered, and crystallized. 
Prop., tj-c. Brilliant prismatic crystals ; tasteless, 
odorless, volatile, and inflammable ; soluble in al- 
cohol, and forming with oil of vitriol, and with 
alcoholic solution of potash, a violet-blue solution. 

BENZOLE. Syn. BioNziNii:. Discovered by 
Faraday among the products of the destructive 
distillation of organic substances ; it reseniblei? 
cllicr. /*/T/». Submit a mixture of 1 part of ben- 
zoic acid and 3 parts of slaked lime, to distilla- 
tion, and redistil tlia oily product with water. 

IM'iNZONE. Syn. Cakkohenzioe. An oily 
licjuid, heavier than water, discovered by Mits- 
cherlich and Peligot. Prep. The raw product of 



BEZ 



111 



BIG 



the distillation of benzoate of lime, is distilled first 
in a water-bath, and then afterwards until the 
heat gradually rises to 920°, as long as benzole 
comes over. The product is next exposed to a 
cold of —5°, when the crystals of najihthaline 
which form must be separated from the liquid, 
which is pure benzone. 

BENZOLE. The hypothetical radical of sev- 
eral compounds obtained from the oil of bitter al- 
monds, and supposed to be the base of benzoic acid. 
Among the principal members of this group may 
be mentioned hydruret of henzule, obtained from 
a mixture of oil of almonds, milk of lime, and chlo- 
ride of iron, by distillation ; the chloride of henzule, 
obtained from the last article (rendered dry by 
chloride of calcium) by passing chlorine gas through 
it, as long as muriatic acid is formed ; the bromide 
of henzule, also prepared like the chloride ; the 
iodide of henzule, prepared from a mixture of 
iodide of potassiiun and chloride of benzule by dis- 
tillation ; the sulphuret of benzule, prepared by 
distillation from a mixture of sulphuret of lead and 
chloride of benzule ; and cyanuret of benzule, also 
prepared by distillation, from a mixture of bic} anide 
of mercury and chloride of benzule. The series 
also includes hippuric acid, amygdalinic acid, and 
amygdaline, as well as several other substances 
whose names contain (benz-) the fii-st part of the 
word benzule, as indicative of their constitution. 

BERBERINE. A substance discovered by 
Buchner, in the barberry shrub, (berberis vulgaris.) 
It belongs to the class of azotized coloring sub- 
stances. It is soluble in boiling water and in alco- 
hol, from either of which it may be obtained in 
crj-stals. _ 

BETULINE. Syn. Betulina. A substance 
discovered by Lowitz, in the bark of the white 
birch, (the betula alba.) " It is obtained under the 
form of white crystalline needles, soluble in ether, 
alcohol, oil, and acids. It is fusible, volatile, and 
inflammable. 

BEZOARS. Preternatural concretions found in 
the stomach and intestines of some animals, form- 
erly supposed to possess alexipharmic powers, and 
were both taken internally and worn as amulets. 
They have now, however, sunk into disuse, and 
though ordered in the preparation of Gascoigne's 
ball and powder, a factitious kind is substituted. 
The name bezoar was formerly extended to vari- 
ous other substances supposed to possess similar 
virtues. 

BEZOARS, FACTITIOUS. Prep. Make 
tobacco-pipe clay into a paste with ox-gall, and 
add a little hair or wool ; then form into shapes. 

Remarks. This will give a yellow tint to paper, 
rubbed with chalk, and a green one to quicklime, 
which tests are considered as proof of genuine 
bezoars. 

BEZOAR, MINERAL. Powder of algaroth 
deflagrated with nitre in a red hot crucible, and 
then well washed with water. Once used in doses 
of 5 to 15 grs. as a diaphoretic, but now obsolete. 
According to the mode by which the powder of 
algaroth was made, arose the names bezoardicum 
joviale and bezoardicum martiale, also applied to 
this preparation. 

BEZOAR, ARGENTINE. Syn. Bezoardi- 
cum LuNARK. Made by distilling a mixture of but- 
ter of antimony and nitrate of silver. Once given 



in epilepsy and head diseases, in doses of G to 13 
grains. 

BEZOAR OF LEAD. Syn. Bezoardicum 
Saturni. Made by distilling a mixture of oxide of 
lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid. Once 
given in doses of 5 or 6 grs. in diseases of the spleen. 

BHAURTA, (in Cookery.) An Indian dish 
made with mashed potatoes, onions, and capsicum, 
moulded into a shape and slightly baked. 

BIBROMISATINE AND BROMISATINE. 
These are formed by the action of bromine on isa- 
tine. Treated with potassa, they yield acids of the 
same names. 

BIC ARBONATES. Combinations of the bases 
with the carbonic acid, in which two atoms of the 
latter are united to one of the former. The follow- 
ing are the principal bicarbonates. 

BICARBONATE OF POTASSA. -S-y^. Aer- 
ated Kali. Prep. There are two methods of 
preparing this salt: one, by passing a stream of 
carbonic acid through a solution of the carbonate 
of potassa ; the other, by the addition of sesquicar- 
bonate of ammonia. The processes of the London 
and Edinburgh colleges offer an example of each. 

I. a. (Process of the L. Ph.) Ing. Carbonate 
of potassa lb. vj ; distilled water 1 gallon. Proc. 
Dissolve the salt in the water, and pass carbonic 
acid gas through the solution, to saturation ; apply 
a gentle heat to redissolve any crystals that may 
have been deposited, then set the liquor aside to 
crystallize ; lastly, pour off the liquid and dry the 
crystals. 

*^* The carbonic acid may be obtained from 
chalk or whiting, rubbed up with water to the con- 
sistence of a sirup, upon which oil of vitriol, diluted 
with an equal weight of water, is to be poured. 

b. (Process at Apothecaries' Hall.) Ing. Car- 
bonate of potassa 150 lbs. ; distilled water 17 gal- 
lons. Proc. Dissolve 100 lbs. of the carbonate in 
the water ; then saturate with carbonic acid gas as 
last, when 35 to 40 lbs. of crj'stals of bicarbonate 
of potassa may be obtained. The remaining 50 
lbs. of the carbonate are now dissolved in the mother 
liquor, and enough water added to make it up a 
second time to 17 gallons, the remaining part of the 
operation being performed as before. This plan 
may be repeated again and again. 

Remarks. The following plan has been proposed 
as a substitute for the preceding process, but does 
not produce a pure salt. Dissolve pearlash in wa- 
ter ; add bran or sawdust, to soak up the liquor ; 
put it into a crucible, lute on the cover, and heat 
it to redness ; cool, wash out the salt, evaporate, 
and crystallize. Repeat the process with the re- 
maining liquor. Yields a very imperfect salt. 

II. (Process of the Ed. Pharni. Cartheuser's 
Process.) 

a. Carbonate of potassa 6 oz. ; "sesquicarbonatp 
of ammonia 3^ oz. Proc. Triturate together, and 
when reduced to a very fme powder and perfectly 
mixed, make them into a stiff paste with water. 
Dry this veiy carefully at a heat not higher than 
140° Fahr. until a fine powder, perfectly devoid 
of ammoniacal odor, be obtained, occasionally tri- 
turating the mass towards the end of the process. 

h. (Process of Henry and Guibourt.) Dissolve 
500 parts of pure carbonate of potassa in 1000 parts 
of water ; filter, if necessary, and place the fluid 
in a porcelain capsule; set in a salt-water bath, 



BIG 



112 



BIL 



and add gradually 300 parts of sesquicarbonate of 
ammonia. Slightly agitate the liquor until ammo- 
niacal fumes are perceived ; • then filter over a 
heated vessel, and set it aside to cool. Remarks. 
The process recommended by Geiger is similar to 
the last, but the proportions are 1. lb. of carbonate 
of potassa and 1 lb. 6 oz. of sesqu^^icarbonate of am- 
monia. 

Prop. Use, ^c. It is soluble in 4 times its weight 
of water at 60° ; is fixed in the air, but decom- 
posed into a carbonate at a red heat. It possesses 
the general alkaline properties of carbonate of po- 
tassa, but in an inferior degree. It is much used 
as an antacid, "and for making effervescing saline 
draughts. The dose is from 10 grains to ^ a 
drachm. 

20 grs. bicarbonate of potassa in crystals 

. saturate . 

14 grs. of crystallized citric acid : 

15 grs. " tartaric acid; and 
^ oz. of lemon juice. 

Pur. and Tests. A solution of corrosive subli- 
mate merely causes an opalescence, or very slight 
white precipitate in a solution of this salt ; if it 
contains carbonate of potassa a brick-colored pre- 
cipitate will be thrown down. In. other .respects it 
may be tested like the carbonate, which see. 

BICARBONATE OF SODA. Syn. Aerated 
Soda. This is prepared in a similar way to the 
bicarbonate of potassa. 

I. a. (Sesquicarbonate of Soda, P. L.) Ing. 
Carbonate of soda, lb. vij. ; water 1 gallon. Proc. 
Dissolve and pass carbonic acid through the solu- 
tion, in the same way as in making the bicarbonate 
of potassa. 

b. Dissolve 160 lbs. of carbonate of soda in 13 
gallons of water, and pass carbonic acid through 
the solution. The bicarbonate falls down to the 
amount of about 50 lbs.,' and may be collected and 
dried by, pressure in an hydraulic press. A fresh 
portion of soda may be then dissolved in the mother 
liquor, and the whole process repeated as before. 
(Brande.) , 

c. Mix together 1 part of carbonate of soda, with 
2 parts of dried carbonate of soda, both in powder, 
and surround them with an atmosphere of carbonic 
acid gas, under pressure. . Let the action go on till 
110 more gas is absorbed, which will generally oc- 
cupy 10 to 14 hours, according to the pressure em- 
ployed, then remove the salt and dry it at a heat 
not above .120°. This process is a modification 
both of that of the Edinburgh Pharmacopooia and 
that of Mr. Smith, described in the Philadolphia 
Pharmaceutical Journal. Smith, however, em- 
ploys the salt in crystals. In Scotland the method 
■just described has been. adopted with perfect suc- 
cess, and I can, from my own experience, bear 
testimony to its efficiency. 

Kcvuirks. A crude sesquicarbonate of soda has 
been prepai-ed as follows: Calcine carbonate of 
soda with bran, as in making bicarbonate. of po- 
tassa ; wash out the salt and crystallize : very in- 
ferior. 

II. Infr. Carbonate of potassa and water, of 
each 1 lb, ;; carbonate of ammonia \ \h. Prnr. 
Dissolve the carbonate in the water, then add. the 
ammonia, and drive off* the ammoniacul finnes at 



a heat under 120° ; lastly, set the solution aside 
to crystallize. Remarks. The above are nearly 
the proportions of the P. L. of 1809. Winckler, 
however, directs 80 of carbonate of soda, 3 of car- 
bonate of ammonia, and 20 of water ; and Henry 
and Guibourt order 6 parts of the soda, 2 of the 
ammonia, and 4 of water. The processes I. b and 
I. c are those adapted for commercial purposes. 

Prop., Use, ^c. These are very similar to the 
carbonate of soda, but it is more feebly alkaline. 
It loses a part of its acid by heat. The dose is 
from 10 to 40 grains, as an antacid and absorbent. 
It is largely employed in the preparation of effer- 
vescing powders and draughts, for which purpose 
20 grs. of commercial bicarbonate of soda 

are taken with either 



18 grs. of crystallized tartaric acid : 
17 grs. of crystallized citric acid ; or 
^ oz. of lemon juice. 

Tests and Pur. Dissolved in 40 parts of wa- 
ter it does not give a reddisn precipitate with a so- 
lution of corrosive sublimate. (P. E.) It is totally 
dissolved in water ; neither chloride of platina nor 
sulphate of magnesia throws down any thing from 
this solution. It is converted into the anhydrous 
carbonate by heat. (P. L.) The quantity of bi- 
carbonate any given sample contains may be 
pretty nearly ascertained by well washing 100 
grains of the salt with an equal weight of water, 
and filtering the solution. The residuum left upon 
the filter, dried at a heat of 120° and weighed, 
will give the per centage of bicarbonate of soda 
present, (very nearly.) Dissolved in water this 
will give only a trifling white precipitate, with cor- 
rosive sublimate, as described above, while the 
filtered portion, which was used to wash the salt, 
will give a red one, if it contains the simple carbon- 
ate of soda. 

BICE, BLUE. The native blue carbonate of 
copper, prepared by grinding and washing. Use. 
As a pigment. 

BICE, GREEN. The native green carbonate 
of copper, prepared as above. Use. As a pigment. 

BILE, BILIOUSNESS. Treat., ^c. Persons 
subject to bilious attacks should be particularly 
careful to avoid excess in eating and drinking, and 
should especially avoid using those articles of food 
which, from experience, they find to disagree with 
them. A mutton chop under-cooked is an exceU 
lent article for the breakfast or lunch of a bilious 
patient; and mutton or beef, either broiled or 
roasted, so that the gravy be retained, is better for 
dinner than many articles apparently more deli- 
cate. These, with game and venison, form a good 
variety from which to choose a bill of fare. New 
beer and porter should be particularly avoided, as 
well as puddings and most articles of pastry, as 
they are very indigestible. Hard cheese, butter, 
unripe fruit, and especially beans, peas, and nuts, 
are also objectionable. An attack of bile may 
frequently be prevented by the use of a saline pur- 
gative, and it may generally be removed by an 
emetic, iblUnved by a dose of castor oil, epsom 
salts, orseidlitz powders 

ini-LS OF FARE. (In cookery and domes- 
tic economy.) liists of the various articles of diet, 
I either actually provided for use, or, being in sea 



BIL 



113 



BIR 



son, are procurable for that purpose. The follow- 
ing bills of fare, for which I am indebted to '* The 
New System of Cookery," published by Mr. 
Murray, exhibits at a glance the various articles 
in season at ditierent periods of the year, and which 
are usually found at those times upon the greater 
number of well -provided tables. 

Bills of Fare for Family Dinners, &c., 
contaimn'g a list of various articles in season 
in different months of the year: 

First Quarter. January. — Poultry: Game, 
pheasants, partridges, hares, rabbits, woodcocks, 
snipes, turkeys, capons, pullets, fowls, chickens, 
tame pigeons. Ftsh : Carp, tench, perch, lam- 
preys, eels, cray-fish, cod, soles, flounders, plaice, 
turbot, thornback, skate, sturgeon, smelts, whit- 
inofs, lobsters, crabs, prawns, oystei-s. Vegetables : 
Cabbage, savoys, colewort, sp'routs, leeks, onions, 
beet, sorrel, chervil, endive, spinach, celery, gar- 
lic, scorzonera, potatoes, parsnips, turnips, brocoli, 
(white and purple,) shalots, lettuces, cresses, mus- 
tard, rape, salsafy, herbs of all sorts, dry and some 
green ; cucumbers, asparagus, and mushrooms to 
be had, though not in season. Fruit : Apples, 
pears, nuts, walnuts, medlars, grapes. 

February and March. Meat, fowls, and game, 
as in January, with the addition of ducklings and 
chickens ; which last are to be bought in London 
most if not all the year, but very dear. Fish : 
As the last two months, except that cod is not 
thought so good from February to July, but may 
be bought. Vegetables : The same as the for- 
mer months, with the addition of kidney-beans. 
Fruits : Apples, pears, forced strawberries. 

Second Quarter. April, May, and June. — 
Meat : Beef, mutton, veal, lamb, venison, (in 
June.) Poultry : Pullets, fowls, chickens, duck- 
lings, pigeons, rabbits; leverets. Fish : Carp, 
tench, soles, smelts, eels, trout, turbot, lobsters, 
chub, salmon, herrings, cray-fish, mackerel, crabs, 
prawns, shrimps. Vegetables : As before ; and 
in May early potatoes, peas, radishes, kidney- 
beans, carrots, turnips, early cabbages, cauliflow- 
ers, asparagus, artichokes, all sorts of salads forced. 
Fruit : In June ; strawberries, cherries, melons, 
green apricots, currants and gooseberries for tarts ; 
pears, grapes, nectarines, peaches, and some other 
fruit ; but most of these are forced, and conse- 
quently very dear. 

Third Quarter. July, August, and Septem- 
ber. — Meat as before. Poultry : Pullets, fowls, 
chickens, rabbits, pigeons, green geese, leverets, 
turkey poults. Two former months plovers, wheat- 
eaters ; geese in September. Fish : Cod, had- 
dock, flounders, plaice, skate, thornback, mullets, 
pike, carp, eels, shellfish, except oysters, mackerel 
the first two months of the quarter, but not good 
in August. Partridge shooting begins the 1st of 
September ; what is used before is therefore 
poached. Vegetables : Of all sorts, beans, peas, 
French beans, Sec, &lc. Fruit : In July ; straw- 
berries, gooseberries, pine-apples, plums, various ; 
cherries, apricots, raspberries, melons, currants, 
damsons. In August and September ; peaches, 
plums, figs, filberts, mulberries, cherries, apples, 
pears, nectarines, grapes. Latter months, pines, 
melons, strawberries, medlars, and quinces; in 
tiie latter month, Morella cherries, damsons, and 
VEirious pluins. 

15 



Fourth Quarter. October, November, and D^ 
cember. — Meat as before, and doe venison. Poul- 
try and Game : Domestic fowls as in former 
quarters ; pheasants from the 1st of October ; par- 
tridges, larks, hares, dotterels ; the end of the 
month wild-ducks, teal, snipes, widgeon, grouse. 
Fish : Dories, smelts, pike, perch, halibuts, brills, 
carp, salmon-trout, barbel, gudgeons, tench, shell- 
fish. Vegetables : As in January, French beans, 
last crop of beans, &c. Fruit : Peaches, pears, 
figs, bullace, grapes, apples, medlars, damsons, fil- 
berts, walnuts, nuts, quinces, services, medlars. 
In November — Meat : Beef, mutton, veal, pork, 
house lamb, doe venison, poultry and game as the 
last month. Fish : As the last month. Vegeta- 
bles : Carrots, turnips, parsnips, potatoes, skirrets, 
scorzonera, onions, leeks, shalots, cabbage, savoys, 
colewort, spinach, chard-beets, chardoons, cresses, 
endive, celery, lettuces, salad-herbs, pot-herbs. 
Fruit : Pears, apples, nuts, walnuts, bullace, ches- 
nuts, medlars, grapes. In December — Meat : 
beef, mutton, veal, house lamb, pork, and venison. 
Poultry and Game : Geese, turkeys, pullets, pi- 
geons, capons, fowls, chickens, rabbits, hares, 
snipes, woodcocks, larks, pheasants, partridges, 
sea-fowls, guinea-fowls, wild-ducks, teal, widgeon, 
dotterels, dun-birds, grouse. Fish : Cod, turbot, 
halibuts, soles, gurnets, sturgeon, carp, gudgeons, 
codlings, eels, dories, shellfish. Vegetables : As 
in the last month. Asparagus forced, «fec. Fruit : 
As the last, except bullace. 

BIRCH SUGAR. Prep. This is prepared from 
the juice procured by boring a hole in the trunk 
of the birch tree, under one of the largest branches, 
carrying it quite through the wood to the bark on 
the opposite side. The juice that flows from the 
wood is collected in suitable vessels, and after 
mixing with a little chalk and clarifying with 
white of eofg. is boiled down to a proper consistence. 

BIRDLIME. Prep. Boil the middle bark of 
the holly, gathered in June or July, for 6 or 8 
hours in water, until it becomes tender ; then 
drain off" the water, and place it in a pit under 
ground, in layers with fern, and surround it Avith 
stones. Leave it to ferment for two or three 
weeks, until it forms a sort of mucilage, which 
must be pounded in a mortar, into a mass, and 
well rubbed between the hands, in running water, 
until all the refuse is worked out ; then place it 
in an earthen vessel, and leave it for four or five 
days to ferment and purify itself. 

Remarks. Birdlime may also be made from mis- 
tletoe berries, the bark of the wayfaring tree, and 
other vegetables, by a similar process. Should 
any of it stick to the hand.s it may be removed by 
means of a little oil of lemon bottoms, or turpen- 
tine. Use. To rub over twigs to catch birds or 
small animals. It is said to be" discutient when 
applied externally. 

BIRDS may be preserved in a fresh state for 
some time by removing the intestines, wiping the 
inside out quite dry with a towel, and then flour- 
ing them. A piece of blotting paper, on which 
one or two drops of creosote have been placed, is 
now to be put inside them, and a similarly prepar- 
ed piece of paper tied round them. They should 
then be hung up in a cool dry place, and will be 
found to keep much longer than without under- 
going tliis process. 



BIS 



114 



BIS 



BISCUITS. A species of hard, dry, unleaven- 
ed bread, made in thin flat pieces, and generally 
composed of flour and water, to which butter, 
sugar, almonds, and other articles are occasionally 
added. 

BISCUITS, FANCY. Prep. Pound 1 lb. of 
blanched almonds very fine and sprinkle them 
with a little orange flower water ; when reduced 
to a perfectly smooth paste put it into a small pan, 
and add a little of the finest flour ; mix well and 
put the pan over a slow fire, and move the paste 
well about to prevent it burning, until it becomes 
hard enough not to stick to the fingers ; then take 
it out and roll it into small fillets, and make it 
into knots, rings, or other shapes, as you may fan- 
cy. Next make an icing of different colors, and 
dip one side of your forms in it and set them to 
drain on a clean sieve. They may be varied by 
strewing over them pistachio nuts of different colors, 
according to fancy. 

BISCUITS, SPONGE. Prep. Add the whites 
and yelks of twelve eggs, previously well beaten, 
to l| lbs. of finely powdered sugar, and whisk it 
until it rises in bubbles, then add 1 lb. of flour and 
the rind of two lemons grated. Form them into 
shapes, sift a little sugar over them, and bake 
them in buttered tin moulds, in a qu"ick oven for 
one hour. 

BISCUITS, DEVILLED. Butter captain's 
biscuits (or any similar kind) on both sides, and 
pepper them well, then make a slice of good cheese 
into a paste, with made mustard, and lay it on one 
side of, each biscuit, spice with cayenne pepper, 
and grill them. Chopped anchovies, or essence of 
anchovies, is also a good addition. 

BISMUTH. Syn. Tin Glass. Marcasite. 
Commercial bismuth is principally prepared in 
Germany, whence it is exported to England. In 
this state it generally contains both arsenic and 
copper. Chemically pure bismuth is made as fol- 
lows: 

Prep. Heat to redness, in a covered crucible, a 
mixture of the oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with 
half its weight of charcoal. 

Use, <^c. Bismuth is used in the composition of 
type metal, solder, pewter, fusible metal, and sev- 
eral otber metallic mixtures. When added to 
other metals it renders them more fusible. An 
alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and silver is said to 
hinder iron from rusting. (Erdeman's Jour.) 

Tests. Bismuth dissolves entirely in nitric acid, 
from which water and alkalis throw down a 
white precipitate, and sulphureted hydrogen a 
black one. The nitric solution is unaltered by 
adding sjilphnric acid. 

BISMUTH, BROMIDE OF. This is prepared 
by heating the metal with an excess of bromine in 
a glass tube, when a gray-colored mass, resembling 
fused iodine, is formed. It is volatile, and decom- 
posed bv water. . 

BISMUTH, CHLORIDE OF. Prep. Mix 
together two parts of corrosive subliniato and one 
part of bismuth, both in powder, and expose the 
mixture to heat until all the mercury bo expelled ; 
a granular substance of a grayish white color ro- 
miiins. 

BISMUTH, ESTIMAITON OF. T. {When 
mixed with bodies unaffected hij s'lilji/inrcted 
hydrogen.) Puss sulphureted liydrogoii gas 



tlirough the liquid previously mixed with a large 
quantity of acetic acid, and diluted with water. 
Collect the precipitated sulphuret on a filter, wash 
well with water, and redissolve in nitric acid in 
excess ; dilute with water and filter , wash the 
sulphur left on the filter with water, soiured with 
nitric acid ; mix the whole together, and precipi- 
tate the bismuth in the state of oxide by carbonate 
of ammonia. Allow the liquor to stand for some 
hours, then collect the deposite on a filter, wash it 
with water, and ignite it in a porcelain crucible ; 
lastly, weigh it. The weight, in grains of oxide 
multiplied by -899, will give the weight of metal in 
the sample. 

Remarks. Should the sample be in the solid 
state, it may be dissolved in nitric acid in excess, 
and precipitated by sulphureted hydrogen as above. 

II. {When neither mixed with muriatic acid 
nor substances precipitated by carbonate of am- 
monia.) In this case the oxide of bismuth may be 
at once thrown dowi. ^nth carbonate of ammonia, 
ignited, and weighed ixS before. 

III. (When mixed with lead.) a. " UUgren 
precipitates the oxides with carbonate of ammonia 
and dissolves them in acetic acid ; a strip of clean 
lead, the weight of which is known, is then put 
into this solution, so that the whole of it is covered. 
The vessel is closed and allowed to stand for some 
hours. Bismuth is separated in a metallic state, 
that which remains on the lead is washed off", and 
the strip dried and weighed. The bismuth is 
brought on to a filter and washed with water 
which has been boiled and allowed to cool ; it is 
then dissolved in nitric acid, evaporated, heated, 
and the oxide of bismuth weighed. The solution 
of lead is precipitated with carbonate of ammonia, 
and the oxide determined. The loss of weight 
which the lead has suffered gives the quantity of 
oxide of lead which was not originally in the solu- 
tion." (Berzelius Jahresbericht, 2L) 

b. Add caustic potassa to the nitric solution, in 
suflicient excess to redissolve all the oxjde of lead 
at first thrown down. The oxide of bismuth re- 
mains behind, and may be dried and weighed as 
before. 

BISMUTH, FLOWERS OF. Prep. Mix 
together 2 lbs. of nitre and 1 lb. of bismuth, both 
in powder, and gradually inject them into an ig- 
nited tubulated cartheiiware retort, havii>g a wide 
mouth and furnished with a receiver to catch the 
flowers. 

BISMUTH, OXIDES OF. I. {Protoxide.) 
Prep. a. Expose the nitrate or subnitrate to a full 
red heat in a crucible. Color ; yellow. 

b. Dissolve 2 lbs. of bismuth in 2J^ lbs. of nitric 
acid, and drop it gradually into a solution of 3 lbs. 
of carbonate of potassa in twice its weight of water; 
wash the precipitate well with cold water. 

Remarks. This is much used by the ladies as a 
cosmetic. In medicine it has been used as an 
antispasmodic. Color: pearl white. 

II. {Peroxide. Syn. Deutoxide.) Prep. Gen- 
tly heat the protoxide for some lime in a solution of 
chlorate of potassa, wash it well with wafer, and 
then dissolve out any undeconiposed protoxide by 
digestion in dilute nitric acid, formed with 1 part 
of strong acid to 9 parts of water j ufterwards 
again well wash it with water. A iuvivy brown 
powder. 



BIS 



115 



BIT 



BISMUTH, SUBCHLORIDE OF. Syn. 
Pearl Powder. Prep. Drop a weak solution of 
common salt, or muriatic acid, into another of bis- 
muth, prepared by dissolving that metal in twice 
its weight of nitric acid : collect the precipitate 
and wash it well with water. Use. As a cosmetic. 
Both this article and the subnitrate have received 
the name of pearl powder, from their extreme 
beauty and whiteness. 

BISMUTH, SUBNITRATE OF. Syn. 
Trisnitratk of Bismuth, (P. L.) White Bis- 
muth, (P. E.) Pearl-white. Magistery of Bis- 
muth. Fard's Spanish White. Blanc de Fard. 
(Fr.) Prep. (Process of the London Ph.) Dis- 
solve ^ij of bismuth in f^iij of nitric acid, previous- 
ly diluted with f^ij of distilled water ; then add 3 
quarts of cold water, and allow the white precipi- 
tate to subside. Afterwards decant the clear 
liquor, weish the powder, and dry it by a gentle 
heat. 

Remarks. The processes of the Dublin and 
Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias are similar. Geiseler 
has ascertained by comparative experiment that 
the product is greater, if, according to Duflos, the 
nitrate of bismuth be allowed to crystallize pre- 
viously to dilution with water, than if the dilution 
be executed at once. The proportion of the pro- 
ceeds was as lOJ to 14, the quality of both pre- 
parations being alike. (Ph. C. Bl, Dec. 1842.) 

Prop. A white inodorous powder, insoluble in 
water, but freely so in nitric acid. Use. It has 
been given in some chronic stomach complaints in 
doses of 5 to 20 grs. and upwards. An ointment 
formed with 1 part of this substance and 4 parts 
of lard, has been long in use as a remedy in some 
chronic skin diseases. Used by tTie ladies as a 
cosmetic. 

BISMUTH, SULPHURET OF. This is a 
natural production, but may be prepared artificial- 
ly by fusing its elements together, or by passing 
sulphureted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate 
of bismuth. 

BISTRE. A dark brown-colored pigment, 
used for water-color drawings, after the style of 
Indian ink. Prep. This color is made from the 
soot of beech-wood, or peat, the former being pre- 
ferred. The most compact, best colored, and 
well burnt parcels of the soot are selected from 
the chimney, reduced to a fine powder, and sifted 
through a very fine lawn sieve. This powder is 
then digested in pure cold water for several hours, 
frequently stirring it up during the time with a rod 
of glass or wood, after which it is allow^ed to set- 
tle, and the clear water decanted. More water is 
then poured on, and the process repeated a second, 
and even a third time. The paste is now poured 
into a tall narrow vessel, which is then filled up 
with water, and well agitated ; after which the 
grosser parts are allowed to subside for 2 or 3 min- 
utes, and the supernatant liquor, containing the 
finer portion of the bistre in suspension, is poured 
off into another vessel, where it is left to deposite 
its contents. For very fine bistre, this process is 
generally repeated a second time. The powder 
deposited in the last vessel is now collected and 
partially dried, when gum-water is added, and 'it 
is made into cakes and finally dried for use. 

Remarks. Bistre is esteemed by artists as supe- 
rior to Indian ink, for drawings which are intended 



to be afterwards tinted with other colors. It oc- 
cupies the same place in water colors that brown 
pink does in oil painting. 

BITES AND STINGS OF INSECTS, 
REPTILES, &c. Treat, 4'C. The best treat- 
ment for the bites and stings of insects, as bees, 
wasps, hornets, &lc., is to wash the part with wa- 
ter of ammonia, or solution of chloride of lime. 
Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the 
part become much swollen, leeches may be ap- 
plied, and a purgative given. The stings of ven- 
omous reptiles may be similarly treated, except in 
cases where they are of a very poisonous descrip- 
tion, when the wound should be first well washed 
with water of ammonia, and afterwards thorough- 
ly seared with lunar caustic in every part, espe- 
cially the interior and deep-seated portions ; or the 
surface of the wound, both internal and external, 
may be removed with the knife, or in the case of 
a small joint, as a finger, the injured portion may 
be at once amputated. A similar line of treat- 
ment should be followed after the bite of a dog 
supposed to be mad. It has been lately asserted 
by one of our most celebrated veterinary surgeons, 
that both he and his colleague have been repeat- 
edly bitten by dogs that have afterwards been 
proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly ap- 
plied the caustic to the parts, they have escaped 
uninjured. 

The poison inserted by the stings and bites of 
many venomous reptiles, is so rapidly absorbed, 
and of so fatal a description, as frequently to oc- 
casion death within a very short space of time, 
and before any remedy or antidote can be applied. 
But even in these extreme cases, it is probable 
that strong liquid ammonia, or solution of chloride 
of lime, or bichloride of mercury, if at hand, and 
applied to every portion of the wound, immediate- 
ly after its infliction, would neutralize and destroy 
the dangerous action of the poison. Unfortunate- 
ly, however, these wounds are inflicted in parts of 
the world where precautionary measures are sel- 
dom thought of, and generally at times when peo- 
ple are least prepared to meet them, and so sud- 
denly and unexpectedly, as to stagger even those 
observers who may be in no absolute danger them- 
selves. Such is the bite of the East Indian copra 
de capello, against which two Carnatic, or Asiatic 
(arsenical) pills are prescribed by the Hindoos, but 
which are generally scarcely swallowed, before 
the poison of the serpent has rendered the patient 
a stiffened corpse. In all cases of this emergent 
kind, the remedy must be either one to be applied 
to the wound, to neutralize the poison before it 
can be absorbed into the blood, or one that will at 
once mingle with the circulation, and destroy its 
action, if already introduced into the system. Med- 
icines taken by the mouth are slow* in their action, 
and require some time to enter into and mix up 
with the whole mass of blood. When the venom 
of a rabid dog, or of the more poisonous snakes, is 
once fully absorbed into the system, there appears 
to be no treatment that can save the patient. A 
bottle of Madeira wine, drunk in two doses, about 
3 minutes apart, has been recommended against 
the latter, and is perhaps as likely to prove bene- 
ficial as any thing else. 

BITTERN. Prep. A mixture of 1 part each, 
of extract of quassia and powdered sulphate ol 



BLA 



116 



BLA 



iron, with 2 parts of extract of cocculns indicus, 
4 parts of Spanish liquorice, and 8 of treacle. The 
liquorice is first boiled with water until dissolved, 
and evaporated to a proper consistence before add- 
ing the other ingredient-s. Remarks. This mixture 
is made by tiie brewers' druggists, and sent out in 
casks, disguised, to escape detection. It is em- 
ployed by the fraudulent brewer to impart a false 
bitter and strength to his liquor. 

BITTERS. Bitter? are considered as tonic 
and stomachic, and to improve the appetite when 
taken in moderation. The best time is early in 
the morning, or an hour before meals. An ex- 
cessive use of bitters tends to weaken the stomach. 
They should not be taken for a longer period 
than a fortnight at one time, allowing a similar 
period to elapse before again having recourse to 
them. 

BITTERS, BRANDY. Syn. Spirit Bit- 
ters. Prep. I. Dried orange and lemon peel, of 
each 2 oz. ; fresh ditto, of each 3 oz. ; good bran- 
dy 1 gallon ; lump sugar 1 lb. Proc. Digest the 
peel in the brandy for 10 days, frequently shak- 
ing ; then press out the liquor and filter through 
blotting paper ; lastly, dissolve the sugar therein. 
Remarks. A very agreeable bitter, either taken as 
a dram, or mixed w^ith other liquor. 

II. Gentian root, bruised, 4 oz. ; fresh orange 
peel 5 oz. ; cassia bark 2 oz. ; cardamom seeds, 
bruised, 1 oz. ; cochineal, bruised, \ oz. ; proof 
spirit 1 gallon. Proc. Digest for a week, then 
decant the clear, press the bottoms, and pour 
thereon 5 pints of water ; again digest for 3 days, 
then press out the liquor, mix the two tinctures, 
filter and add sugar 2 lbs. 

III. Bruised gentian 2 oz. ; fresh orange peel 
3 oz. ; cassia bark \ oz. ; cloves 1 drachm ; proof 
spirit 1 gallon ; cape or raisin wine ^ gallon ; di- 
gest for a week as before, then add sugar 1 lb., 
and a little coloring, if required. 

IV. Bruised gentian \ lb. ; cochineal \ oz. ; 
sugar I lb. ; spirit (24 u. p.) 1 gallon. 

BITTERS, CALOMBA. Prep. Calomba 
root, fresh orange and lemon peel, of each 1 oz. ; 
proof spirit 1 quart ; digest for a week, then ex- 
press the tincture, add lump sugar 4 oz., and a 
little coloring. 

BITTERS, WINE. I. Ing. Bruised gentian 
root, fresh orange and lemon peel, of each \\ oz. ; 
white wine 1 quart ; digest for a week, and 
strain. 

II. (M. Dubois.) Cinchona bark, bruised, 8 oz. ; 
white canellp, 1^ oz. ; juniper berries, lemon peel, 
and winter's bark, of each 1^ oz. ; carbonate of 
soda I oz. ; Madeira wine 1| gallons ; digest for a 
week. 

III. Fresh lemon peel 1 lb. ; dried orange peel 
^ lb. ; bruised gentian root \ lb. ; cape wine 1 gal- 
lon ; as before. 

Use. As a tonic and stomachic. 

BLACK ASH. The waste lyo of the soap- 
makers, evaj)()ratc(l in large iron boilers, the salt 
separated as it falls down, and then healed in a 
reverberatory furnace until it is partially deconj- 
posed and fused, when it is run into iron pots to 
cool. Use. It is used in the numuiacture of com- 
3io!i soap and alum. 

BLACK, BEIOCII. Syn. Vkoktahmc Bluk 
Black. Made by burning beech-wood in closo 



vessels, and well washing and igniting the char- 
coal with water. Used as a pigment. 

BLACK, BONE. Syn. Animal Charcoai. 
The residuum of the distillation of bone spirit. 
Use. As a pigment ; for making blacking ; as a 
material for the moulds of founders ; for clarifying 
and bleaching liquids, and for removing lime from 
sirup in refining sugar. Sold for ivory-black. 

BLACK, (FINE,) BONE. Syn. Paris 
Black. Turners' bone-dust, burnt with great 
care in covered iron crucibles, and afterwards 
ground very fine. Use. A beautiful black, works 
well both in oil and water; sold for real ivory- 
black, and for burnt lamp-black. 

BLACK, BRUNSWICK. Prep. Melt with 
care 2 lbs. of asphaltum in an iron pot, then stir 
in 1 pint of hot boiled oil, mix well, remove the 
pot from the fire, and when cooled a little, add 2 
quarts of oil of turpentine. Use. To blacken and 
polish grates and ironwork. 

BLACK, BURNT LAMP. Lamp-black heat- 
ed in a covered iron crucible until all its greasi- 
ness is burnt off". Use. As a water-color. Paris 
black is usually sold for it. 

BLACK, COMPOSITL N. Syn. Prussian 
Black. The residuum of the process of making 
prussiate of potash from blood and hoofs. Use. 
As a pigment, and instead of bone-black, than 
which it decolors better. 

BLACK DYE. I. (For Cotton and Linex.) 
Proc. a. Steep the goods, previously dyed blue, 
for 24 hours in a decoction of gall nuts or sumach, 
then withdraw them, rinse them well in water, 
and pass them through a bath of acetate of iron 
for a quarter of an hour ; again rinse and air 
them, then pass them a second time through the 
bath, to which a little more iron liquor must be 
added. The whole process may be repeated as 
often as necessary. 

h. Steep the goods in a mordant of acetate of 
iron, working them well, then pass them through 
a bath of madder and logwood for 2 hours. 

Remarks. About 2 oz. of coarsely powdered 
galls, or 4 oz. of sumach, are required for every 
pound of cotton, in the process of galling. The 
former should be boiled in water, in the proportion 
of about 3 or 4 pints of water to every pound of 
cotton, but the sumach bath is better made by 
mere infusion in very hot water. For a very su- 
perior black the stuff must be first dyed blue, as 
before mentioned. 

II. {For Silk.) Silks are dyed much in the 
same way as woollens, but the process is conduct- 
ed with less heat, and the richness of the dye may 
be varied at pleasure, by allowing the goods to 
remain a longer or shorter time in the bath. 

Proc. a. Give the silk a bath of gall nuts for 
from 12 to 40 hours, occasionally working it 
therein, then take it out, rinse and air it, and run 
it through a bath containing a little sulphate of 
iron, for a few minutes; again rinse and air it 
The whole oj)(>ratiou may then be repeated uutiJ 
the proper dei>th of color is obtained. 

b. JJoil 22 Iba. of Aleppo galls, bruised, for 1 
hour in 2 jiogsheads of water, then add 32 lbs. of 
coi)i)eras, 14 lbs. of iron filings, aud 22 lbs. of 
gum ; digest for 1 hour, and vvlien the ingr<>dicnts 
are dissolved, pass the silk, previously ga'lled with 
I of its weight of galls, llirough the bath for 1 



BLA 



117 



BLA 



hour, then rinse and air it well ; next leave it in 
the dye bath for from 6 to 12 hours, and again 
repeat the whole process as often as necessary. 
The above ingredients are for 1 cwt. of silk. 

Ill (For Wool.) Wool and woolleu goods are 
usually dyed blue, preparatory to undergoiug the 
process of being dyed black, as not only is the 
color thus rendered fuller and finer than it would 
otherwise be, but also more durable. When the 
goods are coarse or conmion, and the price is an 
object, they are generally " rooted" instead of be- 
ing " blued." This consists in giving them a dun 
or brown color, with the husks of walnuts, or the 
roots of the walnut tree. The goods being thus 
prepared are ready to receive the dye. 

Proc. a. Twenty lbs. of logwood chips and 18 
lbs. of galls, reduced to a rough powder, are en- 
closed in a coarse bag, and placed in a suitable 
sized boiler, where they are boiled with water for 
8 or 10 hours ; J of this decoction is then trans- 
ferred into another copper, with 2 lbs. of verdigris 
and a sufficient quantity of water, and the goods 
passed through it for two hours, at a heat but lit- 
tle below boiling. The goods are next drained 
out, and another ^ of the decoction of logwood 
and galls, and 9 lbs. of copperas added to the 
boiler ; the fire is then lowered, and as soon as the 
copperas is dissolved, the cloth is again introduced 
and worked through it well for 1 hour ; it is then 
taken out and aired, and the remaining third of 
the decoction added, with about 20 lbs. of sumach ; 
the whole is then brought to a boil, and 2 pounds 
more sulphate of iron added, with a pailful of cold 
water, after which the goods are put in a third 
time, and worked for 1 hour ; they must then be 
taken out, washed and aired, and again passed 
through the bath for an hour. The stuff is now 
thoroughly rinsed, until the water comes off clean, 
when it may be dried at once, or further softened 
and beautified by putting it, for a quarter' of an 
hour, through a hot bath of weld, but not boiling, 
after which it must be again rinsed. Remarks. 
The above proportions are for 1 cwt. to 1^ cwt. 
of wool or stuff, and forms a beautiful though 
expensive dye. The following are simpler and 
cheaper methods. 

b. Make a bath as before with 2 lbs. of fustic, 
4J^ lbs. of logwood, and 11 lbs. of sumach; boil 
the cloth therein for 3 hours, then lift it out and 
add 11 lbs. of sulphate of iron, and when dissolved 
pass the cloth through it during 2 hours. Next 
rinse and air the cloth, and again pass it through 
the bath for 1 hour ; lastly, rinse until the water 
runs clear. 

c. Make a bath as before, with 4 oz. of bruised 
galls, and 1^ lbs. of logwood chips ; boil your 
goods therein for 2 hours, then take them out, 
and add 4 oz. of green copperas, and when it is 
dissolved, pass your goods through it for 2 hours, 
keeping the bath very hot, but not boiling ; again 
take them out, wash and air them well, add 1 oz. 
more of copperas to the bath, and pass the cloth 
through it for another hour ; lastly, well rinse it. 
This method is suited to dyeing in the small way 
in private famihes. The above ingredients are 
suflicient for 7 or 8 lbs. of wpollen goods, if well 
managed. 

Remarks. In the process of dyeing black, es- 
pecially on wool, it is necessary to take it out 



several times, and expose it to the air ; this is 
called " airing," and is done to allow the oxygen 
of the atmosphere to act upon the dye, without 
which a good color cannot be produced. The 
usual proportions employed by the dyers of Eng- 
land are, 5 lbs. each of galls and copperas, and 
30 lbs. of logwood for every cwt. of cloth, but 
these weights are often increased for choice goods. 

BLACK DRAUGHT. Syn. Compound Sen- 
NA Mixture. 

Prep. I. Infusion of senna f ^xivss. ; tincture 
of senna f ^iss. ; epsom salts §iv. ; carbonate of 
ammonia 9j ; mix. (U. H.) 

II. Senna 13 oz. ; boiling water 2 quarts ; di- 
gest for 4 hours in a hot place, then press out the 
liquor in a tincture press, and add | of a pint of 
tincture of senna (co.) and 1 lb. of epsom salts. 

III. East India senna 2 lbs. ; boiling water 9 
quarts ; tincture of senna and epsom salts, of each 
3\ lbs. ; as last. 

IV. Senna 8 lbs. ; boiling water 9 gallons ; ep- 
som salts 16 lbs. ; tincture of senna 1^ gallons; 
treacle and coloring, of each, 1 quart. 

V. As last, but instead of tincture of senna, 
use 3 quarts of spirits of wine and 2 quarts of 
water. 

Remarks. As ^-lie above mixture contains but 
little spirit, and f:om its great consumption, being 
made in large quantities, it frequently spoils be- 
fore the whole is sold, especially in hot weather. 
To avoid this, 1 drachm of cloves and 2 drachms 
of mustard seed, both bruised, may be added to 
every gallon of the strained liquor at the same 
time with the salts, spirit, and coloring, after 
which it must be shaken up repeatedly for a few 
days, and then allowed to repose for a few days 
more, when it will become as clear as brandy. 
If wanted immediately it may be at once filtered 
through a flannel bag. 

BLACK, FLOREY. Syn. Floree d'Lnde. 
The dried scum of the dyer's woad bath. It 
makes a superior blue-black. 

BLACK, FRANKFORT. Vine branches, 
lees of wine, &c., calcined in covered vessels, 
and then well washed and ground. Use. As a 
pigment, and to make printer's ink. 

BLACK, FROM WINE LEES AND TAR- 
TAR. This pigment is prepared by calcination 
in cylindrical iron pots, furnished with covers, in 
the centre of which is left a small hole for the 
escape of the fumes and vapors. When smoke 
ceases to be evolved, the process is concluded, 
and after cooling, the whole is well washed and 
ground fine. Use. Similar to Frankfort black. 

BLACK, HARTSHORN. Prepared by cal- 
cining the residuum of the distillation of spirits of 
hartshorn. Similar to ivory and bone black. 

BLACKING, (FOR Dress Boots and Shoes.) 
Prep. I. Gum arable 4 oz. ; treacle or moist su- 
gar 1 oz. ; ink \ pint ; vinegar and spirit of wine, 
of each, 1 oz. Proc. Dissolve the gum and trea- 
cle in the ink and vinegar, then strain and add 
the spirit. 

II. To the above add 1 oz. of sweet oil, and 
\ oz. of lamp-black. 

III. Beat well together the whites of two eggs, 
a tablespoonful of spirit of wine, a lump of su- 
gar, and a little finely-powdered ivory-black to 
thicken. 



3LA 



118 



BLA 



Remarks. The first two articles are applied to 
the leather by the tip of the finger or a sponge, 
and allowed to dry out of the dust, and are only 
adapted for clean, dry weather, or indoors. The 
last is laid on and polished with a brush, and then 
left for a few hours to harden. It may also be 
used to revive the faded black leather seats and 
backs of old chairs. All of these possess great 
brilliancy for a time. 

BLACKING, (FOR Harness, &c.) Prep. 
Melt 2 oz. of mutton suet with 6 oz. of bees' - 
wax ; add 6 oz. of sugar-candy, 2 oz. of soft soap 
dissolved in water, and 1 oz. of indigo finely pow- 
dered ; when melted and well mixed, add a gill 
of turpentine. Lay it on the harness with a 
sponge, and polish otFwith a brush. 

BLACKING, (for Boots and Shoes.) 

I. {Liquid.) Prep. a. Ivory-black, in fine pow- 
der, 1 lb. ; treacle | lb. ; sweet oil 2 oz. ; beer and 
vinegar, of each, 1 pint. Proc. Rub together the 
first three until the oil be perfectly " killed/' then 
add the beer and vinegar. 

b. Ivory -black and treacle, of each 1 lb. ; sweet 
oil and oil of vitriol, of each ^ lb. Proc. Mix the 
first three as before, then gradually add the vitriol, 
diluted with thrice its weight of water ; mix well, 
and let it stand for 3 hours, when it may be re- 
duced to a proper consistence with water or sour 
beer. 

c. Ivory-black and treacle, of each ^ lb ; oil of 
vitriol 1 oz. ; sweet oil 2 oz. ; sour beer 1 pint ; as 
above. 

d. Ivory -black 7 lbs. ; treacle 6 lbs. ; sweet oil 
1 lb. ; oil of vitriol J lb. ; water q. s., as last. 

e. Ivory -black 3 cwt. ; crude molasses 2 cwt. ; 
linseed oil 3 gallons ; oil of vitriol 20 lbs. ; water 
q. s., as last. 

II. (Paste.) Prep. a. Treacle 1 lb. ; ivorj^-black 
1\ lbs. ; sweet oil 2 oz. ; rub together as before, 
then add a little lemon juice or strong vinegar. 

b. Ivory-black 2 lbs. ; treacle 1 lb. ; olive oil and 
oil of vitriol, of each ^ lb. ; water q. s., as before. 

c. Ivory-black 28 lbs. ; treacle 21 lbs. ; common 
oil 1 quart ; oil of vitriol 3 lbs. ; water q. s. 

d. Ivory-black 3 cwt. ; common treacle 2 cwt. ; 
linseed oil and vinegar bottoms, of each 3 gallons ; 
oil of vitriol ^ cwt. ; water q. s. 

Remarks. The manipulations required for paste 
and liquid blacking are the same, the difference in 
the two being the quantity of liquid added. Thus, 
by diluting paste blacking with water or beer bot- 
toms, it may be converted into liquid blacking of 
a similar quality, and, by using less fluid matter, 
the ingredients of liquid blacking will produce paste 
blacking. One thing must, however, be observed, 
and that is, that the ivory-black used for liquid 
blacking must be reduced to a much finer powder 
than for paste blacking, as, if this be not attended 
to, it will settle to the bottom, and be with difficul- 
ty diduscd again through the liquid. For those 
persons who do not like the use of blacking con- 
taining oil of vitriol, the first of the above forms, 
either for paste or liquid, may be adopted. The 
vitriol, iiowever, greatly contributes to promote the 
tihining properties of the bliieking, and in small 
quantities is not so injurious to the leather as has 
been falsely represented, as it wholly unites itself 
to \\w Wnw of the phosi)liat(! contained in th(^ ivory- 
black, and is thus partly neutralized. This is tiio 



reason why lamp-black should never be employed 
for blacking, as it has no earthy base to absorb or 
neutralize the acid, which would then prove very 
hurtful to the leather. Oil of vitriol is now em- 
ployed in the manufacture of all the most cele- 
brated shining blackings. The addition of white 
of eggs, isinglass, gum arable, and similar articles 
to blacking, always proves injurious, as they tend 
to stiffen the leather and to make it crack. 

BLACK, JAPAN. Syn. Bituminous Var- 
nish. Prep. Fuse by a gentle heat 12 oz. of am- 
ber, and 2 oz. of asphaltum, then add 2 oz. of black 
rosin, and ^ a pint of boiled oil ; mix well, remove 
it from the fire, and when nearly cold, add | pint 
of spirit of ttirpentine ; mix well together. Use. To 
varnish metals. 

BLACK, IVORY. Syn. Cologne Black. 
Cassel Black. Prep. Put into a crucible, sur- 
rounded by burning coals, fragments or turnings of 
ivory, or of the osseous parts of animals, and cover 
it closely. The ivory or bones, by exposure to the 
heat, will be reduced to charcoal. When no more 
smoke is seen to pass through the joining of the 
cover, leave the crucible over the fire for half an 
hour longer, or until it has completely cooled. 
There will then be found in it a hard carbonaceous 
matter, which must be pounded and ground on por- 
phyry with water, washed on a filter with warm 
water, and dried. Before it is used it must be again 
subjected to grinding. Remarks. Black furnished 
by bones is reddish. That produced by ivory is 
more beautiful. It is brighter than black obtained 
from peach stones. When mixed in a proper dose 
with whitelead, it forms a beautiful pearl gray 
Ivory-black has a very deep and rich color. The 
Cologne and Cassel blacks are formed from ivory. 

BLACK, LAMP. Prep. I. Suspend over a 
lamp a conical funnel of tin plate, having above it 
a pipe to convey from the apartment the smoko 
which escapes from the lamp. Large mushrooms, 
of a very black carbonaceous matter, and exceed- 
ingly light, will be formed at the summit of the 
cone. This carbon is reduced to such a state of 
division, as cannot be given to any other matter, 
by grinding it on a piece of porphyry. This black 
goes a great way in every kind of painting. It 
may be rendered less oily and drier by calcination 
in close vessels. 

The funnel should be united to the pipe, which 
conveys off the smoke, by means of wire, because 
solder would be melted by the flame of the lamp. 

II. This article was originally prepared by burn- 
ing oil in lamps and collecting the soot in a funnel 
inverted over it, as above described. Hence the 
name. It is now, however, generally made on (he 
commercial scale, by burning the oil of bones or 
common coal tar, previously freed from its ammo- 
nia, and receiving the smoke in a suitable chani- 
ber. In the patent process of Messrs. Martin and 
Grafton, the coal tar is violently agitated with lime 
water, imtil the two are well mixed, after which il 
is allowed to subside, and the lime water beino 
drawn off", it is washed several times with hot wa- 
ter. After the whole of the water lias been re- 
moved by subsidence and decantalion, it is put into 
stills, and heat ai)plied (uitil the iin})urities have 
j)assed over, and the spirit runs clear and smooth. 
The receiver is then charged, and the heat raised 
sufliciently high to diivo over the whole of the oil 



BLA 



119 



BLA 



and spirit, leaving only the asplialtum in the still. 
The tar or liquor in the receiver is tlien put into 
a long cast-iron tube, furnished with numerous 
large burners, underneath whicli is a furnace to 
heat the pipe to nearly the boiling point. Over 
each burner is a sort of funnel, which goes into a 
cast-iron pipe or main, and which receives the 
smoke in a similar way from all tlie burners. From 
this the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to a box, 
where the heaviest part of the black is deposited ; 
from this it is carried by pipes to a second box, 
where anotlier deposite takes place, and from this 
box the pipe is continued until it passes into a series 
of large canvass bags, arranged side-by-side, and 
connected together at top and bottoni alternately. 
Fifty or eighty of these bags are employed, the last 
one being left open to admit of the escape of the 
smoke, which has thus been made to traveijpe a space 
of about 400 yards. As soon as the bags contain 
any considerable quantity of black, they are re- 
moved and emptied. The black deposited in the 
last bag is the finest and best, and it becomes pro- 
gressively coarser as it approaches the furnace. 

BLACKLEAD. Syn. Plumbago. Carburet 
OF Iron? Qiial. Use, t|-c. The best blacklead 
comes from Cumberland, and is used for making 
pencils for artists. The coarser sorts are employed 
to impart a metallic lustre to other bodies, and mix- 
ed Avith grease to diminish friction. Blacklead is 
also used to cover the face of articles on which it 
is desired to deposite a coating of copper by the elec- 
trotype. It has been iised in herpes, and some 
chronic skin diseases, in the form of an ointment, 
made with 4 times its weight of lard. 

BLACK, PEACHSTONE. Th« stones or ker- 
nels of peaches, cherries, and other similar kinds 
of fruit, burned in close vessels, then ground and 
washed well. Use. It works well with oil ; mixed 
with white lead and oil it makes old gray. 

BLACK, PITCOAL. The best coal for this 
purpose is that which has a shining fracture. It 
affords, perhaps, the most useful brown the artist 
can place on his palette ; being remarkably clear, 
not so warm as Vandyke-brown, and senang as a 
shadow for blues, reds, or yellows, when glazed 
over them. It seems almost certain that Titian 
made large use of this material. Coal, when burn- 
ed to a white heat, then quenched in water, and 
ground down, gives an excellent blue-black. 

BLACK REVIVER. Syn. Paris's Anticar- 
Diuji. Prep. I. Blue galls, bruised, 4 oz. ; log- 
wood, copperas, iron filings, and sumach, of each 
1 oz. ; vinegar 1 quart. Proc. Macerate in a close 
vessel, with heat, for 24 hoiu-s, then strain ofF the 
clear, add the filings and copperas, and shake it oc- 
casionally for a week. Keep it in a corked bottle. 

II. Bruised blue galls 1^ lbs. ; logwood | lb. ; 
copperas 6 oz. ; vinegar 1 quart ; water 3 quarts. 
As above. 

III. Galls 1 lb. ; logwood 2 lbs. ; copperas ^ lb. ; 
boil for 2 hours in water 5 quarts, until reduced 
to a gallon, and strain. Use. To restore the color 
of black cloth. 

BLACK, RUSSIAN. Syn. Russian Lamp- 
Black. Prepared by burning the chips of resin- 
ous deals, and collecting the black matter deposited 
by the smoke. It is a good black pigment, but 
apt to take fire spontaneously if left for some time 
moistened with oil. 



BLACK, RICE. Prepared by burning rice ia 
close vessels. The color is very poor. 

BLACK, SPANISH. Syn. Cork Black. 
Cork burnt in close vessels, and the charcoal ground 
and washed with water. A good color, and worka 
very soft. 

BLACK, SOOT. The soot of coal fire«, ground 
and sifted. Used as a common paint ; mJxed with 
Venetian red and oil, it makes a chocolate color ; 
also used to make gray mortar. 

BLACK, SUGAR. Syn. Jamaica Black. 
Prepared by burning sugar in close vessels. It 
works free, but is deficient in body. It is a warm 
color for washing drawings, and equal m mellow- 
ness to Indian ink and bistre. 

BLACK, VINE TWIG. Prep. From vine 
twigs, by calcination as above. With whitelead 
and oil it produces beautiful shades of silver gray 
and white. 

BLACK, WHEAT. From wheat burnt m 
close vessels. Remarks. A superior black, be- 
tween ivory and lamp-black ; it has a full body 
and dries hard and quickly with oil. 

BLADDERS. Prep. ^c. These articles are 
prepared by cutting off the fat and loose mem- 
branes attached to them, and washing them first 
in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and after- 
wards in clear water ; they are then blown out and 
submitted to pressure by rolling them under the 
arm, by which they become considerably larger ; 
they are next blown quite tight, dried, and tied up 
in dozens for sale. Use. Employed by druggists 
and oil and colormen to tie over pots, bottles, and 
jars, and to contain pill masses, and other similar 
substances. Caution. Never buy bladders unless 
they are perfectly dry and tight, as, if the reverse 
be the case, they will neither keep nor prove sound. 

BLANCHING OR WHITENING. An oper- 
ation in cookery, performed by putting tongues, 
palates, meat, «fcc., into cold water, when it is 
gradually brought to boil, and the article taken out 
and plunged into cold water, where it is left imtil 
quite cold. It is intended to impart whiteness, 
plumpness, and softness. 

BLANC, (in Cookery.) A compound, formed 
by mixing 1 lb. of grated bacon, 1 lb. of suet, ^ lb. 
of butter, 2 lemons, 3 or 4 carrots cut into dice, 
3 or 4 onions, and a little water, and boiling them 
until done. 

BLANCMANGE, (in Cookery.) Jelly, sea- 
soned and made up into forms. Prep. I. Isin- 
glass 1 oz. ; sweet almonds, 12 in no. ; bitter do. 
6 in no. ; milk 1 quart. Proc. Boil the isinglass 
and almonds grated in the milk, until of a proper 
consistence when cold ; then strain it, and when 
nearly cold pour it into the moulds, previously 
rubbed with a little salad oil, and .then wiped out 
again. 

II. To the above add i lb. of lump sugar and 4 
tablespoonfuls of cream ; when cold, remelt it and 
add a tablespoonful of orange flower water, after 
which it may be moulded as before. 

HI. Use calves' feet jelly instead of isinglass. 

IV. (Mrs. Hoffman's.) Isinglass \ lb. ; rose- 
water ^ pint ; milk 2 quarts ; milk of almonds ^ 
pint, 

V. (Rice.) Ground rice 2 oz. ; milk 1 pint ; lump 
sugar 3 oz. ; a httle lemon peel and cinnamon ; dis- 
solve the rice in the milk by boiling ; reduce it to a 



BLE 



120 



BLE 



proper consistence, then add the spice and sugar, 
boil for 1 minute, and strain, and when nearly cold 
mould as above. Caution. The powdered rice 
must be rubbed up with a little cold water pre- 
viously to adding it to the milk, to prevent it run- 
ning into lumps. 

VI. (West Indian.) Make a jelly with arrow- 
root, and to every pint, when nearly cold, add a 
glass of sherry, a spoonful each of brandy and 
orange flower water, and 2 oz. of lump sugar. 

VII. ( Transparent.) Instead of milk use water, 
and clarify with the white of an egg. 

BLANQUENINE. A name given by Dr. 
Mills to a new vegetable alkali, which he thought 
he had discovered in white cinchona bark. (Quar. 
Jour. Science, Ap. 1828.) 

BLANQUETTE, (in Cookery.) A sort of 
white fricasee. 

BLEACHING. Syn. Blanchissage. (Fr.) 
Bleichen. (Ger.) The operation by which the 
natural colors of substances are discharged, and 
they become white or colorless. Bleaching may 
be performed either by natural means, as exposure 
to light, air, and moisture, or by chemical agents, 
as chlorine, chloride of lime, sulphurous acid, &c. 
In many of the processes adopted for this purpose, 
both methods are combined. The most important 
application of the art of bleaching in the United 
Kingdom, is in the manufacture of textile fabrics. 
The celerity v/ith which this is performed in the 
most perfect manner, and the trifling expense 
thereby incurred, contribute, in no small degree, 
towards inducing that preference universally shown 
to the productions of the looms of Great Britain. 

Cotton, from its original whiteness, and little at- 
traction for coloring matter, is more easily bleached 
than most other substances. On the old plan, it is 
first well washed in warm water to remove the 
weaver's paste or dressing, then " bucked" (boiled) 
in a weak alkaline lye, and after being well washed 
is spread out upon the grass, or bleaching ground, 
and freely exposed to the joint action of light, air, 
and moisture. The operation of " bucking" and 
exposure is repeated as often as necessary, when 
the goods are " soured" or immersed in water acid- 
ulated with sulphuric acid, after which they re- 
ceive a thorough washing in clean water, and are 
dried. From the length of the exposure upon the 
bleaching ground, this method has been found to 
injure tlie texture of the cloth, and from the num- 
ber of operations required, necessarily becomes ex- 
pensive, and produces considerable delay ; it has 
therefore very generally given place to the improved 
system of chemical bleaching, by means of chloride 
of lime. In tbis method, after the first operation 
of washing and bucking, as in the common process, 
the cotton is submitted to the action of weak solu- 
tions of chloride of lime, and afterwards passed 
through soured water, when it has only to be tho- 
roughly washed and dried. 

LiNKN is bleached in a similar way to cotton, but 
the op(>ration is more troublesome, from its greater 
afiinity for coloring matter. 

Wool is first oxj)osed to the joint action of ful- 
ler's earth and soap, in the fulling mill, to remove 
adherent grease and dirt, and is then well washed 
and dried, wlien it is usually found sufilciently 
white for the purposes of the dyer ; but should the 
■light yellow tint it retains jM-ove objectionable, it is 



run through water tinged blue with indigo, or it ia 
exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur ; the lattei 
method gives it a harsh feel, which is best removed 
by a bath of soap and water, but this will repro- 
duce its previous yellowishness. 

Silk is bleached by boiling it in white soap and 
water, to remove the natural yellow varnish that 
covers it, after which it is subjected to repeated 
rinsings. Articles that are required to be very 
white, as gloves, stockings, &c., are also submitted 
to the action of sulphurous acid, or the fmnes of 
burning sulphur. 

Straw is also bleached by the fumes of sulphur ; 
hence arises the sulphurous smell emitted by new 
straw hats and bonnets. They may, however, be 
bleached in a much better manner by the use of a 
little oxalic acid, or chloride of lime. 

Old Rags, for the manufacture of paper, and 
paper pulp, are generally bleached with chlorine. 

Printed Books, Engravings, &c., may be whi- 
tened by first subjecting them to the action of weak 
chloride of lime water, next to water soured with 
sulphuric acid, and, lastly, to pure water, to re- 
move any adhering acid or chlorine. 

Remarks. The theoretical principles of bleach- 
ing are but little understood ; it is though i "^o de- 
pend upon the action of oxygen, in a nascent state, 
on the particles of coloring matter, but this is un- 
supported by direct experiment. It is, however, 
an art eminently indebted to chemistry' for its pres- 
ent efficiency, and is based on the practical appli- 
cation of facts which that science has called to 
light. 

BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. When 
this occurs under common circumstances, and 
without violence, it may be regarded as a natural 
effort to relieve the body from an excess of blood ; 
but when it becomes habitual, or is the result of 
violence, remedial rneasures should be had recourse 
to. A simple means of arresting the haemorrhage 
is to introduce, by means of a probe, a small piece 
of lint or soft cotton, previously dipped into some 
mild styptic, as a solution of alum, white vitriol, or 
creosote, or even cold water. This will generally 
succeed, but should it not, cold water may be 
snuffed up the nostrils, or a small piece of ice 
placed in the nose. Should the bleeding be verj'- 
profuse, or persistent, medical advice should be 
had recourse to. I once saw a ])erson (an inn- 
keeper) lose his life in the course of a few days 
from a voluntary hfemorrhage from the nose, which 
it was found impossible to stop or lessen. 

A plan has been lately proposed by Dr. Negrier, 
of Anglers, which, he says, is shnple and certain. 
" It is preferable to the occlusion of the nostrils, as 
that is difiicult to maintain, especially in sleep. 
During tl)ree years that, in numerous cases, he has 
tried this method, which is simply elevating the 
patient's arm, he has never found it to fail. After 
detailing several cases, he thus explains the ra- 
tionale of tlie plan. When the person is standing 
with the arms at the side, the blood which cscajies 
from the upper part of the arch of the aorta, takes 
two directions, viz., towards the head, and towards 
the arms, and that which goes to the head is al- 
most equal in quantity to that which is received 
by both superior extremities. If, however, the 
individual who was formerly hanguig his arms, 
raised them, the l)lood which was flowing ]iorizou« 



BLI 



121 



BLO 



tally and without effort from the subclavian into 
the brachial arteries, must then ascend against 
the weight of the column of blood contained in the 
latter ; and as there is nothing in the act of raising 
the arm to increase the force of the circulation, it 
follows, that part of the force formerly expended 
in sending the blood up the carotids, must now be 
subtracted, and added to that which drives it 
through the brachial arteries. This explauation 
may or may not be confirmed by experiments. 
Tiie subject is worth investigation." (Archives 
generales de Medecine. June, 1842.) 

BLENORRHCEA. An increased discharge of 
mucus from the urethra or vagina. Treat. Ad- 
minister mild aperients and tonics. Cold bathing, 
and general habits of cleanliness, powerfully pro- 
mote a cure. 

BLIND, WRITING FOR THE. If an iron 
style or pencil, with a moderately fine point, be used 
to write with upon paper, and a little more pres- 
sure be employed than in using a common pen, 
characters will be produced which may easily be 
read by blind persons after a little practice, by 
passing their fingers over them, either on the side 
on which they were written, where they will ap- 
pear in intaglio, or by reversing the paper, where 
they will appear in relief. 

BLISTER, EXTEMPORANEOUS. L A 
piece of lint dipped into vinegar of cantharides, 
and immediately after its application to the skin, 
covered over with a piece of strapping, to prevent 
evaporation, will speedily raise a blister. 

II. Concentrated acetic acid, applied in the 
same way, will have a similar efFe-ct. 

III. The following method, proposed by Dr. 
Darcq, is very simple and convenient: Into a flat 
watch-glass, pour from 8 to 10 drops of very con- 
centrated ammonia ; cover the liquid with a small 
piece of linen, of a rather less diameter than that 
of the glass, and slowly apply this little apparatus 
to the previously shaved skin. Keep the whole in 
its place by means of moderate pressure with the 
fingers. 

As soon as a red ring, about 2 centimetres in 
breadth, is observed round the glass, it is certain 
that vesication is effected. Sometimes scarcely 
30 seconds is necessary for obtaining this result. 
It remains only to remove the apparatus, to wash 
the part, and to tear away with a pair of nippers the 
epidermis, which comes off easily and in one piece. 

The dressing is according to the object in view, 
— to the mdications of the endermic method, for 
example. (Bull, de Ther. & Chem., No. L. 88.) 

BLISTER, LIQUID. Prep. I. Spanish flies 
2 oz. ; boiling water 1 pint ; spirits of wine 4 oz. ; 
corrosive sublimate \ oz. ; spirits of salts \ oz. 
Proc. Digest the flies in the water, in a warm 
place, for 24 hours, then add the corrosive subli- 
mate, dissolved in the spirits of wine, and lastly, 
the spirits of salts. It may either be strained, or 
used as it is. 

II. Rectified spirit, and liquid ammonia, of each 
2 oz. ; oil of origanum 1 oz. ; mix. Add finely 
powdered Spanish flies 1 oz. 

III. Strongest blistering plaster 2 oz. ; oil of tur- 
pentine 1 oz. ; mix with a gentle heat. 

IV. Linseed oil, resin cerate, and oil of turpen- 
tine, of each 2^ oz. ; powdered flies 1 oz. ; as above. 

Use. For horses and cattle. 
16 



BLISTER, PERPETUAL. A common blis- 
ter, raised in the usual way, but instead of allovv- 
mg the surface to heal up, after the discharge of 
the water, it is kept open by dressing it with saviue 
or cantharides ointment. 

BLISTERING TISSUE. Thin paper, or 
silk, spread over with a thin coat of alcoholic, 
acetic, or ethereal extract of Spanish flies. 

BLOOD, BULLOCK'S. This article is em- 
ployed for the clarification of wines and sirups ; in 
the preparation of adhesive cements ; coarse paint 
for out-door work ; as a manure ; as a bleaching 
powder ; and for several other purposes. The 
blood of sheep, pigs, and bullocks, mixed with 
flour or oatmeal, and seasoning, is used as an ali- 
ment by the common people, but it is rather indi- 
gestible, and consequently cannot prove nourishing. 

BLOOD, POWDERED. Prep. Dry the 
blood, by free exposure in thin layers to a current 
of air, at a heat under 125°, until it becomes suf- 
ficiently dry to powder. Use. For exportation to 
the colonies, where it is Ut<^d in the sugar works. 
Remarks. Bullock's blood, dried at a temperature 
from 212° to 225°, and coarsely powdered, is 
much used by fraudulent dealers to adulterate 
musk. 

BLOOD, SPITTING OF. (See PI^mop- 

TYSIS.) 

BLOOD, SPITTING OF. Popular Reme- 
DY FOR. Prep. Infusion of red roses 5^ oz. ; sirup 
of poppies ^ oz. ; diluted sulphuric acid 20 drops ; 
mix. Dose. One or two tablespoonfuls four times 
a day. 

BLOOM, ALMOND. Prep. Boil 1 oz. of 
ground Brazil wood in 3 pints of water, for 15 
minutes, strain and add | oz. of isinglass, ^ oz. of 
powdered cochineal, 1 oz. of alum, and ^ oz. of bo- 
rax ; boil again for 3 minutes, or until the whole is 
dissolved, and strain through a piece of fine cloth. 

BLOWPIPE. An instrument by means of 
which the flame of a candle or lamp is directed 
upon any substance placed • to receive it, which is 
thus subjected to an intense heat. 

The hottest portion of the flame produced by 
the action of the blowpipe, is at the tip of the out- 
er white flame, which has also the property of 
rapidly burning or oxidizing any substance placed 
in it, which is capable of such an action ; hence 
it has been called the " oxidizing flame." The 
interior blue flame has also been called the " re- 
ducing flame," from the property it possesses of 
abstracting oxygen from most substances placed 
in it. 

App. " The substance to be submitted to the 
action of the blowpipe, must be placed on a 
piece of charcoal, or in a small spoon of platina, 
gold, or silver ; or, according to Saussure, a plate 
of cyanite may sometimes be used. Charcoal 
from the pine is to be preferred, which should be 
well ignited and dried, that it may not crack. The 
sides, not the ends, of the fibres must be used ; 
otherwise the substance to be fused spreads about, 
and a round bead will not be formed. A small 
hole is to be made in the charcoal, which is best 
done by a slip of plate iron bent longitudinally. 
Into this hole the substance to be examined must 
be put, in very small quantity ; if a very intense 
heat is to be used, it should not exceed the size of 
half a peppercorn. 



BLO 



122 



BLU 



" Metallic spoons are used when the substance 
to be examined is intended to be exposed to the ac- 
tion of heat only, and might undergo some change 
by immediate contact with the charcoal. When 
the spoon is used, the flame of the blowpipe should 
be directed to that part of it which contains the 
substance under examination, and not be imme- 
diately applied to the substance itself. The han- 
dle of the spoon may be inserted into a piece 
of charcoal ; and if a very intense heat is re- 
quired, the bowl of the spoon may be adapted to 
a hole in the charcoal. Small portions may be 
taken up by platina forceps. Salts and volatile 
substances are to be heated in a glass tube closed 
at one end, and enlarged according to circumstan- 
ces, so as to form a small matrass." 

When the behavior of the substance has been 
observed in this way, it is melted with various 
fluxes, as microcosmic salt, borax, &c., and their 
action examined, both in the interior and exterior 
flame, by which means its composition may be 
generally ascertained, by reference to any work 
on mineralogy. 

Beginners are usually unable to maintaiii a con- 
tinual stream of air from the jet, which is, how- 
ever, very simple to accomplish. The operation 
depends upon a little artifice in blowing through 
the pipe, which is in reality more difficult to de- 
scribe than to acquire. " The effect intended to 
be produced is a continual stream of air for many 
minutes, if necessary, without ceasing. This is 
done by applying the tongue to the roof of the 
mouth, so as to interrupt the communication be- 
tween the mouth and the passage of the nostrils ; 
by which means the operator is at liberty to 
bi'eathe through the nostrils, at the same time that 
by the muscles of the lips he forces a continual 
stream of air from the anterior part of the mouth 
through the blowpipe. When the mouth begins 
to be empty, it is replenished by the lungs in an 
instant, while the tongue is withdrawn from the 
roof of the mouth, and replaced again in the same 
manner as in pronouncing the monosyllable tut. 
In this way, the stream may be continued for a 
long time without any fatigue, if the flame be 
not urged too impetuously ; and even in this case 
no other fatigue is felt thar that of the muscles of 
the lips." (Ure.) 

For producing extreme degrees of heat, the 
flame is blown with a jet of oxygen gas, and the 
instrument is then called an ^^ oxygen bloiopipe;" 
or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is burned, 
when it is called an " oxy-hydrogen" blowpipe. 
The heat produced by the last is so great that no 
substance can stand before it The most refrac- 
tory native compounds, as rock crystal, quartz, 
flint, chalk, plumbago, &c., are'-immedi.itely fused. 
Gold is voliitilizcd, and iron is rapidly consumed 
the insianl it is placed in the flume. To use this 
wonderl'iil instrumont witii safety, and to prevent 
an explosion, a peculiarly constructed jet is re- 
quired. The princi])al blowpipes in general use 
are figured in the accompanying engravings. The 
shape of the common blowpipe adoi)ted by (ho 
experimentalist may (lej)cnd upon the fancy of its 
emjiloycir. 

This apparatus is also furnished with valves and 
iprings. 

Beaido the following thoro are several other vu- 



2 3 4 5 




1 , Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. 

2, Black's do. 

3, Bergman's do. 

4, Pepy's do. 

5, Wollastoii's do. 

6, Hemming's safety jet for the oxy-hydrogen ditto. 
a, Pipe conveying oxygen gas. 

h, Do. do. hydrogen gas. 

c, Ball sniffed with fine wire gauze. 

e, Jet, (internal diameter l-80th of an inch.) 

rieties of blowpipes, in which the air is expelled by 
the pressure of a column of water, (hence called 
" hydrostatic blowpipes") or the flame blown 
with the vapor of boiling alcohol, ("spirit blow- 
pipe.") 

Use. The blowpipe is of most extensive appli- 
cation in qualitative analysis, especially of min- 
erals, and its use cannot be too highly recom- 
mended to the young chemist. 

For further information on this subject the 
reader is referred to Gahn on the Blowpipe ; to 
Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry; to Campbell's 
Translation of Kobell's Instructions for the Dis- 
crimination of Minerals ; and to the Chemist, 
iv. 462. 

BLUBBER. This substance, which is so plen- 
tiful on some parts of the coast of England, forms 
a very rich manure for pasture and arable land, 
when used at the rate of 1 ton to every 20 or 30 
loads of mould, together with a chaldron of lime 
per acre. It must be well turned over, and after 
lying 3 or 4 months the land will be in prime con- 
dition. 

BLUE, CHARCOAL. Prep. Triturate car- 
bonized vine stalks with an equal weight of pot- 
ash, then put it into a crucible and place it over 
the fire, until the mixture ceases to swell, keeping j 
it well stirred all the time ; next allow it to cool, | 
dissolve it in water, and saturate the excess of 
alkali with dilute sulphuric acid ; the liquid be- 
comes blue, and a dark precipitate falls down, 
which turns of a brilliant blue color when dried 
and heated. 

BLUE, COBALT. Prep. I. Dissolve ZafFre | 
1 lb. in I lb. of nitric acid, diluted with an equal | 
weight of water, by digestion for some hours, 
evaporate nearly to dryness, then dissolve in warm 
water, filter and add a solution of phosphate of 
soda as long as any precipitate falls down ; col- 
lect this on a filter and wash it with cold water, 
then mix it while still moist with 8 times its 
weight of freshly precipitate hydrate of alumina, 
also well washed and still moist. Stir them to- 
gether until dry ; lastly, expose the mixture to a 
cherry red heat in a crucible, after which cool the 
mass, and reduce it to a fine j)ow(l('r. 

II. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of cobalt as 
above, and proceed as before. 

III. Make u strong solution of neutral nitrate 



BLU 



123 



BOI 



of C'>balt, and mix it with pure moist alumina, 
then dry it and proceed as before. 

IV. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of cobalt 
with ammonia alum, collect the precipitate, wash, 
drj^ and heat it to a clierry red as before. 

Use. A beautiful blue pigment, very perma- 
nent. 

BLUE, CHEMIC. Syn. Saxon Blue. Li- 
quid Blue. Sulphate of Indigo. Prep. I. 
Indigo 1 lb. ; oil of vitriol 8 lbs. Proc. Put the 
acid into an earthenware pan, placed in a tub of 
water to keep it cool, and add the indigo, pre- 
viously reduced to fine powder, in small succes- 
sive portions, carefully stirring to prevent it heat- 
ing. When all the indigo has been added, cover 
up the vessel and let it stand for 4 hours, occa- 
sionally stirring it during the time ; lastly, dilute 
it with an equal weight of water. 

II. Indigo 1 oz. ; oil of vitriol 4 oz. ; dissolve as 
before ; the next day add 1 oz. of dry potash ; let 
it stand a day longer, then dilute it with 12 oz. of 
water. 

Use. In dyeing greens and blues, either with- 
out preparation or with a mordant of alum and 
tartar. 

BLUE, CHINA. Syn. Royal Smalts. Prep. 
Grind together oxide of cobalt or zaffre, with an 
equal weight of potash, and 8 times its weight of 
feldspar. Then submit the mixture to fusion in a 
crucible. Use. To paint pottery, and as a pig- 
ment. 

BLUE, IRON. Prep. Precipitate a filtered 
solution of protosulphate of iron, with another of 
phosphate of soda. Collect the powder, wash 
and dry it. Use. A lively sky-blue'. 

BLUE, MOLYBDENUM. Prep. Dissolve 
sulphuret of molybdenum in nitric acid, then add 
some tiii filings and a little muriatic acid. After 
digestion for some time, pour off the clear and 
evaporate to dryness. Mix the powder thus ob- 
tained with moist hydrate of alumina, as in ma- 
kmg cobalt blue, and heat it to nearly a dull 
red. 

BLUE, MOUNTAIN. Carbonate of copper, 
mixed with earthy matter. 

BLUE, SAXON. Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. of sul- 
phate of iron and 8 oz. of alum in 1 gallon of 
water, then add simultaneously, separate solutions 
of prussiate of potash and common pearlash, un- 
til they cease to produce a precipitate ; lastly, 
allow the liquid to deposite, decant the clear por- 
tion, wash the remainder well with water, and 
dry it. Or a solution of the sulphate of iron may 
be first made and precipitated with the prussiate 
of potash, and instantly mixed with the solution 
of alum and a solution of pearlash, added until 
it ceases to produce a precipitate. 

BLUE, SUPERB LIQUID. Prep. Put into 
a small matrass or common vial 1 oz. of pure 
Prussian blue reduced to powder, and pour over it 
from 1^ oz. to 2 oz. of concentrated mur-atic acid. 
The mixture produces an effervescence and the 
prussiate soon assumes the consistence of thin 
paste. Leave it in this state for 24 hours, then 
dilute it with 8 or 9 oz. of water, and preserve the 
color thus diluted in a bottle well stopped. 

The intensity of this color may be lessened, if 



necessary, by new doses of water. If the whola 
of this mixture be poured into 1 quart of water, it 
will still exhibit a color sufliciently dark for wash- 
ing prints. 

BLUE, STONE. Syn. Fig Blue. Thumb 
Blue. Knob Blue. Crown Blue. Meckleii- 
BURG Blue. Queen's Blue. Prep. Mix finely 
powdered indigo with starch paste until a proper 
color be produced, then make it into small lumps. 
II. Instead of starch use whiting and a little 
weak size. Use. Employed by laundresses to 
give a faint blue tinge to linen. 

BLUE DYE. Proc. First give the goods a 
mordant of alum, then rinse them well and boil 
them in a bath of logwood, to which a small 
quantity of blue vitriol has been added. 

II. Boil in a bath of logwood, then add 1 oz. 
each of tartar and verdigris to every pound of 
logwood employed, and boil again. 

III. Bilberries, elder-berries, mulberries, privet- 
berries, and several other vegetable blue sub- 
stances, may be used to dye blue as above instead 
of logwood. 

Remarks. By increasing the proportion of alum 
the color verges on purple, and by employing a 
little acetate of iron or green copperas, the darker 
shades are produced. Verdigris, blue vitriol, and 
alkalis turn it more on the blue, and a mordant of 
tin imparts a violet cast. None of these dyes, 
however skilfully managed, are so permanent as 
those produced with indigo and Prussian blue. 
(See Indigo, Prussian Blue, and Dyeing.) 

BOARDS, MARBLE, &c., TO TAKE OIL 
AND GREASE OUT OF. I. Make a paste 
with fuller's earth and hot water, cover the spots 
therewith, let it dry on, and the next day scour it 
off with soft or yellow soap. 

II. Make a paste with soft soap, fuller's earth, 
and a little pearlash, and use it as above. 

III. Make a paste of fresh slaked lime, wa- 
ter, and pearlash, and use it as above. Remarks. 
Observe not to touch the last mixture with the 
finger, as it is very caustic unless it be largely di- 
luted with water. 

BOERHAAVE'S RULES FOR PRESERV- 
ING HEALTH. 

" Keep the feet warm ; 
The liead cool ; and 
The body open." 

These rules are very concise, and convey di- 
rections which, though valuable, are too often neg- 
lected. 

BOILING POINT. The boiling point of wa- 
ter may be raised considerably above 212° Fahr. 
by the addition of saline matter. Thus, 60 parts 
of dry acetate of soda added to 40 of water raise 
the boiling point to 256° Fahr., atid 30 parts of 
muriate of soda added to 70 of water raise it to 
224 Fahr. As in practice, however, it proves in- 
convenient to employ a saturated solution for a 
bath, from the evaporation of the water continually 
inducing the salt to crystallize, it is usual to keep 
it considerably below that point. By means of 
such solutions the chemist is enabled to evaporate 
fluids and desiccate solids at any required temper- 
ature. The boiling point of baths containing dif- 
ferent salts may be seen below. 



BOL 



124 



BON 



Table of the Boiling Points of several Saline So- 
lutions, abridged from the Table of Mr. T. 
Griffiths. (Jour. Science, xviii. 89.) 



Names of Salts. 



Acetate of soda, . . . 
Nitrate of soda, . . . 
Rochelle salt, .... 

Nitre, 

Muriate of ammonia, . 
Tartrate of potash, . . 
Muriate of soda, . . . 

Ditto, 

Muriate of lime, . . . 
Sulphate of magnesia, . 
Supersulphate of potash, 

Borax, 

Phosphate of soda, . . 
Carbonate of soda, . . 
Muriate of baryta, . . 

Alum, 

Sulphi^.B of potash, . . 
Bitartrate of potash, 
Sulphate of soda, . . 



Dry Salt in Boiling 
100, Point. 



60 
60 

90 
74 
50 
68 
30 
20 
40 
57-5 
? 

52-5 

? 

? 
45 
52 
17-5 

9-5 
31-5 



256° F. 

246 

240 

238 

236 

234 

224 

218-75 

216-5 

222 

222 

222 

222 '' 

220 

220 

220 

215 

214 

213 



Remarks. From 5 to 9 degrees are usually lost 
by passing through the vessel, depending on its 
thickness and materials. The boiling point of 
water in glass vessels, under common circum- 
stances, varies from 212-54° to 215-6°, and in per- 
fectly pure and smooth glass vessels, water may 
be heated to 221° F. without boiling. (M. F. 
Marcet.) 

BOILS. Treat. When these appear, suppura- 
tion should be promoted by poultices of bread and 
linseed meal, to which a little fat or oil may be 
added, to prevent their getting hard. When poul- 
tices are inconvenient, exposure to the vapor of 
hot water, or the application of stimulating plas- 
ters, may be adopted instead. When sufficiently 
ripe, the matter should be evacuated, and the 
wound dressed with a little simple ointment spread 
on a piece of clean lint or linen. The diet may be 
full and liberal until the maturation of the tumor 
and the discharge of the matter, when it should be 
lessened, and the bowels opened by some saline 
purgatives, as salts or cream of tartar. When 
there is a disposition in the constitution to the for- 
mation of boils, the bowels should be kept regular, 
and tonics, as bark or steel, taken, with the fre- 
quent use of sea-bathing, if possible. 

BO LAS. Prep. Into 2 lbs. of flour pour \ pint 
of warm milk, a small teacupful of yeast, and 6 
eggs ; make them into a dough, add 1 lb. of but- 
ter, by degrees, and let it rise for 1 hour, then mix 
in 1 lb. of ])owdered sugar, and make the mass into 
cakes ; put tiuse into cups or tins previously well 
buttered, and ornament the top with candied or- 
ange or lemon peel ; lastly, bake thorn. 

BOLUS OF ALUM. Prep. Powdered alum 
and conserve roses, of each 15 grs. ; sirup of or- 
ange peel or sailroii to mix. Used in fluxes, «fec. 

BOLUS OF MUSK. Prep. I. IMusk 15 grs. ; 
camphor 5 grs. ; jjowdcrcd gum .'{ grs. ; mix with 
sirup of saflron. Use. In convulsions and typhus 
fever. 

IL Muek and carbonalo of ammonia of each 



10 grs. ; conserve of roses q. s. ; to make a bolus. 
Use. Sometimes given every three hours in morti- 
fication accompanied with spasms. 

BOLUS, PURGIx^fG, (for Dogs.) Prep. Ja- 
lap and rhubarb, of each 15 grs. ; ginger 4 grs. ; 
soap 10 grs. ; water q. s. ; if this does not open 
the bowels, add aloes half a drachm, or 3 or 
4 grs. of calomel. Use. In the distemper ; it must 
be preceded by copious bleeding, and abstinence 
from food for a day or a night. 

BOLUS OF SULPHATE OF ZINC. Prep. 
Sulphate of zinc 20 to 25 grs. ; conserve of roses 
q. s. to make a bolus. Use. As an emetic where 
poison has been taken, to be followed by copious 
draughts of warm water or weak tea. 

BOLETIC ACID. An acid discovered by 
Braconnot in the juice of the boletus pseudo-iguia- 
rius. 

Prep. Concentrate the expressed juice to a sirup 
by means of a gentle heat, then digest it in strong 
alcohol, and dissolve the residuum in water ; add i 
solution of nitrate of lead as long as any precipitate 
falls, which must be washed with water, diffused 
through water in a tall glass vessel, and in this 
state a current of sulphureted hydrogen must be 
passed through it, until the lead is thrown down ; 
filter, evaporate, and crystallize ; lastly, purify by 
resolution and crystallization from alcohol. 

Remarks. This acid dissolves in 45 parts of al- 
cohol and 180 of water, and is volatile. It is doubt- 
ful whether it be a distinct acid principle. 

BOLOGNA VIAL. The bologna, or philoso- 
phical vial, is a small vessel of glass which has 
been suddenly cooled, open at the upper end, and 
rounded at the bottom. It is made so thick at the 
bottom that it will bear a smart blow against a 
hard body without breaking ; but if a little pebble, 
or piece of flint, is let fall mto it, it immediately 
cracks, and the bottom falls into pieces ; but un- 
less the pebble or flint is large and angular enough 
to scratch the surface of the glass, it will not break. 

BOLOGNIAN PHOSPHORUS. Syu. Bo- 
LOGNiAN Stone. This is a phosphorescent stone 
that once excited great attention. It was acci- 
dentally discovered by a shoemaker of Bologna in 
the 17th century. A family of the name of Lo- 
gani, who were very successful in making it, ac- 
quired a large fortune by selling it to the curious 
throughout Europe. 

Prep. Powder native sulphate of baryta that has 
been previously ignited, and make it into a paste 
with mucilage of gum arable ; roll this into pieces 
a quarter of an inch thick, and dry them in a 
moderate heat ; then expose them to the heat of a 
wind furnace by placing them loose among the 
charcoal. 

Prop., Use, i^c. Placed in a vial and exposed 
for a few minutes to the sun's rays, it will give 
light enough in the dark to see the figures on the 
dial-plate of a watch. 

BOMBIC ACID. An acid which M. Chans- 
sier extracted from the silkworm in 1781. It has 
since been found not to be a distinct acid. 

BON-BONS. Prep. Provide leaden moulds, 
which must be of various shapes, and be oileil with 
oil of sweet almonds. Take a quantity of brown- 
sugar sirup in the proportion lo their si/e, in that 
stale called a blow, which may be known by dip- 
ping the Hkimmer into the sugar, shaking it, and 



BON 



125 



BON 



Kowmgr through the holes, when parts of hght 
may be seen ; add a drop of any esteemed essence. 
If the bon-bons are preferred white, when the su- 
gar has cooled a little, stir it round the pan till it 
grains, and shines on the surface ; then pour it 
mto a funnel and fill the little moulds, when it will 
take a proper form and harden : as soon as it is 
cold take it from the moulds ; dry it for two or 
three days, and put it upon paper. If the bon- 
bons are required to be colored, add the color just 
as the sugar is ready to be taken off the fire. 

BONES. The bones of animals are employed 
for various purposes in the art§, manufactures, and 
domestic economy. (See the succeeding articles.) 

BONE ASH. Syn. Impure Phosphate of 
Lime. Prep. Calcine bones to whiteness, and re- 
duce the ash to fine powder. Use. To make pure 
phosphate of lime, and to form cupels. It is sold 
for burnt hartshorn. 

BONE BLACK. Syn. Ammal Charcoal. 
Ivory-Black. Bones burnt in close vessels. 

Prep. On the large scale, two different process- 
es are adopted to produce bone black. 

I. {From bones as the sole product.) The bones 
broken to pieces are put into small cast-iron pots 
of the shape of the engraving, and varying from 



f to ^ an inch in thickness. Two of these being 
filled, are dexterously placed with their mouths 
together and then luted with loam. A number of 
vessels, thus prepared, are placed side by side and 
over each other, in an oven resembling a potter's 
kiln, to the number of 100 to 150. The fire is then 
kindled, and the heat kept up strongly for 10 or 
12 hours, according to circumstances, until the 
process is completed. The whole is allowed to 
cool before opening the pots. 

II. {The residuum of the manufacture of Bone 
Spirit.) The bones are here introduced into re- 
torts similar to those used at the gas works, and 
heat being applied, the volatile products are con- 
veyed away by u-on pipes to cisterns where its 
condensable portion is collected. As soon as the 
process of distillation is finished, the solid residuum 
in the retorts, while still red hot, is removed through 
their lower ends into wrought-iron canisters, which 
are instantly closed by air-tight covers, and luted 
over. These are then raised to the ground by a 
crane and allowed to cool. 

Remarks. Previously to distillation or calcina- 
tion, the bones are boiled for their grease, which is 
sold to the candle and soap makers. They are then 
sorted, the finest pieces being selected for making 
handles for knives, tooth-brushes, buttons, «Scc. : 
the next sort for making into bone black : while 
the smallest and worst description is reser\-ed for 
grinding into manure. The bones lose about ^ 
their weight by the process of burning. After this 
they are ground in a mill, sorted by sieves into two 
kinds, one granular, somewhat resembling gun- 
powder, and the other quite fine. The one is sold 
under the name of animal charcoal, for decoloring 
liquors, the other as a pigment. This article pos- 
sesses the valuable property of taking lime from 
sirups, at the same time that it decolors them. 



Its power as a decolorizer may be tested by adding 
it to a solution of brown sugar or molasses, or wa- 
ter containing rvroTf P^'"^ °^ indigo dissolved in sid- 
phuric acid. The test should be made in a small 
gla^ tube. By well washing and careful rebura- 
ing, this charcoal may be used any number of times 
as a decolorizer. 

BONES AND IVORY, DYES FOR. 1. 
{Red.) a. Make an infusion of cochineal in water 
of ammonia, then immerse the pieces therein, hav- 
ing previously soaked them for a few minutes in 
very weak aquafortis and water. 

b. Boil the bones with 1 lb. of Brazil dust, in 1 
gallon of water, for 3 hours, then add \ lb. of alum 
and boil for 1 hour more. 

2. {Black.) a. Immerse ^.e pieces in a weak 
solution of nitrate of silver, for a short time, then 
expose them to the sunlight. 

b. Steep for 2 or .3 days, in a decoction made 
with 1 lb. of galls and 2 lbs. of logwood, then steep 
for a few hours in iron liquor, (acetate of iron.) 

3. {Green.) a. Steep in a solution of verdigris to 
which a little aquafortis has been added. 

b. Dissolve distilled verdigris in weak vinegar, 
and steep the pieces therein. 

c. Steep in a solution of 2 parts of verdigris, and 
1 of sal ammoniac. Observe not to use a metallic 
vessel for the above. 

4. (Purple.) a. Steep in a weak solution of 
terchloride of gold. 

b. Boil for 6 hours in a decoction of 1 lb. of log- 
wood in ij gallon of water, adding more water, as 
it wastes by boiling, then add 2 oz. of alum, and 
boil for 1 hour more. 

5. {Yelloic.) a. Boil for 1 hour in a solution 
made with 1 pound of alum in 1 gallon of water, 
then take out the pieces and steep them in a de- 
coction made with ^ lb. of turmeric in 2 quarts of 
water : lastly, mix the two liquors and boil them 
therein for 1 hour. 

b. Steep the pieces for 24 hours in a solution of 
sugar of lead, then take them out, and when dry, 
immerse them in a solution of chromate of potassa. 

c. Dissolve as much of the best orpiment in wa- 
ter of ammonia or hartshorn, as it will take up, 
then steep the pieces therein for twenty -four hours ; 
lastly, take them out and dry them, when they 
will turn yellow. Remark. By diluting the solu- 
tion with water, any shade of yellow may be made. 

6. {Blue.) a. Stain them green, then steep them 
in a hot and strong solution of pearlash. 

b. Boil them in a strong decoction of logwood, 
and afterwards steep them in a solution of blue 
vitriol. 

c. Steep them for a short time in a weak solu- 
tion of sulphate of indigo, to which a httle salt of 
tartar has been added ; or, still betj;er, boil them in 
a dyer's green indigo vat. Remarks. The bones 
of living animals may be dyed by mixing madder 
with their food. The bones of young pigeons may 
thus be tinged of a rose color in 24 hours, and of a 
deep scarlet in 3 days ; but the bones of adult ani- 
mals take a fortnight to acquire a rose color. The 
bones nearest the heart become tinged sornest. 
In the same way extract of logwood will tinge the 
bones of young pigeons purple. (Mr. Gibson.) 

BONE GREASE. Prep. By bruising and 
boiling the refuse bones of the kitchen, and skim- 
ming the broth when cold, from i (?) to J of their 



BOO 



126 



BOO 



weight of good fat may be obtained, fit for culina- 
ry purposes when fresh, but always excellent for 
making soap and candles. (Proust.) 

BONE GLUE. Syn. Gelatine. Prep. This 
is made by dissolving out the earth of bones, pre- 
viously boiled for the grease, washing the remain- 
ing jelly with water, then boiling it with a little 
water, and forming it into cakes for sale. (See 
Glue.) 

BONE MANURE. For this purpose the bones 
are ground to a coarse powder in a mill, and sowed 
along with the seed in a drill. It is said that wheat 
thus treated yields 30 to 50 per cent, more in 
weight of straw and grain than by the common 
methods. It is usually applied to light or turnip 
soils, which it renders more than ordinarily pro- 
ductive. Bone manure is much used in the west 
of Yorkshire, Holderness, and Lincolnshire. The 
usual quantity per acre is 70 bushels, when used 
alone ; but when mixed with ashes, as common 
manure of any sort, 30 bushels per acre is thought 
quite enough. It is applied at the same periods as 
other manure, and has been found in this way to 
remain 7 years in the ground. The rough part of 
this manure, after being 5 years in the ground, 
has been gathered off one field and thrown upon 
another of a different soil, and has proved, even 
then, good manure. 

BONES, (in Cookery.) The bones of good 
meat form most excellent materials for making 
soups and gravies, as is well known to every good 
cook. In France, soup is extensively made by dis- 
solving bruised bones in a steam heat of 2 or 3 
days' continuance, and also by dissolving out the 
earthy part by digestion in v/eak muriatic acid, 
when a lump of gelatine is obtained, which after 
being well washed with water will dissolve by boil- 
ing, and is equal to isinglass for all the purposes of 
making soups and jellies. Proust has recommended 
the following process for making the best of bones, 
in hospitals, jails, and similar establishments: — 
Crush the bones small, then boil them for 15 min- 
utes in a kettle of water, cool, and skim the fat 
off, which varies from ^ to ^ (?) of the weight of 
the bones employed, and when fresh is fit for all 
common purposes. The bones are then ground, 
and boiled in 8 to 10 times their weight of water, 
of which that already used must form a part, until 
^ is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly is obtained. 
A copper vessel should not be used, as the jelly 
acts upon this metal. An iron Papin's digester is 
the most suitable. The bones of boiled meat are 
nearly as productive as those of fresh meat, but 
roasted meat bones scarcely afford any jelly. (Dr. 
Young.) As boning meat before cooking is now a 
very general practice, a quantity of fresh bones 
may always be had. « 

BONE SHAVINGS. Syn. Bone Dust. Bone 
Turnings. These yield a beautiful jolly by boil- 
ing with water, nearly equal to that produced from 
hartshorn shavings, for which they are very fre- 
quently sold. 

BOOKBINDING. The ])roccss of binding 
books may be divided into seviTal distinct opera- 
tions, which, in largo estahlishnieuts, are usually 
performed by difU'rent persons, such a method 
being found to ppoduco greater expedition and bet- 
ter work, than when tlio whole is done by one 
peruou. 



The sheets received from the hands of the printei 
are — 

1. Folded, which is done correctly by observing 
the marks or catchwords at the bottom of the 
pages. As the sheets are folded they are laid upon 
each other in proper order, and are ready to un- 
dergo — 

2. The operation of beating. This is performed 
by laying them upon a large stone, and striking 
them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by 
passing them through a rolling press. The former 
method is usually adopted in the small way, and 
the latter on the large scale. 

3. The sheets are next fastened to hands^ 
which is done by taking the folded sheets up one by 
one, and sewing them to piece'! of cord, stretched 
in a little frame screwed or fastened to the counte' 
or table, called the sewing-press. (See eng.) The 



i V Ny N^ V^ 


! 


» 




) ■■V 


1 












1 1 



number of bands used, is generally 6 for a folio, 
5 for a quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 
4 seldom being employed even for small sizes. 
The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 
2 inches of the back, the sheets are ready for — 

4. Glueing. The back being knocked into 
shape with a hammer, and the sheets placed in 
the cutting press, which is then slightly screwed 
up, melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After 
a short time the book is removed from the press, 
and the back properly adjusted with a hanmier, 
when it is again put into the cutting press, where 
it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready for — 

5. Cutting. The instrument employed for this 
purpose is of a peculiar shape, and called a plough 
or plough-knife. 

G. Affixing the boards. The bands are now 
scraped out fine at the ends, and the pasteboard 
to form the covers is fastened thereto, and is then 
properly adjusted, and shaped with a large pair of 
shears. The edges now undergo the operation 
of— 

7. Sprinkling, or other adornment. The first 
is performed by a stiff brush of hog's bristles, dip- 
jjed in the color ; the brush being held in the one 
hand, and the hairs moved with the other. 

8. The external covering of leather, fancy 
cloth, or paper, is now apjilied, having been pre- 
viously well soaked in paste, to make it projierly 
adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of the 
book are next pasted against the inside of the cover, 
to screen the ends that arc turned over, when the 
book is finished ; or for choice work, is handed to 
a "y/«/.v/jer" for — 

9. Lettering, gilding, tj-r. Gold-leaf is applied 
by means of white of e^^ir, the pattern being given 
by })ressure with heated brass tools, having the 
design or letters on their surfaces. The whole is 
then gla/ed over and polished. 

lirinarhs. The succession of some of the above 
operations sometimes varies with the workmen and 



BOO 



127 



BOO 



the nature of the binding. The above must there- 
fore only be regarded as a short and general out- 
Une of the process. If the reader will accompany 
the perusal by an examination of a bound book, 
the whole will be rendered quite familiar. • 

The following varieties of binding may be notic- 
ed: 

a. Boards. A book, loosely done up without 
cutting the edges, and covered with paper or cloth, 
is said to be in boai'ds. 

h. Cloth-binding. This style of binding is that 
ui which the majority of works are now issued. 
It admits of great neatness and even beauty, and 
is very durable and cheap. Proc. The prepared 
cloth, cut by a pattern to the size suited to the 
volume, is passed rapidly through a rolling press, 
between engraved cylinders of hardened steel, 
which print the pattern in relief. Paste is now 
applied to the cloth, when it is placed over the 
volume, previously prepared to receive it. Books 
m cloth-binding are not commonly cut at the 
edges, miless highly finished. 

c. Dutch binding. This species of binding is 
distinguished by the backs being of vellum. 

d. French binding. Tliis consists in pasting a 
piece of parchment over the back of the book, be- 
tween each band, and pasting the ends upon the 
inside of each cover. 

e. Half-binding. Books forwarded in boards, 
and finished with leather backs and corners, are 
called " half-bound." 

f. Hancock's patent binding. In this method 
the sheets are folded in double leaves, and being 
properly placed together and adjusted, the book is 
subjected to the action of a press, and a strong so- 
lution of Indian rubber is smeared over the back 
with the finger. The operation is repeated, as 
often as necessary, when fil'ets of cloth are ce- 
mented on with the vaniisli, and the book is ready 
to have the boards attached. Thus several of the 
common operations of binding are dispensed with. 
I willingly bear testimony to the strength and 
durabiUty of this method, and the great conve- 
nience it affords in allowing the books to open per- 
fectly flat upon a table, or to be distorted in any 
possible manner, without injury \o their backs. It 
is the best way of binding books for travellers. I 
once had a large trunk of books, among which 
was one bound on Hancock's plan. All the rest 
were nearly torn to pieces by a few months' jour- 
ney, but this one was vminjured. 

g. Law binding. A strong method applied to 
law books. 

h. Leather binding. Proc. Immerse the lea- 
ther in water ; after which wring it, and stretch it 
on a board ; place the book with the boards extend- 
ed thereon, and cut out the cover, allowing about 
half an inch larger than the book, to turn over the 
inside of the pasteboards. Pare the edges of the 
cover very thin all round on a marble slab, and 
paste it well ; glue the back of the book, and 
spread the cover on the board. 

Let the pasteboards be properly squared and 
even ; put the book on the cover, which draw on 
very tight. Rub the cover smooth with a folding- 
stick, and turn it over on the inside of the paste- 
boards on the fore edge. The corners on the in- 
side must be cut and neatly pressed down ; tie a 
piece of thread round the book, between the boards 



and head-bands, draw up the leather on the back, 
if necessary, to cover the top of the head-bands ; 
rub the back very smooth with a flat folding-stick, 
and place it at a distance from the fire to dry. 

Rough calf must be damped on the grain side with 
a sponge and water before pasting and covering. 

Russia leather must be well soak(>d in water fo 
an hour, taken out, well beaten, and rubbed ; aftc 
which the paste must be well worked into the fles) 
side before covering. 

Morocco must be grained by rubbing it on e 
board, with the grain side inside, and alter being 
pasted, left to soak for a quarter of an hour, and 
the cover then drawn on with a piece of woollen 
cloth to preserve the grain. 

Roan may be either soaked in water or left to 
soak when pasted. ' 

i. Italian binding. This is a common variety 
of binding employed in Italy, (hence its name,) in 
which the books are covered with a kind of thick 
coarse paper. In Italy it is called " alia rustica." 

k. Marble binding. Named from the design of 
the exterior. 

I. Palmer's patent binding. This consists in 
applying small brass bars, linked together, to the 
back of the book, in such a manner that they 
make the different sections of the book, w^hen open, 
parallel with each other, and thus admit of writ- 
ing, without inconvenience, on the ruled lines near 
the back. 

7n. School binding. The following is a strong 
method for school books: — When the books have 
been cut, colored, and backed, cut off the part of 
the bands intended to be laced to the pasteboards, 
and glue on the back a piece of strong smooth 
linen cloth, which must reach within half an inch 
of the head and foot, turning on the sides about 
an inch ; paste the boards on each side of the cloth, 
fixing them close in at the groove, and give the 
books a firm pressing in the standing-press till dry. 
Square the boards, glue the backs, and cover and 
finish in the usual manner. 

This method will secure and give strength to 
the joints, so as effectually to prevent the leather 
from breaking, and require no more time than 
lacing in the bands. The edges may now be 
colored, sprinkled, or marbled, as required. 

n. William's patent binding. This consists in 
placing a back, of a curved form, turned a little at 
the edges, and made of iron, copper, brass, wood, 
ivory, or any other material of sufficient firmness. 
This back is adjusted to the book before it is bound, 
in such a manner that it may just cover, but not 
press upon the edges, and is fastened on by enclos- 
ing it in vellum or ferret wrappers, which are past- 
ed do\vn upon the boards or drawn through them. 
The effect is, to make the book open eyenly and free- 
ly, and to prevent it from spreading on either side. 

BOOTS, TO CLEAN. To do this in the best 
style always use " boot-trees," employ but little 
blacking, and brush it off while damp. The dirt 
should, of course, be carefully brushed off before 
applying the blacking. 

BOOTS AND SHOES, WATERPROOF 

COMPOSITION FOR. Prep. Boiled oil 1 pint ; 

oil of turpentine, black rosin, and bees' wax, of 

each 3 oz. Proc. Melt the wax and rosin, then 

j stir in th*^ oil, remove the pot from the fire, and 

I when it has cooled a little, add the turpentme. 



BOR 



128 



BOR 



II. Take 3 oz. of spermaceti, and melt it in a 
pipkin, or other earthen vessel, over a slow fire ; add 
thereto 6 drachms of Indian rubber, cut into slices, 
and these will presently dissolve. Then add 
seriatim of tallow 8 oz. ; hog's lard 2 oz. ; amber 
varnish 4 oz. Mix, and it will be fit for use im- 
mediately. Apj). The boots or other material to 
be treated, are to receive two or three coats, with 
a common bladking brush, and a fine polish is the 
result. 

BOOT-TOP LIQUID. Prep. I. Oxalic acid 
and white vitriol of each 1 oz. ; water 1^ pints. 
Proc. Dissolve and apply with a sponge to the 
leather previously washed with water, then wash 
the composition off with water, and dry. This 
liquid is poisonous. 

II. Mix in a vial, 1 drachm of oxymuriate of 
potass, with 2 oz. of distilled water; and when the 
salt is dissolved, add 2 oz. of muriatic acid. Then 
shake well together, mix in another vial 3 oz. of 
rectified spirit of wine with ^ an oz. of the essen- 
tial oil of lemon, unite the contents of the two 
vials, and keep the liquid, thus prepared, closely 
corked for use. This liquid should be applied with 
a clean sponge, and dried in a gentle heat ; after 
which, the boot-tops may be polished with a pro- 
per brush, so as to appear like new leather. 

III. Sour milk 1 quart ; gum arable 1 oz, ; juice 
of 2 lemons ; white of 2 eggs ; oil vitriol 2 oz. 
Mix. 

IV. Sour milk 1 quart ; butter of antimony, 
cream of tartar, tartaric acid, and burnt alum, of 
each 2 oz. Mix. 

BORACIC ACID. Syn. Sedative Salt. 
Sed. Salt of Vitriol. Sed. Salt of Hom- 
BERG. Prep. Dissolve borax in 4 times its weight 
of boiling water, then add sulphuric acid to the so- 
lution until it acquires a distinct acid reaction, 
(about ^ the weight of the borax.) As the solution 
cools, crystals of boracic acid will be deposited. 
These crystals must be then placed on a filter, and 
washed with a little cold water. They may be 
still further purified by solution in boiling water 
and recrystallization. 

Remarks. Even after this treatments the crys- 
tals are apt to retain a little sulphuric acid or sul- 
phate of soda, which can only be got rid of by 
heating them in a platinum crucible, before redis- 
solving them and crystallizing the second time, as 
above described. When wanted perfectly pure 
for chemical analyses, this plan must be always 
adopted. 

The boracic acid of commerce is extracted from 
the acid lagoons of Tuscany. 

Prep. As thus obtained, this acid is soluble in 
25 times its weight of cold, and 3 times its weight 
of boiling water. Very soluble in alcohol, which 
then burns with a bright green flame, offering a 
sure test of the presence of boracic acid. Odor- 
less, and tastes bitter. Reddens litmus, but browns 
turmeric paper. It was once admiuistered inter- 
nally in large doses, (by Cnllcn,) but is now scarcely 
over eiiiploy(^d as a nicdiciiit!. 

BOKATi'i. A compound, formed of the prece- 
ding acid and one of tiio Ijuses. 

Prop. Tlie boracic acid iian but a feeble aflinily 
for the bases ; most of the borates being decom- 
posed by the stronger acids, the* formiT being liber- 
ated iu u free stali, Prej. Many of them may 



be formed by digestion of the hydrate of the base 
in a solution of the acid, with the assistance of 
heat, or by double decomposition. 

Tests. I. By digestion in slight excess of oil of 
vitriol, evaporating to dryness, powdering, and dis- 
solving in alcohol, the latter will acquire the pro- 
perty of burning with a green flame. II. If to a 
strong and a hot solution of a borate, sulphuric acid 
be added in excess, crystals of boracic acid will 
form as the liquor cools. 

BORATE OF MERCURY. Prep. I. Neu- 
tral borate of soda 265 grs. ; calomel 222 grs. ; 
grind together in a mortar, with a little water, then 
fill the mortar up with hot water ; collect the red 
precipitate ; wash and dry. 

II. Add a solution of borax to a solution of quick- 
silver in nitric acid. Collect the precipitate as be- 
fore. (White.) 

BORATE OF SODA. I. {Neutral Urate.) 
Prep. Saturate boracic acid in solution with car- 
bonate of soda, at a boiling heat. (Berzelius.) 

II. (Biborate.) This salt, often erroneously call- 
ed borate and subborate, is the borax of commerce, 
and is a natural production. (See Borax.) 

BORAX. Syn. Biborate of Soda. Borate 
OF Soda. Subborate of Soda. Refined Borax. 
Crude borax is a natural production, and after be- 
ing refined, forms a large portion of the borax of 
commerce. In its rough state it is called crude 
borax, tincal, tincar, &c. It is found crystallized 
on the edges and shallows of a brackish lake in 
Thibet, during the winter. It is also prepared by 
saturating the native boracic acid of Tuscany with 
soda. The market being literally overloaded with 
the former article, its price has fallen so low as to 
allow of its employment for this purpose with great 
advantage. A valuable paper on this subject, by 
M. Payen, appeared in the " Ann. de Chimie et de 
Phys." for July, 1841; and a translation qf the 
sarne in " The Chemist," vol. ii. 363, to which the 
reader is referred for a complete account of this 
process. 

The best Tuscany boracic acid contains only 50 
per cent, of real boracic acid, and yields no more 
than 140 to 150 per cent, of good borax. 

Prop., Use, <^c. It is extensively employed as a 
flux for metals, for soldering, and in medicine. In- 
ternally it is diuretic, sedative, emmenagogue, and 
cooling, in doses of 15 to 40 grains ; externally as 
a gargle for sore throat, and in powder as a deter- 
gent in aphthfe, and ulcerations of the inoutii. Dis- 
solved in rose-water, it is used as a cosmetic, and 
mixed with 8 times its weight of lard, forms a use- 
ful piles ointment. 

Tests. These are the same as for the borates, 
which see. It reddens turmeric paper, and, be- . 
fore the blowpipe, fuses into glass, which may be | 
tinged red by terchloride of gold, and*blue by co- j 
bait. ' I 

Pur. The purity and strength of borax are best ^ 
ascertained by detormining the quantity of sul- 
phuric acid re(iuired to neutralize a given weight, 
as indicated by litmus \ya\wx. Common salt and 
alum are frequently mixed with borax to lower the 
value. The former may be detected by dissolving 
the borax in hot water, when a solution of lunar 
caustic will give a curdy while precipitate, soluble 
in ammonia; and the hitter by water of annnonia, 
which will give a bulky white precipitate. Th» 



BOU 



129 



BOX 



former must be distinguished from the white pul- 
verulent precipitate of borate of silver, which will 
be thrown down from pure borax. 

BORAX, GLASS OF. Prep. Dry borax with 
a gentle heat, breaking down the froth as it rises, 
then melt it by increasing the heat until it runs 
into a glass. Use. In soldering, and as a blow- 
pipe flux. 

BORO-FLUORIDE OF HYDROGEN.— 
Prep. Pass tluoboric acid gas through water, and 
afterwards carefully concentrate the solution ; cool 
and separate the crystalline powder from tlie solu- 
tion, which is the boro-fluoride of hydrogen. Prop., 
^c. With most of the protoxides it interchanges 
bases, and metallic boro-fluorides result. 

BORO-FLUORIDE OF BARIUM. Prep. 
Add carbonate of baryta to boro-fluoride of hydro- 
gen, until it ceases to be dissolved ; evaporate to 
the consistence of a sirup, when crystals will form. 
Remarks. The boro-fluoride of calcium, magnesi- 
um, and lead, may be formed in a similar way. 

BORO-FLUORIDE OF POTASSIUM.— 
Prep. Drop boro-fluoride of hydrogen into a solu- 
tion of carbonate of potassa, collect the white pow- 
der that falls, and wash it with cold water. 

BORO-FLUORIDE OF SODIUM. Prep. 
Dissolve fluoride of sodium in boro-fluoride of hy- 
drogen, and crystallize. Remarks. Boro-fluoride 
of lithium may also be formed in a similar way. 

BORON. The base of boracic acid, discovered 
by Sir H. Davy, in 1807, by means of the gal- 
vanic battery of the Royal Institute. 

Prep. Potassium, and perfectly dry boracic 
acid, or still better, boro-fluate of potassa, intimate- 
ly mixed together, are to be placed in an adopter, 
or glass tube, and submitted to a low red heat. 
When cool, remove the loose cork that fastened its 
mouth, and pour in successive portions of hot wa- 
ter, until the whole matter is detached and dis- 
solved. Collect the liquid and allow it to settle, 
then wash the precipitate, first with a solution of 
sal ammoniac, and finally, with alcohol ; next dry 
the boron in a capsule, and put it into a well-stop- 
ped vial. 

Prop., ^c. A solid, tasteless, and inodorous pow- 
der, of grayish-brown color. With sulphur it unites 
at high temperatures, forming sulphurets ; and 
when placed in chlorine gas it spontaneously in- 
flames, and a gaseous chloride is produced. This 
gas may also be made by exposing calcined borax 
and charcoal at a red heat to the action of dry 
chlorine. 

BOTTLE, RED. Syn. Taylor's Red Bot- 
tle. WniTWORTH Doctor's Red Bottle. Prep. 
British brandy 1 quart ; powdered cochineal -J oz. ; 
oil of origanum 10 drops. Digest for 24 hours and 
filter. 

BOUGIE. Syn. Candela. Candela cerea. 
Candelula. Virga cerea. Cerea. Cereola. 
Cereus. Cereolus. a long slender instrument, 
introduced into the urethra, oesophagus, or rectum, 
to overcome strictures of those canals. The word 
bougie is the French for a wax candle. 

Prep. I. Add 3 parts of boiled linseed oil to 1 
part of melted amber, and when mixed add 1 part 
of oil of turpentine ; spread the mixture at 3 suc- 
cessive intervals upon loose spmi silk cord or web, 
dry in a heat of 150°, and repeat the process until 
the instrument has acquired the proper size, then 
17 



polish, first with pumice-stone, and afterwards with 
tripoli and oil. 

Remarks. The above is the original receipt of 
the French professor Pickel, and is still generally 
used, slightly modified, on the continent. 

II. Add to the oil and amber melted together, 
as last, caoutchouc in the proportion of -^^ of the 
weight of the oil emj)loyed ; when dissolved, re- 
move the vessel from the fire and proceed as be- 
fore. 

Remarks. This is the plan usually adopted at 
Paris, and for the best elastic bougies this process 
usually occupies from 6 to 8 weeks. When the 
bougie is wanted to be hollow, a piece of polished 
metallic wire is introduced into the axis of the silk, 
or tinfoil is rolled round the wire and the composi- 
tion applied as before. When dry and hard the 
wire is withdrawn. 

III. {Caoutchouc, or elastic gum bougies.) a. 
In France these are made by applying a solution 
of Indian rubber in ether, to the silk or foil pre- 
pared as above. 

h. In England, where ether is expensive, 
naphtha is employed, or slips of Indian rubber 
previously boiled in water, or that have had their 
edges softened with ether, are wound round the 
wire or foil, and kept in their place by a piece of 
tape applied over them, as in making elastic tubes. 
They are afterwards carefully smoothed off". 

IV. A common kind of bougie is made b)' dip- 
ping pieces of catgut or soft linen into lead plaster, 
melted, and rolling it while yet warm upon a slab. 
Very inferior. 

V. (White.) Prep. Yellow wax 1 lb.; sperma- 
ceti 1 oz. ; finely-powdered sugar of lead | oz. ; 
melt and spread upon slips of old linen, then roll 
them up while warm with the spread side out- 
wards. 

VI. (BelVs.) Lead plaster 1 lb. ; yellow wax 
8 oz. ; olive oil 2 oz. ; as last. Very inferior. 

BOUILLI. (French for boiled meat.) This 
name has been applied by cooks to several dishes 
of boiled meat, as a refinement on the plain Eng- 
lish. Thus " beef bouilli, beef in bouilli, &c.," 
means, stewed or boiled beef, &c. As, however, 
the name is k la frantjais, so must be the accom- 
paniments, which generally consist of herbs and 
vegetable seasoning in greater quantity and varie- 
ty than is usually deemed essential to a plain- 
spoken piece of boiled or stewed meat ! 

BOULES DE NANCY. Equal parts of iron 
filings and red tartar, made up into balls with 
spirit. Use. As a tonic dissolved in hot water. 

BOUQUET DE LA REINE. Prep. I. Es- 
sence of bergamotte 1 drachm ; English oil of 
lavender 23 drops ; oil of cloves and aromatic 
vinegar, of each 8 drops ; essence of musk 10 
drops ; alcohol ^ oz. Mix. 

II. Oils of bergamotte and lavender 30 drops 
each ; neroli 15 drops ; oils of verbena and cloves, 
of each 5 drops. Essences of musk, ambergris, 
and jasmin, of each ^ drachm 5 rectified spirit of 
wine (strongest) 1 oz. Mix. 

BOX WOOD MAHOGANY. Prep. Warm 
th(. wood by the fire, then wash it over with aqua- 
fortis, let it stand 24 hours to dry, and polish it 
with linseed oil reddened with alkanet root, or give 
it a coat of varnish, made by dissolving aloes and 
annotto in spirit of wine. 



BRA 



130 



BRA 



BOYLE'S FUMING LIQUOR. Hydrosul- 
phuret of ammonia is usually employed and sold 
for this article, but the liquor prepared by Boyle's 
process contains an excess of sulphur. (Gay Lus- 
sac.) The properties of both are however the same. 

Prep. Mix 4 parts of fresh slaked lime ; 2 of 
sal ammoniac, and 1 of sulphur, then submit the 
mixture to distillation. 

BRA GRAS. Tar, black rosin, and the dregs 
of strained rosin, melted together. 

BRAIN CAKES. Prep. Clean, wash, blanch, 
and soak the brains, then beat them up with a 
little white pepper and salt, a sage-leaf or two, 
scalded and finely chopped, and the yelk of an 
egg ; make them into small cakes or fritters, and 
fry them. 

BRAN. The husk of wheat which immediate- 
ly covers the grain, and which is left in the bolting 
machine. Use. It is largely employed by the 
calico printers, when diffused through hot water, 
to remove the coloring matter from those parts of 
their goods which are not mordanted. A handful 
mixed with a pail of warm water, forms an excel- 
lent emollient foot-bath. Infused in water, (bran 
tea,) and sweetened, it forms a popular demulcent, 
much used in coughs and hoarseness, and, taken 
in quantity, proves gently laxative. It also forms 
an excellent manure, and, from containing the 
ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate, is especially 
adapted for potatoes. It is frequently mixed with 
flour and made into bread, by the poorer orders. 

BRANDY. Syn. Eau de Vie. Aqua Nitm. 
Spiritus Gallicus. Brandy-wine. The spiritu- 
ous liquor obtained by the distillation of wine. 
When first distilled it is colorless, and only acquires 
a yellov^ish tint from the wood of the casks, in 
which state it is known and sold as pale or white 
brandy. The deep color that it usually possesses, 
is imparted to it by adding a little spirit coloring, 
(burnt sugar or caramel,) and occasionally a little 
red Sanders wood as well, and is intended to imitate 
the appearance acquired by brandy from great 
age, when kept in wood. The natural color, how- 
ever, which the spirit receives from the cask, no 
matter how long it may have been in it, never ex- 
ceeds an amber tint, about the common color of 
pale Jamaica rum ; but the public taste has been 
gradually vitiated in this respect, until only a spirit 
of a lively and full " brandy color" (unless for a 
pale brandy) will sell. 

The brandies most esteemed in England are 
imported from France, and are those of Cognac 
and Armagnac, the preference being generally 
given to the former. The brandies of Rochelle 
and Bordeaux may be reckoned next in quality, 
while those obtained from Portugal, Spain, and 
Italy are very inferior. 

The constituents of brandy arc alcohol and wa- 
ter, and small quantities of volatile oil, acetic acid, 
acetic ether, fL'uantliic ether, coloring matter, and 
tannin. It is from the presence of the last six of 
these substances that the spirit derives its dis- 
tinguishing smell and flavor. Thj quantity of 
alcoiiol present in braiuly varies from 4S to .^),') per 
cnnt. When first imported, it is geiu^rally I or 2 
overproof, but by age its strength is lcss(Mie(l, and 
by the time it is usually taken from the bond store 
for suits srldom exceeds .'} or •! undiM'proof. From 
conHiderable personal acquuintanco with the cognac 



trade, I feel confidence in asserting, that brandies 
of the best quality seldom exceed proof, and are 
generally below it, and that it is a common prac- 
tice in France to add spirit of wine and coloring to 
raise the strength to any given point desired by 
the English purchaser, and to charge the same in 
the invoice ; or where the purchaser is not well 
acquainted with the subject, and desires a strong 
spirit at a low rate, to sell him brandy so mixed as 
geimine. The very finest brandies average from 
5 to 10 u. p., and never exceed about 2 u. p. ; they 
then contain more than ^ their weight of water, 
and from their boiling point being higher, they 
come over more highly charged with essential oil, 
and other volatile and fragrant principles of the 
grape, and thus possess in a greater degree that 
peculiar aroma and flavor for which they are so 
much esteemed. French brandy or wine, distilled 
at a low temperature in a water bath, yields a very 
pure and scarcely flavored spirit. 

The quality of the brandy imported from France 
varies considerably from that which is druuLv on 
the continent, principally from its being prepared, 
or, as it is technically termed, " made up," for the 
London market, which means lowering it by the 
addition of spirit, coloring, &c. above described. 
The common strength at which foreign brandy is 
sold in England is about 11 or 12 u. p., and below 
17 u. p. it becomes seizable by the excise. The 
strength at which it is sold and permitted in trade, 
is generally 10 u. p., to which it is reduced by add- 
ing water, and never less than 12 u. p., unless it be 
specially agreed upon. In large quantities and 
from bond, of course the strength depends much 
upon the age and quality of the spirit. A fine old 
brandy being, perhaps, 8 or 10 u. p., while one of 
the last year's vintage of a commoner qualitj^ may 
be as strong as 2 or 1 u. p. But these distinctions 
are familiar to every experienced brandy dealer. 

In France there are several varieties of this 
spirit distilled, which are known by names descrip- 
tive both of their quality and source. The " eau 
de'vie superieure," or cognac brandy, is generally 
obtained from pale wliite wines, by careful distil- 
lation, and is remarkable for its superior flavor. 
When kept in glass or stone bottles, it is called 
white cognac brandy, and the same term is also 
generally applied when it has been kept in casks, 
but has not been artificially colored ; in the latter 
case, however, it generally acquires a pale amber 
tint. 

The " eau de vie ordinaire,^^ or common brandy, 
is distilled from high-colored white or red wines, 
and has generally a sp. gr. of 0-948, and varies 
from 22 to 27 u. p. 

The " eau de vie de marc" is obtained from the 
lees of vinegar and other wines, the marc or cake 
of grapes from which the juice has been pressed, 
and the connnonest red wines, fermented and dis- 
tilled together by a quick fire, to drive over as 
much essential oil and flavoring as possible. 

The ^' eau de vie seconde" is the weak spirit 
that passes over after the stronger spirit has been 
drawn off, and the receiver changed. It is used 
for common drinking, or mixed with other brandy. 

The " van de vie a preuve d'JfoUaiidc"' is bran- 
dy about 1!)° Haunu^ or sp. gr. '!) 120, the conunon 
strength at which it is retailed in France, and will 
stand tho " proof" or *' bead " 



BRA 



131 



BRA 



The " eau de vie a preuve d'huile^' is the strong- 
est brandy usually drunk ; it is about 23° Baume, 
or sp. gr. -918 ; pure olive oil will just sink in it ; 
hence the above term. 

TJie " eau de vie fort" is usually prepared by 
the redistillation of common brandy, keeping the 
first portion separate. It answers to our spirit of 
wine. It is made of 12 different strengths, distin- 
guished by names, exhibiting the quantity of water 
required to reduce the sample to the ''preuve 
d'Hollande" The weakest is called cinq-six, or 
-|-, and the strongest trois-neuf, or | , the difference 
between the numerator and the denominator being 
the quantity of water the 3 parts of the former will 
take to reduce it to the "preuve," when it would 
make 9 parts. Its sp. gr. is about -839. 

The esprit de vin is brandy or spirit rectified to 
0-890 and upwards. 

The general method of distilling brandy in 
France differs in no important particular from that 
practised in England, for grain or molasses spirit. 
Neither are the French workmen more skilful nor 
more cleanly in their operations than the English. 
It is tha materials alone that, in this case, conduce 
to the superiority of the product. The quality of 
the brandy varies with that of the wine from which 
it has been distilled. Every soil, every climate, 
every kind of grape, produces a wine possessing 
some peculiarity confined to itself, and this wine 
on 4istillation produces a spirit possessing like dis- 
tinctions. A large quantity of brandy is prepared 
in France soon after the vintage, as the juice of 
the poorer grapes that is unfit for wine is ferment- 
ed and at once distilled. It is a general rule, in 
France, to distil only such wines as are unsaleable, 
as the profits on the wine, sold as such, are much 
greater than when it is converted into brandy. 

The Strength of Brandy may be ascertained 
in the same w^ay as alcohol, for which purpose 
Sike's hydrometer is used in England. In France, 
from the value of spirit being less, it is frequently 
tested by simpler methods, though great accuracy 
obtains, in this particular, where necessary. 

Pur. Very little perfectly pure French brandy 
is obtained by the small consumer in England, as 
it is not only generally lowered a little by the 
wholesale dealer, but undergoes a like process at 
the hands of the retailer. The safest method is 
either to procure it direct from the bond store, 
without its even entering a private cellar, or to buy 
of some known respectable party, and to pay a 
price that will offer no inducement to dishonesty. 
If this be not done, by all means buy British bran- 
dy, which is now made of excellent quality by 
many of the leading houses, as Beits, Bretts, 
Booth, and Grimhle. From the two former a sin- 
gle sealed bottle may be procured at the same 
price as by the gallon. 

The importation of foreign brandy for home con- 
sumption amounts to about 1,400,000 gallons a 
year. 

BRANDY, (REDUCED.) I. To 20 gallons 
of Cognac brandy add 5 gallons of the best British 
brandy. 

II. To 72 gallons of full-flavored French brandy, 
add 10 gallons of spirit of wine, (58 o. p.,) 8 gal- 
lons of water, and 1 pint of good coloring. Rum- 
mage wefl up and let it stand until Lke next day. 

Remarks. Tlie above reduction is generally 



adopted in trade, and is known by the name of 
" improving." But such is the poverty of the pal- 
ate of the English brandy drinker, that the adul- 
teration is often not suspected, even when it is 
carried to double the extent of the above, whicli n 
generally exceeded in the hands of the retailer. So 
long, however, as the foreign spirit constitutes 
about half of the mixture, and was at first of de- 
cent quality and age, the infatuated Englishman 
smacks his lips, and cunningly holding up his glass 
between the light and his eye, exclaims, " Ak I 
this is a drop of the real." 

BRANDY, (BRITISH.) Syn. British Co- 
gnac. Imitation Cognac, &c. From the heavy 
duty levied on French brandy imported into Eng- 
land for home consumption, it has become a de- 
sideratum with the distiller (rectifier) to produce 
an English spirit of a similar description. For some 
time the attempt proved quite unsuccessful, but of 
late years much capital and talent have been em- 
barked in the pursuit, and the result has proved 
very satisfactory. An article of British manufac- 
ture may now be purchased, at a very reasonable 
rate, of really respectable quality, and possessing 
much of the flavor and aroma of foreign brandy, 
while, as a beverage, it is equally wholesome. 
Much of the British brandy, however, that is com- 
monly met with, is of such a wre; . hed quality as 
to be quite undeserving of the name, Vv'hich is evi- 
dence of the fact, that much skill and experience 
is required to ensure success in its manufacture. 
For a long time this liquor was distilled from spoilt 
wine and dregs of wine, both British and foreign, 
mixed with beer bottoms and similar articles ; and 
when, instead of these, corn, malt, and molasses 
spirit were employed, it was considered as an unpar- 
donable and wicked misuse of those articles. Mod- 
ern experience has proved, however, that perfectly 
pure and tasteless malt spirit is the best article to 
form into an imitation brandy. 

The following formulse, by skilful management, 
will produce very good brandy, but it must be re- 
collected that much depends on the quality of the 
materials employed, as well as on the operator. 
As the strength and quality of the ingredients, and 
the methods of manipulation vary, so will the re- 
sult ; much must therefore be left to the judgment 
and discretion of the artist. It offers a profitable 
piu-suit to the ingenious and industrious chemist and 
rectifier. 

Prep. I. Take 12 gallons of the finest flavorless 
malt spirit at proof, (or if of a different strength a 
proportionate quantity ;) add thereto 5 gallons of 
water, J lb. of the best crude red tartar or wine- 
stone, previously dissolved in 1 gallon of boilmg 
water ; \ pint of acetic ether ; 2 quarts of good 
French wine vinegar ; 7 lbs. of 'bruised French 
plums, and 1 or 2 gallons of wine bottoms or flavor 
stuff from Cognac, mix them in a fresh-emptied 
sherry cask, and let them stand together for 14 
days, frequently rummaging up the liquor with a 
stick ; next draw over 15 gallons of the mixture 
from a still furnished with an agitator. Put the 
rectified spirit into a clean, fresh-emptied Cognac 
brandy cask, and add thereto | pint of tincture of 
catechu, 1 lb. of fresh and clean oak shavings, and 
about a pint of good spirit coloring. Bungr close, 
and agitate occasionally for a few days. Remark*. 
Age improves the above article, and renders h 



BRA 



132 



BRA 



(provided the process be well managed) of a very- 
superior quality. The above receipt yields 15 gal- 
lons of brandy 17 u. p. The following forms may 
also be recommended : — 

II. Perfectly pure spirit, pf. 99 gallons ; red tar- 
tar, dissolved, 7 lbs. ; acetic ether 3 lbs. ; wine vin- 
egar 3 gallons ; bruised raisins, or French plums, 
7 lbs. ; bitter ajmonds, bruised, 1 oz. ; water suffi- 
cient. Dissolve the tartar in the water, then add 
the other ingredients, macerate as before, and 
draw over 120 gallons ; lastly, add a few lbs. of 
oak shavings, I lb. of powdered catechu made into 
a paste with water and burnt-sugar coloring as be- 
fore. Remarks. This yields 120 gallons of spirit 
fully 17 u. p. 

III. Clean spirit 17 u. p., 100 gallons; nitric 
ether 2 quarts ; cassia buds, ground, 4 oz. ; bitter 
almond meal 2 oz. ; orris root, sliced, 6 oz. ; pow- 
dered cloves 1 oz. ; capsicum 1^ oz. ; good vinegar 
2 gallons ; brandy coloring 1 quart ; powdered ca- 
techu 1 lb. ; full-flavored Jamaica rum 2 gallons. 
Mix well in an empty Cognac cask, and let them 
macerate for a fortnight, occasionally stirring. 
Remarks. The proportion of the ingredients may 
be varied by the skilful brewer, as much depends 
on their respective strengths. 

IV. Good plain malt spirit, 17 u.p., 100 gal- 
lons ; finely -powdered catechu 12 oz. ; tincture of 
vanilla 4 oz. ; burnt-sugar coloring 1 quart ; good 
rum 3 gallons, or more ; acetic or nitric ether 2 
quarts. Mix well. 

V. Clean spirit, 17 u.p., 89 gallons; high-fla- 
vored cognac 10 gallons ; oil of cassia 1^ drachms ; 
oil of bitter almonds, essential, ^ a drachm ; pow- 
dered catechu 10 oz. ; cream of tartar, dissolved, 
16 oz. ; Beaufoy's concentrated acetic acid 3 lbs. ; 
sugar coloring 1 quart, or more ; good rum 1 gal- 
lon. Put the whole into a fresh emptied brandy 
piece, and let them remain a week together, with 
occasional agitation, then let them stand to settle. 
If this mixture be distilled, the French brandy, 
rum, coloring, and catechu, should not be added 
till afterwards. 

VI. To colored plain spirit at 17 u.p., add a 
little tincture of catechu, and a sufficient quantity 
of essential oil, distilled from wine lees, to give it 
a proper flavor. This oil is obtained by distillation 
from the wine lees, either dried and made up into 
cakes, or in their wet state mixed with about 7 
times their weight of water. It should be dis- 
solved in alcohol, and kept in this state, as it is 
apt to lose its flavor. Remarks. When this pro- 
cess is well managed a very capital article results, 
but it requires considerable address to conduct it 
well. Tiie spirit produced by this plan is better 
for distillation. The brandy from any part of the 
world may thus be imitated, by distilling the oil 
from the lees of the wines produced in the par- 
ticular district. This is the only nu>thod of ])ro- 
ducing an e.xact imitation. A ])ouud each of 
finely-powdcrc'd charcoal and ground rice has been 
reconnncndcd to be digested in a gallon of spirit 
for a fortnight. Where black tea is cheap, as in 
America, it is very commonly employed to impart 
the roughness and flavor of brandy to colored 
spirits. 

IMtANDY, CIIEIlllY. Prep. I. To every 
pallon of hrandy put an ((lual measure of cher- 
ries, bruised between the lingei-s ; steep for 3 days, 



then express the liquor ; add 2 Jbs. of lump sugar, 
and strain for use. 

II. To the above add 1 quart of raspberries, 
and i a pint of orange -flower water. *^* Qoal- 
ity very fine. 

III. Treacle 1 cwt. ; spirit (45 u.p.) 41 gal- 
lons ; bruised bitter almonds (more or less, to 
taste) 5 oz. ; cloves 1 oz. ; cassia 2 oz. Put the 
ingredients into a large cask, well mix and let 
them lie a month, occasionally stirring. 

Remarks. Equal parts of fully ripe Morello 
and black cherries produce the richest cordial. 

BRANDY, CARAWAY. Prep. I. Steep 4 
oz. of bruised caraway seeds and 2 lbs. of sugar in 
1 gallon of British brandy, for a fortnight. 

II. Sugar 1 lb. ; caraways 1 oz. ; 3 bitter al- 
monds ; spirits of wine and water, of each 1 
quart ; (or spirit 22 u. p. ^ a gallon.) Macerate 
as above. 

BRANDY, DANTZIC. This 's distilled from 
rye, ground with the root of calamus aromaticus. 
It has a mixed flavor of orrice and cinnamon. 

BRANDY, LEMON. Prep. I. Steep ^ lb. 
of fresh lemon peel and ^ a dozen lemons, cut in 
slices, in 1 gallon of brandy, for a week, then add 
1 lb. of lump sugar. 

II. Proof spirit 7 gallons ; essence of lemon 3 
drachms ; sugar 5 lbs. ; tartaric acid 1 oz., dis- 
solved in water 2 gallons; coloring q. s. Mix, 
and rummage repeatedly for 14 days. Remarks. 
Sometimes milk is added to the above, in the pro- 
portion of 1 quart (boiling hot) to every gallon. 

BRANDY, MALT. Malt spirit, flavored with 
sweet spirits of nitre and terra japonica, and col- 
ored with treacle, or spirit coloring. (See Brit 
Brandy.) 

BRANDY, ORANGE. This may be made 
in a similar way to lemon brandy. 

BRANDY, PEACH. Prep. L From peaches, 
by fermentation and distillation. Much used in 
the United States, where peaches are very cheap. 

II. Bruise the peaches, then steep them in twice 
their weight of British brandy, or malt spirit ; 
lastly, express the liquor. 

III. Bitter almonds (bruised) 2 oz. ; proof spirit 
(light) 10 gallons ; water 3 gallons ; sugar 5 or 6 
lbs. ; orange-flower water ^ a pint. Mix, and 
macerate for 14 days. 

*;it* Color with brandy coloring, if required 
darker. 

BRANDY, RASPBERRY. Prep. L Pour as 
much brandy over raspberries as will just cover 
them ; let it stand for 24 hours, then drain it off", 
and replace it with a like quantity of fresh spirit ; 
after 24 hours more, drain this off and replace it 
with water; lastly, drain well, and press the rasp- 
berries quite dry. Next add sugar to the mixed 
liquors, in the proportion of 2 lbs. to every gallon, 
along with a ^ of a pint of orange-flower water. 

II. Mix equal parts of mashed raspberries and 
brandy together, let them stand for 24 houi-s. then 
press out the licjuor. Sweeten as above, and add 
a little cinnamon and cloves, if agreeable ; lastly, 
strain. 

I5RASS. An alloy of copper and zinc. 

7//.s7. aud Prep. Brass was formerly manufac- 
tured by cementing granulated copper, or copper 
clipj)ings, with calcined calamine and (;liarcoal, in 
crucibles, exposed to a bright heat. The alloy 



BRA 



133 



BRA 



WEis found in lumps at the bottom of the crucible 
on cooling. These were remelted and cast into 
ingots. At the present day, brass is generally 
made by direct union of the metals. This process 
requires' much care, owing to the ditferent degrees 
of fusibility of copper and zinc. The proper quan- 
tity of zinc is first melted, and slips of copper 
plunged into it, which are rapidly dissolved, as it 
were, and the addition is continued until an alloy 
is formed, somewhat difficult of fusion, when the 
remainder of the copper is added. The brass thus 
formed is broken into pieces, and remelted under 
charcoal, and a proper addition of either zinc or 
copper made, to bring it up to the color and qual- 
ity desired. It is next cast into plates, or other 
forms, in moulds of granite. When submitted to 
the rolling-press for reduction to thin plates, it re- 
quires to undergo the operation of annealing sev- 
eral times. 

Prep. I. (Fine Brass.) 2 parts of copper to 

1 part of zinc. Remarks. This is nearly 1 equiv- 
alent each of copper and zinc, if the equivalent 
of the former metal be taken at 63-2 ; or 2 equiv- 
alents of copper to 1 equivalent of zinc, if it be 
taken, with Liebig and Berzelius, at 31-6. 

II. Copper 4 parts, zinc 1 part. An excellent 
and very useful brass. 

III. {Gold-colored Brass.) Syn. Red Brass. 
Dutch Gold. Tombac. Similor. Prince's 
Metal. Pinchbeck, &.c. 

a. Copper and zinc, equal parts. 

b. Copper 2 parts ; zinc 1 or 1^ parts. This is 
Manheim gold. 

c. Copper 3 to 5^ parts ; zinc 1 part. Deep 
colored. 

Remarks. The proportion of zinc in this alloy 
is altered to suit the color and other properties to 
the purposes for which it is intended, and often 
varies from ^ to ^, or ^ of the weight of the alloy. 
At the celebrated works of Hegermiihl, near Pots- 
dam, the proportions are 11 parts of copper to two 
of zinc, which produces a metal which is after- 
wards rolled into sheets for the purpose of making 
Dutch leaf-gold. 

BRASS, BUTTON. (Best) I. Copper 8 
parts ; zinc 5 parts, as above. 

II. (Common.) Copper 50 parts ; zinc 40 parts; 
tin. 4 parts ; lead 6 parts. 

BRASS, FOR SOLDER. Syn. Hard Sol- 
der. I. 12 parts of brass ; 6 parts of zinc, and 1 
of tin, melted together. 

II. 2 parts of brass, and 1 of zinc. 

III. {Very strong.) 3 parts of brass, and 1 of 
zinc. 

BRASS, TURNER'S. 98 parts of brass, and 

2 of lead. Remarks. The addition of lead im- 
proves the brass for the uses of the turner, but 
lessens its malleability. 

BRASS, CLEANING OF. Brass and cop- 
per are best cleaned with sweet oil and tripoli, 
powdered bath-brick, rotten-stone, or red brick- 
dust, rubbed on with flannel and polished with 
leather. A strong solution of oxalic acid in water 
gives brass a fine color. Vitriol and spirits of salts 
make brass and copper very bright, but they very 
soon tarnish, and consequently require more fre- 
quent cleaning. A strong lye of roche-alum and 
water will also improve brass. 

Brass inlaid work may be cleaned as follows : — 



Mix tripoli and linseed oil, and dip into it a rubbei 
of hat, with which polish the work. If the wood 
be ebony or rosewood, polish it witl" a little finely- 
powdered elder-ashes ; or make a paste of rotten- 
stone, a little starch, sweet-oil, and oxalic acid, 
mixed with water. The ornaments of a French 
clock are, however, best cleaned with bread- 
crumb, carefully rubbed, so as not to spoil the 
woodwork. Ormolu candlesticks, lamps, and 
branches, may be cleaned with soap and water. 
They will bear more cleaning than lacquered ar- 
ticles, which are spoiled by frequent rubbing, or 
by acids, or strong alkalis. 

BRASS COATING. I. Brass plates and rods 
may be covered with a superficial coating of brass, 
by exposing *lsiem in a heated state to the fumes 
of melted ziiic, at a high temperature. Use. For 
rolling into thin plates, or drawing into wire. The 
celebrated spurious gold wire of Lyons is thus 
made. 

11. Vesseyfe of copper may be coated with brass, 
internally, by filling them with water strongly 
acidulated with muriatic acid, adding some amal- 
gam of zinc and cream of tartar, and then boiling 
for a short time. 

BRASS-COLORED PIGMENT. Syn. Brass 
Bronze. Prep. I. {Red.) Grind copper filings, 
or precipitated powder of copper, with a little red 
ochre. 

II. {Yellow or gold-colored.) Gold-colored 
brass, or Dutch leaf reduced to a very fine pow- 
der. 

Remarks. Both these powders are mixed up 
with varnish, and used as a paint. No more 
should be mixed at a time than wanted for imme- 
diate use. They are also used by dusting them 
over any surface, previously covered with varnish 
to make them adhere. (See Oxide of Copper.) 

BRASS-COLORED VARNISH. Prep. Dis- 
solve 1 oz. each of pale shell lac and gum sanda- 
rach, in ^ a pint of rectified spirit of wine. 

Use. To mix up the preceding powders. 

BRASS, PASTE FOR CLEANING. Prep. 
I. Soft soap 2 oz., rotten-stone 4 oz. ; beat them 
to a paste. 

II. Rotten-stone made into a paste with sweet 
oil. 

III. Rotten-stone 4 oz. ; oxalic acid 1 oz. ; sweet 
oil 1^ oz. ; turpentine enough to make a paste. 

Use. To clean brass. The first and last are 
best applied with a httle water. The second, 
with a little spirits of turpentine, or sweet oil. Both 
require friction with soft leather. 

BRASS ORNAMENTS, PRESERVATION 
OF. Brass ornaments, when not gilt or lacquered, 
may be cleansed, and a fine color given to them 
by two simple processes. The fii*st is to beat sal 
ammoniac into a fine powder, then to moisten it 
with soft water, rubbing it on the ornaments, 
which must be afterwards rubbed dry with bran 
and whiting. The second is to wash the brass- 
work with roche alum boiled to a strong lye, in 
the proportion of an ounce to a pint ; when dry, 
it must be rubbed with fine tripoli. Either of these 
processes will give to brass the brilliancy of gold. 

BRASS STAIN. L Cut sheet-brass into 
small pieces, and expose it to a strong heat for 2 
or 3 days, then powder it, and again expose it for 
several days to a like heat ; again powder and sift, 



BRA 



134 



BRE 



and expose it a third time to heat, lesting it occa- 
sionally, to see if it be properly burnt. When this 
is the case, a little of it fused with glass will 
make the latter swell and froth up. 

Uses, <^c It imparts to glass a green tint, 
passing into torquoise. 

II. Calcine equal parts of plate-brass and sul- 
phur, stratified together in a crucible, until they 
become friable ; then powder and expose them 
again, as last. 

Use. Imparts a calcedony red or yellow tinge 
to glass by fusion, according to the mode of 
using it. :n 

BRAWN, CHOICE, t. When young, the 
horny parts feel moderately tender ; if the rind be 
hard, it is old. 

BRAWN, MOCK. Prep. Take the head and 
belly piece of a young porker, well saltpetred ; 
split the head and boil it ; take out the bones and 
cut it to pieces ; then take four ox-feet boiled ten- 
der, and cut them in thin pieces ; lay them in the 
belly piece, with the head cut small ; roll it up 
tight with sheet tin, and boil it four or five hours. 
When it comes out, set it up on one end, put a 
trencher on it within the tin, press it down with a 
large weight, and let it stand all night. The next 
morning take it out of the tin, and bind it with a 
fillet, put it into cold salt and water, and it will 
be fit for use ; it will keep a long time, if fresh 
salt and water are put into it every four days. 

BRAZIL WOOD. Syn. Sapan Wood. Saint 
Martha Wood. Fernambuca. This wood is 
much used in dyeing. A decoction is made by 
boiling for some hours in hard spring water, and 
this is generally kept for some time, or until it un- 
dergoes a species of fermentation, as it is thus 
found to yield more permanent and beautiful 
colors than when employed quite new. Use. To 
dye red. 

BRAZIL WOOD DYE. I. {For cotton and 
linen.) a. First boil the goods in a bath of su- 
mach, next work them through a weak mordant 
of solution of tin, and then run them through the 
Brazil bath, lukewarm. This gives a bright red. 

h. First alum the goods and rinse them, then 
give them a mordant of solution of tin, rinse again, 
and turn them through the dye-bath. This gives 
a rose color. 

Remarks. The shades of this dye may be va- 
ried by the strength of the bath, mordant, &c. A 
little alum added to the Brazil-bath, gives a pur- 
ple tint. 1 lb. of Brazil wood, ^ oz. of alum, and 
2 oz. of tartar will dye 20 to 25 lbs. of cotton. 

II. {For silk.) The silk, after being well al- 
umed in the same way as wool, but at a lower 
temperature, is rinsed, and passed through the de- 
coction of Brazil, just lukewarm. 

Remarks. By adding a little alkali to the bath, 
or by passing the silk through a water holding a 
little alkali in solutioii, after it is dyed, will produce 
what is called the false crimson. When wanted 
(jf a very deep crimson, a little logwood is added 
to the Brazil-bath. In this way any shade of color 
may be produced. 

III. {For wool.) Boil the wool in water hold- 
ing in solution 5 parts of alum and 1 of tartar, for 
1 hour; then let it lie in llie cold licpior for several 
days, fre(iuenlly moving it about ; lastly, boil it in 
a decoction of Brazil for ^ un hour. 



BRAZILINE. Syn. Breziline. The color- 
ing principle of Brazil wood, obtained by Chevreul 
in small orange-colored needles. It is soluble in 
both water and alcohol ; alkalis turn it violet, 
acids yellow. With alum it dyes red. 

BRAZING. The operation of uniting the edges 
of pieces of copper, brass, iron, &c., by means of 
hard solder. 

Ptoc. The edges, after being filed quite clean, 
are covered with a mixture of hard solder and 
powdered borax, made into a paste with water. 
The whole is then allowed to dry, and afterwards 
exposed in a clear fire to a heat sufl[icient to melt 
the solder. 

Remarks. In some cases a little silver is added 
to the solder, when it receives the name of " sil- 
ver solder." 

BREAD. Principles of bread-making, ^c. 
This most important article of food is made of the 
flour of different grains, but only those that con- 
tain gluten admit of conversion into light spongy 
bread. Hence it is that wheat flour is best calcu- 
lated for this purpose. When flour is made into a 
stiff paste or dough with water, and rolled into 
cakes and baked, it forms biscuits, or unleavened 
bread, which was once the only description known. 
When the dough, previously to baking, is left for 
some time in a moderately warm place, varying 
from 80° to 120°, a state of fermentation comes 
on, formerly called the panary fermentation, but 
which is, in reality, the sugar*of the flour gradu- 
ally undergoing the process of conversion into al- 
cohol, and resembles in every respect the same 
change which takes place in the manufacture of 
wine, beer, &c. During this process, a large 
quantity of carbonic acid gas is liberated, and the 
toughness of the dough preventing its escape, the 
whole mass becomes puffed up and spongy, and a 
light porous paste is formed, ready for baking into 
bread. The natural process of fermenting the 
dough just described^ is, however, subject to much 
uncertainty, and is inconvenient from the time it 
occupies to complete it, and the tendency the 
dough has to run into the acetous fermentation, 
when it acquires a sour and disagreeable taste, and 
is rendered less nutritious and easy of digestion. 
This has led to the use of a ferment, which at 
once excites a proper state of fermentation 
throughout the mass, and speedily renders it light 
and spongy. Leaven or dough, already in a state 
of fermentation, was originally employed for this 
purpose, and the bread so made was hence called 
leavened bread. But this has been wholly super- 
seded by barm or yeast. Thus it will be seen 
that all that is essential to make a loaf of bread, 
is to add a proper quantity of yeast to the dough, 
and to allow it to remain for a short time in a 
warnj place, until it rises or becomes spongy, 
when it must be subjecttnl to the operation of ba- 
king. If the process bo well managed, and the 
flour be good, bread of superior quality will Le 
produced. 

Process of making bread. In preparing his 
dough, the modern baker takes a part of the water 
needed for the batch, and having warmed it to a 
temperature .of about 8U° or 90°, dissolves his salt 
therein, and then adds tiie yeast and a portion of 
the flour. These he works up into a dough, which 
ho sots aside in a warm place usually provided for 



BRE 



135 



BRE 



the purpose, and called the " hnending trough" 
where it soon begins to ferment and swell up. 
This process is called " setting the sponge," and 
according to the proportion the water in it bears 
to the whole quantity that is to be used, it re- 
ceives the name of " ichole," " half," or " quarter 
sponge." The evolution of carbonic acid in the 
process of fermentation, causes tiie sponge to 
heave and swell, and when the surface bursts, it 
subsides, and then swells again and again in a 
similar manner. This action would go on for 
some time, if not interfered with ; but the baker 
is careful to stop it before it has communicated a 
sourness to the mass. After the first, or at the 
furthest, after the second or third " dropping of 
the sponge," he adds the remaining quantity of 
flour, water, and salt, necessary to form the batch. 
These he incorporates by long and laborious 
kneadings, until the entire mass acquires uniform- 
ity, and is sufficiently tough and elastic to bear 
the pressure of the hand without adhering to it. 
The dough is now left to itself for a few hours, 
during which time fermentation goes on, after 
which the inflated mass is again kneaded, when it 
is ready to be cut into pieces and weighed. These 
pieces are then shaped into loaves, and set aside 
for an hour or two, during which time they swell 
up to nearly double their former size ; they are 
then placed in the oven and baked. During this 
operation they continue for a time to increase in 
size, in consequence of the dilation of the pent-up 
gas by the heat of the oven, until at length the 
fermentation is checked, and the dough becomes 
too solid to admit of further alteration. 

Rernarks. A number of other processes are used 
by cooks and confectioners to make the different 
varieties of fancy bread, cakes, puddings, &c., 
most of which vary according to the peculiar char- 
acteristic it is desired to communicate to them. 
Thus some kinds of cakes and pastes are made to 
eat " short," as it is called, or are rendered less 
tenacious, and a species of brittleness imparted to 
them by the addition of starch and sugar. In 
pastry a similar effect and peculiar lightness is 
produced by butter or lard, while in some articles, 
white of egg, gum-water, isinglass, and other ad- 
hesive substances are added to produce an exceed- 
ingly light and porous mass. 

The different varieties of bread made in Eng- 
land vary chiefly in their quality, according to the 
flour of which they are formed. The best white 
bread is made from the purest wheat flour ; ordi- 
nary icheaten bread, of flour to which a little of 
the finest bran has been added ; seconds, from 
flour containing a still larger portion of bran ; and 
common household bread, from flour produced by 
grinding the whole substance of the grain without 
any separation of the bran. Symnel bread, man- 
chet or roll bread, and French bread are varieties 
made of the purest flour, from the finest wheat, a 
httle milk being usually added for rolls, and butter 
and eggs for choicer purposes. Several other minor 
kinds of bread are also made, varied by the addi- 
tion of sundry trifles, as sugar, currants, and other 
palatable ingredients. The Scotch "short bread" 
is made from a very thick dough, to which butter, 
sugar, orange-peel, and spices, are added. (See 
Gingerbread.) 

In France a number of differenc kinds of bread 



are made. The " pain bis" is the coarsest sort, 
and is made of a mixture of groats and wheat 
flour; the '■^ pain bis blanc" is made of a mixture 
of oatmeal and wheat flour; the "pain blanc" of 
flour from which the finest portion has been sifted ; 
the " pain mollet," or soft bread, is made of the 
purest wheat flour, from the finest grain ; the 
" j>oit}- chaland," made from the same materials 
as the last, but the paste is pounded ; the " pain 
chapale" is a small variety of bread, similar to the 
French or roll bread of England ; the "pain cornu" 
is a kind of small bread, named from being done 
up into four-cornered pieces ; the " pain de la 
reine" is another variety of small bread, and the 
" pain gruau" is a bread which has been made 
of late years in Paris, prepared from the small 
granular particles separated from the best wheat 
after a slight grinding. The French have also 
their soup bread and their country white bread, 
besides several other varieties, not mentioned in 
the above list. 

In the manufacture of white bread from dam- 
aged or inferior flour, a large quantity of alum is 
employed by the bakers, but with the best flour no 
alum is req .dred. The utmost beauty, sponginess, 
and sweetness, may be given to bread without the 
addition of one particle of alum, provided the best 
materials are employed. As such is not, however, 
generally the case, it is a common practice with 
the bakers to introduce 4 or 5 oz. of alum to every 
sack of flour, or about 1 oz. to each bushel. The 
method of detecting this adulteration will be pres- 
ently explained. The proper quantity of salt to be 
used is 6 or 7 lbs. to the sack, or l\ lbs. to the 
bushel. 1 sack of the best flour, and 6 lbs. of salt, 
ought to yield about 360 lbs. of good bread, and a 
sack of seconds 345 to 350 lbs. of bread. 

Wheaten bread, made of pure materials, is one 
of the most wholesome articles of food, and has 
been justly termed the staff" of life. When well 
fermented and baked, it is very easy of digestion. 
It should never be eaten tiU it has stood 24 hours 
after being taken out of the oven, as newer bread 
is apt to disagree with the stomach, frequently pro- 
ducing flatulence, heartburn, and indigestion. 

Adult. This is often carried to a fearful extent : 
Mr. Accum says, " The bakers' flour is ver}- often 
made of the worst kinds of damaged foreign 
wheat, and other cereal grains mixed with them 
in grinding the wheat into flour. In this capital, 
no fewer than six distinct kinds of wheaten floiu- 
are brought into the market. They are called 
fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse 
middlings, and twenty -penny flovir. Common gar- 
den beans and peas are also frequently ground up 
among the London bread flour. 

" The smallest quantity of alum that can be 
employed with effect to produce a white, light, 
and porous bread, from an inferior kind of flour, I 
have my own baker's authority to state, is from 3 
to 4 oz. to a sack of flour weighing 240 lbs." 

" The following account of making a sack of 
five bushels of flour into bread, is taken from Dr. 
P. Markham's ' Considerations on the Ingredients 
used in the Adulteration of Flour and Bread,' 
(p. 21 :) 5 bushels of flour ; 8 oz. of alum ; 4 lbs, 
of salt ; ^ gallon of yeast, mixed with ^bout 3 gal- 
lons of water. 

" Another substance employed by fraudulent 



BRE 



136 



BRE 



bakers is subcarbonate of ammonia. With this 
salt they realize the important consideration of 
producing light and porous bread from spoiled, or, 
what is technically called, sour flour. This salt, 
which becomes wholly converted into a gaseous 
substance during the operation of baking, causes 
the dough to swell up into air bubbles, which carry 
before them the stiff dough, and thus it renders the 
dough porous ; the salt itself is at the same time 
totally volatilized during the operation of baking. . . 
Potatoes are likewise largely, and perhaps con- 
stantly, used by fraudulent bakers, as a cheap in- 
gredient, to enhance their profit. . . . There are 
instances of convictions on record, of bakers hav- 
ing used gypsum, chalk, and pipeclay, in the man- 
ufacture of bread." 

A gentleman, lately writing from the north of 
England, says that he found in one sample of flour 
which he recently examined, upwards of 16 per 
cent, of gypsum, and in another 12 per cent, of the 
same earth. 

Sometime since it was discovered that some of 
the bakers in France and Belgium added blue 
vitriol to thevf dough to make it take more water. 
It is said that they dissolved 1 oz. of this sulphate 
in a quart of water, and added a wine-glassful of 
this solution to the water necessary to make about 
50 4 lb. loaves. To the credit of the English ba- 
ker, no such poisonous materials have ever been 
found mixed with his bread. This fraud may be 
discovered by boiling a little of the bread in water, 
to which 5 or 6 drops of nitric acid have been 
added, and testing the filtered liquor with prussiate 
of potash, which will give a brown precipitate if 
copper be present. 

Alum may be detected by boiling the bread in 
water, and adding a little chloride of barium or 
lime water, or a little water of ammonia, either of 
which will produce a white precipitate. 

Chalk, whiting, burnt hones, plaster of Paris, 
and similar substances are easily detected by burn- 
ing a little of the flour or bread in a clean open 
vessel, when the amount of ashes left will indicate 
the quantity of adulteration. The quantity of ashes 
left by genuine flour is very trifling indeed. 

Caution. If you purchase bread from the ba- 
kers, by all means buy the best. When you make 
it yourself, however, various additions may be 
made of a wholesome kind, that will render it 
cheaper. Thus mashed potatoes, ground bran, 
potato farina, and several other articles may be 
added at pleasure. Mixing the flour up with a 
decoction of bran, pumpkins, Iceland moss, and 
some other similar substances, has been recom- 
mended, and it is said that flour so mixed will 
yield one quarter more bread than when water 
alone is used, and that it will keep good for some 
time. 

BREAD, BEE. This is the matter collected 
by the bees to form the bottom of the hive ; it re- 
sembles a mixture of rosin and wax ; its fumes are 
thought to bo auti-usthmatic. 

BliEAD, BRAN. Prep. I. Mix with i a peck 
of flour, containing tlio wliolo of the hnm, a ^ of a 
pint of small-beer yeast, and a (piart of lukewarm 
water ; stir it well with a woocKmi spoon until it 
becomes a thick batter, then put a napkin over the 
dough, and set it about three foot from the fire, 
until it rises well. Add, if requisite, a little more 



warm water, strew over it a tablespoonful of salt, 
and make the whole into a stiff paste. Put it to 
the fire, and when it rises, again knead it into the 
dough. If baked in tins, the loaves will be im- 
proved. 

II. To every pound of flour add i lb. of bran, 
and proceed as above. 

BREAD, EXTEMPORANEOUS. Prep. I. 
(Ammoniacal Bread.) Dissolve 1 oz. of sesqui- 
carbonate of ammonia in water, sufiicient to make 
7 lbs. of flour into a dough, which must be formed 
into loaves and baked immediately. 

II. Divide the flour (8 lbs.) into two portions ; 
mix up the first with water, holding in solution 
2 oz. of bicarbonate of soda, and the second with 
the other portion, to which 1 oz. of muriatic acid 
has been added. When each mass of dough has 
been separately well kneaded to a proper consist- 
ence, mix them together (perfectly) as quickly as 
possible ; form the mass into loaves, and bake im- 
mediately. 

Remarks. This bread is considered very whole- 
some. It contains no yeast. 

BREAD, FRENCH. Prep. I. iat 1 pint of 
milk into 3 quarts of water. In winter let it be 
scalding hot, but in summer, little more than milk- 
warm: put in salt sufficient. Take 1^ pints of 
good ale yeast, free from bitterness, and lay it in 1 
gallon of water the night before. Pour off" the 
yeast into the milk and water, and then break in 
rather more than \ lb. of butter. Work it well till 
it is dissolved ; then beat up 2 eggs in a basin, and 
stir them in. Mix about 1^ pecks of flour with 
the liquor, and, in winter, make the dough pretty 
stiff", but more slack in summer ; mix it well, and 
the less it is worked the better. Stir the liquor 
into flour, as for pie-crust, and after the dough is 
made cover it with a cloth, and let it lie to rise, 
while the oven is heating. When the rolls or 
loaves have lain in a quick oven about a quarter 
of an hour, turn them on the other side for about 
a quarter of an hour longer. Then take them out 
and chip them with a knife, which will make them 
look spongy, and of a fine yellow, whereas rasping 
takes off" this fine color, and renders their look less 
inviting. 

II. Proceed as for the best bread ; use the finest 
flour, and moisten it with a little milk. 

BREAD, FRENCH COUNTRY WHITE 
This is made without yeast. 

BREAD, FRENCH SOUP. This is made 
by adding 1 lb. or more of salt to each sack, in 
the place of yeast ; and it is baked in thin loaves, 
so as to bo nearly all crust, by which means it be- 
comes more soluble in the hot soup. 

BREAD, FROM AMERICAN FLOUR. 
This flour requires nearly twice as much water to 
make it into bread, as that made from English 
wheat, and is therefore much more economical. 
14 lbs. of American flour will make 21 ^ lbs. of 
bread, but the best sort of English flour produces 
but ISi lbs. (Mrs. Rundell.) 

BREAD. FROM C^RAINS. " Birkenmayer, 
a brewer of Constance, has succeeded in manufac- 
turing bread from the farinaceous residue of beer. 
10 Ihs. of tliis .species of paste, 1 lb. of yeast, 5 lbs. 
of ordinary meal, and a handful of salt, produce 
12 lbs. of black bread, both savory and nourishing.'" 

BREAD, {For one sack.) Flour 1 sack ; salt 



BRE 



137 



BRE 



4 lbs. ; water, sufficient quantity ; yeast 4 pints. 
Dissolve the salt in 3^ gallons of the water, (warm,) 
then add a little of the flour and the whole of the 
yeast ; make a dough, and keep it in a warm place 
until it .-ises, then add more flour and warm water 
in the same way, and work again ; after 3 or 4 
hours add the remainder of the flour, and sufficient 
water to bring the dough to a proper consistence. 
When the whole mass of dough is in a proper state, 
it is to be cut into loaves and baked. 

Remarks. The bakers employ alum in making 
their bread, as it not only makes the dough more 
retentive of moisture, but improves the color of the 
bread. The proportion is usually 6 or 8 oz. of alum 
per sack, or even more. 

By this process a sack of flour will produce from 
345 to 350 lbs. of well-hixked bread, or if slack- 
baked, from 370 to 385 lbs. of crumbling bread. 

BREAD, HICK'S PATENT. This is merely 
bread made in the common way, but baked in an 
oven so arranged that the vapors arising during 
the process may be condensed in a suitable re- 
ceiver. The condensed liquor is a crude, weak 
spirit, produced during the fermentation of the 
bread. The product will not pay the expense and 
trouble of the collection. 

B R E A D, HOUSEHOLD. (Economical 
Bread.) Prep. I. Remove the flake bran from 
the flour, and boil 5 lbs. of it in 4 gallons of water, 
until it is reduced to 3^ gallons ; strain. With 
this liquor knead 56 lbs. of the flour, adding salt 
and yeast as for other bread. Bake the loaves for 
^ hours. (Rev. Mr. Haggett.) 

II. Mix 7 lbs. of flour with 3 lbs. of mealy po- 
tatoes, previously well mashed, add 2 or 3 spoon- 
fuls of salt, and make a dough with water ; then 
well work it with 3 or 4 spoonfuls of yeast, and af- 
ter 4 hours bake it. 

BREAD, IMPROVEMENT OF. A \ oz. of 
carbonate of magnesia added to the flour, for a 4 
lb. loaf, materially improves the quality of the 
bread, even when made from the worst new sec- 
onds flour. (Professor E. Davy.) This addition is 
perfectly innocent. 

BREAD, ICELAND MOSS. This vegetable 
may be made into bread, either alone, or mixed 
with flour. It is used, in the first case, in the 
state of meal, in the same way as flour ; in the 
second case, 7 lbs. of it are directed to be boiled in 
12 or 13 gallons of water, and employed to make 
70 lbs. of flour into dough, which is then fermented 
and baked in the usual way. It is said that the 
above quantity of flour will produce, in this way, 
160 lbs. (?) of good household bread, whereas the 
same flour, treated m the usual way, would not 
produce more than 80 lbs. A simpler mode of 
making this bread, is to mix 1 lb. of lichen meal 
with 3i to 4 lbs. of flour. The bitterness of the 
lichen is extracted by soaking it in cold water. 

BREAD, LEAVENED. Prep. Take about 
2 lbs. of dough of the last making, which has been 
raised by barm ; keep it in a wooden vessel, cov- 
ered well with flour. This will become leaven 
when sufficiently sour. Work this quantity into a 
peck of flour with warm water. Cover the dough 
close with a cloth, or flannel, and keep it in a 
warm place ; further, mix it next morning with 2 
or 3 bushels of flour, mixed up with warm water 
and a little salt. When the dough is thoroughly 



' made, cover it as before. As soon as it rises, well 

I knead it into loaves. Observe in this process, that 

the more leaven is put to the flour, the lighter the 

bread will be, and the fresher the leaven, the less 

sour will it taste. 

BREAD, PARIS WHITE. Prep. To 80 lbs. 
of the dough, before the yeast was added, from 
yesterday's baking, add as much lukewarm water 
as will make 320 lbs. of flour into a thin dough ; 
as soon as this has risen, 80 lbs. are to be taken 
out and reserved in a warm place as leaven for the 
next baking, and 1 lb. of dry yeast, dissolved in 
warm water, is to be added to the remaining por- 
tion, which is immediately made into loaves, and 
shortly afterwards baked, the loaves being placed 
in the oven without touching each other, that they 
may become crusty all round. 

BREAD, POTATO. Prep. I. To mealy po- 
tatoes, well m«,shed, add an equal quantity of 
dough, made w^th flour, then add a proper quan- 
tity of yeast, and mix in as much potato farina, or 
wheat floiu:, as will suffice to bring it to a proper 
consistence. Ferment and bake, as usual. 

II. Mix equal parts of potato starch and finely- 
pulped potatoes, and work them into a dough over 
night, adding the proper quantity of yeast ; the 
next morning work in the same quantity of potato 
starch, mashed potatoes, and wheat flour, adding 
as much hot water as may be required ; let it 
stand to rise, then work it well, cut it into loaves, 
and in 2 hours put them into the oven. 

BREAD, SOURNESS IN. (To rectify.) 
When the dough has become sour from the fer- 
mentation proceeding too far, or the flour being of 
inferior quality, the addition of about a -J oz. of 
carbonate of magnesia, or a little carbonate of soda, 
will remove it. When it arises from the sourness 
of the veast, this method is especially applicable. 

BREAD, STEAM-BAKED, (a la Vienne.) 
It has been known for some time at Vienna, that 
if the hearth of an oven be cleaned with a moist- 
ened wisp of straw, bread baked therein imme- 
diately afterwards presents a much better appear- 
ance, the crust having a beautiful yellow tint. It 
was thence inferred that this peculiarity must be 
attributed to the vapor, which being condensed on 
the roof of the oven, fell back on the bread. At 
Paris, in order to secure with certainty so desirable 
an appearance, the following arrangement is prac- 
tised : — The hearth of the oven is laid so as to form 
an inclined plane, with a rise of about 11 inches in 
3 feet, and the arched roof is built lower at the 
end nearest the door, as compared with the far- 
thest extremity. When the oven is charged, the 
entrance is closed with a wet bundle of straw. By 
this arrangement the steam is driven down on the 
bread, and a golden-yellow crust is given to the 
bread, as if it had been previously covered with 
the yelk of an egg. (Hbgen Correspondent, Sept. 
27. Ann. of Chym. and Prac. Pharm.) 

BREAD, TO SWEETEN, (without Su- 
GAR.) It is not generally known that pure starch 
added to flour and made into dough, will be par- 
tially converted into a species of sugar during the 
process of fermentation and baking, and produces 
sweet wholesome bread. Fram the experiments 
of Dr. Colquhoun, it appears that starch arrow- 
root, farina of potatoes, or similar amylaceous sub- 
stances, made into a jelly witli hot water, may be 



BRE 



138 



BRE 



employed for this purpose with advantage. It is 
only necessary to mix the flour up with the jelly, 
instead of mere water, to add yeast and salt, and 
to bake in the common way. Dr. Pereival has re- 
commended the addition of salep for this purpose. 
1 oz. of salep dissolved in 1 quart of water ; 2 lbs. 
of flour ; 80 grains of salt, and 2 oz. of yeast, gave 
3 lbs. 2 oz. of good bread ; but the same weight of 
materials, without the salep, gave only 2| lbs. If 
too much salep be added, however, it will give its 
flavor to the bread. 

BREAD, WHITING'S, (Patent.) This is 
made by dividing the dough into two portions ; to 
the one a little carbonate of soda is added, to the 
other, a little dilute muriatic acid ; they are both 
well kneaded separately, then mixed together, 
formed into loaves, and baked immediately. No 
yeast is used. 

BREATH, FCETID. Scarcely any thing is 
more disagreeable or disgusting than a stinking 
breath. Various means have been proposed to re- 
move this annoyance, depending principally on the 
administration of aromatics, which by their odor 
might smother it for a time ; but these require con- 
tinual repetition, and are liable to interfere with 
the functions of digestion. The real cause of a 
stinking breath is either a diseased stomach or ca- 
rious teeth ; when the former is the case aperients 
should be administered ; and if these do not suc- 
ceed, an emetic may be given, followed by a dose of 
salts, or castor oil occasionally. When rotten teeth 
are the cause, they should be removed ; or, if this 
be impossible, they should be kept clean. Dirty 
teeth often cause the breath to smell. The use of 
the tooth-brush should be a daily habit. Occa- 
sionally rinsing out the mouth with a little clean 
water, to which a few drops of a solution of chlo- 
ride of lime, or chloride of soda, has been added, is 
an effective method. The following lozenges have 
also been recommended : — 

Gum catechu 2 oz. ; white sugar 4 oz. ; orris 
powder 1 oz. ; make them into a paste with mucil- 
age, and add a drop or two of neroli. One or two 
may be sucked at pleasure. 

BREAKFAST POWDER. Syn. Rye Cof- 
fee. DiLLENIUs's DITTO. HuNt's ECONOMICAL 

Breakfast Powder. Rye roasted along with a 
little fat. Use. As a substitute for foreign coffee, 
of which it is one of the cheapest and best. 

BREE'S ANTI-ASTHMATIC PLASTER. 
Prep. Simple diachylon 1 oz. ; powdered camphor 
and powdered opium, of each \ oz. ; sweet oil ^ a 
teaspoonfdl. Proc. Melt the plaster with the oil, 
then remove the vessel from the fire, and stir in 
the powders ; spread it on leather before it gets 
cold. Remark. It is better made with only half 
the above quantity of opium. 

BREWING. The art of making beer. 

General, notice. Before entering on a description 
of the process of brewing, it will bo necessary to 
notice the apparatus and materials required for its 
conduct. 

The apparatus consists of, 

1. A copper or boiler capable of holding fully 
two-lhirds of the quantity proposed (o l)o brewed ; 
with a gauge-stick to dclerniine the number of 
gallons of fluid at any given (l('i)th tlien>in. A cop- 
per holding about 140 gallons is a convenient Nize 
for browing a quarter of mult. 



2. A mash-tub, or tun, capable of containing 
rather more than the copper. 

3. One or more tuns, or vessels, to ferment the 
beer in. 

4. Three or four shallow coolers to reduce the 
wort as rapidly as possible to a proper temperature 
for fermenting. 

5. One or two copper or wooden bowls, for bail- 
ing, &c. 

6. A thermometer with a scale reaching from 
zero to above the boiling point of water. 

7. A suitable number of casks (clean) to con- 
tain the beer. 

8. One or more large funnels, or tunners. 

9. Two or more clean pails. 

10. J. hand-pump of a size proportionate to the 
brewing. 

These articles will vary in value from ^10 up- 
wards, to many hundreds, according to the extent 
of the brewing ; but the whole of them, necessary 
for a private family, may be bought for k-ss than 
the former amount. By proper care they will last 
for 30 or 40 years, and still be in a useful state. 
The place where these vessei& are kept, and the 
operations carried on, is called the " Brewhouse." 

The materials necessary to brew beer are, good 
malt, hops, and water, and a little yeast. 

The malt is bruised or crushed in a mill before 
brewing, that it may be acted on the more readily 
by the water. It should not be ground too small, 
as it would then make the wort thick ; the crush- 
ed malt may advantageously lie for a few days in 
a cool situation, by which it will attract a consider- 
able quantity of moisture from the air, and conse- 
quently its soluble portion will be the more easily 
dissolved out by the water used in mashing. Pale 
malt may be used coarser than amber or brown 
malt. A bushel of malt should make a bushel and 
a quarter when ground, and a quarter should yield 
between 9^ and 10 bushels, the quantity slightly 
varying according to the degree of bruising it has 
undergone. On the large scale, malt is ground in 
crushing mills, furnished with iron rollers ; and on 
a small scale, by wooden rollers or small mills 
worked by hand. For private brewing, the malt 
is generally bought ready ground, for convenience 
sake. (See Malt.) 

The hops should be those of the previous season, 
and for general purposes grown in Kent ; but for 
the finer sorts of malt liquor. East Kent hops should 
be used ; and where it is intended to bo kept for 
some long time, those known by the names of 
Country's, Alton's, or Farnhani Hops must be 
employed. The quantity of hops required to a 
given measure of malt varies from 2 lbs. to 8 lbs. 
of the former, to 1 quarter of the latter, according 
to the nature of the brewing. For good strong 
beer, 4 lbs. or 4^ lbs. is usually sufhcient. but when 
the liquor is very strong, and it is intended to be 
highly aromatic, and to be kept for a long period, 1 
11). of hops may bo used to every bushel of malt, or 
H lbs. to the quarter. Mild porter has about 3 lbs. 
to the quarter, and weak common beer has fre- 
qu(Mitly only about \ lb. of hoj)s to the bushel of 
malt. A portion of hops is also frequently added 
to the finer sort of beer, after it is casked, as we 
shall i)resently explain. 

The water should be soft and clear, the yeast 
sweet and good, and all tho vessels and casks both 



BRE 



139 



BRE 



sweet and clean. If this be not the case, with the 
latter especially, the best brewing in the world will 
be useless. 

Process of brewing. This may be divided 
into 

I. The mashing. This operation consists in 
placing the ground or bruised malt in a large tub 
or " tun,''' known by the name of the " mash-tun," 
macerating it for some time in hot water, and lastly 
drawing off the wort from a hole in the bottom, 
over which a bunch of straw, or a strainer, or false 
bottom, is placed, to prevent the malt passing out 
along with the liquor. During the process of mash- 
mg, a peculiar principle, called by chemists dias- 
tase, reacts upon the starch also contained in the 
malt, and converts it first into a species of gum, 
called by the French chemists " dextrine," and 
then into a species of sugar resembling that pro- 
duced by the action of sulphuric acid. The greater 
the quantity of starch converted hito sugar in this 
way, the stronger and finer will be the wort. It 
therefore becomes a desideratum with the brewer 
to mash at a temperature that will most fully pro- 
mote this object. It has been found that the best 
temperature for this purpose varies from 157° to 
160°, but when more than one liquor is used, the 
first should be something lower than the former, 
the next may be between the two, and the third 
may slightly exceed the latter, or be about 165° 
or 170°. The action of the first mash is merely 
to extract tiie sugar contained in the malt already 
formed ; that of the second to convert the starch 
into sugar by the action of the diastase ; the third 
to fully complete this object, as well as to carry 
away the remaining portions of extract. 

The mashing is usually perfomied by filling the 
copper with water, and as soon as it acquires 
the temperature of 145° in summer, or 167° in 
winter, 45 gallons are run off into the mash -tun, 
and 1 quarter of crushed malt gradually thrown in 
and well mixed by laborious working, until it be- 
comes thoroughly incorporated and no lumps re- 
main ; the agitation is then continued for 30 or 40 
minutes, when 36 gallons of water from the boiler, 
at a temperature of 200°, are added, and the whole 
again well agitated until thoroughly mixed. The 
mash-tun is now closely covered up, and allowed 
to stand for an hour or an hour and a half. At 
the end of this time the tap is set, and the wort is 
drawn ofF into the " underback," and generally 
amounts to about 50 to 52 gallons : 60 gallons of 
water, at a temperature of 200°, are next added to 
the mash-tun, previously drained well, and after 
being well worked, the whole is covered up as be- 
fore. This mash is allowed to remain for an hour, 
when it is drawn off, and the malt again drained 
ready for the third mash. This time only 35 gal- 
lons of water are added at 200°, and allowed to 
stand for ^ an hour, when it is run off in the same 
manner as before, and the malt allowed to drain. 
The worts are now ready for boiling. 

In some cases only the first and second mash is 
used for strong beer, and the third kept for table, 
or as water to mash a fresh quantity of malt with. 
In Scotland (see Scotch Ale) the brewer only 
mashes once, and afterwards washes his malt by 
frequent showers or " sparges" of water, by which 
he gets a wort of greater strength in proportion to 
its quantity. In operating as above, the average 



or mean temperature of the first mash is 145°, of 
the second 170°, and of the third 180-. In win- 
ter the mean temperature may be reckoned as 6 
or 7° lower. A quarter of malt in this way will 
produce a wort having a specific gravity by the 
saccharometer of 1-234, or equal to 84 lbs. of ex- 
tract. (See Saccharometer.) 

It is calculated that 32 gallons of the water 
employed in the mashing remain in the grains af- 
ter the wort is drawn off. 

II. Boiling. The wort is next transferred to 
the copper, and heated to the boi'ing point as soon 
as possible. In large breweries where several cop- 
pers are employed, the first mash is no sooner run 
into the underback, than it is transferred to the 
wort copper, and immediately boiled, and the suc- 
cessive mashings added as soon as drawn off; but 
in private houses, where there is only one copper, 
the boiling cannot be commenced until the water 
for the last mashing is removed. In some cases 
the worts are brewed separately, thus producing 2 
or 3 qualities of beer, viz. strong ale or stout, 
beer, and table beer. No sooner has the boiling 
commenced than the hops may be ^dded, and the 
boiling continued for 2 or 3 hours or more. In 
some breweries the beer is boiled for several hours, 
and in Belgium it is said that this is even con- 
tinued for 10 or 12 hours, but too much boiling 
drives off the flavor of the hops. In general, two 
hours good boiling will be found sufficient. In 
small brewings the first wort should be sharply 
boiled for 1 hour, and the second for 2 hours. 
But if intended for beer of long keeping, the time 
should be extended half an hour. The hops should 
be strained from each preceding wort, and re- 
turned into the copper with the succeeding one. 
Between the boilings the fire should be damped 
with wet cinders, and the copper door set open. 

For small-beer only half an hour is necessary 
for the first wort, 1 hour for the second, and 2 
hours for the third. 

It is reckoned that |- to Jg- part of the wort is 
dissipated in steam during the process of boiling, 
but this must of course depend altogether on the 
evaporative power of the boiler and the length of 
time the boiling is continued. 

III. Cooling. The boiling being finished, the 
v/ort is run off from the copper into the hopback, 
which is furnished with a strainer to keep back 
the hops. It is then pumped into large square 
shallow vessels called " coolers," where it is ex- 
posed to a good current of air to cool it down to a 
proper fermenting temperature as quickly as pos- 
sible. This is of the utmost importance for the 
success of the brewing. The wort should be laid 
so shallow as to cool within 6 or 7 hours to the 
temperature of about 60°. In warm weather, the 
depth should not exceed 3 or 4 inches ; but in 
cold weather it may be 5 or 6 inches. As soon as 
the heat has fallen to about 60°, it should be in- 
stantly tunned and yeasted. 

It is reckoned that by the joint evaporation 
from the boilers and coolers, there is a loss of 
about 40 gallons per quarter. 

In private families a good way is to bring the 
wort from the copper in pails, and to pour it into 
a basket or a hamper, set over the coolers, by 
which means the hops will be retained, and the 
beer run through clear. 



BRE 



140 



BRE 



IV. Fermentation. When the wort is suffi- 
ciently cool, it is run into the fermenting tuns or 
vessels, which in small brewings may be casks, 
with one of their heads removed. These are 
called " gyle tuns," and should not be more than 
§ full. The yeast, previously mixed with a little 
wort, and kept until this latter has begun to fer- 
ment, may now be added, and the whole agitated 
well ; the tun should then be covered up, until the 
fermentation is well established. During this pro- 
cess the temperature rises from 9° to 15°. 

The qufit.tity of yeast employed, and the tem- 
perature of the wort when it is added, differ in 
different breweries and for different kinds of beer. 
From ^ to 1§ of yeast, taken from a previous 
brewing of the same kind of beer, is the quantity 
usually employed. The higher the temperature 
the less yeast necessary. In England, the tem- 
perature at which the yeast is usually added, 
varies from 55° to 65° Fahr. In cold weather, 
the heats in the coolers should be 5° or 6° higher 
than in mild and warm weather. For ale, in cold 
weather, it should be tunned as soon as it has 
fallen to 60° in the coolers. For porter, to 64°, 
and for table beer to 70° ; and in warm weather, 
strong beer should be 4° or 5° less, and table beer 
7° or 8°. Care should be also taken that the 
worts do not get cold before the yeast is mixed to 
produce fermentation. The common rule for mix- 
ing the yeast is l^lbs. to every barrel of strong 
beer wort, and 1 lb. to every barrel of table beer 
wort. 

The commencement of the fermentation is in- 
dicated by a line of small bubbles round the sides 
of the tun, which, in a short time, extends over 
the surface. A crusty head follows, and then a 
fine rocky one, followed by a light frothy head. 
In the last stage, the head assumes a yeasty ap- 
pearance, and the color is yellow or brown, the 
smell of the tun becoming strongly vinous. As 
soon as this head begins to fall, the tun should be 
skimmed, and the skimming continued every two 
hours till no more yeast appears ;' this closes the 
operation, and the beer should then be put into 
casks, or, in technical language, " cleansed." A 
minute attention to every stage of this process is 
necessary to secure a fine flavor and a brilliant 
beverage. 

In Scotland the temperature at which the yeast 
b added, is generally much lower than in Eng- 
land ; for ale, it is from 51° to 52°, and the whole 
process is conducted in the cooler part of the year, 
so that the temperature seldom rises higher than 
65° or 66°. The Bavarian beer, so much cele- 
Jjrated on the continent, as well as the finest kinds 
of East India ale, are fermented at very low tem- 
peratures. 

It may be generally regarded as a rule, that 
the lower the temperature, and the slower, more 
regular and less interrupted the process of fermen- 
tation, the better will bo the product and the less 
likely to cliange by ago. More yeast is required 
in winter than in summer. Should the fermenta- 
tion biicoine slack in tll(^ gyle tun, a little more 
yeast is frecpuuitly added, and the wlioh^ is roused 
up ; l)ut on the contrary, should the temperature 
rise considerably, or the fermentation beeonie too 
active, the wort should be cooled a little and 
Bkiminod, or at oiico cleansed. 



V. Cleansing. When the fermentation has 
proceeded to a certain extent, the liquor under- 
goes the operation called " cleansing." This con- 
sists in drawing it off from the gyle tun into other 
vessels, or casks, set sloping, so that the yeast, as 
it forms, may work off the one side of the top, and 
fall into the vessel placed below to receive it. In 
small brewings, the beer is often at once trans- 
ferred from the gyle tun to the store casks, which 
are sloped a little until the fermentation is over, 
when they are skimmed, filled, and bunged up. 
When the operation of cleansing is not employed, 
the yeast is removed from the surface of the gyle 
tun with a skimmer, and the clear liqu».j drawn 
off into the store casks. 

The process of cleansing should always com- 
mence as soon as the gravity of the liquor falls to 
10 or 11 lbs. per barrel, which it usually does in 
about 48 hours, provided the fermentation has 
been well conducted. Some brewers add \ to 
i lb. of wheat or bean fiour to the beer in the 
gyle-tun, shortly before cleansing, to quicken the 
discharge of yeast, but it is not clearly ascertained 
whether such a plan be advantageous or the con- 
trary. 

"VI. Storing. As soon as the fermenta. on is 
concluded, which generally takes from 6 to 8 days, 
or more, the clear liquor is drawn off into the store 
casks, or vats, which are then closely bunged 
down, and deposited in a cool cellar. 

VII. Ripening. After a period, varying from 
1 to 12 months, or more, according to the nature 
of the brewing, the liquor will have become fine, 
and sufficiently ripe for use. All the attention re- 
quired during this interval, is to look occasionally 
to see that there is no leakage, and to open the 
vent holes, should any oozings appear between 
the staves of the casks. 

VIII. Fining. It frequently happens that malt 
Jiquor, especially porter, with all the care bestow- 
ed upon it in brewing, will not turn out sufficiently 
fine to meet the taste and eye of the consumer, 
in which case it is usually subjected to the opera- 
tion of " clarifying." For this purpose 1 oz. of 
isinglass is put into 1 quart of weak vinegar, or 
still better, hard beer, and when dissolved, a suf- 
ficient quantity of good beer may be added to 
make it measure 1 gallon. This mixture is called 
" finings ;" 1 to 2 pints of which is the proper 
quantity for a barrel. The method of using it, is 
to put the finings into a bucket, and to gradually 
add some of the beer, until the bucket is three 
parts full, during which time it is violently agitated 
with a whisk, and this is continued until a good 
frothy head is raised upon it, when it is thrown 
into the barrel of beer, and the whole well rum- 
maged up, by means of a large stick shoved in at 
the bungiiole. In a few days the beer will usual- 
ly become fine. 

In some bad sorts of beer isinglass will have no 
effect. This may be ascertained beforehand, by 
trying some in a long glass tube, or vial, with a 
little of the finings. These should be well shaken 
together, and then set aside for a short time, when 
it will be found that (he finings will rise to the 
lop, leaving the central portion of (he beer clear, 
if it be in a i)roper condition for clarifying ; but if, 
on the contrary, (hey sink to the bottom, and the 
liquor still keeps foul, no quantity of finings, how- 



BRE 



141 



BRE 



ever great, will ever clarify it. This latter defect 
majr be remedied by proceeding to fine it after the 
manner above described, and then adding, after 
the finings have been well rinnmaged up, either 1 
spoonful of oil of vitriol, or gum catechu, dissolved 
m i a pint of warm water, again rummaging well 
for a quarter of an hour. Or 1 or :2 oz. of tincture 
of catechu may be used instead, mixed with a lit- 
tle water. Either of these additions acts chemical- 
ly on the finings, in the same way as good beer 
docs, precipitating them along with the foulness, 
and thus brightening the liquor. The addition of 
a handful of hops, previously boiled for 5 minutes 
in a little of the beer, and then added to the barrel, 
and the whole allowed to stand for a few days, 
before proceeding to clarify it, will generally have 
the same effect. 

Concluding Remarks. The nature and varie- 
ties of beer, tf-c. The numerous varieties of beer 
met with in commerce, arise either from a differ- 
ence in the materials, or the management of the 
brewing. Thus the tvater, but more generally the 
nature of the malt, or the temperature of the 
aashing or the fermentation, decides the character 
of tlie liquor. The difference between ale and 
porter arises from the color of the malt, and the 
distinctions between the same class of liquor, brew- 
ed from similar materials, may be referred to the 
mashing or the fermentation. Scotch ale and 
Bavarian beer differ in style from other ales, as 
before explained, from being fermented at lower 
temperatures ; and porter differs from either of 
these, because it has been made with higher dried 
malt. This is the cause of the almost endless 
varieties of malt liquor met with in England. 
Every country — nay, every town and every brew- 
er, is distinguished by the production of a different 
flavored beer. Besides the varieties arising from 
difference of quality or manipulation in the brew- 
ing of similar kinds of liquor, there are certain 
leading features which distinguish some of them, 
which has led them to be considered in the light 
of distinct members of the same family. These 
are ale, beer, and porter. Ale is a pale liquor, 
brewed from lightly-dried malt, and is usually met 
with, abounding in undecomposed saccharine mat- 
ter and mucilage ; beer is a fine, strong, well-fer- 
mented liquor, darker, less saccharine, and more 
alcoholic than ale. The finer class of Scotch, 
Bavarian, and East India ales, properly belong to 
this class ; porter is a dark brown colored liquor, 
originally prepared from high-dried malt, but now 
generally made from pale malt, and colored and 
flavored by patent or burnt malt. Synall or table 
beer is a weak liquor, containing 3 or 4 times the 
quantity of water that is used for ordinary beer. 
Stout, brown stout, &lc. are varieties of porter, 
differing only in their strength. See Ale, Beer, 
and Porter, in their alphabetical order. 

Qualities. The characteristics of good beer 
are transparency and a fine color, to whatever 
variet)^ it may belong ; and if it has been properly 
brewed, this will usually be the case. Hence color 
and transparency become a proof of good beer. 
Good beer is pleasant, wholesome, and nutritious, 
at the same time that it is strengthening and ex- 
hilarating. 

Season for brewing. The best times of year 
for brewing are the spring and autumn, as at those 



periods the temperature of the air is such as to 
permit the cooling of the worts sufficiently low, 
without having recourse to artificial refrigeration, 
or the use of machinery for that purpose. 

Adulteration. Laws respecting brewing, ^c 
By the laws of England, which have existed, with 
slight modifications, ever since the days of Queen 
Anne, nothing is allowed to enter into the compo- 
sition of beer but malt and hops. The cupidity of 
the fraudulent brewer has, however, frequently 
induced him to introduce other ingredients with 
the view of imparting a false strength to his liquor, 
or as a substitute for one or other of its constituents. 
Thus, to impart bitterness, and to lessen the quan- 
tity of hops required for the beer, quassia, gentian, 
wormwood, and broom-tops have been used; to 
give pungency and flavor, capsicum, and grains 
of paradise, (in concentrated tinctures,) ginger, 
corianders, orange-peel, and caraways ; to give 
intoxicating properties — opium, cocculus indicus, 
nux vomica, tobacco, extract of poppies and tinc- 
ture of henbane ; as a substitute f'^r malt — molas- 
ses, coloring and sugar ; to impart c false appear- 
ance of age — sulphuric acid, alum, green vitriol, 
and common salt. The following is a list of the 
unlawful substances seized at different breweries, 
and brewers' druggists' laboratories in London, as 
copied from the minutes of the committee of the 
House of Commons. " Cocculus indicus, mult um, 
{an extract of the cocculus,) coloring, honey, 
hartshorn shavings, Spanish juice, orange pow- 
der, ginger, grains of paradise, quassia, liquor- 
ice, caraway seeds, copperas, capsicum, mixed 
drugs." 

Sugar and coriander seeds may be mentioned 
as a very common addition to beer. It is said that 
6 lbs. of the former, and 1 lb. of the latter, are 
equal in strength and intoxicating quality to a 
bushel of malt. The sugar is employed in a roast- 
ed state, for the sake of its color ; even coffee has 
been used for this purpose. Publicans generally 
reduce their strong beer with water, or table beer, 
and add treacle, (which they call "foots,") and a 
mixture of copperas, salt, and alum, (which they 
call " heading,") to make it bear a frothy head, 
and in many cases, gentian, sugar, or other similar 
ingredients, are added to keep up an appearance 
of strength, and to impart a flavor. 

The " cheap beer" sold by some taverns in Lon- 
don, is made by dividing the contents of two butts 
among three butts, filling them up with water, and 
adding a bladder of porter extract (technically 
termed p. e.) to each. 

The desire of evading the duty on malt, led to 
the discovery of its being only necessary to malt 
^ or less of the grain, this portion being sufficient 
to convert the starch of the other, part into sugar, 
in the process of mashing. This plan answers well 
when the wort is merely intended for the produc- 
tion of "grain spirit," but beer so made is infe 
rior in quality to that brewed wholly from malt 
Inferior kinds of beer have also been made from 
other ingredients than barley malt ; thus, the grain 
of other cereals may be used for this purpose, as 
wheat, oats, «fcc., and many other vegetable sub 
stances that contain starch and sugar. Potatoes, 
turnips, beet root, carrots, parsnips, and other 
similar roots and seeds, will all produce beer by 
peculiar management, but the liquor must be con- 



BRI 



142 



BRO 



fined to privatp consumption, as the law does not 
permit its sale' Some of the above articles pro- 
duce very wholesome beer, if mashed with about 
-jL or j'2 of their weight of good barley malt. 

The densities of the worts employed for different 
kinds of beer vary considerably, as will be seen 
by the following table. 

Table exhibiting the densities of different kinds 
of Beer. 



Description. 


Pounds per 
Barrel. 


Specific Gravity. 


Burton Ale, 1st Class 


40 to 43 


1-111 to 1-120 


Do. 2d " 


35 to 40 


1-097 to 1-111 


Do. 3d " 


28 to 33 


1-077 to 1-092 


Ordinary Ale . . . 


25 to 27 


1-070 to 1-073 


Common Ale . . . 


21 


1-058 


Scotch Ale, 1st Class 


40 to 44 


1-1] 1 to 1-122 


Do. 2d " 


33 to 40 


1-092 to 1-111 


Porter (ordinary) . . 


18 


1-050 


Do. (good) . . . 


18 to 21 


1-050 to 1-058 


Do. (double) . . . 


20 to 22 


1-055 to 1-060 


Brown Stout . . . 


23 


10G4 


Do. (best) . . 


26 


1-072 


Table Beer .... 


12 to 14 


1-033 to 1-039 


Table Beer (common) 


6 


1-014 



BREWING UTENSILS, TO CLEAN AND 
PRESERVE. In cleaning them before being put 
away, avoid the use of soap, or any greasy mate- 
rial, and use only a brush and scalding water, be- 
ing particularly careful not to leave any yeast or 
fur on the sides, then place them away in a clean, 
and moderately dry situation. Should they become 
tainted or mouldy, take a strong lye of pearlash, 
which spread over the bottoms of the vessels scald- 
ing hot, and then with the broom scrub the sides 
and other parts. 

Or, take common salt and spread it over the 
coolers, &c., and strew some on their wet sides, 
turn in scalding water and scrub them with a 
broom. 

Or, throw some quicklime into water in the ves- 
sel, and scrub over the bottom and sides with it ; 
in each case well washing afterwards with clean 
water. 

Or, wash well first with oil of vitriol diluted with 
8 times its weight of water, and afterwards with 
clean water. 

Remarks. Brewing utensils with care will last 
for many years. Mr. Cobbett says: "I am now 
in a farm-house, where the savie utensils have 
been used i'or fortij years ; and the owner tells me 
that tlicy may last for forty years longer^ 

BRINE, RED CABBAGE. Prep. Steep red 
cabbage leaves in a strong solution of salt. Use. 
As a test for acids and alkalis. 

BRINE, VIOLET. Prep. The same- as the 
above, but made from the ])ctals of tlic bhie violet. 

JJRIOCHE TASTE, (in Cookkry.) Prep., cf-r. 
A pa.sto made of eggs and flour, fermented with a 
ttlo yeast, to wliich a iitllo f^alt, a largo quantity 
of sugar, and lialf as much butter as the weight of 
the flour used, are afterwards added and well 
worked in. Use. As an addition to soup, a casing 
for lohstens, patties, cggH, &,c. 

BUITANNIA METAL. Syn. Tutania. A 
fine species of pewter. 

Prep. M(!lt together cqilal parts of plate brass, 
biBmuth, antimony, and tin, and add the mixture 



at discretion to melted tin, until it acquires the 
proper degree of color and hardness. 

II. To the last add an equal part, or \ of its 
weight of metallic arsenic. To be used as before. 

III. Melt together 1 part of antimony, 4 parts 
of brags, and 5 or more parts of tin. . This may be 
used at once, as Britannia metal. (See Pewter.) 

BRITISH GUM. When starch is exposed to 
a temperature of 300°, (Ure,) 600°, (Brande,) it 
becomes brown, soluble in cold water, and -ceases 
to strike a blue color with iodine. It is largely 
employed by the calico printers, as a substitute for 
gum. 

BRISTLES AND HORSE HAIR, TO DYE. 
These readily take any of the usual dyes applied 
to cotton or wool. 

BROMAL. A compound discovered by L6- 
wig, produced by the action of bromine on alcohol, 
hence the name, from the first portion of the name 
of each constituent. (See Chloral.) 

BRO MATES. Compounds of the bases with 
bromic acid, which see. Char., Tests, ^-c. When 
heated they evolve oxygen, and become bromides ; 
with nitrate of silver and the proto -salts of mer- 
cury, they give white precipitates ; that with the 
former is insoluble in nitric acid, but very soluble 
in ammonia. If a few drops of muriatic acid be 
added to a bromate, and it be then shaken with a 
little ether in a glass tube, a solution of bromine is 
obtained. 

BROMBENZOIC ACID. A new acid, dis- 
covered by Peligot, and prepared by exposing ben- 
zoate of silver to the vapors of bromine, until they 
cease to be absorbed, when the acid is dissolved 
out with ether and obtained by evaporation. 

BROMIC ACID.- An acid cf'raposed of oxy- 
gen and brome. 

Prep. Add sulphuric acid to a solution of bro- 
mate of baryta, until all the earth be thrown 
down, particularly avoiding an excess of acid ; 
then concentrate the liquor by heat, until it be of 
the consistence of a sirup. 

Prop. If the evaporation be carried too far, the 
acid will be decomposed. This acid forms salts 
with the bases, called bromates, which are very 
similar to the chlorates and iodates. Bromate of 
potassa may be made by agitating bromine with a 
concentrated solution of caustic potassa, collecting 
the crystalline white powder that falls down, and 
purifying it by solution in boiling water, and crj's- 
tallization. Bromate of silver is formed by adding 
a solution of bromate of potassa to another of ni- 
trate of silver. 

BROMIDE. A compound form of a base and 
bromine. (See Bromine.) 

Char, and Tests. The soluble bromides give 
white precipitates with nitrate of silver, acetate of 
lead, and prolonitrate of mercury. That from the 
first of these is insoluble in anunonia water, unless 
concentrated. A few drops of liquid chlorine 
l)oured upon a bromide, and the mixture agitated 
with a little sulphuric ether, yields an ethereal so- 
lution of bromine. 

BIIOMIDE OF AMMONIA, may be lormed 
by the mixture of anunoniaeal and hydrobvomic 
acid gases, or liquid hydrobromic acid and liquor 
of ammonia, or by putting bromine into water of 
anunonia. 

Proj). Tliis salt may be obtained by evaporation 



BRO 



143 



BRO 



in the form of solid white prismatic crj'stals. It is 
volatile and easily decomposed. 

BROMIDE OF CARBON. (Discovered by 
M. Serullas.) Prep. Brome 2 parts ; periodide 
of carbon 1 part, mix ; just enough solution of po- 
tassa is added to make the liberated iodine disap- 
pear. The liquid bromide of carbon, which col- 
lects at the bottom of the solution, is then separa- 
ted from the supernatant portion, and allowed to 
stand until it becomes clear. A few crystals of 
iodide of potassium rise to the surface, and may be 
removed. The clear liquid is then put into a little 
water slightly alkalized with potassa, to remove a 
little remaining iodide of carbon, after which it is 
quite pure. 

BROMIDE OF IODINE. Bromine and io- 
dine unite rapidly by mere mixture. By careful 
distillation a red vapor is obtained, which, on cool- 
ing, condenses into red crystals, of a form resem- 
bling fern leaves. This is said to be the protohro- 
mide. By adding more bromine, these cjjj^stals 
are converted into a fluid, said to be the hihromide. 

BROMIDE OF SULPHUR. This is made by 
dissolving sublimed sulphur in bromine ; it is a red- 
dish, oily-looking fluid, easily decomposed, espe- 
cially by water. 

BROMINE. Syn. Brome. An elementary 
substance, discovered by M. Balard, of Montpel- 
lier, in 1826. 

Prep. A current of chlorine is passed through 
the uncrystallizable residuum of sea-water, called 
bittern, which then assumes an orange tint, in 
consequence of bromine being set free from its 
combinations ; sulphuric ether is then agitated 
with it, and the mixture is allowed to stand until 
the ethereal portion, holding the bromine in solu- 
tion, floats upon the surface. This is then care- 
fully decanted, and agitated with a solution of po- 
tassa, by which means bromide of potassium and 
bromale of potash are formed. 

The whole is next evaporated to dryness, and 
submitted to a dull red heat ; the residuum is then 
powdered, mixed with pure peroxide of manga- 
nese, and placed in a retort ; sulphuric acid, di- 
luted with half its weight of water, is now poured 
in. Red vapors immediately arise, and condense 
into drops of bromine, and are collected by plung- 
hig the neck of the retort to the bottom of a small 
receiver, containing cold water. The bromine 
forms a stratum beneath the water, and may be 
collected and further purified, by distillation from 
dry chloride of calcium. 

Prop., Use, ^c. A dark, reddish-colored liquid, 
having an odor resembling chlorine. It freezes at 
— 4°, boils at 116-5°, is about 3 times as heavy as 
water, is very soluble in ether, less so in alcohol, 
and only slightly so in water. With hydrogen it 
forms hydrobroniic acid, and with the bases, com- 
pounds called bromides, or hydrobromates. It pos- 
sesses similar medicinal properties to iodine, and 
has been administered in goitre, scrofula, &c., in 
the form of an aqueous solution, composed of 1 
part of bromine to 4 of water ; 5 or 6 drops being 
the dose. This solution has also been used as a 
lotion. 

Tests and Antidotes. The solution of chloride 
of gold gives a red tinge with hydrobromic acid, or 
an electro -positive hydrobromate. 

When bromine exists in an organic mixture. 



caustic potassa should be added to the mass, which 
sjiould then be reduced to an ash, exhausted by 
distilled water, and chlorine passed through the 
i solution, or the chloride of gold added to it, pre- 
! viously carefully neutralized by hydrochloric acid. 
[ Wh'^n chlorine is used, starch may render the 
presence of the element more perceptible. Nitrate 
of silver is also a delicate test, where the bromine 
is not mixed with chlorine ; the bromide of silver 
' is distinguished from the chloride by heating with 
; hydrochloric acid and chlorite of lime, when ruddy 
fumes are evolved, if bromine is present. 
j M. Barthez has proposed magnesia as an anti- 
dote for bromine. From several experiments, it 
I appears that the bromide of magnesium is by no 
j means an active salt ; neither is it inert. P>om 
experiments performed on rabbits, I conclude 
starch in solution, and white of c^g, to be excel- 
lent antidotes to tiie poison. (Dr. Glover, Med. and 
Sur. Jour., No. 152.) 

BROMINE, CHLORIDE OF. Prep. Trans- 
mit a current of dry chlorine through brome, and 
condense the disengaged vapors in a receiver sur- 
rounded with ice. Prop. A volatile reddish fluid, 
soluble in water, without decomposition. 

BRONCHITIS. An inflammation of the mu- 
cous lining of the bronchia, or smaller ramifications 
of the windpipe. In its milder form it is common- 
ly called " a cold on the chest." 

Symp. Hoarseness, dry cough, a slight degree 
of fever, followed by expectoration of mucus, at 
first thin, and afterwards thick and copious. In 
the severer forms, there is more fever, cough, and 
oppression at the chest, &c. 

Treat. The generality of cases of bronchitis 
yield to small and repeated doses of ipecacuanha, 
and antimonial diaphoretics, at the same time 
adopting a light diet, and keeping the bowels open 
with mild purgatives. 

BRONZE. A metallic alloy, composed prin- 
cipally of tin and copper, remarkable for the ex- 
actness of the impressions which it takes by 
moulding, as well as its durability ; and hence, ex- 
tensively employed in the casting of busts, medals, 
and statues. Bell, cannon, and speculum metal 
are varieties of bronze. In ancient times, when 
the manufacture of steel was ill-understood, cut- 
ting instruments were frequently made of this al- 
loy. For statuary work, the great desideratum is 
to obtain an alloy capable of flowing freely into 
the most minute outlines of the mould, hard, and 
yet tough, and capable of resisting the corroding 
action of the weather. It must also acquire that 
pecuhar antique green appearance, that is so 
much admired in bronzes. 

When only a small quantity of the alloy is re- 
quired, it is prepared in crucibles, but for statues 
or larger works, on reverberatory" hearths. The 
fusion of the mixed metals must be conducted un- 
der pounded charcoal, and as rapidly as possible. 
When melted, it must be frequently stirred togeth- 
er to produce a perfect mixture, before casting. 
Coal is the fuel prmcipally employed for the fur- 
naces. 

The proportions of the materials so vary in dif- 
ferent castings, that it is almost impossible to say- 
precisely what quantities are the best. The fol- 
lowing may be regarded as good specimens. (See 
also Cannon, Bell, and Speculum Metal.) 



BRO 



144 



BRO 



BRONZE, (FOR STATUARY.) I. Copper 
88 parts ; tin 9 parts ; zinc 2 parts ; lead 1 part. 

II. Copper 82^ parts ; tin 5 parts ; zinc lOJ 
parts ; lead 2 parts. These are very nearly the 
proportions in the celebrated statue of Louis XV. 

III. Copper 90 parts ; tin 9 parts ; lead 1 part. 

IV. Copper 91 parts ; tin 9 parts. 
BRONZE, (FOR MEDALS.) L Copper 89 

parts ; tin 8 parts ; zinc 3 parts. Remarks. This 
metal assumes a beautiful antique appearance by 
age, and takes a good impression by stamping. 

II. Copper 95 parts ; tin 4 or 5 parts. These 
are the proportions recommended by M. Chaudet, 
who casts it in moulds made of bone-ash, like cu- 
pels, and afterwards finishes and polishes the med- 
als in a coining press. This is also excellent for 
any small castings. 

BRONZE, (FOR CUTTING INSTRU- 
MENTS.) Copper 100 parts ; tin 14 parts. 

Remarks. M. Dussaussy says that the above 
alloy, when hardened and tempered after the man- 
ner of the ancients, will yield an edge nearly equal 
to that of steel. Several analyses have been made 
of ancient cutting instruments, whence it appears 
that the proportion of tin varies from 4 to 15 per 
cent., which tends to prove that more depends on 
the exact mode of tempering the alloy, than on 
the relative quantities of the ingredients. Zinc 
and tin are inadmissible in bronze for this purpose. 
One or 2 per cent, of iron might, nevertheless, be 
added with advantage. The ancient bronze used 
for springs, contained only 3 to 4 per cent, of 
tin. 

BRONZE, (FOR MORTARS.) Copper 93 
parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 2 parts. 

Remarks. The edges and lips of mortars must 
be tempered by heating them to a cherry red, and 
then plunging them into cold water ; as unless so 
treated, they are very apt to be broken. 

BRONZE, (FOR ORNAMENTAL WORK, 
TO BE GILDED.) L Copper 82 parts; zinc 
18 parts ; tin 3 parts ; lead 2 parts. 

II. Copper 83 parts ; zinc 17 parts ; tin 1 part ; 
lead ^ part. 

BRONZE POWDERS. L (Beautiful red.) 
Prep. Mix together sulphate of copper 100 parts ; 
carbonate of soda 60 parts ; apply heat until they 
unite into a mass, then cool, powder, and add cop- 
per filings 15 parts ; well mix, and keep them at 
a white heat for twenty minutes, then cool, pow- 
der, and wash and dry. 

II. (Gold colored.) Prep. a. Verdigris 8 oz. ; 
tutty powder 4 oz. ; borax and nitre, of each 2 oz. ; 
bichloride of mercury -J oz. ; make them into a 
paste with oil, and fuse them together. Used in 
japanning as a gold color. 

b. Dutch leaf reduced to an impalpable powder 
by grinding. 

III. {Iron colored.) Plumbago finely pow- 
dered. 

IV. (Silver white.) Prep. Melt together 1 oz. 
each of bismuth and tin, then add 1 oz. of running 
quicksilver ; cool and j)o\v(ler. 

BRONZING OF MEDALS, AND ORNA- 
MENTS OF COPPER, ELECTROTYPES, 
&c. Proc. I. Having tlioroughly cleaned and 
polished the surface of the specimen, with a brush 
apply the common crocuH powder, previously 
made into a paste with water. When dry, place 



it in an iron ladle, or on a common fire-shovel, 
over a clear fire for about 1 minute ; and when 
sufficiently cool, polish with a plate-brush. By 
this process a bronze similar to that on tea-urns is 
produced ; the shade depending upon the duration 
of the exposure to the fire. (Chemist, iii. 49.) 

II. By substituting finely-powdered plumbago 
for crocus powder in the above process, a beauti- 
ful, deep, and permanent bronze appearance is 
produced. 

III. Rub the medal with a solution of livers of 
sulphur, or sulphuret of potassium, then dry. This 
produces the appearance of antique bronze very 
exactly. 

IV. Dissolve 2 oz. of verdigris and 1 oz. of sal 
ammoniac in 1 pint of vinegar, and dilute the 
mixture with water until it tastes but slightly me- 
tallic, when it must be boiled for a few minutes, 
and filtered for use. Copper medals, &c., pre- 
viously thoroughly cleaned from grease and dirt, 
are to be steeped in the liquor at the boiling point, 
until the desired effect is produced. Care must be 
taken not to keep them in the solution too long. 
When taken out, they should be carefully washed 
in hot water, and well dried. Gives an antique 
appearance. 

V. (Chinese method/) Make a paste with 2 oz. 
each of verdigris and vermilion ; 5 oz. each of 
alum and sal ammoniac, all in fine powder, and 
vinegar q. s. ; then spread it over the surface of 
the copper, previously well cleaned 'and bright- 
ened, uniformly warm the article by the fire, and 
afterwards well wash and dry it, when, if the tint 
be not deep enough, the process may be repeated. 
The addition of a little blue vitriol inclines the 
color to a chesnut brown, and a little borax to a 
yellowish brown. Much employed by the Chinese 
for copper tea-urns. 

VI. Dissolve 1 oz. of sal ammoniac, 3 oz. cream 
of tartar, and 6 oz. of common salt, in 1 pint of 
hot water ; then add 2 oz. of nitrate of copper, dis- 
solved in j^ a pint of water ; mix well, and apply 
it repeatedly to the article, placed in a damp sit- 
uation, by means of a brush moistened therewith. 
Effect. Very antique. 

VII. Salt of sorrel \ oz. ; sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; 
distilled vinegar 2^ pints ; dissolve. As last. 

BRONZING, SURFACE. This term is ap- 
plied to the process of imparting to the surfaces of 
figures of wood, plaster of Paris, &.C., a metallic 
appearance. This is done by first giving them a 
coat of oil or size vaniish, and when this is nearly 
dry, applying with a dabber of cotton or a camel- 
hair pencil, any of the metallic bronze powders ; 
or the powder may be placed in a little bag of 
muslin, and dusted over the surface, and after- 
wards finished oft' with a wad of linen. The sur- 
face must be afterwards varnished. 

Paper is bronzed by mixing the powders up with 
a little gum and water, and afterwards burnishing. 

Iron castings may be bronzed by thorough 
cleaning, and subsequent immersion in a solution 
of sulphate of copper, when tiiey acquire a coat of 
the latter metal. They must be then washed in 
water. 

BROOM ASHES. Prep. Burn broom stalks 
and collect the ashes. Sometimes used as a diure- 
tic in droi)sy. 

BROOM COFFEE. Broom seeds, roasted 



BRO 



145 



BRO 



with a little butter and then ground. Use. As a 
substitute for coffee. 

BROOM, SALT OF. Obtained by dissolving 
broom ashes in water, filtering and evaporating. 
Remarks. Antacid, consists principally of carbon- 
ate of potassa. Sometimes used in dropsy. 

BROTH, (in Cookery.) Tlie liquor in which 
meat is boiled ; it is distinguished from soup by its 
inferior strength and quantity of seasoning, &.c. 
The general method of preparing broth is similar 
to that of soup, to which article the reader is re- 
ferred. 

BROWN DYE. The different shades of this 
dye vary from pale yellow and reddish brown, up 
to very dark brown, almost black, every shade of 
which, however, may be produced as tlie taste of 
the workman may dictate, by mixtures of reds and 
yellows with blues and blacks, or by simple dyes, 
which at once impart a brown, — as catechu, wal- 
nut rinds, or oxide of manganese. 

I. {For Wool.) a. Boil the cloth in a mordant 
of alum, and common salt dissolved in water, then 
dye it in a bath of logwood, to which a little green 
copperas has been added. The proportion of alum 
should be 2 oz., and of salt 1 oz., to ever}" pound 
of cloth. 

/3. Boil the goods in a mordant of alum and sul- 
phate of iron, then wince them through a bath of 
madder. Remarks. Tiie tint depends on the rel- 
ative proportions of the alum and copperas ; tjie 
more of the latter, the darker will be the dye. Tlie 
joint weight of the two should not exceed § of the 
weight of the wool. The best proportions are 2 
parts of alum and 3 of copperas. 

y. Give the wool a mordant of alum and tartar, 
then pass it through a madder bath, which will dye 
it red. It must now be run through a black bath 
of galls and sumach, or logwood, to which a little 
acetate or sulphate of iron has been added. 

5. Proceed to mordant the cloth as last, and dye 
in a madder bath, then remove it and add a little 
acetate or sulphate of iron, and again pass it 
through the bath, until the required tmt is pro- 
duced. 

s. Give the cloth alight blue ground with indigo, 
then give it a mordant with alum, wash in water, 
and run it through a bath of madder. 

?. Give the cloth a mordant of alum and tartar, 
then pass it through a madder bath, and afterwards 
through a bath of weld or fustic, to which a little 
iron liquor has been previously added. In this way 
every shade from mordore and cinnamon to dark 
chesnut may be dyed. 

jj. Boil 1 lb. of fustic chips for 2 hours, and pass 
the cloth through the bath for 1 hour, take it out 
and drain, then add 1^ oz. of green copperas, and 
J lb. of good madder, and pass the cloth again 
through the bath, until the proper tint is produced. 
This makes bronze browns, but by varying the 
proportion of the mordant, other shades may be 
produced. 

II. (For Silk.) a. Give the silk a mordant as 
before described, then dye in a bath made by mix- 
ing the equal parts of decoction of logwood, fustic, 
and Brazil wood. The shade may be varied by 
mixing the decoctions in different proportions. 
Brazil wood reddening, logwood darkening, and 
fustic yellowing, the tint. 

^. Dissolve 4 oz. of annotto and 1 lb. of pearl- 
19 



ash in boiling water, and pass the silk through it 
for 2 hours, then take it out, squeeze it well and 
dry ; next give it a mordant of alum, and pass it 
first through a bath of Brazil wood, and after- 
wards through a bath of logwood, to which a little 
green copperas has been added ; wring it out and 
dry ; afterwards rinse well. 

III. {For Cotton and Linen.) «. Give the 
pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and 
acetate of iron, and then dye them in a bath 
of madder, or madder and fustic. When the ace- 
tate of alumina predominates, the dye has an 
amaranth tint. The iron darkens it. 

/?. First gall the goods, then turn them for a 
short time through a black bath, next give them a 
mordant of sulphate of copper, and pass them 
through a decoction of fustic, afterwards through 
a bath of madder, and again through the solution 
of sulphate of copper ; drain, dry, and rinse well, 
then finish with a boil in soap and water. This 
gives a chesnut brown. 

y. First give a mordant of alum, then pass the 
goods through a madder bath, and next through a 
bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has 
been added. This gives a cinnamon brown. 

Remarks. Browns may be also dyed at once, 
by what are called substantive or direct dyes ; 
thus — 

I. Decoction of oak hark dyes wool a fast 
brown of various shades, according to the quantity 
emploj-ed. If the cloth be first passed through a 
mordant of alum, the color is brightened. 

II. Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes 
wool and silk a brown, which, like the preceding, 
is brightened by alimi. The older the liquor the 
better. 

III. Horse -chesnut peels also give a brown. 
A mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the bronze, 
and sugar of lead the reddish brown. 

IV. Catechu, or terra japonica, gives cotton a 
brown dye ; blue vitriol turns it on the bronze, and 
green copperas darkens it, when applied as a mor- 
dant, and the stuff dyed in the bath boiling hot. 
Acetate of alumina as a mordant brightens it. 
The French color, called " carmelite," is given 
with 1 lb. of catechu, 4 oz. of verdigris, and 5 oz. 
of sal ammoniac. 

V. Sulphate or muriate of manganese, dissolved 
in water with a little tartaric acid, gives the bronze 
tint called " solitaire." The stuff, after being 
passed through the solution, must be turned through 
a weak lye of potash, and afterwards through an- 
other of chloride of lime, to brighten and fix it. 

VI. Prussiate of copper gives a bronze or yel- 
lowish-brown to silk. The piece well mordanted 
with blue vitriol, may be passed through a solution 
of prussiate of potash. 

BROWN PIGMENTS. The principal and 
most useful of these are, umber and terra di sienna, 
both burnt and raw. Brown may also be made of 
almost any shade, by the admixture of blacks with 
reds and yellow, or with greens, in different pro- 
portions. 

BROWNING, (in Cookery.) A fluid prepar- 
ation used to color and flavor gravies, soups, &c. 

Prep. I. Melt 4 oz. of sugar in a fr}Mng-pan, or 
other convenient vessel, with water, add 1 oz. of 
butter, and continue the heat until the whole m 
turned quite brown ; then pour in 1 pint of poll 



BRU 



146 



BUG 



wine, stirring well all the time, and remove the 
pan from the fire. When the whole of the roasted 
sugar is dissolved, pour it into a bottle, and add i 
oz. each of bruised pimento and black pepper ; 6 
shalots cut small ; a little mace and finely-grated 
lemon-peel ; and a quarter of a pint of mushroom 
catsup. Digest for a week, occasionally shaking ; 
then strain through a piece of muslin, and preserve 
for use. 

II. Instead of port wine use water, and add a 
glass of spirits. 

III. Sugar coloring 1 pint ; salt i lb. ; mush- 
room catsup ^ pint ; add spice. 

IV. Lump sugar (powdered) 2^ lbs. ; salad oil 
i lb. ; heat in an iron vessel until quite brown, 
then add port wine 1 quart ; Cape wine 3 quarts ; 
shalots 6 oz. ; mixed spice 4 oz. ; black pepper 3 
oz. ; mace 1 oz. ; salt | lbs. ; lemon juice J pint ; 
catsup 1 quart. 

V. Good spirit, or sugar coloring, and mushroom 
catsup, of each 1 gal, ; Jamaica pepper, black pep- 
per, and shalots, of each 4 oz. ; cloves, cassia, and 
mace, bruised, of each | oz. ; boil in a covered 
vessel for 5 minutes, then digest for 14 days, and 
strain. 

BROWNING FOR GUN BARRELS. Prep. 
I. Mix 1 oz. each of aquafortis and sweet spirits 
of nitre ; 4 oz. of powdered blue vitriol ; 2 oz. of 
tincture of iron, and water, 1^ pint ; agitate until 
dissolved. Use. Rub this on the barrel, previously 
well polished, and afterwards cleaned oiF with whi- 
ting to remove the oil. Let it remain till the next 
day, then rub it off with a stiff brush. The liquid 
may be again applied until a proper color is pro- 
duced. When this is the case, wash in pearlash 
water, and afterwards in clean water, and then 
polish, either with the burnisher or with bees- 
wax ; or apply a coat of shellac varnish. (See 
below.) 

II. Blue vitriol and sweet spirits of nitre, of 
each, 1 oz. ; water 1 pint ; dissolve as last. 

III. Mix equal parts of butter of antimony and 
Bweet oil, and apply the mixture to the iron pre- 
viously warmed. 

Remarks. The varnish used for gun barrels, af- 
ter they are bronzed, is made by dissolving 1 oz. 
of shellac and one or two drachms of dragon's 
blood, in a quart of alcohol ; and filtering the so- 
lution through blotting paper into a bottle, which 
must be kept closely corked. 

BRUCINE. Syn. Brucia. Brucina. Vomi- 
CINA. A vegetable alkali, discovered by Pellctier 
and Cavcntou, in the bark of the Brucia an'ti- 
dysenterica, and afterwards combined with strych- 
nia in nux vomica. 

Prep. Digest ether on the powdered bark of 
brucia antidysonterica, to separate a fatty matter ; 
Btrain, add alcohol at 36*^ Baume ; digest, filter, 
evaporate to dryness ; dissolve the mass in water, 
add litjiiid subacctate of load ; filter, pass suli)hu- 
reted hydrogen gas through the clear liijuor ; filter 
again, and add calcined magnesia ; fitter again, 
wash the sediment very slightly with cold water, 
dry, digest in alcohol, filter, :uid distil off the spirit. 
To piu-ify the brucino, add a solution of oxalic 
acid, crystal!i/o, add a mixture of alcohol at •10'^ 
Baurae, and ether at G0°, to extract the coloring 
matter, then dissolve the oxululo of brucino in 
water, add calcined magnesia, filter ; digest the 



sediment in alcohol, filter, and let the spirit evap- 
orate by exposure to the air. 

Prop., Use, ^c. The crystals thus obtained are 
soluble in 850 parts of cold and 500 parts of boil- 
ing water. When added to the dilute acids until 
they are neutralized, brucia forms crystallizable 
salts, easily obtained by evaporation. Of these, 
the sulphate and bisulphate, the muriate, phos- 
phate, nitrate and binitrate, acetate, oxalate, anel 
some others have been examined. Most of these, 
especially the first three or four, are very soluble 
in water. Its physiological effects are similar to 
strychnia, but it is said to possess only yV of the 
strength of that alkali. According to Dr. Fuss 
and Professor Erdeman, it is not a distinct alka- 
loid, but a compound of strychnia and resin. Dose. 
^ gr. to 2 or 3 grs. daily, in the form of pills or 
solution. It is given in similar cases to those for 
which strychnia is prescribed : viz. paralysis, im- 
potence, and other affections df the nervous sys- 
tem. It is a violent poison. Its antidotes are the 
same as those for strychnia. Tests. Nitric acid 
gives it a fine red color, which is removed by sul- 
phureted hydrogen and sulphurous acid. Iodic 
acid, chloric acid, and chlorine, also turn it red. 

BRUCINE, PILLS OF. Prep. Brucia 2 
grains ; conserves of roses and liquorice powder, 
of each, 1 scruple; mix and divide into 16 pills. 
Dose. 1 to 6 daily, at first, gradually increasing 
the dose. 

BRUISES. Treat. These may be rubbed with 
a little opodeldoc or soap liniment ; or if the in- 
flammation be considerable, they may be washed 
with a little weak goulard water, or leeches may 
be applied to the part. 

BRYONIN. A peculiar bitter principle, ex- 
tracted from the white bryony or mandrake root. 
It is obtained from the expressed juice by' filtra- 
tion, evaporation to diyness, and re-solution in al- 
cohol. It is a drastic purgative and poisonous. It 
forms a yellowish white mass. 

BUBBLE AND SQUEAK, (in Cookery.) 
Prep. Cut slices from a cold round of beef; let 
them be fried quickly until brown, and put them 
into a dish to keep hot. Clean the pan from the 
fat ; put into it greens and carrots previously 
boiled and chopped small ; add a little butter, pep- 
per, and salt ; make them very hot, and put them 
round the beef with a little gravy. Cold pork 
boiled is a better material for bubble and squeak 
tlian beef, which is always hard ; in either case 
the slices should be very thin and lightly fried. 

BUGS. Various means have been proposed to 
drive away these noctural marauders and enemies 
of " tired nature^s sweet restorer, balmy sleep." 
Among the most certain of these is cleanliness. 
The furniture brokers put articles infested with 
this insect population into a room with doors and 
windows fitting quite close, when they subject 
them to the fumes of burning sulphur or chlorine 
In the small way, poisonoUvS mixtures are fre- 
quently resorted to, with which the articles are 
washed. The following form is that usually em- 
ployed : — 

Corrosive sublimate and muriatic acid, of each, 
1 0/.. ; water 4 oz. Dissolve, then ;uld turpentine 
and decoction of tobacco, of each, } of a pint. 
Mix. 

*j^* For the decoction of tobacco, boil 2 oz. of 



BUR 



147 



BUT 



tobacco in a pint of water. This mixture must 
be applied with a paint brush. Caution. This 
wash is a " deadly poison .'" 

The following extract may be of assistance to 
persons interested in tlie matter: — '"These pests 
exist only in dirty houses. A careful housewife or 
servant will soon completely destroy them. The 
surest method of destruction is to catch them in- 
dividually when they attack the person in bed. 
When their bite is felt, instantly rise and light a 
candle and capture them. This may be trouble- 
some, but if there be not a great number, a few 
nights will finish them. When there is a largo 
number, and they have gained a lodgment in the 
timbers, take the bed in pieces, and fill in all the 
apertures and joints with a mixture of soft soap 
and Scotch snufF. A piece of wicker-work, called 
a bug-trap, placed at the head of the bed, forms a 
receptacle for them, and then they may be daily 
caught till no more are left. Fumigations are 
very dangerous, and rarely effectual, therefore at- 
tempt no such project. Oil-painting a wall is a 
sure means of excluding and destroying them." 
(Chamber's Information for the People, No. 91, p. 
653.) 

BUNION. Cause and Treat. The bunion, 
or swelling on the ball of the great toe, is pro- 
duced by the same cause as the corn — pressure 
and irritation by friction. The treatment recom- 
mended for corns will succeed in cases of bunions ; 
but in consequence of the greater extension of~lhe 
disease, the cure of course is more tedious. When 
a bunion is commencing, it may be effectually 
stopped by poulticing, and then opening with a 
lancet ; but this requires caution, and should be 
performed with care. 

BUNS. Prep. I. (Cross Buns.) To flour ^ 
lbs., add sifted sugar ^'Ib., and a little coriander 
seed, cassia, and mace, powdered fine, then make 
a paste with butter ^ lb., dissolved in hot milk i a 
pint, work in 3 tablespoonfuls of yeast and a little 
salt ; set it before the fire for an hour to rise, then 
make it into buns, and again set them before the 
fire on a tin for half an hour ; lastly, brush them 
over with warm milk, and bake them to a nice 
brown in a itioderate oven. 

II. (Madeira.) Butter 8 oz. ; 2 eggs ; flour 
1 lb. ; powdered sugar 6 oz. ; half a nutmeg, 
grated ; powdered ginger and caraway seeds, each 
1 teaspoonful ; work well together, then add sherry 
wine 1 glassful, aiid as much milk as required. 
Bake in tins in a quick oven. 

III. (Plain.) a. Flour 2 lbs.; butter i lb.; 
sugar 6 oz. ; a little salt, powdered caraway and 
ginger ; make a paste with yeast, 4 spoonfuls, and 
warm milk a sufficient quantity, then proceed as 
in No. I. 

b. To the last add currants, well washed, \ lb. 

IV. (Rich.) Dried and wanii flour 3 lbs. ; pow- 
dered sugar 1 lb. ; butter '2\ lbs., melted and beat 
with rose water 4 oz. ; form into a light paste, 
with I of a pint of yeast, and place it for an hour 
to rise, then add a little candied lemon and orange 
peel, and 1 lb. of currants, and make the whole 
into buns ; set them before the fire for 40 minutes, 
then wash them over with milk, and put a little 
grated peel and a few caraway comfits on the top 
of each. 

BURGLARIES, TO PREVENT. " In ad- 



dition to the usual precautions of locks and bolta, 
alarum bells and firearms, three things have been 
found eflicacious in preserving houses from nightly 
depredators. 1st. A light in the upper part of 
the house. 2d. A small dog, in a room on the 
ground floor, which offers the means of its running 
into a place of safety from its enemies : not to be 
fed too high, and allowed to sleep by day. 3d. 
Some ashes fresh from the fireplace spread before 
the door, underneath the window or other place. 
Thus the thieves' shoes will creak, the dog will be 
roused and bark, and the fear of detection by the 
approach of the light, will deter rogues of common 
feeling. At least, should they enter, the dog can- 
not be readily come at to be slain ; and the scuffle 
occasioned by effecting this necessary prelude to 
robbery, will, in almost all cases, promote inter- 
ruption from within or without." 

BURNS AND SCALDS. These are too weU 
known to require description. 

Treat. When the injury is merely superficial, a 
little creosote may be applied to the part, and if it 
be a scald, the vesicle may be first pierced with a 
needle, and the aqueous fluid gently squeezed out- 
When creosote is not to be procured, a liniment 
formed with equal parts of soft soap, basilicon oint- 
ment, oil of turpentine and water may be used in- 
stead. When the part is very hot and painful, a 
poultice may be applied, on the surface of which 
a few drops of creosote, or the liniment, should be 
spread with a knife. This treatment will generally 
allay the pain, after which a dressing of any sim- 
ple ointment may be adopted. In many severe 
flesh burns which I have had the misfortune to 
receive, I poured creosote plentifully over the 
part, which produced scarcely any smarting or 
pain, as is frequently asserted, whilst it removed 
the burning sensation that previously existed, and 
the charred surface assumed a dry scabby appear- 
ance, which, by dressing with simple ointment, 
soon came off" and left the part beneath both sound 
and healthy. If a poultice be applied, it is best to 
keep it on until the next day, when in general a 
little spermaceti ointment spread on a bit of soft 
linen may be used instead. Plunging the part into 
cold water immediately on the receipt of an injury 
of this kind will frequently prevent any further 
remedy being necessary. In all cases of bums 
and scalds, it is necessary to observe that if fever 
should ensue, laxative medicines, as castor oil and 
epsom salts, should be administered. 

BURNING LENS, CHEAP AND SIMPLE. 
Take two circular discs of plate glass, of the re- 
quisite dimensions, and place one at each end of a 
shallow tube ; an inch long will be quite sufficient 
for any size ; they are kept in their position very 
firmly by means of screw clamps, in an analogous 
manner to the two lenses for showing Newton's 
concentric colored rings. To the tube is fitted a 
short tube with a stop-cock attached ; to the end 
of this tube a condensing syringe is fixed, and the 
cavity between the glasses filled with turpentine, 
varnish, bleached oil, or any other suitable sub- 
stance of a high refractive power. When the 
glasses have attained the requisite degree of curve- 
ture, the stopcock may be shut, the syringe screwed 
oflT, and the fluid lens (for such in reality it is) 
mounted for use. (Chemist, iii. 50.) 

BUTTER. QaaL, ^c. This article is perhaps 



BUT 



148 



BUT 



in more general use, and subject to greater varia- 
tions in quality, than any other substance employed 
in domestic economy. It is an aliment consumed 
by every grade of society, and, when good, ap- 
pears not only to be wholesome, but extremely nu- 
tritious. " Some writers inveigh against the use 
of butter as universally pernicious ; but they might 
with equal reason condemn all vegetable oils, 
which form a considerable part of diet in the 
southern climates, and seem to have been bene- 
ficially intended by nature for that purpose. But- 
ter, like every other oily substance, has doubtless 
a relaxing quality, and if long retained in the 
stomach, is liable to become rancid ; but, if eaten 
in moderation, it will not produce those effects. It 
is, however, improper in bilious constitutions. The 
worst consequence produced by butter when eaten 
with bread is, that it obstructs the discharge of the 
saliva in the act of mastication or chewing ; by 
which means the food is not so easily digested. 
To obviate this effect, it would be a commendable 
practice at breakfast, first to eat some dry bread, 
and chew it well, till the salivary glands were ex- 
hausted, and afterwards to eat it with butter. By 
these means such a quantity of saliva might be 
carried into the stomach as would be sufficient for 
the purpose of digestion." 

Pur. Butter is frequently adulterated, as the 
following quotation will show : — Butter is sent over 
from Ireland, mixed, full one half, with bad flour, 
oatmeal, and pea flour, with a large quantity of 
8alt and water, and is sold in London, Liverpool, 
Glasgow, and Edinburg, &c. &c. &c. ; and thus 
the pubhc, and especially the poor, are defrauded. 
The trick is concocted between the Irish factors 
and our dealers. The samples we have seen are 
sad evidences of human depravity. We are alive 
to the scheme, and shall send any samples we may 
get, when tested, to the source whence are to be 
expected the remedy of the nuisance and the pun- 
ishment of the wretches of such baseness. (Che- 
mist, ii. 64.) 

Rancid butter, and butter in a state of decompo- 
sition, is capable of producing dangerous symptoms 
when eaten. Two cases of poisoning, by bad butter, 
are detailed in the Jour, de Chimie Med. for 1842. 

Choice. Fresh butter should have a pleasant 
butyrous smell, and be of an equal color through- 
out its substance. If it smell sour, the buttermilk 
has not been well washed out, and if it be streaked 
or veiny it is probablyjnixed with stale butter. A 
good way to try butter is to insert a knife into it, 
which should not smell rancid and unpleasant 
when drawn out. 

Process of making Butter. I. Mrs. Run- 
delVs Instructions for malm^g Butter. " During 
summer, skim the milk when the sun has not 
heated the dairy ; at that season it should stand for 
butter 24 iiours without skimuiing, and 48 in win- 
ter. Opposite the cream-pot in a very cold cellar, 
if your dairy is not more so. If you cainiot churn 
daily, change it into scalded fresh jwts ; but never 
omit churning twice a-week. If possible, put the 
churn in a thorough air ; and if not a barrel one, 
set it in a tub of water two feet deep, which will 
give firmness to the butler. When the butter is 
come, pour off* the buttermilk, and i)ut the butler 
into a fresh scalded pan, or tub which has been 
•landing in cold water. Pour wutor on it, and let 



it lie to acquire some hardness before you work it 
then change the water, and beat it with flat boardfi 
so perfectly that not the least taste of the butter- 
milk remain, and that the water, which must be 
often changed, shall be quite clear in color. Then 
work some salt into it, weigh, and make it into 
forms ; throw them into cold water, in an earthen 
pan and cover made of queen's ware. You will 
then have very nice and cool butter in the hottest 
weather. It requires more working in hot than in 
cold weather ; but it neither should be left with a 
particle of buttermilk, nor a sour taste, as is some- 
times done." 

II. (Dumbarton method.) The cream is put into 
the churn, previously well cleaned out, and worked 
until the butter separates, when the latter is put 
into a clean vessel, and a corn sickle is drawn 
several times" crosswise through it, to extract any 
hairs tliat may adhere to it. This operat-on is per- 
formed in cold spring water, and is folk, wed by 
thoroughly washing it therein ; 10 oz. of salt are 
now added to every stone-weight of butter, and it 
is well mixed up. In summer 1 oz. more salt is 
used, and in winter 1 oz- less. It is next made 
into forms, or packed in perfectly sound kits. 

III. (Russian method.) The sweet milk is gently 
simmered for 15 minutes, and then churned in the 
usual manner. 

IV. (Devonshire method.) This consists in 
scalding the milk in copper pans over a charcoal 
fire, and collecting the cream as soon as it has 
risen. It is then churned in the usual way. Re- 
marks. Without care the cream is apt to absorb 
some of the fumes from the charcoal, which impart 
a peculiar taste to the butter. 

BUTTER, CLARIFIED. Prep. Melt fresh 
butter by placing it in a vessel set in a water bath, 
let it settle, and pour off" the clear into an earthen- 
ware basin or pot, set in cold water, to cool it as 
quickly as possible, without letting it crystallize. 
It keeps a long time without becoming rank. 

BUTTER, MELTED, (in Cookery.) Prep. 
Beat up about 1 oz. of flour with 4 oz. of butter in 
the cold, until it be evenly and thoroughly mixed, 
then add 4 or 5 tablespoonfuls of milk, (hot,) and 
put the whole into a small saucepan, and continue 
shfiking it, all in one direction, until it simmers ; 
after 1 minute remove it from the fire for use. 

BUTTER, HONEY. Prep. Well mix 2 oz. 
of the finest Narbonne honey with 1 lb. of good 
butter. Use. As a delicacy for children, or sick or 
aged persons. 

BUTTER OF CACAO. This is obtained from 
the nut by bruising it and boiling it in water. On 
the latter cooling, the oil floats and is skimmed off". 
Use, ^'C. As connnonly met with it has the con- 
sistence of butter, hence its name. It is much 
used in perfumery and for burning in lamps. When 
mixed with a little caoulchoucine, or distilled spirit 
of Indian rubber, it loses its concrete form, and 
assumes the limpidity of common oil, at the same 
time that its illuminating power is vastlv increased. 

JUJTTER OF NUTMEGS. This is collected 
from the surface of the water in the still, after the 
distillation of the essential oil of nutmegs. 

BUTTER OF ROSES. Prep. By distilling 
damask roses. It s(^parates slowly from the wa- 
ter. It has but little snuMl, and is consequently 
used to dilute the odor of musk, ambergris, and civet 



BUT 



149 



CAB 



BUTTER OF WAX. Prepared by distilling 
bees' wax. A factitious kind is made. 

BUTTER, ORANGE. Prep. I. Beat together 
6 eggs, 2 oz. of powdered sugar, 4 oz. of butter, 2 oz. 
of blanched almonds, and a little orange flour water. 

II. Beat together, until perfectly united, 1 lb. of 
butter and 4 oz. of sirup of orange peel. Use. 
Eaten as a delicacy. 

Remarks. Lemon butter is made in a similar 
manner. 

BUTTER, TO PRESERVE OR CURE. 
Proc. I. Melt the butter in well glazed earthen 
pans, at a heat not exceeding 18U° in a water 
bath, and keep it heated, skimming it from time to 
time, until the butter becomes quite transparent, 
then pour off the clear into another vessel, and cool 
it as quickly as possible, by surrounding it with 
cold water or ice. 

Remarks. The above is the method of preserv- 
ing butter employed by the Tartars who supply 
the Constantinople market, and in this state it may 
be preserved perfectly fresh for 6 months, if kept 
in a close vessel and a cool place. This plan re- 
ceived the approval of Thenard, as well as Mr. 
Eaton ; the latter states that butter melted by the 
Tartarian method and then salted by ours, will 
keep good and fine -tasted for two years. Any of 
the followmg methods of salting may be adopted. 

II. Mix well together 1 oz. ,each of saltpetre 
and white sugar, and 2 oz. of the best Spanish 
great salt, all in very fine powder, then add 1 oz. 
of this mixture to every pound of butter, and tho- 
roughly incorporate them together. The butter 
thus prepared is then to be tightly pressed into clean 
glazed earthenware vessels, so as to have no va- 
cuities. Remarks. This is the plan recommended 
by Dr. Anderson, who declares that butter so pre- 
pared will keep in a cool place for years, and will 
bear a voyage to the East Indies, if packed so as 
not to 7nelt. 

This butter does not taste well before it has 
stood for a fortnight or three weeks, after which it 
acquires a rich marrow flavor, which no other but- 
ter ever possesses. Any good well-made fresh 
butter, free from buttermilk, will succeed by tliis 
method, but the application of it to butter clarified 
by the Tartarian plan, as described above, pro- 
duces an article that will keep longer good than 
butter cured by any other process yet discovered. 
The best method to preserve butter from the air, 
is to fill the pots to within an inch of the top, and 
to lay on it common coarse-grained salt, to the 
depth of ^ an inch or { of an inch, and then to 
cover the pot up with any flat article that may be 
convenient. The salt by long keeping will run to 
brine, and form a layer on the top of the butter, 
which will effectually keep out the air, and may 
at any tune be very easily removed by turning the 
pot on one side. 

III. Fresh butter 16 lbs.; salt 1 lb. 

IV. Fresh butter 18 lbs. ; salt 1 lb. ; saltpetre 
1^ oz. ; honey or fine brown sugar 2 oz. 

BUTTER, RANCID. This may be restore^ 
by melting it m a water bath with some coarsely- 
powdered animal charcoal, (which has been tho- 
roughly freed from dust by sifting,) and strainmg 
tlnrough clean flannel. 

BUTTER OR MILK, TO REMOVE THE 
TURNIP FLAVOR FROM. When cows are 



fed on turnips or cabbages, the milk, and conse- 
quently the butter, acquires a disagreeable flavor 
This is said to be removed by either of the following 
methods : " When the milk is strained into the 
pans, put to every G gallons 1 gallon of boiling water 
Or dissolve 1 oz. of nitre in a pint of spring water, 
and put a \ pint to every 15 gallons of milk. Or, 
when you churn, keep back a ^ pint of the sour 
cream, and put it into a well-scalded pot, into 
which you are to gather the next cream ; stir that 
well, and do so with every fresh addition." 

BUTTERMILK. QuaL, ^c. If the butter be 
prepared from sweet cream, the buttermilk left 
from the operation is not only very delicious, but 
exceedingly wholesome and nutritious. Buttermilk, 
when not sour, is very good to eat with fruit, pud- 
dings, and cakes. It is said to possess the property 
of allaying the nervous irritability induced by ex- 
cessive tea-drinking. 

BUTTON GILDING. Proc. The buttons are 
formed of common brass, either by casting or turn- 
ing, when they are polished oflT in the lathe, and 
thrown into a pan with an amalgam of gold, and as 
much aquafortis, diluted with water, as will wet 
them all over. Here they are well stirred up, un- 
til they assume a white appearance, resembling 
silver, when they are taken out and washed well 
with clean water. They are then submitted to a 
sufficient heat in a suitable apparatus, until the 
mercury is volatilized, which is collected for future 
operations. The buttons are next cooled and well 
tossed and rubbed about with a painter s brush ; 
and, lastly, burnished by washing them well with 
beer or ale grounds. 

BUTYRIC ACID. An oily acid obtained by 
Chevreul from butter ; hence its name. 

It may be procured from the butyrate of baryta 
or magnesia, by adding a little sulphuric acid, in 
quantity not quite sufficient to decompose the 
whole of the salt ; filter and distil the clear liquor, 
when the product will be butyric acid, from which 
the water may be removed by chloride of calcium. 

BUTYRATE OF BARYTA. Prep. Sapo- 
nify butter with boiling caustic alkali, and decom- 
pose it by adding a solution of tartaric acid ; filter 
and distil, neutralize the distilled liquor by adding 
hydrate of baryta, and evaporate ; the first crys- 
tals that form are caprate of baryta ; the next ca- 
proate of baryta ; and the last of all butyrate of 
baryta. The latter salt is very soluble in water, 
and hence is easily separate^ from the others. Used 
for making butyric acid. 

BUTYRINE. An oily fluid obtained by Chev- 
reul from butter. Prep. Keep clarified butter in 
a porcelain vessel, at a heat of 66° for some days, 
carefully collect the oily portion which separates, 
and agitate it with an equal weight of alcohol of 
0-796 for 24 hours, then pour off" the clear and 
evaporate, treat the oily residuum with a little car- 
bonate of magnesia to remove any free acid, and 
wash off* the butyrate formed with water ; next 
heat the remaining fatty matter in alcohol, filter 
and evaporate to obtain the butyrine. 

BUXINE. An alkaline substance detected by 
M. Faure in the Buxus sempervirens. 

CABBAGE. Qual. This common esculent 
forms an agreeable and wholesome addition to ani- 
mal food, the grossness of which it tends to cor« 



CAD 



150 



CAK 



rect. It has, however, a greater tendency lo pu- 
trefaction than most other vegetable substances, 
and emits, during this state, a very disagreeable 
effluvium, strongly resembling that evolved by ani- 
mal matter in a state of decomposition. It should 
therefore be eaten only when freshly cooked, and 
the unconsumed portion, as well as the water in 
which it was boiled, should be at once thrown 
away. The " concentrated perfume of cabbage- 
water" is aptly alluded to by Dickens, in his 
" Martin Chuzzlewit," as symbolical of a fsetor 
of the worst class. So far, however, from induc- 
ing a putrid disposition in the body, cabbage has, 
on the contrary, the very opposite effect. 

CABBAGES, PRESERVATION OF. Proc. 
Cut them so that they may have about 2 inches 
of stem left below the leaves, scoop out the pith as 
far down as a small knife will reach, then suspend 
them, by means of a cord, exactly perpendicular, 
but in an inverted position, and daily fill up the 
hollow part of the stem with clean cold water. It 
is stated, that by this method, cabbages, cauliflow- 
ers, brocoli, celery, &c., may be preserved for 
some time in a cool place ; it affords an easy 
means of keeping a supply of green vegetables 
during a severe winter. 

CADMIUM. A whitish volatile metal, some- 
what resembling tin, discovered by Stromeyer, as- 
sociated with zinc. 

Prep. I. Dissolve the ore of cadmium in an ex- 
cess of dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid, and pass 
sulphureted hydrogen through the solution, which 
will throw down the metal in combination with 
sulphur. Dissolve the precipitate in nitric acid, 
and evaporate to dryness ; dissoh'e in water, and 
precipitate with carbonate of ammonia in excess ; 
collect the powder, mix it with charcoal, and heat 
it to redness. Metallic cadmium will sublime. 
(Stromeyer.) 

II. Dissolve the ore as above, place the solution 
in a platinum capsule, and insert therein a piece 
of metallic zinc. The cadmium will soon be found 
firmly adherent to the sides of the capsule, and 
may be separated, washed, and dried. 

Prop., ^c. Cadmium unites with oxygen, form- 
ing an oxide, which may be prepared by heating 
to redness the precipitate thrown down in the pre- 
ceding process, on the addition of carbonate of am- 
monia. It has a fine orange color, and has been 
proposed as a pigment. With sulphur it forms a 
sulphuret, which is found in zinc blende, and may 
also be formed artificially, by passing sulphureted 
hydrogen through a solution of cadmium, or by 
melting its elements together. It has been pro- 
posed as an orange-red pigment. With chlorine 
it forms a chloride, which may be made by dis- 
solving its oxide in muriatic acid, evaporating and 
crystallizing. With iodine it forms an iodide, 
which may be made in the same way as iodide of 
zinc. With phosphorus it forms a phosphuret, 
which may be prepared by the direct union of its 
elements. With the acids it forms salts, most of 
which may bo made by dissolving the hydratcd 
carbonate, thrown down by carbonate of ammo- 
nia, in the acids, or by donbh* dcconjposition. The 
sulphate has been used by surgeons to reniovo 
specks from the eyes. Thousands of pounds of 
cadmium are yearly wasted at the zinc works, 
which might bo easily collected. 



CAFFEIC ACID. A white powder, discover, 
ed by Runge in coffee. When heated, it yields 
the aromatic odor of the roasted berry. Pfaff de- 
clares that the aroma of coffee is dependent on the 
volatilization, or rather, the decomposition of thia 
acid. 

CAFFEIN. Syn. Caffeine. Theine. Gua- 
RANiNE. A peculiar principle, originally discover- 
ed by Robiquet in coffee, and confirmed by Pel- 
letier, Caventou, and Pfaff. 

Prep. Boil bruised raw coffee in water, and add 
acetate of lead, to throw down the extractive and 
coloring matter, then precipitate the excess of lead 
with sulphureted hydrogen, filter, and evaporate 
by a gentle heat. Dissolve the residuum in boil- 
ing water, or alcohol, agitate with freshly-burnt 
animal charcoal, filter, evaporate, and crystallize. 
Redissolve in hot alcohol, from which it may be 
obtained in white, shining, silky filaments. 

Prop. Scarcely soluble in cold, but freely so in 
hot water, and in alcohol. Tastes slightly bitter. 
With sulphuric and muriatic acids it forms crystal- 
lizable compounds. 

Remarks. Caffein was originally thought to 
be a principle peculiar to coffee, but the researches 
of Pfaff and Liebig have shown that it also occurs 
in tea, and guarana ; and, consequently, that 
theine, caffeine, and guaranine are in reality one 
and the same thing. It is a remarkable fact that 
both tea and coffee contain this substance, and 
that both of them are used by whole nations as a 
refreshment. Liebig, in his late work on " Animal 
Chemistry and Physjology," has shown the simi- 
larity of composition between caffeine and taurine, 
one of the constituents of bile ; and gives it as his 
opinion, that it assists in the production of the lat- 
ter, and thus facilitates the process of respiration. 

CAINCIC ACID. An acid principle, discover- 
ed by Pelletier and Caventou in the bark of the 
cainca root, obtained from Brazil. It is extracted 
by aloohol, has a bitter taste, and is crystallizable. 

CAKES. (In the Art of the Pastry-cook, 
Baker, &c.) A species of fancy bread or trifle, 
too well known to require description. 

General observations on cake-making. Before 
proceeding to the operation of cake-making, the 
various materials employed therein should undergo 
a certain amount of preparation. For this purpose 
every article should be got ready one hour previous- 
ly to their being wanted, and should be placed be- 
fore the fire, or upon a stove, that they may be- 
come gently heated, without which it will be im- 
possible to produce good cakes. The ^^our should 
be thoroughly dried, and well warmed. The cur- 
rants should bo nicely washed in a liair sieve, 
wiped dry in a cloth, and then set before the fire 
Before use they must be dusted over with a little 
flour. The sugar should bo rubbed to a fine pow- 
der, and passed through a sieve. The eggd 
should be well beaten in a basin, and strained. 
The butter should bo melted, by being placed in 
a basin, set in hot water, and afterwards well 
beaten up with a little warm milk. The lemon- 
peel should be cut very thin, and beaten in a 
mortar to a paste or powder, with lump-sugar. 
The caraways, ginger, and other similar flavoring 
ingredients, are best used in the form of a fine 
powder, or under that of an essence, made by di- 
gesting them in spirits of wuxe ; the former are. 



CAK 



151 



CAK 



however, frequently used whole. Tlie 7nilk and 
toater should be each of a good warmth. After 
all these things are ready, they should be put into 
a pan, one after another, in proper order, and well 
beaten up, as the lightness of the cakes will be 
thereby increased. In plum-cakes, if a little yeast 
be added after the butter, and the mass be allowed 
to rise a httle, and then again well kneaded, not 
only less butter and eggs may be used, but the 
product will be much lighter. It is therefore a 
great improvement in various kinds of cakes, to 
introduce a little yeast, even where it is not custo- 
mary to do so. Good stale bread, well soaked in 
hot milk or water, and then beaten to a paste, and 
passed through a fine sieve, forms an excellent 
thing to mix up the ingredients with, and produces 
a light and very nutritious cake. Cakes wetted 
up with milk are richer, but do not keep so well 
as those without it: they get stale sooner. 

Pies. Cakes keep best in tin canisters ; wooden 
boxes, unless well seasoned, are apt to give them 
a disagreeable taste. Brown paper should be 
avoided for the same reason. 

CAKES, AL:\I0ND. Prep. I. Take sweet 
almonds, flour, and powdered sugar, of each \ lb., 
eggs 7 in number, and the outside yellow peel of 
4 lemons, shredded small. Pound the almonds, 
previously blaiK;hed, until they are very smooth, 
adding gradually the sugar and lemon-peel, then 
take them out, add the eggs, and beat the whole 
until it be as white as sponge paste ; next add 
the flour, work well, put it into well-buttered 
moulds, and bake in a slack oven, with 8 or 10 
thicknesses of paper under them and one over 
them. 

II. Almonds 1 lb. ; sugar ^ lb. ; rose, or orange- 
flower water, \ pint ; flour i lb. ; eggs 3 in num- 
ber, as above. Remarks.- Some persons ice these 
cakes with powdered sugar, beat up with a little 
white of egg. 

CAKES, BANBURY. Prep. Work butter 1 
lb. into the same weight of dough, made for white 
bread, as in making puff" paste, then roll it out 
very thin, and cut it into oval pieces, or as the 
cakes are wanted. Mix some good moist sugar 
with an equal weight of currants, and wet them 
with brandy, then put a little upon each piece of 
paste ; close them up, and place them on a tin 
with the closed side downwards, and bake them. 
Flavor some powdered sugar with candied peel, 
grated, or essence of lemon, and sift a little over 
the cakes as soon as they come out of the oven. 

CAKES, BATH. Prep. Mix well together 
^ lb. of butter, 1 lb. of flour, 5 eggs, and a cupful 
of yeast. Set the whole before the fire to rise, 
which effected, add 4 oz. of finely-powdered sugar, 
and 1 oz. of carawaj'-s ; roll the paste out into little 
cakes. Bake them on tins. 

CAKES, BENTON TEA. Prep. Make a 
paste with flour 1 lb., butter 4 oz., and milk suf- 
ficient ; roll it out very thin, cut it into shapes, 
and bake on a hot hearth or slow oven-plate. 

II. To the last add 4 tablespoonfuls of yeast, 
and prick the cakes all over with a fork. 

CAKES, CHEESE. Prep. Curdle some new 
milk previously warmed, with rennet, drain the 
curd in a linen bag, then beat it as fine as butter, 
and add \ of its weight, each, of sugar and butter, 
6 eggs, some grated nutmeg, and a httle orange- 



flower or rose water ; work the whole well to- 
gether. 

II. (Almond.) To the above add as much 
blanched almonds, beaten to a smooth i)aste, as 
there is butter, along with an equal weight of ma- 
caroni. Beat well together. 

III. (Lemon.) To the first form add lemon-peel 
grated fine, or a little essence of lemon. 

CAKES, DIET. Prep. Dissolve sugar 1 Ih. 
in milk ^ pint, add 6 eggs, and whisk to a full 
froth, then cautiously stir in flour 1 lb., beat it for 
1 hour, and immediately bake it in a quick oven. 
It may be baked whole or divided into small forms. 

CAKES, DIET BREAD. Prep. Make a 
paste with equal parts of fine flour and powdered 
sugar, 6 eggs, and the juice and rind (grated) of 1 
lemon. Bake in a slow oven. 

CAKES, DROP. Prep. Eggs 1 dozen ; rose- 
water 1 tablespoonful ; powdered sugar ^ lb. ; beat 
them together for 1 hour, then add A lb. of fine 
flour, and ^ oz. of caraways. Drop it on wafer 
paper, and bake. 

CAKES, GINGETl. Prep. Make a paste 
with sugar 1 lb. ; powdered ginger 4 oz. ; flour 2 
lbs. ; water 1 pint ; butter ^ lb. ; and 8 caps of 
candied orange peel, grated ; form them into 
cakes, and prick them with a fork before baking 
them. 

CAKES, ICING FOR. Prep. .Beat the white 
of eggs to a full froth, with a little rose or orange- 
flower water ; then add, gradually, as much fine- 
ly powderefr sugar as will make it thick enough, 
beating it well all the time. Use. Dust the cake 
over with flour, then gently rub it ofi", lay on the 
icing with a flat knife, stick on the ornaments 
while it is wet, and place it in the oven for a few 
minutes to harden, but not long enough to dis- 
color it. 

CAKES, LEMON. Prep. Flour and sugar, 
of each 1 lb. ; eggs 1 dozen ; grated peal and juice 
of four lemons ; whisk the eggs to a high froth, 
then gradually add the rest. Bake in small oval 
tins, well buttered, and place six thicknesses of 
paper beneath each tin. Thinly ice them. 

CAKES, MARLBOROUGH. Prep. Beat 8 
eggs and 1 lb. of pounded sugar three-quarters of 
an hour ; then by degrees mix in 1 lb. of fine flour 
well dried ; add 2 oz. of caraway seeds, and bake 
in soup plates or tin pans, in a brisk oven. 

CAKES, PLAIN. Prep. I. Flour 4 lbs. ; cur- 
rants 2 lbs. ; butter ^ lb. ; caraway seeds ^ oz. ; 
candied lemon peel, grated, 1 oz. ; wet it up with 
milk, and ^ a pint of yeast. Let it rise well before 
baking. 

II. Baker's dough 2 lbs. ; currants 1 lb. ; butter 
^ lb. ; 3 eggs ; milk (hot) \ pint. As above. 

III. " The following is a receipt, for making a 
good plain cake, fit to be given to children at 
breakfast, instead of buttered bread. 

" Take as much dough as will make a quartern 
loaf, (either made at home or procured at the ba- 
ker's,) work into this a \ pound of butter, a | poimd 
of moist sugar, and a handful of caraway seeds 
When well worked together, pull into pieces the 
size of a golden pippin, and work it together again. 
This must be done three times, or it will be in 
Imnps, and hea\^ when baked." 

IV. (Rich.) Equal weights of flour, butter, sul- 
tana raisins, eggs, currants, and brown sugar^. 



CAK 



152 



CAK 



mixed up with milk, and seasoned with candied 
peel, nutmeg, &c. Bake in a quick oven. 

CAKES, PLUM. Prep. I. {Good.) Mix i lb. 
of butter in 3 lbs. of dry flour and 8 oz. of fine Lis- 
bon sugar ; add plums and currants, of each | lb., 
washed and dried, and some pimento, finely pow- 
dered. Put 3 spoonfuls of yeast into a Winchester 
pint ol new milk warmed, and mix it into a light 
dough with the above. Make it into a cake, and 
bake on a floured tin half an hour. 

IJ. {Excellent.) Beat 1 lb. of fresh butter with 
a strong wooden fork until it resembles cream ; add 
1 lb. of sifted sugar, and mix them very completely ; 
have ready the whites of 10 eggs beaten, and pour 
them into the butter and sugar ; then add the yelk 
of 18 eggs, also w^ell beaten, and beat them all up 
for 10 minutes. Take 1 lb. of flour, 2 oz. of pounded 
and sifted spices, viz. cloves, mace, cinnamon, nut- 
meg, and allspice, and mix them by degrees with 
the other ingredients, then beat the cake 10 minutes 
longer ; and when the oven is ready, add 1 lb. of 
currants, 4 oz. of sliced almonds, ^ lb. of raisins 
stoned and chopped, and a large glass of brandy. 
Bake the cake in a hot oven. When sufiiciently 
baked, let the oven cool, and afterwards put in the 
cake and allow it to remaui for several hours to 
dry. (Rundell.) 

III. {Rich.) Take fresh butter and sugar, of 
each 1 lb. ; of flour 1^ lb. ; of currants 2 lbs. ; a 
glass of brandy, 1 lb. of sweetmeats, 2 oz. of sweet 
almonds, 10 eggs, \ oz. each of allspice and cinna- 
mon. Melt the butter to a cream, and put in the 
sugar ; stir it till quite light, adding the allspice 
and pounded cinnamon ; in a quarter of an hour 
take the yelks of the eggs, and work them in, 2 or 
3 at a time ; and the whites of tlie same must by 
this time be beaten into a strong snow quite ready 
to work in, as the paste must not stand to chill the 
butter, or it will be heavy ; work in the whites 
gradually ; then add the orange peel, lemon, and 
citron, cut in fine stripes, and the currants, which 
must be mixed in well, with the sweet almonds ; 
then add the sifted flour and glass of brandy. Bake 
this cake in a tin hoop in a hot oven for 3 hours, 
and put 12 sheets of paper under it to keep it from 
burning. (Mackenzie.) 

CAKE, POUND. Prep. I. As the above ; but 
use 1 lb. each of all the ingredients, except the 
spices. 

II. Use equal parts of sugar, flour, currants, and 
sultana raisins, and half that quantity each of but- 
ter, brandy, and candied peel, with spices as re- 
quired. 

CAKES, PORTUGAL. Prep. Flour, pow- 
dered sufTiir, and fresh butter, of each 1 lb. ; work 
it well up tuilil it crumbles, tlicn add 10 eggs, cur- 
rants i 11)., and a little white wine. Bake it in 
small tiuH only half filled. 

CAKES, QUEEN. Prep. Mix 1 lb. each of 
dried flour, sifted sugar, washed clean currants, 
and bult(^r, with 8 eggs, beaten separately; beat 
the wiiole an hour ; butter iitlhi tins, teacups, or 
saucers, and bake liio batter in, only half filling 
them. Sift a little fine sugar over, just before you 
bake them. A little nutmeg, mace, and cinnamon 
are Honictimes added. 

CAKES, RATIFIA. Prep. B. at i lb. of 
sweet and J oz. of bitter ahnonds in fine orange, 
rOBO, or ratafia water ; mix in i lb. of fine pounded 



and sifted sugar with the same ; add the whites of 
4 eggs, well beaten, to it ; set it over a moderate 
fire in a preserving-pan ; stir it one way until it is 
pretty hot, and when a little cool form it into small 
rolls, and cut it into thin cakes : shake some flour 
lightly on them, give each a light tap, and put 
them on sugar papers ; sift a little sugar on them, 
and put them into a thorough slack oven. 

CAKES, ROUT. Prep. Mix together flour 2 
lbs. ; butter, sugar, and currants, of each 1 lb. ; 
wet them up with 3 eggs well beaten, ^ pint of milk, 
2 glasses of white wine, and 1 glass of brandy ; 
drop on a tin plate, and bake them. They are 
soon done. 

CAKES, SAVOY. Prep. To 1 lb. of fine 
sifted sugar put the yelks of 10 eggs, (have the 
whites in a separate pan,) and set it, if in summer, 
in cold water ; if there is any ice set the pan on it, 
as it will cause the eggs to be beat finer ; then beat 
the yelks and sugar well with . wooden spoon for 
20 minutes, and put in the rind oi a lemon grated ; 
beat up the whites with a whisk until they become 
quite stifl", and white as snow ; stir them into the 
batter by degrees, then add 1 lb. of well-dried flour. 
Finally, put it into moulds, and bake in a slack 
oven. 

CAKE, SEED. Prep. I. (Plain.) Mix \ peck 
of flour with ^ lb. of sugar, \ oz. of allspice, and a lit- 
tle ginger ; melt ^ lb. of butter with | pint of milk ; 
when just warm, put to it \ pint of yeast, and work 
up to a good dough. Let it stand before the fire a 
few minutes before it goes to the oven : add seeds, 
or currants ; bake an hour and a half 

II. {Good.) To the preceding add butter and 
sugar, of each ^ lb., and wet it up with milk pre- 
viously mixed with 6 eggs. 

III. {Rich.) Take of flour 1^ lb., well dried, 
butter and sugar, of each 1 lb., 8 eggs, and 2 oz. of 
caraway seeds, 1 grated nutmeg, and its weight in 
cinnamon. Beat the butter into a cream, put in 
the sugar, beat the whites of the eggs and the yelks 
separately, then mix them with the butter and su- 
gar. Beat in the flour, spices, and seed, a .ittle 
before sending it away. Bake 2 hours in a ouick 
oven. 

IV. {Scotch.) Eggs 9 in number ; sugar and 
butter, of each ^ lb. ; mix well together, then add 
a little cinnamon, grated nutmeg, and cloves, -J oz 
of caraway seeds, 1 lb. of candied citron, | lb. of 
candied orange peel, and i lb. of blanched almonds, 
pounded fine ; mix well ; then add flour 3 lbs., and 
brandy \ pint ; work well and bake it. 

CAKES, SHREWSBURY. Prep. Flour 3 
lbs. ; sugar 1 lb. ; a little cinnamon and nutmegs ; 
eggs 3 in number; a little rose water and melted 
butter, enough to make it into a dough. Roll it 
thin, and cut it into shapes. 

CAKES, SODA. Prep. Flour 1 lb.; bicar- 
bonate of soda ^ oz. ; sugar and butter, of each if 
lb. ; currants | lb. ; make a paste with milk, and 
add candied orange, lemon, or citron peel, or the 
fresh peels grated, according to fancy. Remarks. 
A ^ oz. of carbonate of magnesia, used instead of 
the soda, also makes good cakes, very suitable to 
delicate stomachs, especially if the candied peels 
be omitted. 

CAKE, SPONGE. Prep. 8 eggs, } lb. of 
lump sugar ; i lb. of flour ; \ pint of water ; the 
peel of a lemon : mix as follows : — Oveniiglit pan 



CAL 



153 



CAL 



a good-sized lemon thin, and put the peel into the 
water ; when about to make the cake, put the su- 
gar into a saucepan, pour the water and lemon 
peel to it, and let it stand by the fire to get hot. 
Break the eggs into a deep earthen vessel that has 
been made quite hot ; whisk the eggs for a few 
minutes with a whisk that has been well soaked in 
water ; make the sugar and water boil up, and 
pour it boiling-hot over the eggs ; continue to 
whisk them briskly for about a quarter of an hour, 
or till they become quite thick and white, which 
is a proof of their lightness. Have the flour well 
dried, and quite warm from the fire, just stir it 
lightly in, put the cake into tins, lined with white 
paper, and bake them immediately in a moderately 
hot oven. (Mrs. Rundell.) 

CAKES, STAINS FOR. Prep. I. (Red.) a. 
Boil ^ oz. of cochineal in powder, ^ oz. of cream of 
tartar, and a piece of alum as large as a pea in i a 
pint of water, for J^ an hour. 

iS. Shred beet root into a little water, let them 
stand a short time, then express the juice. 

y. Dissolve a few grains of carmine in spirits of 
hartshorn. This gives a fine color, and also tends 
to make the cake light. 

II. (White.) Use almonds, blanched and beat- 
en very fine ; or use cream. 

III. (Yelloio.) a- Use yelk of egg. 

(3. A little salFron, steeped in hot water. 

Y. A little turmeric, steeped in a little gin or hot- 
water. 

S. Infuse marygold or stertian flowers in hot 
water. 

IV. (Green.) The juice of spinach or beet leaves, 
obtained by pounding and expression. 

V. (Blue.) a. A little finely-pounded indigo 
diffused in water. 

/?. A few drops of liquid blue, added to water. 

y. The juice of mulberries, elderberries, privet 
berries, &c., to which a little salt of tartar has been 
added. 

5, An infusion of logwood, mixed with a little 
salt of tartar. 

£. The juice of any of the blue flowers. 

CAKES, TIPSY. Prep. Steep small sponge 
cakes in brandy, then cover them with grated al- 
monds and candied peel, or almonds cut into spikes 
and stuck in them ; pile them in a dish, surround 
them with a custard, and cover them with pre- 
serves, drained as dry as possible. 

CAKES, WIGG. Prep. Put i pint of warm 
milk to I lb. of fine flour, and mix in 2 or 3 spoon- 
fuls of light yeast. Cover it up, and set it before 
the fire 1 hour, in order to make it rise. Work 
into it 4 oz. each of sugar and butter, make it into 
cakes, or wiggs, with as httle flour as possible, 
and a few caraway seeds, and bake them quickly. 

CALAMINE. Syn. Calamina. Lapis Cala- 
MiNARis. Crude Carbonate of Zinc. Source and 
Prep. Native carbonate of zinc occurs in great 
abundance in various parts of England and Ger- 
many. For medicinal purposes, it is ground in 
mills until reduced to fine powder, and then sub- 
mitted to the process of elutriation, or washing over, 
as in the preparation of chalk. In this state it 
constitutes the " prepared calamine," (P. L.,) the 
" impure carbonate of zinc," (P. E.,) and the " la- 
pis calaminaris praeparatus," (P. D.) 

Prop., Use, ^c. It is drying and astringent ; 
20 



frequently used as a dusting nowder for children, 
for excoriations and ulcers, and as an ingredient in 
calamine cerate. It is also largely used in metal- 
lurgy to furnish zinc and to make brass. 

Pur. The article generally sold in the shops as 
lapis calaminaris, does not contain a particle of this 
substance. It is a mixture of heavy sulphate of 
baryta (cawk) and chalk, colored with American 
bole. Mr. Brett found it to contain 75§ to d7-5§ 
of sulphate of baryta. 

Tests. It shoidd be wholly or nearly soluble in 
dilute sulphuric acid, evolving only a few bubbles 
of gas during the solution. On the addition of li- 
quor of ammonia or potassa, a white precipitate is 
formed, which is redissolved in excess of the pre- 
cipitant. 

CALCINATION. Calx, Calcis, (in Ciieimis. 
TRY.) The operation of the fire on any substance, 
or the process of burning, is called calcination, and 
the residuum, or cinder, was formerly called the 
calx or calces, (plur.) Thus, — chalk, by burning, 
is converted into lime ; gijpsum into plaster of 
Paris; wood into charcoal, and bones into ivory- 
black. Proc. The method of conducting the pro- 
cess of calcination depends upon the nature of the 
body operated on. Many substances, for delicate 
experiments, are calcined over a spirit-lamp in a 
platina spoon, or crucible ; others in iron vessels or 
earthen crucibles, placed in a common furnace. 
When the action of the air would prove injurious, 
as in the manufacture of charcoal, the process is 
performed in close vessels or chambers. In some 
cases, the fuel is mixed with the article, and they 
are both burnt together, as in the manufacture of 
lime, in the common kiln, — in the roasting some 
kinds of ores, &c. The process of drying salts, or 
di-iving ofl" their water of crystallization, is also 
frequentty called calcination ; thus we have cal- 
cined copperas, alum, &c. 

CALCIUM. This is the metallic base of lime. 
It was discovered by Davy, and is prepared in the 
same way as the metal Barium. Prop. It is a 
whiter metal than either barium or strontium, and, 
by oxidation, yields quicklime. It also forms a 
peroxide with an additional dose of oxygen, Avhich 
may be made in the same way as peroxide of ba- 
rium. It unites with bromine, forming a bromide ; 
with fluorine, a. fluoride ; with iodine, an iodide ; 
and with phosphorus, a phosphoret of calcium. 

CALCIUM, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Hydro- 
chlorate OF Lime. Muriate of Lime. Prep. 
Saturate dilute muriatic acid with chalk or white 
marble ; then filter, evaporate, and cr^^stallize. 

Remark. The London College orders the salt to 
be evaporated to dryness, then placed in a crucible, 
fused with a quick fire, and poured out on a clean 
flat stone. When cold, it is to be b?:oken to pieces, 
and kept in close bottles. The Edin. Ph. directs 
white marble to be used, and the salt to be crys- 
tallized. The Dublin Ph. orders the residual liquor 
of the preparation of liquor of ammonia, from sal 
ammoniac and lime, to be filtered and evaporated. 
This is the cheapest method. 

Props., Use, ^c. From the strong afiinity this 
salt has for water, it is much used for drying gases 
and absorbing the water from ethereal and oily li- 
quids, in organic analyses. For this purpose it is 
used in the dry state. In its hydrous or crystal- 
lized form, it is much used in the preparation of 



CAL 



154 



CAL 



freezing mixtures with snow. In this case, the 
evaporation need only be conducted so far that the 
whole becomes a solid mass on removal from the 
fire. For both this and the last-mentioned use it 
is reduced to powder. It is also much used as a 
test for sulphuric acid, with which it produces a 
white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid ; in the 
rectification of alcohol, and for forming a water- 
bath with a high boiling point. As a medicine, it 
has been given in some scrofulous and glandular 
diseases, and has also been used as a bath in the 
same cases. 

CALCIUM, SULPHURET OF. Prep. I. {Bi- 
sulphuret.) Boil together for 1 hour slaked lime 
3 parts, sulphur 1 part, and water 20 parts ; set 
aside the solution (sediment and all) in a corked 
flask for a few days, when orange-colored prismat- 
ic crystals will be deposited. 

II. {Proto sulphur et.) Fuse equal parts of sul- 
phur and lime, or sulphate of lime and charcoal, 
mixed together in a crucible. 

Props., ^c. Acrid and caustic ; yields pure sul- 
phur on the addition of muriatic acid. Used to 
make precipitated sulphur. 

CALICO FURNITURE, PRESERVATION 
AND CLEANING OF. Curtains, bed-hangings, 
&c., when taken down for the summer, should be 
well shaken, to remove the loose dust ; after which 
they should be brushed with a long-haired clothes' 
brush ; and lastly, rubbed with pieces of stale 
crumb of bread which are not too hard. They 
may now be folded up and placed away in any dry 
closet or cupboard. 

While colored calico furniture is up, it should 
be screened as much as possible from the light, 
which makes it fade, and the dust which accumu- 
lates on it may be blown off with a pair of strong 
bellows. 

CALICO PRINTING. The art of producing 
figured patterns upon calico, by means of dyes or 
mordants topically applied by wooden blocks, cop- 
per-plates, or engraved cylinders, by which the 
goods are either directly printed or receive their 
color by being run through a coloring or mor- 
dant bath, when the dye is only produced upon 
that portion of the ground previously prepared 
for it. 

The mordants are thickened by some glutinous 
substance, as flour, starch, gum, &c., to render 
them adhesive and to prevent their spreadiiig. 

There are eight styles of calico-printing, each 
requiring a different method of manipulation. 

1. T lie madder, or chintz style. In this meth- 
od the mordants are applied to the white cloth, 
and the colors brought out in the dye-bath. In 
this way the patterns on permanent prints are pro- 
duced. 

2. The padding, or flaqnage style. Here the 
whole cloth is passed througli a bath of the mor- 
dant, and dill'cnMit mordauts afterwards printed 
on it before submitting it to the dye-hath. By 
this means the color of the ground and pattern is 
varied. 

3. The reserve style, in which white or colored 
spots are produced on a bhie ground, by covering 
those parts with a composition called resist paste, 
before passing it tlirougii the dye-batii, wliich is 
usually done cold. 

4. The discharge, or rongeant style, is the re- 



verse of the preceding ; it exhibits bright figurea 
on a dark ground. It is performed by printing with 
acidulous or discharge mordants before the cloth ia 
passed through the coloring-bath. 

5. China blue, or a style resembling that on 
blue stone-ware. 

6. The decoloring or enlavage style, which is 
performed by the topical application of chlorine oi 
chromic acid to the surface of the goods previouslj 
dyed, by which the color is discharged. (See Ban- 
danna.) 

7. Steam-color printing. A style in which a 
mixture of dye exti.^cts and mordants are printed 
on the calico, and afterwards exposed to the ac- 
tion of steam. 

8. Spirit-color printing. A method by which 
brilliant colors are produced, by a mixture of dye 
extracts and solution of tin, called by the dyers 
" spirits of tin." 

For further information on this subject, the 
reader is referred to Ure's " Dictionary of Arts, 
Manufactures, and Mines," where he will find the 
several processes of calico printing fully treated 
on. To enter largely into the subject in this work 
might amuse the reader, but would be of no prac- 
tical utility, as calico-printing is an art only prac- 
tised on the large scale, and by men who obtain 
their whole knowledge of it in the laboratories and 
printing rooms of the factories. 

CALOMEL. Syn. Chloride of Mercury. 

PrOTOCHLORIDE of do. SuBCHLORIDE of DO". 
DiCHLORIDE OF DO. MuRIATE OF DO. SuCMU- 
RIATE OF DO. SwEET MeRCURY. SwEET SuB- 

LiMATE. Sweet Precipitate. Hydrargyrum 
Chloridum, (P. L.) Chlorure de Mercure, 
(Fr.) VERsiissTEs-zucKsiLBER, {Gsr.) A com- 
pound of chlorine and metallic mercur)\ The 
word is probably derived from kuXos fair, and niXas 
black. 

Prep. There are two methods of preparing cal- 
omel, viz. by sublimation and by precipitation. 

I. {By sublimation.) 

a. (Process of the London Ph.) Ing. Mer- 
cury lb. iv ; sulphuric acid lb. iij ; chloride of so- 
dium lb. iss ; distilled water q. s. Proc. Boil half 
the mercury with the sulphuric acid in a proper 
vessel until the bipersulphate thus formed remains 
dry ; let it cool, and rub it with the remaining 
half of the mercury in an earthen mortar until 
they be perfectly mixed; next add tlie chloride of 
sodium, and again triturate, until globules are no 
longer visible, then sublime ; lastly, rub the subli- 
mate to a very fine powder, wash it with boiling 
distilled water, and dry it. The processes of the 
P. E. and P. D. are nearly similar. 

i8. (Process employed at Apothecaries^ Hall, 
London.) Mercury 50 lbs. ; sulphuric acid 70 
lbs. ; boil to dryness in a cast-iron vessel ; tritu- 
rate (i2 lbs. of the dry salt thus formed with 40^ 
lbs. of mercury, until the globules disappear, and 
add 34 lbs. of common salt, and again triturate 
until perfectly mixed ; then sublime. Grind the 
sublimate to an impalpable powder, well wash it 
with distilled water, and dry it. Prod. 95 to 100 
lbs. 

y. (JeweVs patent process.) This consists in 
keeping the receiver filled with steam, so that the 
calomel vapor is condensed in it under the form 
of an impalpable powder. 



CAL 



155 



CAL 



The annexed engraving represents M. O. Hen- 
ry's modification of this plan. 




o, Furnace. 

b, All e;irttienware retort, having a short and wide neck, 
containing the ingredieiits for making calomel. 

c, An earthen receiver having 3 tubukilures. 

d, A vessel containing water. 

e, A steam boiler. 

5. Soubeiran proposes the following method as 
better than that with steam, being easier to exe- 
cute and producing a beautiful preparation. The 
calomel is heated in an earthen tube in a furnace, 
and a current of air is directed uninterruptedly 
into the tube by means of a small ventilator. 
This sweeps away, as it were, the vapors of calo- 
mel, and in a straight tube will carry them a dis- 
tance of 60 feet, to avoid which the end of the 
recipient enters into water, by which means the 
calomel is moistened and falls down. (Compt. 
Rend., 1842, 665.) 

Remark. The long-continued action of steam 
on calomel in a state of minute division is attend- 
ed by the formation of a small quantity of corro- 
sive sublimate. (Rhighini.) 

II. {By precipitation.) Digest & parts of pure 
quicksilver in 8 parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-20 to 
1-25, until no more metal will dissolve ; then 
mix it with a boiling solution of 8 parts of com- 
mon salt in 32 times its weight of water, to which 
a little muriatic acid has been added. The pre- 
cipitate must be collected, well washed in distilled 
water, and dried. 

Remarks. The last is not only the best but the 
cheapest process for making calomel. That by 
sublimation is, however, generally adopted. To 
produce a fine article of calomel in the dry way 
is somewhat difl&cult, and the process frequently 
fails in the hands of unskilful operators. It is only 
lately, and that through the exertions of the per- 
severing and talented Soubeiran, that the French 
manufacturers have at all succeeded in producing 
calomel of equal quality to that made in England. 
This will show that much practical experience is 
required to ensure success. The solution of the 
quicksilver is best made in an iron vessel, and the 
sublimation should be conducted {preferably) in 
an earthenware retort, having a short but veiy 
wide neck, and fitted to a spacious receiver, hav- 
ing a large flat bottom, also of earthenware. A 
little cold water is put into the latter. For small 
quantities the heat may be appHed by means of a 
^nd-bath. The form above given for calomel, by 
precipitation, produces a large product, perfectly 
free from corrosive sublimate and subnitrate of 
mercury, and is consequently free from the objec- 
tions frequently raised against that mode of prep- 
aration. 

" The form in which ca'omel sublimes depends 
much upon the dimensions and temperature of the 



subliming vessels. In small vessels it generally 
condenses in a crystalline cake, the interior sur- 
face of which is often covered with beautiful 
quadrangular prismatic ctysfals, transparent, and 
of a texture somewhat elastic or horny. In this 
state it acquires, by the necessary rubbing into 
powder, a decidedly yellow or buff color, more or 
less deep, according to the degree of trituration it 
has undergone. If, on the contrary, the calomel 
be sublimed in a very capacious and cold receiver, 
it falls in an impalpable and perfectly white pow- 
der, which requires only one elutriation to fit it 
for use, it then remains perfectly colorless. 

" This accounts for the various appearances un- 
der which calomel is met with in commerce. It 
may be added, that the buflp aspect of this sub- 
stance indicates the absence of corrosive subli- 
mate ; though it by no means follows, as a con- 
sequence, that when snow-white it contains it 
When the surface of massive sublimed calomel is 
scratched, it. always exhibits a buflf color; it also 
becomes yellow when heated, but loses its tint as 
it again cools." (Brande.) 

100 parts of mercury, if well managed, will 
produce 118 parts of calomel. 

Pur. Calomel is frequently contaminated with 
small quantities of the bichloride or subnitrate of 
mercury. The former may be detected by di- 
gesting a little of it in alcohol, decanting the clear 
portion, and testing it with a drop or two of liquor 
of potassa, when a reddish precipitate will be 
formed, if any bichloride be present. The sub- 
laitrate may be detected ' by digestion in dilute 
nitric acid, and the addition of a little liquor of 
potassa, as before, when a similar precipitate will 
fall down if it be contaminated therewith. 

In " The London Pharmacopceia," the follow- 
ing are mentioned as tests of its purity : — Black- 
ened by potassa, and forms into globules by the 
application of heat. Heat totally dissipates it. 
Water in which it has been washed should give 
no precipitate with either nitrate of silver, lime- 
water, or sulphureted hydrogen. 

The Ed. College states, that ether agitated with 
calomel, filtered, and evaporated to dryness, leaves 
no crystalline residuum, and what may be left is 
not turned yellow v»'ith liquor of potassa. 

Tests. Calomel may be recognised by — 1. It 
turns greenish-yellow when digested in a solution 
of iodide of potassium. 2. Intensely black when 
digested in liquor of potassa, or ammonia in ex- 
cess. 3. Digested in strong nitric acid, it dissolves, 
and the solution gives a red precipitate, both with 
iodide of potassium and liquor of potassa, and a 
cloudy white one with nitrate of silver, the latter 
being rapidly darkened in the light, and insoluble 
in nitric acid, but readily so in liquoj of ammonia. 

Use, ^c. Calomel is one of the most valuable 
of the mercurials, and, perhaps, of all medicines 
as an alterative. It is frequently given in doses 
of i to 1 gr., generally combined with antimonials, 
as in Plummer's pill. As a purgative 2 to 5 grs. 
either combined with or followed by other purga- 
tives, as jalap, rhubarb, senna, colocynth, Epsom 
salts, &c. As a vermifuge, 2 to 5 grs. overnight, 
followed by a dose of castor oil next morning. 
Combined with opium, it is frequently used in va- 
rious complaints to produce salivation. It is also 
employed as a sialogogue, sedative, and errhine. 



CAM 



156 



CAM 



It is, perhaps, more frequently used, and in a 
greater variety of complaints, than any other 
medicine. 

CALUMBINE. Syn. Calombine. The bit- 
ter principle of calumba root. It is extracted by 
alcohol or ether from the root, reduced to a coarse 
powder, and is purified by repeated resolutions and 
evaporations. When pure, it forms prismatic crys- 
tals, or delicate white needles ; it readily combines 
with acetic acid, and the compound is intensely 
bitter ; hence vinegar, or sour wine, would be the 
best menstruum to make infusion of calumba with. 
The properties of calumbine are similar to those of 
calumba root. 

CALVES' FEET JELLY. Prep. For each 
foot take 3 pints of water, and boil it to one-half; 
then let it cool, and skim off the fat. It must now 
be boiled for 2 or 3 minutes, with the peel of a 
lemon, and a little spice, when it should be re- 
moved from the fire, strained through a flannel 
bag, and the juice of a lemon and a glass of wine 
added ; when cooled a little, it may be put into 
glasses or forms. 

Remarks. If wanted very transparent, the jelly, 
after the fat is removed, should be gently warmed, 
just enough to melt it, and then well beaten with 
the white of an egg and the seasoning, after which 
it must be brought to a boil for a minute or two, 
when it will be ready for straining, and being 
mixed with the wine. The addition of a little beet- 
root juice will give it a beautiful color. The calf's 
feet should not be bought ready boiled, but only 
scalded. Cows' feet or heels make as good jelly 
as that from calves' feet, and are much more eco- 
nomical. 

CALX OF ANTIMONY. Syn. Diaphoretic 
Antimony. Impure antimonious acid, prepared by 
deflagrating crude antimony with 3 times its 
weight of saltpetre. 

CAMELEON, MINERAL. Prep. Heat to 
redness a mixture of equal parts of black oxide of 
manganese, and nitre or potassa. 

Prop., (^c. When dissolved in water, its solu- 
tion, at first green, passes spontaneously through 
all the colored rays to the red, when, if potassa be 
added, the color retrogrades until it reaches the 
original green. The addition of oil of vitriol, or 
chlorine, renders the solution colorless. The addi- 
tion of a weak acid, or even boiling or agitating the 
liquid, will turn it from green to red. 

CAMERA LUCIDA. An instrument invent- 
ed by Dr. Wollaston, for the purpose of enabling 
persons ignorant of drawing or perspective, to trace 
the outlines of distant objects or landscapes with 
accuracy. 

Prin. and Cons. When a ray of light (?•) falls 
upon a quadrangular glass prism, («,) it is bent by 
two reflections, (at c and d,) and tiirowu upwards 
where it may be received by the eye, to which it 
will appear described on the table or sheet of pa- 
per, (}",) placed to receive it. The point of a pencil 
used to trace any object on the paper, can also be 
seen, and by its means the picture may therefore 
be easily copied. Various modilicatious of tiiis in- 
strument exist. When the prism is mounted on a 
stand, and a thin brass plate, with a small hole 
tlirough it for the eyepiece, adjusted tiierelo, it 
forma the instrument sold by the opticians. The 
imago may be niaguilied or lessened by placing a 



lens, so as either to intercept the rays before they 
strike the prism, or before they reach the eye. An 
ingenious person will readily be able to set up this 
instrument. 




CAMERA OBSCURA Literally, a datk 
chamber. An optical apps^iatus, by which the im- 
ages of external objects are thrown upon any white 
surface, placed in an obscure situation to receive 
them, whereby they are represented in their natu- 
ral forms and colors. 

Pj-in. and Cons. A convex lens (B) is placed in 
a hole admitting the light into a darkened box or 
chamber, (A,) which, falling on a white ground 
(D) within the room, produces an inverted picture 
of every object within its range. The image thus 
formed may be restored to its natural position, by 
allowing the rays of light to pass through two 
lenses instead of one, or by receiving the rays on 
a mirror placed at an angle of 45°, when the im- 
age will be thrown on the floor in its original posi- 
tion. The picture may be viewed through an ob- 
long aperture cut in the box, or the experiment 
may be performed in a darkened room, by placing 
the lens in a hole in the shutter, allowing the im- 
age to fall on the wall, (white,) or a sheet of paper 
stretched to receive it. The following engraving 
will explain the construction of this instrument. 



J?, A box formed of two parts, to slide one within the 
other, to adjust the screen or hind wall to receive the 
image. 

jB, Convex lens. 

C, External object. 

D, Ditto painted in a reversed position on a screen or 
wall. 

When intended as an instrument for taking 
views or portraits, the image is thrown upon a 
mirror placed at an angle of 45°, and resting on 
the bottom of the box, by which means it is thrown 
upwards against a plate of glass, also placed at a 
similar angle. On this is laid a piece of semi- 
transparent paper, when the object is seen painted 
on it, and may bo traced out with a pencil. 

C'AMPIIOR. Syn. Camimiike. IvAMrnuR. 
Camimiora, {Lat.) Hist, and Source. The cam- 
phor of commerce is a natural production. It is 
principally extracted from the laurus cainphora, 
or laurel camphor tree, but it is also found in 
several other members of tlie vegetable kingdom 



CAM 



157 



CAM 



It is occasionally found in small masses, between 
the bark and the wood, in a perfectly pure state. 
The Chinese and Japanese extract the camphor 
by cutting the wood into small pieces, and boiling 
it with water in iron vessels,- — which are covered 
with large earthen capitals or domes, — lined with 
rice straw. As the water boils, the camphor is 
volatilized along with the steam, and condenses on 
the straw, under the form of grayish granulations. 
In this state it is collected and transported to Eu- 
rope, when it undergoes the process of refining into 
white camphor. 

Proc. of Refining. 100 parts of crude camphor 
are mixed with '2 parts each of quicklime and ani- 
mal charcoal, and placed in a thin globular glass 
vessel, sunk in a sand-bath. The heat is then 
cautiously applied, and the vessel gradually and 
carefully raised out of the sand as the sublimation 
goes on. When this is completed, the whole is 
allowed to cool. 

Remarks. If the process be conducted too slow- 
ly, or at a heat under 375° Fahr., the product 
will be flaky, and consequently unsaleable, with- 
out remelting or subliming. An improvement on 
this process would be, simply to sublime the above 
mixture in any convenient vessel, furnished with 
a large and well-cooled receiver, and to remelt 
the product in close vessels under pressure, when 
it hould be cooled as rapidly as possible. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. A white semi-crj^stalline solid, 
verj^ volatile at common temperatures. Sohible 
in alcohol, ether, oils, and acetic acid, and suffi- 
ciently so in water (about 1^ grs. to 1 oz.) to im- 
part its characteristic smell and taste. It is stim- 
ulant, narcotic, anodyne, and diaphoretic, and is 
given in doses of 2 to 20 grs., in the form of pills 
or bolus, or made into an emulsion with yelk of 
egg, mucilage, or almonds. An overdose of cam- 
phor is accompanied with symptoms of poisoning. 
The best antidote is opium. Camphor is frequent- 
ly put into wardrobes and clothes-trunks, to keep 
away insects, and it is used to make the white 
stars and fire of the pyrotechnist. Mixed with 
copal, it renders that gum soluble in some essential 
oils and alcohol. (See Copal.) Mixed with six 
times its weight of clay, and distilled, it undergoes 
decomposition, and yields a yellow aromatic oil, 
smelling strongly of thyme and rosemary, which, 
I am told, is much used to adulterate some of the 
more costly essential oils. 

CAMPHOR, ARTIFICIAL. Kind first dis- 
covered, and Trommsdorff" and Boullay confirmed 
the fact, that rectified oil of turpentine, exposed to 
the actioft of muriatic acid, absorbs that gas with 
the production of a white crj^stalline mass resem- 
bling camphor. 

CAMPHOR FROM ESSENTIAL OILS. 
Prep. ^c. By careful distillation of ^ of the oil, the 
remaining portion, on being cooled, will be found to 
contain a species of camphor, on separating M^iich, 
and redistilling the remainder of the oil, 2 or 3 times, 
the whole of the camphor may be obtained. Oil 
of rosemary, treated in this way, yields about 10§ 
of camphor ; oil of sweet marjoram the same ; oil 
of sage yields 13§ ; oil of lavender 25§. That 
from sage oil forms cubical crj-stals, insoluble in 
nitric acid ; that from marjoram oil is scarcely vola- 
tile -^r inflammable. By keeping the oils loosely 
corked, and in a cool place, they produce a larger 



portion of this pseudo-camphor. The substance 
called aniseed camphor is procured by pouring off 
the liquid portion of the oil, after it has been par- 
tially frozen by exposure to a cool atmosphere. 

CAMPHOR CAKE. Prep. I. Campho- lini- 
ment, (P. L.,) 1 oz. ; melted spermaceti 1 drachm ; 
mix. 

II. White almond oil 4 oz. ; spermaceti \ oz. ; 
melt, add camphor, (cut small,) 1 oz. ; stir until 
melted, then pour it into shapes and allow it to 
crystallize. 

CAMPHOR JULEP, CONCENTRATED 
Syn. Essence of Camphor. Prep. Camphor 1 
oz. ; rectified spirit 10 oz. by weight ; dissolve. 
Use. 20 drops, added to 1 fluid oz. of pure cold 
water, makes transparent camphor julep. 

CAMPHOR, TO POWDER. Camphor may 
be beaten in a mortar for some time, without being 
reduced to powder, but if it be first broken with 
the pestle, and then sprinkled with a few drops . ■" 
spirit of wine, it may be readily pulverized. Pow- 
dered camphor is much used in tooth powders, fire- 
works, &c. 

CAMPHORATED ACETIC ACID. Prep. 
Dissolve ^ss of camphor, in ^viss of acetic acfd, 
(P. E.) Use. Similar to aromatic vinegar. 

CAMPHORATED CHALK. Syn. Cfieta- 
CEous Tooth Powder. Prep. I. Precipitated 
chalk 3 oz. ; camphor 1 oz. Proc. Add a few 
drops of spirit of wine to the camphor, then reduce 
it to a fine powder, and mix it (perfectly) with the 
chalk ; lastly, pass it through a clean sieve of suffi- 
cient fineness. 

II. Prepared chalk (not precipitated) 7 oz. ; 
camphor 1 oz. ; as last. 

Use. Extensively employed as a dentifrice. It 
should be kept in corked bottles, to prevent the 
camphor flying off 

CAMPHORIC ACID. Prep. Put 1 part of 
camphor and 4 parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*33, into 
a glass retort, connected with a receiver, and apply 
a gradually increasing heat, until vapors cease to 
be extricated ; then add the camphor that has been 
volatilized to the acid in the retort, along with 4 
or 5 parts more of nitric acid. Repeat the process 
again and again, until 20 parts of nitric acid have 
been consumed. When the whole of the camphor 
is acidified, it will crystallize in the remaining 
liquor. When the whole is perfectly cold, it must 
be thrown upon a filter and well washed with dis- 
tilled water, after which it must be dissolved in boil- 
ing water, evaporated to a pellicle, and set aside to 
crystallize. 

Prop. The crj^stals somewhat resemble those of 
muriate of ammonia. They are soluble in alcohol, 
and are not precipitated from it by water, by which 
camphoric acid may be distinguished from benzoic 
acid. With the bases it forms salts called cam- 
phorates. The soluble camphorates ma}^ be made 
by digesting the carbonate or hydrate of the base 
in a hot solution of the acid, and the insoluble ones, 
by double decomposition. 

CAMPHORIC ETHER. Syn. Campuorate 
OF Oxide of Ethule. Prep. By heating cam- 
phoric acid, sulphuric acid, and alcohol together, a 
colorless, sirupy liquid is formed, which must be 
submitted to distillation, and the product dissolved 
in alcohol. When the liquid ceases to deposite crys- 
tals of camphoric acid, water must be added, when 



CAN 



158 



CAN 



the ether will separate under the form of an cily 
liquid, and may be collected. Prop. It is heavier 
than water, and boils at 545°. 

CAMPHRONE. When the vapor of cam- 
phor is passed over quicklime at a red heat, and 
then into a cool receiver, a peculiar volatile liquid 
is condensed, to which the name of camphrone has 
been given. 

CANDLES. Candles are made of various ma- 
terials, but the first operation, in all cases, is the 
preparation of the wicks. The best candle wicks 
are made of cotton rovings, imported from Turkey 
in skeins. 4 or more of these, according to the in- 
tended thickness of the wick, are wound on a reel, 
from which they are again run off, and cut of the 
proper lengths. They are then dipped into melted 
tallow, and after rubbing with the hands, are 
placed straight and allowed to harden. They are 
next arranged upon the broaches ready for dipping. 
For mould and other candles that do not undergo 
the process of dipping, this last operation is omitted. 
In some cases the wicks are formed by twisting or 
plaiting the cotton together, or winding it round 
wires, which are withdrawn after the candles are 
made, thus leaving the wicks hollow ; this was the 
method patented by Gay Lussac, for his stearine 
candles. In some instances, the cotton is steeped 
in metallic solutions. The object in all these pro- 
cesses is to produce a wick that will consume 
itself, and thus prevent the necessity of snuffing. 
Great care is taken to select a cotton that will 
yield the least possible quantity of ashes, or non- 
volatile matter after burning. 

I. Tallow candles, a. (By dipping.) Proc. 
The broaches being covered swith wicks, are ar- 
ranged in frames ready for dipping. The dipping 
cistern being filled with tallow of a proper temper- 
ature from the boiler, one of the frames is placed 
upon the end of the dipping beam, and pressed 
down gently into the melted fat ; it is next with- 
drawn, the bottoms of the candles just touched 
against a board placed on one side of the cistern 
for the purpose, aad then removed to the rack. 
Another is now taken and treated in the same 
manner, and the process is continued with fresh 
frames until those first dipped are sufficiently cool 
to undergo a second immersion. This operation is 
repeated until the candles acquire a sufficient size, 
when they are finally cooled, sorted, weighed, and 
strung in pounds for sale. The dipping beam is 
simply a piece of wood hung from tiie ceiling by 
the centre, and arranged with weights at one end, 
and at the other with supports to receive the frames 
with the wicks. It is so balanced that a slight 
pressure with the fingers is sufficient to depress it 
so as to immerse the wicks or partly formed can- 
dles into the tallow of the dipping cistern. On 
withdrawing the pressure, tlie beam again assimios 
the horizontal position, and thus raises the candles 
out of tlie melted fat. The dipj)ing-room, or shop, 
is usually sitnnted in the coldest part of the pro- 
mises, and furnished with a species of Venetian 
shutters throughout the entire i(Migth of walls, (if 
possible,) after the manner of breweries, to pre- 
serve a constant current of cool air. 

h. (Hi/ monldivir.) Proc, tj-r. INIould candles 
are made of the best kind of 1 allow ; a n)ixtnre of 
3 parts of sheep with 1 part of ox suet, both fresh, 
makes the most glossy and ; onsistont candles. The 



moulds are made ox pewter; the part answering 
to the bottom of the candle being left open, and a 
small hole at the top also left for the wick : eight 
or more of these moulds are fitted into a stool, the 
upper surface of which forms a kind of trough, the 
bottom part of the mould being upwards. The 
wicks are then introduced by putting a long wire, 
furnished with an eye or hook at one end, down 
through the mould, until it protrudes at the bottom, 
(or rather top,) when a wick is inserted and the 
needle is then immediately drawn back. As soon 
as all the moulds have received their wicks, a wire 
is run through the loop of each and then allowed 
to rest on the top of the moulds ; the protruding 
portion of the wicks is next pulled tight, and pro- 
perly arranged in the centres of the moulds. 
Melted tallow of a proper temperature is now 
poured into the trough-like part of the stool, until 
the moulds are all full. The wicks are again 
pulled tight, and the whole allowed to cool. When. 
quite cold, the wire that held the wicAiS is with- 
drawn, and the candles pulled out one by one, by 
inserting a bodkin into the loop of the wick. The 
better class of moulds are then either bleached by 
exposing them to the dew and air for a few days, or 
by keeping them for a few weeks, until sufficiently 
whitened. 

II. Wax candles. These are made either by 
pouring melted wax over the wicks, or by apply- 
ing the wax in a soft state with the hands, and after- 
wards rolling it smooth with a roller of polished box 
wood, upon a table formed of polished walnut wood. 
They are then cut and trimmed. The first part 
of this process is usually conducted over the cistern 
of melted wax, and the wicks are strung upon an 
iron hoop suspended from the ceiling. 

III. iSpERMACETi CANDLES. Spermaceti, either 
alone or combined with hard white tallow, forms 
very good candles, but they will not bear carrj-uig 
about in the hand without spilling the melted por- 
tion. 

IV. CoMrosiTioN CANDLES. Tliesc are gener- 
ally made of a mixture of spermaceti and hard 
white tallow, to which a little bleached rosin is 
sometimes added. The origin of the application 
of the term " composite" or " composition" to 
candles, is somewhat laughable, " A manufac- 
turer who had a large stock of spermaceti candles 
on hand, of a dirty hue, and therefore unsaleable, 
advertised them under the above name, and they 
were soon disposed of, from the supposition that 
they were composed of some new combination of 
materials." After this it may be asked — " Whafs 
in a name ?" 

V. Stearine candles. These are made of the 
stearine or stearic acid obtained from tallow, in 
the same way as other mould candles. They 
furnish a superior light, and burn a long lime: 3 
or 4 years ago it was a general practice for the 
manufacturer to add a little arsenious acid (white 
arsenic) to his stearine, to prevent it crystallizingj 
and tiuis spoiling the appearance of the candle; 
but owing (o the spirited way in which this rascal- 
ity was exi)ose<l by the press, I believe it has been 
discontinued by all the respect able houses. In 
lire's " Dictionary of Arts, MiuiuAicturcs, and 
Mines," it is stated, that " When the blocks of 
stearine are broken, they display a highly crystal- 
lino texture, which would render them unlit for 



CAN 



159 



CAN 



making candles. This texture is therefore broken 
down or comminuted in a plated copper pan, 
along with one thousandth part of pulverized ar- 
senious acid, after which it is ready to be cast 
into candles in appropriate moulds." It is a pity 
to see a really respectable man, like Dr. Ure, thus 
recommending the addition of a poison to the com- 
mon materials of which candles are made, more 
especially as there are other methods perfectly in- 
nocent to effect the same purpose. The at- 
mosphere of a room in which two such candles (4 
to the lb.) are burnt, would thus become contami- 
nated with 3i grains of white arsenic in the space 
of about 8 or 9 hours, the influence of which upon 
tlie health of the inmates must be highly perni- 
cious. Margarine candles are similar to those 
made of stearine. 

Remarks. Of late years the best candles are 
made in such manner that they do not require 
snuffing. The simplest way of effecting this is to 
make the wick with one strand of loosely twisted 
cotton, which will become slightly stretched when 
the wick is placed in the candle, but will contract 
again on its burning, removing the force that kept 
it extended. If this roving be placed at the out- 
side of the wick, it is evident that wlien it con- 
tracts, it will pull the latter into a curved shape, 
and thus expose its upper part to the outer portion 
of the flame, as well as to the atmosphere, by 
which means it will be consumed with suflicient 
rapidity to prevent the necessity of using the sruif- 
fers. The same may be effected by placing the 
candle at an angle of about 45°, by .which means 
the upper part of the wick will be out of the flame ; 
but this plan, besides being unsightly, is liable to the 
risk of the tallow dropping beyond the candlestick. 
Platted wicks, so arranged that one portion shall 
be stretched more than another, have long been 
adopted for the same purpose. 

CANDLES, MERCURIAL. Cinnabar or 
gray oxide of mercury mixed with wax, and a 
wick inserted therein. Use. They have been re- 
commended by Mr. CoUes for partial mercurial 
fumigation. A candle so prepared is burnt under 
a glass funnel with a curved neck, the upper orifice 
of which is directed to the diseased part. 

CANDLESTICKS, SNUFFERS, &c. TO 
CLEAN. Silver, plated, and japanned candle- 
sticks, snuffers and snuffer-stands, should be clean- 
ed by first removing the drops of wax or tallow 
that may have fallen on them, by washing in boil- 
ing hot water, afterwards wiping them quite dry 
and clean with a piece of soft wash leather. If made 
of silver, or copper-plated, they may be finish- 
ed off with a little plate-powder. On no account 
place them before the fire to melt the grease off, 
as much heat will melt off the solder or japan, or 
injure the face of the plate. In placing the can- 
dles in the sockets fit them in tightly, either by 
means of a strip of paper wound round them, or 
by the newly-invented candle springs ; they will 
thus be prevented from falling about and spilling 
the melted portion of the tallow or other materials 
of which thev mav be composed. 

CANNON METAL. Syn. Gvs Metal. 
This is a variety of bronze in which the proportion 
of tin varies from 8 to 14 per cent. From the 
experiments of the Comte Lamartilliere, made at 
Douay, it appears that never less than &§, or more 



than 11§, of this metal should be used, the re- 
maining 89 or 92§ being pure coppor. 

CANTHARIDES. Syn. Lvtt.«. BLisrERiNO 
Flies. Spanish Flies. The best Spanish flies 
are imported from Saint Petersburg, and have 
more of a coppery cast than those of Southern 
Europe. The color of the latter has more of a 
brassy tint. They are frequently adulterated with 
the melontha vitis, an insect which is wholly des- 
titute of vesicating power. The latter may be 
distinguished by a squarer form than the genuine 
cantharides, and also by having black feet. Use 
Externally they are used to raise blisters, and in- 
ternally as a stimulant and diuretic, generally in 
the form of tincture. In excess they produce 
strangury, bloody urine, satyriasis, delirium, con- 
vulsions, and death. 

Pres. These insects should be preserved in 
well-closed bottles or tin canisters, as they are sub- 
ject to decay as well as the attack of a species of 
mite, (the acarus domesticus,) besides a moth, (the 
tinea flavifrontella,) and other insects. The addi- 
tion of a few drops of oil of cloves, or strong acetic 
acid, or even a few cloves in substance, will pre- 
ser\'^e them vmchanged for a length of time in close 
vessels. 

Adult. The best proof of the goodness of can- 
tharides is their smell. Both the plaster and the 
powder are generally mixed with euphorbium. I 
know it to be a fact, that the greater portion of the 
powder sold is adulterated. The plan of many of 
the druggists is to sort out the most worthless flies 
for powdering, and to compensate for their defi- 
ciency of vesicating power, to add 1 lb. of euphor- 
bimn to every 12 or 14 lbs. of flies. Where a 
superior article of cantharides is used, liquorice or 
some other cheap and simple powder is added, in 
the proportion of 4 or 5 lbs. to every 14 lbs., along 
with 1 lb. of euphorbium, and sufficient blue-black 
or charcoal to turn the yellow of the liquorice to a 
greenish color. The best method of detecting this 
adulteration is by the microscope. 

Ant. When cantharides have been taken in 
poisonous doses, a strong emetic of sulphate of zinc 
should be immediately administered, and if this 
does not rapidly operate, the stomach-pump should 
be applied. The vomiting may be promoted by 
copiously drinking warm bland diluents, such as 
broth, linseed tea, milk, &c. Friction on the 
spine, with volatile liniment and laudanum, and 
the subsequent administration of draughts contain- 
ing musk, opiimi, and camphorated emulsion, have 
been strongly recommended. 

Tests. The microscope offers the readiest means 
of detecting cantharides. By its use, very minute 
particles may be discovered in the stomach and 
intestines, on a post-mortem examination. Oifila 
even found particles of cantharides in a body that 
had been interred 9 months. When a few frag- 
ments or particles can be found, or a little of the 
powder, this may be digested in ether, and the 
solution evaporated to the consistence of an extract, 
when a little may be tested by applying it to the 
inside of the lip. If the suspected matter be a 
liquid, it may be gently evaporated to the consist- 
ence of a sirup, and then digested in ether as be« 
fore. 

CANTON'S PHOSPHORUS. Prep. Mix 
together 3 parts of calcined oyster -shells, and 1 



CAO 



160 



CAO 



part of flowers of sulphur, and expose the mixture 
for an hour to a strong heat in a covered crucible. 
Prop. This substance becomes phosphorescent in 
the dark, after exposure for a short time to the 
^sunshine. 

CAOUTCHOUC. Syn. Indian Rubber. Elas- 
tic Gum. Indian rubber is the concrete juice of 
the Jatropa elastica, and several other plants. The 
fresh milky juice is spread over moulds of unbaked 
clay, and then exposed to the heat and smoke of 
a fire, or torches, to dry it, whence it derives its 
dark color, the pure juice being nearly white. 
Successive coats of juice are laid on, and the ope- 
ration of drying repeated, until the bottles acquire 
sufficient thickness. When it has become thorough- 
ly hard and dry, the clay is beaten out. In this 
form it is imported. 

Prop., Use, ^c. This substance is eminently 
elastic, and impervious to water, and on this ac- 
count is largely employed in the manufacture of 
sundry elastic and waterproof goods, as elastic 
bands, braces, galoches, portmanteaus, bottles, 
catheters, bougies, probes, &c. It is used 'in the 
manufacture of various waterproof varnishes — for 
the removal of pencil marks from paper, and for 
numerous other purposes. It has lately been used, 
with apparent success, as an article for pavements 
and floorings, after the manner of asphalte. Tubes 
are formed of this substance, by cutting it into 
uniform slips of a proper thickness, and winding it 
round rods of glass or metal, so that the edges 
shall be in close contact ; a piece of tape is then 
wound round outside it, and in this state it is boiled 
for 2 or 3 hours in water, when the edges will be 
found to be sufficiently adherent. Pieces of Indian 
rubber may be joined by moistening their edges 
with a solution of it in ether, turpentine, or naph- 
tha ; or they may be softened by simply boiling 
them in water, or touching them with either of the 
above solvents. The parts being, in each case, 
immediately pressed tightly together, will be found 
to unite very firmly. Indian rubber is very solu- 
ble in ether, mineral naphtha, and turpentine, and 
in the fixed and many of the volatile oils. It may 
be procured from the ethereal solution in an un- 
altered state. Frederic the Great had a pair of 
riding boots made by applying successive layers of 
this solution to a mould. From the high price of 
ether it is, however, seldom used as a solvent. 
The celebrated patent mackintoshes are made by 
dissolving Indian rubber in hot naphtha, distilled 
from native petroleum, or coal tar. The jelly-like 
paste so formed is then triturated until it becomes 
quite smooth, when it is pressed through a sieve, 
and forms a homogeneous varnish, which is applied 
by a flat edge of metal or wood, to the cloth or 
fabric, properly stretched to receive it. Several suc- 
cessive coals arc applied, and when the last is par- 
tially dry, the surfaces are brought evenly togctiier, 
and j)asscd between rollers, by which process they 
are made to adiierc firmly together. The prepar- 
ed cloth is then dried in a stove room. Next to 
ether, naphtha is tiio best solvent of caoutcliouc. 
Oil of turpentine dissolves it very readily, or, at 
least, foriuH a sort of jelly tiiorewifli, but it dries 
with diJllculty : the solution made with the fixed 
oils always remains glutinous, (^aoutchoiuiiue, a 
Bubstance lately diHCovenuI, promises to become 
the cheapest and most useful solvent of Indian 



rubber, as soon as the expiration of the patent 
right and monopoly leads to the reduction of its 
price. Indian rubber melts at a heat of about 
248°, and does not again solidify. 

CAOUTCHOUC, ARTIFICIAL. If well 
prepared boiled linseed oil (made with litharge) 
be applied, by means of a brush, to any smooth 
surface, and dried in the sun or smoke, and the 
process repeated until some thickness be attained, 
it will affi)rd a substance of considerable fineness, 
semitransparent, wonderfully elastic, and resem- 
bling Indian rubber in most of its sensible qualities. 
It is well adapted to make catheters, bougies, var- 
nishes, &c. A pound of the oil may be spread 
upon a stone, in a thin stratum, and will take 
about six months to acquire these properties in the 
utmost perfection. 

CAOUTCHOUCINE. A highly volatile fluid, 
discovered by Mr. Barnard. 

Prep. The following is an abstract of the most 
interesting portion of Mr. Barnard's specification, 
(patent.) " I take a mass of Indian rubber, or 
caoutchouc, as imported, and having cut it into 
small lumps, containing about "2 cubic inches each, 
I throw them into a cast-iron still, connected with 
a well-cooled worm-tub, (a diagram of which is 
annexed to the specification, but any flat vessel 
with a large evaporating surface will do, the en- 
tire top of which can be removed for the purpose 
of cleaning it out. — Ed.) I then apply heat, in 
the usual way, until the thermometer ranges at 
about 600° Fahr., when, as it progresses upwards 
to this temperature, a dark-colored oil or liquid is 
distilled over. When the thermometer reaches 
600°, or thereabouts, nothing is left in the still but 
dirt and charcoal. I afterwards rectify this oil, 
and thereby obtain fluids, varying in sp. gr., the 
hghtest of which has not been under -670. At 
each rectification the color becomes brighter and 
paler, until at about sp. gr. "680 it is colorless, and 
highly volatile. I rectify it along with \ of its 
weight of water. To enable the dirt to be removed 
from the bottom of the still with greater ease, I 
throw in common solder, to the depth of about ^ 
an inch ; when this becomes fused, the dirt is 
easily taken offi I have found the disagreeable 
smell of this liquid to be removed by shaking it up 
with nitro-muriatic acid, or chlorine, in the propor- 
tion of a :i of a pint of the acid to 1 gallon of the 
liquid." 

Remarks. This substance possesses singular 
properties. It is the lightest fluid known, and yet 
its vapor is denser .than the heaviest of the gases. 
Mixed with alcohol, it dissolves all the resins, es- 
pecially copal and Indian rubber, at the common 
temperature of the atmosphere, and it speedily 
evaporates, leaving them again in the solid state. 
It mixes with the oils in all proportions. (See But- 
ter OF Cacao.) It promises to be a valuable ar- 
ticle for the solution of resins in the manufacture 
of varnishes, and for liquefying oil paints, instead of 
turpentine. It is very volatile, and requires to be 
kept in close vessels. According to the researches 
of Iljmly, Gregory, axid Bouchardat, it appears 
that the caoulchoucine of Barnard consists of sev- 
eral li(]ui(ls, some of which have the com})Osition 
of olefiant gas, and others that of oil of turpentine. 
One of these, the cuoutch(5ne of Bouchardat, boils 
below 32°, while another (lieveene) boils at 5J)9° 



CAP 



161 



CAP 



The most volatile of these liquids has the sp. gr. 
of 0-654. 

CAPERS. The capers employed in cookery, 
and as a sauce, are the flower-buds of the caper 
tree, which is largely cultivated in Spain, Italy, 
and the south of France. 

Col. and Pres. The flower-buds are picked 
daily, and added to the same cask of vinegar, until 
it becomes full, wiien it is sold to the dealers, who 
sort them by sifting them through copper sieves, 
of different sizes. In this way they are divided 
into no n pare i lie, capucine, capote, seconds, and 
thirds, -dccording to their sizes and qualities; 
other things being equal, the smallest are regarded 
as the best. Much, however, depends upon the 
strength of the vinegar used to pickle them. 

Pur. From the use of copper sieves in the sepa- 
ration, capers frequently become contaminated 
with this metal. This contributes to give them 
that lively green appearance so much valued by 
connoisseurs. Pieces of copper money, as sous, or 
halfpence, are also frequently added for this pm*- 
pose. This vile fraud is, however, veiy easily de- 
tected. If copper be present in either the capers 
or the pickle, they will develope a blue color, when 
agitated with hquid ammonia in excess. A solu- 
tion of prussiate of potash added to the pickle will 
also throw down a brown precipitate. 

CAPILLAIRE. Simple sirup, or a solution of 
sugar in water, generally flavored with orange 
flowers. The name is derived from that of tlie 
mucilaginous sirup, formerly directed to be made 
of the adiantum capillus veneris, or true maiden 
hair. 

Prep. I. Fine white Inmp sugar 1 cwt. ; dis- 
tilled water 5^ gallons. Proc. Put them into a 
clean and brightly-polished copper boiler, and grad- 
ually apply heat until the water boils, then with- 
draw the fire, and stir until the sugar dissolves ; 
again apply heat, and let it boil for half a min- 
ute, then remove it from the fire, and when near- 
ly cold, add orange-flower water ^ a gallon, and 
strain through flannel into large clean stone jars, 
which must then be at once well corked and placed 
in a cool cellar, where it will be always ready for 
bottling. 

Remarks. If the shup be made with pure dis- 
tilled water, it will be perfectly bright and trans- 
parent, but if common water be used, it must un- 
dergo the process of clarification, as the lime con- 
tained in the latter is precipitated by boiling, and 
thus makes the sirup cloudy. This is best done by 
allowing the whole to cool as soon as the sugar is 
dissolved, and then beating up a little of the sirup 
with the whites of 12 eggs, and about a pint of 
water, until it froths well ; this must be added to 
the sirup in the boiler, and the whole whisked up 
to a good froth : heat should now be applied, when 
a scum will form, which must be removed from 
time to time with a clean skimmer. As soon as 
the sirup begins to simmer, it must be removed 
from the fire, and allowed to stand until it has 
cooled a little, when it should be again skimmed, 
if necessary, and then passed through flannel as 
before. The orange-flower water may be next 
added. The whole of this process is best perform- 
ed by steam, as too great a degree of heat is likely 
to injure both the color and flavor of the product. 
Capillaire is usually sold in small bottles of a pe- 
21 



culiar shape, known in the trade as " Capillaires,^ 
but no more of them should be filled at a time than 
is necessary, as no liquid preparation of sugar 
keeps well unless in a cold situation. (See 
Sirup.) 

II. Sugar 28 lbs.; water 1^ gallons; orange- 
flower water 1 pint ; as Isist. 

III. Sugar 2 lbs. ; water 1 pint ; orange-flower 
water 1 oz. ; as last. 

IV. Gum tragacanth 2 oz. ; water 1 gallon ; 
dissolve by boiling, then add sugar 8 lbs. ; dissolve, 
clarify, and add orange-flower water i pint. This 
does not mix well with wine or spirit. 

V. Simple sirup 1 pint ; orange or rose water, 
or curagoa, 1 wine-glassful. 

Use. Grog or wine is sweetened with capillaire 
in preference to sugar. A tablespoonful, added 
to a glass of water, makes a very pleasant bev- 
erage. 

CAPNOMOR. An oily fluid, possessing a pun- 
gent and an agreeable odpr, obtained by Reichen- 
bach, from beech tar. 

CAPROIC ACID. An acid discovered by 
Chevreul. It is best obtained by 'adding dilute 
sulphuric acid to a solution of caproate of baryta, 
when an oily liquid rises to the surface, which is 
the acid. It must be collected, and dried by means 
of chloride of calcium. 

CAPRIC ACID. An acid discovered by Che- 
vreul, and obtained in a similar way to the last, 
from the caprate of baryta. (See Butyrate of 
Baryta.) 

CAFSICIN. Syn. Capsica. This substance 
was obtained by Bucholz and Braconnot, from the 
capsicum annuum, or common capsicum. It is 
best prepared by digesting the soft alcoholic extract 
in ether, and evaporating the solution. Prop. A 
volatile reddish-colored liquid, intensely pungent. 
^ gr. volatilized in a large room, will cause all its 
inmates to cough and sneeze. 

CAPSULES, (in Pharmacy.) (From capsula, 
diminutive of capsa, a box, case, or bag.) Small 
spherical, or pear-shaped vessels, in which medi- 
cines are placed, for the purpose of covering their 
nauseous taste, at the time of swallowing them. 

Prep. I. These articles are usually prepared by 
dipping the bulbous extremity of a metallic rod into 
a strong solution of gelatine. When the rod is 
withdrawn, it is rotated in order to diffuse the fluid 
jelly equally over its surface. As soon as the ge- 
latinous film has hardened, it is removed from the 
mould and placed on pins, furnished with suitable 
heads, and fixed on a cork table. When dry, the 
capsules are placed upright in little cells, made in 
the table to receive them, and the liquid with which 
they are to be filled is then introduced by means 
of a small glass tube. They are liext closed by 
dropping some of the solution of gelatine on the 
orifices. 

II. Oval balls of wax, of the requisite size, are 
prepared by pouring wax into a wooden mould, 
consisting of two parts, and arranged for the re- 
ception of a row of these balls. These are after- 
wards stuck on iron needles, affixed to rods of 
convenient size, in rows. The balls are next uni- 
formly coated all at once by dipping in the usual 
manner, then removed from the needles, and 
placed, with the needle-holes downwards, on a 
heated plate, when the wax flows out^ and a round 



CAR 



162 



CAR 



capsule is left behind. (Simonin in Jour. d. Chim. 
Med.) 

Use, iSfC. These capsules were invented by 
Mothe, and are now extensively employed to cover 
the nauseous odor and flavor of various medicines, 
as balsam of copaiba, oil of cubebs, creosote, Dip- 
pel's oil, &.C. When swallowed, the gelatinous 
capsule gradually dissolves in the stomach, and 
allows its contents to escape. The capsules usu- 
ally met with, hold about 10 or 12 grs. of balsam 
of copaiba. It has lately been proposed to make 
them of, a mixture of gelatine and sugar, instead 
of gelatine, by which means they would retain 
their elasticity the longer. 

CARAMEL, PURE. Prep. The caramel of 
commerce is spirit-coloring, or a solution of burnt 
sugar, in water. In this state it is mixed with va- 
riable quantities of undecomposed sugar and cer- 
tain bitter compounds, (assamar, &c.) To render 
it quite pure, it should be dissolved in water, filter- 
ed, and alcohol added lyitil it ceases to produce a 
precipitate. The caramel is thus thrown down, 
while the impurities remain in solution. Prop. 
A black or dark -brown powder, soluble in water, 
to which it gives a rich sepia tint ; it is insoluble 
in alcohol, and incapable of fermentation. 

CARAT. (In the Art of the Lapidary :) A 
weight of 4 grains used in weighing diamonds, 
which are spoken of as of so many carats weight. 
(In the Art of Assaying :) A weight of 12 grains ; 
but more commonly a proportional weight or term, 
representing the number of parts of pure gold in 24 
parts of the alloy ; pure gold being spoken of as 
of 24 carats fine. It is commonly the 24th part 
of the " assay pound,^^ and is nominally subdi- 
vided into 4 assay grains, and these again into 
quarters. 

CARBAZOTIC ACID. Syn. Picric Acid. 
NiTRO-piCRic Acid. Prep. Add cautiously and 
gradually, 1 part of the finest indigo in powder to 
10 or 12 parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-43. When 
the scum has fallen, boil until nitrous fumes cease 
to rise, adding more acid if necessary. On cool- 
ing, crystals of impure picric acid will be deposited. 
Dissolve these in boiling water, and remove by 
means of bibulous paper the oily matter, which 
will be found floating on the surface. On cooling, 
crystals will again form. These must be collected 
and again dissolved in boiling water, saturated with 
carbonate of potassa, and set aside to crystallize. 
The crystals of picrate of potassa thus obtained 
must be dissolved in boiling water, and decom- 
posed by nitric acid. Crystals of the acid will be 
now deposited, and may be further purified by re- 
solution in boiling water and recrystallization. 

Prop. It forms brilliant yellow scales, very sol- 
uble in boiling water, and in alcohol and ether. It 
has a bitter taste and is fusible and volatile. It 
forms salts with the bases, mostly possessing a yel- 
low color, and exploding when heated. The pi- 
crate or carbazotato of lead has been proposed as 
a fulminating powder for pcrcusHion caps. The 
carbazotato of potassa has been given with advan- 
tage in intennitlcnt levers. A solution of thx acid 
in alcohol is an excellent test for ])otassa, if there 
be not too much water present, as it throws down 
a yellow crystalline ])r('ci|)itule with that alkali, 
but (brins a very soluble salt with soda. These 
two alkalis may thus bo readily distinguished. 



Most of the salts cf this acid may be made by the 
direct solution of Ihe carbonate, hydrate, or oxide 
of the base, in a solution of the acid in hot water- 
The carbazotate of silver forms beautiful starry 
groups of acicular crystals, having the color and 
lustre of gold. 

CARBON. A chemical element, the inflam- 
mable base of charcoal. The diamond is perfectly 
pure carbon. 

Prep. Carbon, sufiiciently pure for all chemical 
purposes, may be obtained by strongly igniting 
lamp-black in a covered crucible. This, like the 
diamond, yields pure carbonic acid by combustion 
in oxygen. 

CARBON, BISULPHURET OF. Prep 
Heat together in a close vessel, 5 parts of bisul- 
phuret of iron, and 1 part of well dried charcoal ; 
or transmit the vap:r of sulphur over fragments 
of charcoal heated to redness in a porcelain tube. 
In either case the resulting compound should be 
carried off as soon as formed, by means of a glass 
tube plunged into cold water, beneath which it will 
collect. It may be afterwards freed from adhering 
moisture and sulphur by distilling it at a i)w tem- 
perature from chloride of calcium. 

Prop. A colorless, pungent, fcBtid liquid, ex- 
ceedingly volatile and combustible. It exceeds all 
substances in refractive power. (Brewster.) In 
dispersive power it exceeds all fluid substances ex- 
cept oil of cassia. It produces intense cold by its 
evaporation. A spirit thermometer, having its 
bulb covered with cotton, if dipped into this fluid 
and suspended in the air, rapidly sinks from 60° 
to 0°, and if put into the receiver of an air-pump 
it will fall to — 81°. Mercury maybe readily fro- 
zen in this way. The following experiment is both 
amusing and illustrative. — A glass of water has 
remained on the table since the preceding evening, 
and though it might be some degrees below 32° 
Fahr., it indicated no disposition for congelation- 
A few drops of sulphuret of carbon were applied 
to the surface ; instantly the globules became 
cased with a shell of icy spicules of retiform tex- 
ture. Where they were in contact with the wa- 
ter, plumose branches darted from the sulphuret, 
as from a centre, to the bottom of the vessel, and 
the whole became solidified. The sulphuret of 
carbon in the interim volatilized ; and during this 
period the spicules exhibited the colors of the solar 
spectrum in beautiful array. (J. Murray.) 

CARBONATE. A compound formed by the 
union of carbonic acid with an earth, alkali, or 
metallic oxide. 

Char. They are distinguished by the property 
of effervescing on the addition of an acid. 

Anal. The quantity of the base in an alkaline 
or earthy carbonate may be easily determined by 
the method described under the head Alkalime- 
try, (Nos. II. and III.,) and the quantity of car- 
bonic acid by the method of Fresenius, also de- 
tailed in the same article. Another easy method 
to determine the carbonic acid, is to use the fol- 
lowing little apparatus. It consists of a flask a, 
into which a weighed portion of the sample for 
examination is placed, along with a little water, in 
which it should bo dissolved or ditt'used. A small 
tube b, sufficiently long to maintain a slanting po- 
sition without falling, is then filled with either sul- 
phuric or muriatic acid, and placed in the flask 



CAR 



163 



CAR 



One end of a bent tube c, is now fitted air-tight 
into the flask, and the other end air-tight into a hori- 




zontal tube d, filled with small fragments of dried 
muriate of lime, and having its other end e drawn 
out, so that there shall be only a capillary orifice. 
It must now be accurately weighed. On inclining 
the apparatus so prepared, the acid escapes over 
the side of the small tube, and mixing with the U- 
quor in the flask, expels the carbonic acid of the 
carbonate, which, passing over the muriate of lime, 
is rendered quite dry before it flies off" by the open- 
ing e. After effervescence has ceased, heat should 
be applied to the bottom of the flask, until it be 
filled with steam, to expel the carbonic gas it con- 
tains. On again becoming cold, the apparatus 
should be weighed, when the difference between 
its present and former weights will give the exact 
weight of the carbonic acid gas that was contaiiied 
in tlie sample. The quantity of carbonic acid in 
the carbonates of the metals, that do not contain 
water, may be determined by heating them to 
redness in a platina crucible. 

CARBONATE OF POTASSA. Syn. Sub- 
carbonate OF Potash. Salt of Tartar. Kali. 
(Mild Vegetable Alkall Nitre fixed by 
Charcoal. Obs.) Soucarbonate de Potasse, 
{Fr.) Kohlensaures Kali, {Germ.) 

Hist, and Source. Impure or commercial car- 
bonate of potassa, commonly known by the name 
of pearlash, or potash, is imported from America 
and Russia, where it is obtained by lixiviating 
wood ashes, and evaporating the solution to dry- 
ness. The mass is then kept in a state of fusion 
for several hours, until it becomes quiescent, when 
it is transferred into iron pots, and left to cool ; it 
is then broken up and packed in air-tight barrels, 
and in this state constitutes the potash of com- 
merce. Another method is to transfer the black 
salts, or product of the first evaporation, from the 
kettles to a large oven or furnace, so constructed 
that the flame is made to play over the alkaline 
mass, which is kept continually stirred by means 
of an iron rod. The ignition is continued until the 
impurities are burned out, and the mass changes 
from black to a dirty or bluish white. The whole 
is then cooled, broken up, and packed in casks, as 
before. This constitutes pearlash. When potash 
or pearlash is dissolved in water, depurated and 
crystallized, or evaporated to dryness, it forms re- 
fined ashes, or a carbonate of potash sufficiently 
pure for most purposes. 

The following are the directions of the Col- 



I. Take of impure carbonate of potassa lb. ij ; 
water 1^ pints. Dissolve the impure carbonate of 
potassa in the distilled water, and filter ; then pour 



the solution into a suitable vessel, and evaporate 
the water, that the liquor may thicken ; then stir 
assiduously with a spatula until the salt con- 
cretes. 

A purer carbonate of potassa may be preparec 
from the crystals of bicarbonate of potassa heatec 
to redness. (P. L.) 

II. Pure carbonate of potash may be most read- 
ily obtained by heating crystallized bicarbonate of 
potash to redness in a crucible, but more cheaply 
by dissolving bitartrate of potash in thirty parts of 
boiling water, separating and washing the crystals 
which form on cooling, heating them in a loosely 
covered crucible to redness so long as fumes are 
discharged, breaking down the mass, and roasting 
it in an oven for two hours, with occasional stir- 
ring ; lixiviating the product with distilled water, 
filtering the solution tlius obtained, evaporating the 
solution to dryness, granulating the salt towards 
the close by brisk agitation, and heating the gran- 
ular salt nearly to redness. The product of either 
process must be kept in well-closed bottles. (P. E.) 

III. Mix charcoal with four times its weight of 
nitre, and deflagrate it, by throwing it, in small 
portions at a tune, into a red hot crucible ; then 
keep it at a bright red heat for a few minutes ; 
lastly, dissolve in water, filter, and evaporate. 

IV. Dissolve 10 parts of raw potash in 6 parts 
of water, and allow it to remain (repeatedly stir- 
ring) for twenty-four hours in a cool place ; then 
filter, and somewhat concentrate by evaporation ; 
meanwhile prevent crystallization by continually 
stirring, until the whole mass is nearly cool, when 
it should be decanted into a strainer. The mother 
liquor, containing chloride of potassium and silicate 
of potassa, drips off"; after which, evaporate the 
residue to dryness at a gentle heat ; then dissolve 
in an equal quantity of distilled water, and after 
filtration, again evaporate to dryness. The product 
is quite free from sulphate of potassa, and nearly 
free from the muriate and silicate. (M. Meyer 
Vogel's Notizen.) 

Pur., Tests, <^c. This salt frequently contains 
water, silicic acid, sulphates, and chlorides. The 
first may be detected by the loss of weight the salt 
suffers by heat ; the second by adding muriatic 
acid in excess, evaporating to dryness, and igniting 
the residuum, by which this contamination will be 
rendered insoluble, and be left behind on digestion 
in water ; the third and fourth may be detected by 
adding nitric acid in excess, and testing with ni- 
trate of silver and chloride of barium. If the for- 
mer produces a white precipitate, a muriate must 
be present ; and if the latter does the same, the 
contamination must be a sulphate. The London 
College states that good carbonate of potassa is 
" entirely dissolved by water ; in an open vessel it 
spontaneously liquefies. It changes the color of 
turmeric brown. Supersaturated with nitric acid 
neither carbonate of soda nor chloride of barium 
throws down any thing, and nitrate of silver very 
little. 100 parts lose 16 of water by a strong red 
heat, and 26*3 parts of carbonic acid on the addi- 
tion of dilute sulphuric acid." (P. L.) " Pure car 
bonate of potash does not lose weight at a low red 
heat ; and a solution, supersaturated with pure ni- 
tric acid, is precipitated either faintly or not at all, 
by a solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of sil- 
ver." (P. E.) 



CAR 



164 



CAR 



Prop., Use, ^c. It possesses pow< rful antacid 
and alkaline properties, and is given in doses of 5 
to 30 grains. It is sometimes employed to make 
effervescing draughts, with citric or tartaric acid ; 
for this purpose, 

20 grains of carbonate of potassa 

V y 1 

are taken for 



17 grs. of crystallized citric acid ; 

18 grs. " tartaric acid ; and 
f 5 ss of lemon juice. 

The carbonate of commerce is largely employed 
in the arts, in soap-making, the manufacture of 
glass, &c. 

Ant. Carbonate of potash is caustic, and when 
taken in excessive doses, is poisonous. The best 
remedy is water strongly soured with vinegar or 
lemon juice, or tartaric, citric, or sulphuric acid. 

Remarks. The high price of pearlash and pot- 
ash has led to the preparation of carbonate of pot- 
ash from the bisulphate or sulphate, by heating it 
in a reverberatory furnace with charcoal. A sul- 
phuret is formed, which, by continuing the roast- 
ing, is converted into a carbonate of potash, which 
is then purified by solution, defecation, and evap- 
oration. 

CARBONATE OF POTASSA WATER, 
HENRY'S. Prep. Dissolve pure carbonate of 
potassa in distilled water, and make it up to the 
spec. grav. 1-248, that it may saturate an equal 
measure of sulphuric acid, spec. grav. 1-135, or of 
nitric acid, spec. grav. 1-143, or of muriatic acid, 
spec. grav. 1-074. Use. In assaying mineral 
waters, &c. 

CARBONATE OF SODA. Syn. Subcar- 

BONATE OF SoDA. MiLD MiNERAL OR FosSIL Al- 

KALi. Aerated Mineral Alkali. Salt of 
Soda. Salt of Barilla. Prepared Natron. 

SOUCARBONATE DE SoUDE, CrISTAUX DE SoUDE. 

(Fr.) EiNFACH KoHLENSAUREs Natron. (Ger.) 
The carbonate of soda of commerce is either pre- 
pared by lixiviating the ashes of sea-weed, or by 
heating a mixture of sulphate of soda, (glauber 
salts,) sawdust, and lime, in a reverberatory fur- 
nace, washing out the carbonate with water, evap- 
orating, and crystallizing. The ashes of marine 
plants have been long an article of commerce, un- 
der the names of barilla, barilla ashes, kelp, blan- 
quette, &c., but the carbonate made from them is 
of a very impure description. That made from the 
sulphate is much purer, and when the process is 
well managed, merely contains a trace of sulphu- 
ric acid.' The quantity of carbonate of soda in 
the ashes of marine plants, varies from 3 to 40§. 

Prep. I. {From sulphate of .soda.) The sul- 
phate of soda is generally formed by decomposing 
chloride of sodium (common salt) with sulj)liuric 
acid. The gas evolved is either passed into water, 
when it forms liquid muriatic acid, or into milk of 
lime, when muriate of lime is produced. A large 
quantity of sulphate of Koda is also procured from 
the manufacturers of chloride of lime and acetic 
acid. Tlio suli)liato of soda is mixed with an equal 
weight of chalk and about half its weight of coal, 
each being pn^viously ground to powder, and the 
mixture is exposed lo a great heat in a reverbera- 
tory furnace, and during the calcination is, fre- 
quently Btirred about with a long iron rod. The 



dark gray product has received the name of Briiish 
barilla, or ball alkali. It usually contains about 
22 or 23§ of carbonate of soda. This is now lixi- 
viated with water, and the solution, after defeca- 
tion, evaporated to dryness, mixed with a little 
sawdust, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace 
until all the sulphur is expelled. The product now 
receives the name of soda-ash, or soda-salt, and 
contains about 5()§ of alkali. It may be purified 
by solution in water, defecation, evaporation, ana 
crystallization. A purer article is yielded by a 
mixture of 5 parts of sulphate of soda, and 4 parts 
of chalk or lime, and 1 or 2 parts of powdered 
charcoal, treated as above. The annexed engra- 
ving represents a vertical section of the soda fur 
nace employed in Scotland. 





II. {From the ashes of marine plants.) This 
process consists in simple lixiviation with water, 
allowing the impurities to subside, and evaporating. 

III. {From common salt.) Dissolve 2 parts of 
common salt in water, then add 6 parts of finely- 
pulverized litharge, and 1 part of chalk ; agitate 
well together ; decomposition gradually ensues, 
and a solution of carbonate of soda is formed, and 
crystallizes out of the liquid. The product is tol- 
erably pure. 

IV. {SodcB carhonas, P. L.) " Take of impure 
carbonate of soda lb. ij ; distilled water 4 pints. 
Boil the impure carbonate of soda in the water for 
half an hour, and filter the solution while it is hot. 
Finally, set it apart that crj^stals may be formed." 

V. {Chemically pvre.) This is best prepared by 
heating the pure bicarbonate or acetate of soda to 
redness in a platinum crucible. 

Prop., Use, <^c. This salt forms oblique rhom- 
bic prisms ; it is soluble in twice its weight of wa- 
ter at 60°, and less than an equal weight at 212°. 
As a medicine, it is deobstruent and antacid, and 
is given in doses of 10 to 30 grs. It is also used to 
make effei-vescing draughts and extemporaneous 
soda-water ; but for this purpose it is inferior to 
bicarbonate of soda, or potassa. 

20 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda, 

V y — — > 

are equal to 

10 grs. of crystallized citric acid ; 

1 1 grs. " tartaric acid ; 
3 drachms (about) of lemon juice. 

When taken in an over dose, the antidotes are 
the same as for c;\rbonate of potassa. The crude 
carbonate of soda of commerce is largely employed 
in the manufacture of soap, glass, &c. 

Pur. The ordinary carbonate of soda generally 
contains either si:lphatos or chlorides, and fre- 
quently both. These inipiu-ities uuiy be detected in 
the same manner as described in the last article. 
(See Carbonate of Pota«sa.) It should be " to- 



CAK 



165 



CAR 



tally soluble in water, but not at all in alcohol." 
(P. L.) A solution of 21 grains in £5] of water, 
precipitated by 19 grains of nitrate of baryta, re- 
mains precipitable by more of the test ; and the 
precipitate is entirely soluble in nitric acid. (P. E.) 

Tests. It effervesces with acids, and gives a 
reddish precipitate with corrosive subhmate ; it 
turns turmeric paper brown, and yields a white 
precipitate with epsom salts. Its solution is not 
disturbed by adding a solution of picric acid in al- 
cohol. This test will distinguish it from the car- 
bonate of potassa. 

CARBONATE OF SODA, DRIED. Prep. 
Put carbonate of soda into a proper vessel, and 
apply heat until it be dried, then heat it to red- 
ness ; lastly, rub it to powder. (P. L.) 

Prop., Use, ^c. 54 grs. of the dried carbonate 
of soda are equal to 144 of the crystallized salt. 
Its medicinal properties are similar to the cr^'stal- 
lized carbonate. It has, however, the disadvan- 
tage of being difficultly soluble in water. The dose 
is 5 to 20 grs. in pills or powder. A better, more 
uniform, and soluble preparation is made by simply 
exposing the salt, reduced to coarse powder, to the 
air in a dry and warm situation, when it will rap- 
idly effloresce and fall into a pulverulent state, 
not liable to further change. Dr. Beddoes has 
highly recommended the use of this preparation in 
calculous complaints. With this intention it should 
be exhibited in small doses, frequently repeated, 
combined with soap and aromatics. -^ 

CARBONATE OF SODA WATER, HEN- 
RY'S. Dissolve carbonate of soda in water, so 
that the solution may have the sp. gr. of 1*11 : — 
2 measures are equal in saturating power to one 
of his carbonate of potash water. 

CARBONIC ACID. Syn. Fixed Air. Ae- 
rial Acid. Choke-damp. An acid compound, 
formed by the union of carbon with oxygen. It is 
easily procured by either of the following processes : 

Prep. I. Dilute muriatic acid with 4 times its 
weight of water, then pour it upon fragments of 
marble, previously placed in a tubulated retort. 
Carbonic acid gas will be rapidly evolved, and may 
either be collected in the mercurial pneumatic 
trough, or applied to immediate use. When wanted 
perfectly dry, it must be passed over dried chlo- 
ride of calcium, or through concentrated oil of 
vitriol. Remarks. This is the most convenient 
way of procuring the gas on the small scale, or in 
the laboratory. « 

II. Dilute oil of vitriol with 3 or 4 times its 
weight of water, then pour it on whiting, placed 
in a suitable vessel, and apply agitation. Remarks. 
This is the plan adopted on the large scale by the 
soda water makers. (See Soda Water.) 

Prop. A colorless gas possessing a pungent odor 
and acidulous taste, rapidly absorbed by water 
forming liquid carbonic acid. The agreeable pun- 
gency of ale, beer, porter, wine, &c., is in a great 
measure owing to the presence of carbonic acid, 
which they lose on exposure to the air, and then 
become flat and stale. Spring and well water 
contain carbonic acid, and water that has been 
boiled, has an insipid taste from its absence. Un- 
der a pressure of 36 atmospheres at 32° Fahr., it 
becomes fluid, and on the pressure being removed, 
congeals from the cold produced by its rapid evap- 
oiation. It has been estimated that the tempera- 



ture falls to — 180° in this experiment. Carbonic 
acid, gas is destructive to life, and extingui.shea 
combustion. An atmosphere containing more than 
its natural quantity, (about -p^gyj,) is unfit for res- 
piration. The air of wells, cellars, brewers' vats, 
«fcc., is frequently contaminated with tliis gas ; hence 
the necessity of the old plan of letting down a 
burning candle before venturing in. If the candle 
will not burn, man cannot breathe there. Had 
this simple precaution been universally adopted, 
the late fatal accident at Barclay's brewery might 
have been prevented. 

Tests. It feebly reddens litmus paper, extin- 
guishes the flame of a burning taper, and forms a 
white precipitate in aqueous solutions of lime and 
barj'ta, which is soluble in acetic acid. (See also 
Carbonates.) By the last test, a very small quan- 
tity of this gas may be easily detected in the at- 
mosphere of rooms, &c. 

Ant. When asphyxia from the inhalation of 
ca..onic acid gas occurs, the patient should be im- 
mediatoiy removed into the open air, and placed 
upon his back with the head slightly raised. Cold 
water should be dashed over the body, hot water 
applied to the feet, and ammonia io the nostrils. 
Brandy and water, and other stimulants, may be 
administered. Friction on the surface of the body 
is also recommended. If the patient has ceased 
to breathe, artificial respiration should be attempt- 
ed. This may be done by pressing down the ribs, 
forcing up the diaphragm, and then suddenly 
withdrawing the pressure. The inhalation of air, 
mixed with a little chlorine gas, has also been re- 
commended. 

CARBONIC OXIDE. This is a compound of 
single equivalents of carbon and oxygen, (thus 
containing 1 atom less of the latter than carbonic 
acid.) It was discovered by Priestley, but its real 
nature was first pointed out by Cruickshanks. 

Prep. I. Pass carbonic acid gas over fragments 
of charcoal, heated to redness in a tube of porce- 
lain or iron. 

II. Mix equal weights of ohalk or carbonate of 
soda, and iron filings or charcoal, and ignite them 
together. 

III. Heat binoxalate of potassa with 5 or 6 
times its weight of strong oil of vitriol in a glass 
retort. (M. Dumas.) 

Remarks. The gas must be passed first through 
a caustic alkaline solution to deprive it of carbonic 
acid, and next over dried chloride of calcium, to 
deprive it of moisture. It may be collected either 
over mercury or water, as the latter absorbs but 
very little. Prop. Gaseous, colorless, inodorous, 
neutral, inflammable, and incapable of supporting 
respiration. 

CARBURETED HYDROGEN. Syn. Light 
carbureted Hydrogen. Heavy inflammable 
Air. Marsh Air. Dicarburet of Hydrogen. 

SUBCARBURETED HyDROGEN. FiRE-DAMP. Tllifl 

substance is abundantly formed in stagnant pools, 
during the spontaneous decomposition of dead vege- 
table matter. It is easily procured by stirring the 
mud at the bottom of them, and collecting the gas 
as it escapes in an inverted glass vessel. By pass- 
ing this gas through lime-water, or a solution of 
caustic alkali, it is rendered quite pure. It is this 
gas that forms the much-dreaded fire-damp of 
miners. 



CAR 



166 



C\R 



CARD WORK, TO VARNISH. Proc. Before 
varnishing cardwork, it must receive 2 or 3 coats 
of size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish, 
and any injury to the design. The size may be 
made by dissolving a httle isinglass in hot water, 
or by boiling some parchment cuttings until dis- 
solved. In either case the solution must be strained 
through a piece of clean muslin, and for very nice 
purposes, should be clarified with a little white of 
egg. A small clean brush, called by painters a 
sash tool, is the best for applying the size, as well 
as the varnish. A light delicate touch must be 
adopted, especially for the first coat, lest the ink or 
colors be started, or smothered. 

CARMINATIVES. Medicines that allay flat- 
ulency, and the pains that accompany it. List. 
The principal carminatives are ginger, cardamoms, 
cinnamon, cassia, aniseed, carawayseed, pepper- 
mint, and ardent spirits. Most of the aromatic 
essences and tinctures are carminative. 

CARMINATIVE, DALEY'S. Prep. Mag- 
nesia 60 grs. ; oil of peppermint 1 drop ; oil of nut- 
meg 2 drops ; oil of aniseed 3 drops ; tincture of 
castor 30 drops ; tincture of asafoetida 15 drops ; 
laudanum 5 drops ; compound tincture of carda- 
moms 30 drops ; pennyroyal water ^ oz. ; pepper- 
mint water 2 oz. ; mix. Dose. A small teaspoon- 
ful. The bottle should be shaken before pouring 
it out. 

CARMINE, BLUE. Prep. When the solu- 
tion of indigo in oil of vitriol is neutralized with 
carbonate of potash, a bulky blue precipitate sep- 
arates, which has received the name of blue car- 
mine or soluble indigo. 

CARMINE, (RED.) Syn. Carminum. Ve- 
getable Scarlet. Carmine is the most beautiful 
pigment that the artist possesses. It is the only 
substance that can impart the transparent ruddi- 
ness of health to the portrait, or the bloom of the 
rose to the artificial flower. The preparation of 
carmine is little understood, but success in its 
manufacture depends less on any mystery attached 
thereto, than the employment of the purest water 
and the best materials, and the exercise of moderate 
care, dexterity, and patience. The following 
forms will produce carmine of the richest hues 
down to ordinary and common, according to the 
skill possessed by the manipulator. 

Prep. I. (Process of Madame Cenette of Am- 
sterdam.) Finest cochineal, reduced to powder, 

2 lbs. ; pure river water, boiling hot, 15 gallons ; 
boil for 2 hours, then add refined saltpetre, bruised, 

3 oz. ; boil for 3 minutes longer, and add 4 oz. of 
Baits of sorrel. Boil for 10 minutes longer, then 
remove the heat, and allow the liquor to settle for 

4 hours, when it must be decanted, with a syphon, 
into shallow plates, and set aside for 3 weeks. At 
the end of this time, the film of mould formed on 
the surface must be dexterously and carefully re- 
moved, without breaking or disturbing the liquid 
portion. The latter must bo now removed with a 
syphoii, and the remaining moisture drained ofV, or 
sucked up with a pipotlo. The carmine which is 
left behind nuist bo dried in the shade, and will be 
found to possess extraordinary lustre and beauty. 

II. {Process of Alxon or Laiiglois.) Boiling 
river water 4 gallons ; cochineal, in powder, 1 lb. ; 
boil for 10 ininutes, then add | oz. of carbonate of 
Boda, dissolved in water 1 lb. ; boil again for ^ an 



hour ; cool, add | oz. of alum in fine powder, agitate 
rapidly until it be dissolved, then let it stand for 20 
minutes, after which carefully decant into another 
vessel. The white of 2 eggs, dissolved in 1 pint 
of water, is now to be added, and the whole well 
agitated ; apply heat until the liquor be clarified, 
then draw it off, and allow it to repose for ^ an 
hour, or longer, when the clear portion must be 
decanted, and the carmine that has been deposited 
at the bottom collected, and placed upon a filter to 
drain. When it has acquired the consistence of a 
paste, remove it from the filter with an ivory o^ 
silver knife, and finish the drying upon shallo\i 
plates, covered with silver paper. The product of 
either of the above processes is ^^ to ^j of the 
weight of the cochineal employed. 

III. (German process.) Boil powdered cochi- 
neal 1 lb. in 4 gallons of pure water for 15 min- 
utes, then add powdered alum 1 oz. ; boil for 3 
minutes longer, remove the heat, and allow th* 
hquor to settle for 5 minutes, pour off" the clear por- 
tion into porcelain or earthenware vessels, and set 
them aside for three days. At the end of this time, 
the clear liquor must be decanted into other ves- 
sels, and these must, in like manner, be set aside 
for a few days longer. The carmine deposited in 
the first vessels must be now carefully drained and 
dried, as above described. The product from 1 lb. 
of cochineal is about 1^ oz., besides ^ oz., or more, 
of an inferior quality obtained as a second deposite. 

IV. (Spirit process.) Boil 1 lb. of cochineal in 
3 gallons of water for 15 minutes, then add 1 
drachm of alum, in powder, boil again for 5 min- 
utes, and let it cool. Next decant the clear por- 
tion, and again heat it, and cautiously drop in a 
solution of tin, (spirits of tin,) until all the carmine 
be precipitated ; drain and dry as before. Prod 
li oz. 

V. (French process.) To 3 gallons of boiling 
water, add 1 lb. of cochineal, in powder ; boil for 
15 minutes, then add cream of tartar, in powder, 
1 oz. ; boil for 10 minutes more, then add powdered 
alum 1^ oz. ; boil for 2 minutes longer, withdraw 
the heat, and let it settle for 5 minutes, then de- 
cant the clear into porcelain vessels, and set them 
aside until the carmine falls down. Drain, and 
dry it in the shade, as before. 

VI. (Ordinary English carmine.) Boil cochi- 
neal 1 lb. with carbonate of potash i^ oz. in water 
7 gallons, for 15 minutes. Next remove the vessel 
from the fire, and add 1 oz. of powdered alum, 
agitate the liquor, and then allow it to settle for 15 
minutes longer. The clear liquid must now be 
decanted into a clean copper, placed over the fire, 
and i an oz. of isinglass, dissolved in 1 pint of wa- 
ter, and strained, must be added. As soon as a 
coagulum forms upon the surface, the heat must 
be removed, and the liquid strongly agitated with 
a bone or silver spatula, after which it must be 
allowed to repose for 20 or 30 minutes, when the 
carmine will be deposited, and must be drained 
and dried as before. 

VII. (/// the small way.) Boil 1 oz. of cochi- 
neal, finely powdered, in 5 or 6 quarts of rain or 
distilled water, in a tinned copper vessel, for 3 min- 
utes ; then add alum 25 grs., continue the boiling 
for 2 minutes longer, and let it cool ; draw olV the 
clear liquor, as soon as it is only blood warm, into 
shallow vessels, put them by for a couple of days, 



CAR 



167 



CAS 



by which time the carmine will have settled. In 
case the carmine does not separate properly, a few 
drops of muriate of tin (dyers' spirit) or of a solu- 
tion of green vitriol, will throw it down immedi- 
ately ; the water being then drawn oft', the carmine 
may be dried in a warm stove. 

tfse. Carmine is much employed in miniature 
painting, water-color drawing, and in tinting arti- 
ficial flowers ; also as rouge by the ladies. It is 
not only richer and more transparent, but goes 
further than any other color of the like kind. 

Remarks. The powdered cochineal from which 
the clear liquid has been decanted, as well as the 
colored liquid, after it has deposited its carmine, 
may be used in the preparation of carminated lake. 
Pure carmine should be almost entirely soluble in 
liquid ammonia. According to MM. Pelletier and 
Caventou, the muriate of tin should be at the maxi- 
mum of oxidizement to obtain a beautiful shade. 

CARMINE, LIQUID. Syn. Carmine Ink. 
Prep. Dissolve carmine in liquid ammonia, or spir- 
its of hartshorn. Use. As an ink, and as a beau- 
tiful color in water-color tinting, and velvet paint- 
ing. 

CARMINE, TO PURIFY AND BRIGHT- 
EN, Proc. Digest liquid ammonia on carmine, 
until all the color is taken up, filter, and add ace- 
tic acid and alcohol, till the whole is precipitated ; 
lastly, carefully wash wnth spirit, and dry in the 
shade. Remarks. In this way may be produced 
carmine of the richest and most lustrous hue, even 
from samples of inferior quality. (See Cochinil- 

LIN.) 

CARPETS, to CLEAN. Before proceeding 
to sweep a carpet, a few handfuls of waste tea- 
leaves should be sprinkled over it. A stiff" hair 
broom or brush should be employed, unless the 
carpet be very dirty, when a whisk or carpet- 
broom should be used first, followed by another 
made of hair, to take off the loose dust. The fre- 
quen*; use of a stiff carpet-broom soon wears off" the 
beauty of the best carpet. An ordinary clothes- 
brush is best adapted for superior carpets. When 
carpets are very dirty, they should be cleaned by 
shaking and beating. 

Brussels Carpets may be cleaned as follows: — 
Take them up and shake and beat them, so as to 
render them perfectly free from dust. Have the 
floor thoroughly scoured and dry, and nail the 
carpet firmly down upon it. If still much soiled, 
it may be cleaned in the following manner : — Take 
a pailful of clean cold spring water, and put into 
it about 3 gills of ox-gall. Take another pail with 
clean cold water only. Now rub with a soft 
i»crubbing brush some of the ox-gall water on the 
'-•<irpet, which will raise a lather. When a con- 
venient sized portion is done, wash the lather off 
with a clean linen cloth dipped in the clean water. 
Let this water be changed frequently. When all 
the lather has disappeared, rub the part with a 
clean dry cloth. After all is done, open the win- 
dow to allow the carpet to dry. A carpet treated 
in this manner will be greatly refreshed in color, 
particularly the greens. It is very advisable in 
laying down carpets at first, to cover the floor be- 
neath them with large sheets of paper, so as to 
prevent the dust from rising between the boards. 
A carpet lasts longer by adopting this precaution. 

Kidderminster Carpets will scarcely bear the 



above treatment without becoming so soft as to 
get speedily dirty again. This may in sonn; mea- 
sure be prevented by brushing them over with a 
hot weak solution of size in water, to which a little 
alum has been added. Curd soap, dissolved in hot 
water, may be used instead of ox-gall, but it is 
more likely to injure the colors, if produced by false 
dyes. When there are spots of grease on the car- 
peting, they may be covered with curd soap, dis- 
solved in boiling water, and rubbed with a brush 
until the stains are removed, when they must be 
cleaned with warm water as before. The addition 
of a little gall to the soap renders it more effica- 
cious. 

CARRAGEENIN. The pure jelly extracted 
from carrageen, or Irish moss. It may be purified 
by agitation with dilute alcohol, and filtration. It 
closely resembles animal jelly. (Lucae.) 

CARYOPHILLIN. Syn. Clove Resin. A 
resinous substance, extracted from Molucca cloves 
by means of alcohol. By repeated evaporations 
and re-solutions, it may be obtained in a satiny, 
crystalline state. It is odorless, tasteless, fusible, 
volatile, and soluble both in alcohol and ether. 

CASE-HARDENING, (in METALnniGY.) 
The operation of j'ving a surface of steel to pieces 
of iron, by which they are rendered capable of re- 
ceiving great external hardness, while the interior 
portion retains all the toughness of good wrought 
iron. Iron tools, fire-irons, fenders, keys, &c., are 
usually case-hardened. 

Proc. I. The goods, finished in every respect 
but polishing, are put into an iron box, and covered 
with animal or vegetable charcoal, and cemented 
at a red heat, for a period varying with the size 
and description of the articles operated on. 

II. Cow's horn or hoof is to be baked or tho- 
roughly dried, and pulverized. To this add an 
equal quantity of bay salt : mix them with stale 
chamber-lye, or white wine vinegar: cover the 
iron with this mixture, and bed it in the same in 
loam, or enclose it in an iron box : lay it then on 
the hearth of the forge to dry and harden : then 
put it into the fire, and blow till the lump have a 
blood-red heat, and no higher, lest the mixture be 
burnt too much. Take the iron out, and immerse 
it in water to harden. (Moxon's Mechanic Exer- 
cises.) 

III. The iron, previously polished and finished, 
is to be heated to a bright-red and rubbed or 
sprinkled over with prussiate of potash. As soon 
as the prussiate appears to be decomposed and dis- 
sipated, plunge the article into cold water. 

IV. Make a paste with a concentrated solution 
of prussiate of potash and loam, and coat the iron 
therewith ; then expose it to a strong red heat, and 
Avhen it has fallen to a dull red, plunge the whole 
into cold water. 

Remarks. The process of case-hardening has 
been well conducted when the surface of the metal 
proves sufficiently hard to resist a file. The last 
two plans are a great improvement upon the com- 
mon method. By the topical application of the 
prussiate, (as in III,) any part of a piece of iron 
may be case-hardened, without interfering with 
the rest. 

CASEINE. Cheese made from skimmed milk, 
and well pressed, is nearly pure caseine. (Liebig.) 

Rernarks. This substance has lately engaged 



CAS 



168 



CAT 



the attention of organic chemists, from being a 
modification of the principle called proteine by 
MuLter. When caseine is thrown down from 
milk by adding an acid, it combines with a little 
of it, forming a kind of salt. With sulphuric acid 
a sulphate of caseine is formed. The acid may be 
removed by means of carbonate of lead, when 
pure caseine is left behind. Legumine is vegeta- 
ble caseine. By first adding a little caustic potassa 
to albumen, and then some alcohol, a precipitate 
is formed, having all the properties of caseine. 
(Liebig.) 

CASKS, PRESERVATION OF. Casks last 
longest when kept either in a dry situation, or one 
uniformly very moist. The continual variation 
from the one to the other speedily rots them. As 
soon as casks are emptied they should be bunged 
down quite air-tight, with as much care as if they 
were full, by which means they will be preserved 
sweet. Should any of the hoops become loose, 
they should be immediately driven up tight, which 
will at once prevent the liability of their being lost 
or misplaced, as well as the casks fouling or be- 
coming musty from the admission of air. Good 
casks are very expensive articles. The casks and 
vats belonging to the great brewery of Barclay &l 
Co., of London, are said to be worth several score 
thousand pounds. 

CASKS, SWEETENING MATCH FOR. 
Prep. Dip a strip of coarse linen cloth into melted 
brimstone. Use. Set fire to the brimstone match 
formed as above, put it into the cask, and keep it 
suspended by fastening one end under the bung, 
which should be driven in tight. After the lapse 
of 1 or 2 hours, the match may be removed. 

CASKS, STINKING OR MUSTY, (TO 
(SWEETEN.) For this purpose numerous plans 
are followed, among which the following may be 
mentioned. In every case great care should be 
taken to scald or well wash the casks out before 
filling them with liquor. 

I. Wash them well out with oil of vitriol, dilu- 
ted with an equal weight of water ; afterwards 
soak them in clean water and rinse them well. 

II. Wash them first with a little chloride of 
lime and hot water, then with water soured with 
oil of vitriol, and lastly, with pure water, until all 
the fumes and smell are removed. 

III. Match them with sulphur, or with sulphur 
mixed with a very little saltpetre. 

IV. Unhead them and whitewash them with 
milk of lime, made pretty strong. This plan is 
commonly followed for brewer's vats. 

V. Remove the heads and char the insides of 
the staves, by the aid of a fire of shavings, kindled 
within them. A safer and more effectual method 
is to wash the dry casks out with the most con- 
centrated oil of vitriol. This will char not only the 
surface of the staves, but penetrate into all the 
cracks, which the fire cannot reach. The ex- 
pense is trifling. The strongest oil of vitriol, sp. 
gr. 1-84.'), may bo bought in quantity at l\d. per 
lb., and 1 gallon, wortli about 2.s:, will wash out 
upward.s of r)0 hogsheads, if conmion care bo taken 
not to waste it. Caution. As oil of vitriol is pow- 
erfully caustic and corrosive, great care should be 
taken to avoid splasiung it over the skin or clothes, 
as it will rapidly hurn them. 

VI. Steam has lately been applied to the insides 



of casks, with great advantage. High-pressur« 
steam is driven in at the bung-hole, at the same 
time that the cask is violently agitated, (a heavy 
chain having been previously put into it,) until all 
the dirt and bad smell is removed. This plan has 
been lately patented. 

VII. Washing the casks out with a lye of pearl- 
ash, or soda, with milk of lime, strong hot brine, 
cow-dung, salt and water, and other similar liquors 
has been adopted, by some persons. The coopers 
boil the staves for gin casks in a strong lye of alum 
before placing them together, to prevent their 
coloring the spirit, but washing with oil of vitriol 
is a better plan. Some persons fill musty casks 
with water, and add 3 or 4 lbs. of coarsely -pow 
dered charcoal, and agitate well for a few days. 

CAST ENGRAVINGS. These are made bj 
taking a mould from any kind of engraving, and 
in pouring on this mould an alloy, in a melted 
state, capable of taking the finest impression. 
Bronze, type metal, zinc, &.c., have been used for 
this purpose. 

This plan is particularly applicable to engra- 
vings which meet with a ready sale, and of which 
a large number is required. As soon as one cast 
is worn out, another may be taken from the origi- 
nal plate, so that not only will every impression 
be a proof, but the whole expense of retouching 
will be avoided. For another method of multiply- 
ing engravings, see Electrotype. 

CASTS, (IN FUSIBLE METAL.) A com- 
bination of 3 parts of lead, with 2 of tin, and 5 of 
bismuth, forms an alloy which melts at the tem- 
perature of 197° Fahr. 

In taking casts with this and similar alloys, it 
is important to use the metal at a temperature as 
low as possible ; as, if but a few degrees elevated, 
the water which adheres to the things from which 
casts are to be taken is converted into vapor, and 
produces bubbles. The fused metal must be al- 
lowed to cool in a teacup until just ready to set at 
the edges, and then poured into the moulds. In 
this way beautiful casts from moulds of wood, or 
of other similar substances, may be procured. 
When taking impressions from gems, seals, «S6c.. 
the fused alloy should be placed on paper or paste- 
board, and stirred about till it becomes pasty, from 
cooling, at which moment the gem, die, or seal, 
should be suddenly stamped on it, and a very 
sharp impression will then be obtained. (Jour, of 
Science, No. 26.) 

CASTORINE. Syn. Castorina. Castoreum 
Camphor. Prep. Cut castor into small pieces and 
boil it in 6 times its weight of alcohol. On cooling, 
it will deposite the castorine, which, by re-solution 
in alcohol, may be obtained under the form of 
prismatic acicular crystals. 

Remarks. Genuine Russian castor must be 
employed in the above process, as scarcely any 
castorine can be obtained from the American- 
Castorine is soluble both in ether and hot alcohol, 
is inflammable, and by long boiling with nitric 
acid, becomes converted into castorie. acid. This 
acid is capable of forming salts with the bases. 

CATALEPSY. Syn. Catai.ki-sis. Catalep- 
siA. Trance. A disease in which the organs of 
sense and motion cease to exercise their functions, 
and the heart and lungs feebly perform their of- 
fices and in a scarcely perceptible numner. The 



CAT 



1G9 



CAT 



paroxysm generally comes on without previous 
warning, and its duration varies from a few min- 
utes to several days, and if medical reports are to 
be credited, sometimes for a much longer period. 
Dr. Cullen affirms that tliis disease is always coun- 
terfeited, but this surely cannot be correct. 

Treat. Ammoniacal stimulants applied to the 
nostrils, and spirituous liquors injected into the 
stomach, with general friction and free access to 
pure air, are the best remedies. Electricity and 
galvanism should also be had recourse to, when 
the instruments are at hand. 

CATARRH. Syn. Catarrhus. In popular 
language, a cold in the head or chest. Influenza 
is a severer form of this :omplaint, and has been 
called epidemic catarrh. 

The common symptoms of catarrh are a copious 
discharge from the eyes and nose, a hoarseness, 
and generally a cough, more or less severe. The 
exciting causes are sudden changes of temperature 
and exposure to currents of cold air, while the 
body is heated ; hence the frequency of colds in 
changeable weather. 

Treat. A light or spoon diet should be adopted, 
and animal food and fermented or spirituous liquors 
should be particularly avoided. The bowels should 
be opened with some mild aperients, and if the 
symptoms be severe, or fever or headache be pres- 
ent, small diaphoretic doses of antimonials, ac- 
companied by copious draughts of diluents, as 
barley-v\^ater, weak tea, or gruel, should be taken. 
Unless in very bad cases, this treatment, with pro- 
per care, will generally effect a ciu-e. 

CATECHINE. Syn. Catechuic Acid. Res- 
inous Tanmn. Prep. Cubical gambir or catechu, 
powdered and treated with cold water, leaves an 
hisoluble residuum, which, by repeated solutions in 
c Icohoi, may be obtained under the form of wliite 
r Iky needles. 

Prop. It strikes a green color with the salts of 
i-on, but does not precipitate gelatine. When dis- 
folved in caustic potassa, and the solution exposed 
10 the air, oxygen is absorbed and Japonic Acid 
formed. If, instead of caustic potassa, the carbon- 
ate be employed, it is converted into Rubinic Acid. 

CATGUT. Syn. Corde a boyau, (Fr.) Darm- 
SAiTE, {Ger.) The prepared and twisted intestines 
of animals. Prep. The guts, taken while warm 
from the animal, are thoroughly cleaned, freed from 
adherent fat, and well rinsed in pure water. They 
are next soaked for about 2 days in water, after 
which they are laid on a table and scraped with 
a copper-plate, having a semi-circular notch, be- 
gimiing the operation at the smaller end. The 
guts are then put into fresh water, and soaked 
until the next day, when they are again scraped, 
the larger ends cut off, and after well washing, 
again steeped for a night in fresh water, and then 
for 2 or 3 hours in lye water, each gallon of which 
contains 1 oz. each of pearlash and potash. They 
are lastly washed in clean water, and passed 
through a polished hole in a piece of brass to 
smooth and equalize their surface, and then twist- 
ed and sorted according to tlie purposes for which 
they are intended. 

Rerfiarks. Catgut is employed in several of the 

arts. The strings of harps, and all the instruments 

of the violin class, are formed of this material. 

For this purpose the mucous and peritoneal mem- 

22 



branes are removed with great care, tliey are thep 
soaked for a day or two in water, to which potash 
is added, then removed to water impregnated with 
Durnt lees of wine, which is made stronger by 
degrees, scraping them carefully to sepurute the 
fat. As soon as the intestines begin to float, they 
are immediately taken out, twisted, briinstoned, 
again twisted, and dried ; when sufficiently dry, 
the catgut is rubbed o^r with olive oil, and kept 
as long as convenient before use, as it improves 
by age. Whipcord is made from catgut, which 
is sewed together while soft with the jilandre or 
scrapings, after which it is put into a frame and 
twisted. It next receives 1 or 2 sulphurings, 
and is then dyed and coiled up for sale. Red and 
black ink, infusion of logwood, to which a little 
alum or blue vitriol has been added, (blue and pur- 
ple,) distilled verdigris or sap green, are the dyes 
commonly employed. Bowstrings for hatmakcrs 
are made out of' the largest intestines, 4 to 12 of 
which are twisted together, until the cord is ex- 
tended to 15 to 25 feet in length. It is then rub- 
bed perfectly smooth and free from knots, half 
dried, sulphured twice, again stretched and sul- 
phured, and lastly, dried in a state of tension- 
Ciockmakers cords are made of the smallest in- 
testines. ' When wanted particularly small, they 
are slit into strings by means of a knife, fitted with 
a ball to guide it. In this operation the gut is 
strained over the ball, and an equal portion of the 
divided gut pulled down by each hand, while the 
knife remains immoveable. This method is similar 
in principle to that by which the barrels of straws 
are divided by the straw-plait makers. 

The best fine catgut comes from Italy, and is 
made at Venice or Rome. The superiority arises 
from its being prepared from the intestines of thin 
sinewy sheep, while that made in England is form- 
ed from the fat sheep killed for the shambles. It 
has long been known to physiologists, that the 
membranes of healthy lean animals are much 
tougher than those of fat ones. This is well ex- 
emplified in the human species ; few men being 
at the same time very muscular and corpulent. 

A coarse species of catgut, used for turning 
lathes and similar purposes, is made from the in- 
testines of horses. The guts, previously cleaned, 
are soaked in water, with a pailful of weak solu- 
tion of chloride of lime for each 8 or 10 sets ; 
the mucous membrane is then separated, the in- 
testine cut into 4 strips by forcing a ball with 4 
knives placed crosswise along them ; these strips 
are next twisted, and when dry, any slight inequal- 
ities removed by fish skin. 

CATHARTICS. Syn. Purgatr-es. These 
have been divided into 5 orders or classes, accord- 
ing to their particular actions. The following are 
the principal of each class. 

1. {Laxatives, lenitives, or mild cathartics.) 
Manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes, honey, 
and phosphate of soda ; castor, almond, and olive 
oils ; ripe fruit. 

2. {Saline, or cooling laxatives.) Epsom salts, 
glauber salts, phosphate of soda, (tasteless salts,) 
seidlitz powders, &:.c. 

3. {Active cathartics, occasionally acrid, fre- 
quently tonic and stomachic.) Rhubarb, senna, 
aloes, &c. 

4. {Drastic or violent purgatives.) Jalap, 



CAU 



170 



CEM 



Bcammony, gamboge, croton oil, colocynth, elate- 
rium, &.C. 

5. (Mercurial purgatives.) Calomel, blue-pill, 
quicksilver with chalk, &c. 

The doses of all the above will be found in the 
table of the doses of n^edicines, as well as at the 
end of the notices of most of them, in their alpha- 
betical order. 

C ATHARTINE. Th(^ purgative principle of 
senna, obtained by Lassaigne and Fenuelle from a 
strong aqueous infusion of the leaves. Prep. 
Evaporate to the consistence of a sirup, out of con- 
tact with the air, then digest in alcohol, filter, and 
evaporate. Prop. Color, reddish ; taste and smell, 
nauseous ; it is soluble in water and alcohol, and 
strongly cathartic. 

CATHETER. A long hollow tube introduced 
into the bladder, for the purpose of drawing off its 
contents. Catheters are either njade of metal or 
elastic gum ; and if of the former material, a suit- 
able shape is given to them, foi the purpose of ac- 
commodating them to the flexure of the urethra. 

Prep. I. Coat a piece of smooth catgut with 
melted wax, and while still warm, bend it to a 
proper shape. When cold, dip it repeatedly into 
an ethereal sohition of Indian rubber, until a suffi- 
cient thickness is obtained, dry by a gentle heat, 
and then boil it in water to melt out the wax, and 
^ to allow the catgut to be withdrawn. A piece of 
polished steel wire may be used instead of catgut. 

II. Instead of applying the caoutchouc in solu- 
tion, wind ribands of it round the wire, having 
previously softened their edges with ether, or by 
boiling in water. Over this wind, as tightly as 
possible, a strong silk riband; and over all some 
fine packthread. The next day boil the whole in 
water for half an hour, and withdraw the wire ; 
lastly, polish off the outside as smoothly as possi- 
ble. (See Caoutchouc.) 

III. Weave a smooth tissue of silk over the 
bent wire, and then coat it with a surface of In- 
dian rubber, or elastic varnish. Finish it off as before. 

CAUDLE, (in Cookery.) A species of gruel. 
Made with oatmeal, groats, rice, or wheat flour, 
and mixed with half its weight of good ale, and as 
much mace, nutmeg, sugar, &lc., as will make it 
agreeable. White wine, the juice of a lemon, a 
little of the peel grated, with 1 or more eggs, are 
frequently added. It is an excellent domestic 
remedy for colds, &c., unaccompanied with fever, 
for which purpose it should bo taken on going to 
rest. 

CAUSTICS. Substances that corrode or de- 
stroy the texture of the skin and organized bodies. 
Their action is commonly called " burning." 

The principal caustics employed by surgeons 
are, nitrate of silver, caustic potassa, sulphate 
of copper, red oxide of mercury, and the nitric 
and acetic acids. 

Use. Caustics are employed to remove excres- 
cences, morbid growths, granulations, &c., as 
corns, warts, and proiulllcsli, and to open issues, 
abscesses, &c. 

CAUSTIC, COMMON. Syn. Potash with 
Lime. PotkntialCautkiiy. Potassa cum Calck. 
Prep. Hydrate of potassa and (luicklime, equal 
parts ; rub them together in a mortar, and keep 
them in a well-corked bottle. (P. L.) Use. When 
placed on tho skin, it rapidly decomposes it, leav- 



I ing a soft eschar, which is slowly detached. It ia 
employed to open issues, abscesses, &c 

CAUSTIC, COMMON. Syn. Causticum 
COMMUNE MiTius. (P. L. 1745.) Prep. Soft soap 
and quickhme, equal parts. Mix them at the time 
of use. 

Remarks. Both the above are less liable to 
spread than pure potassa, but arc considerably 
weaker. 

CAUSTIC, (for Canker in Horses.) Prep. 
Dissolve corrosive sublimate \ oz. in muriatic acid 1 
oz., then add rectified spirit and water, of each 4 oz 

CAUSTIC, OPIATE. Syn. Common Caus. 
TIC WITH Opium. Common caustic 4 dr. ; pow 
dered opium 1 dr. ; soft soap enough to mix. Use 
Applied to fungous ulcers. 

CEMENT. Aiiy substance which, on being 
placed between two surfaces, makes them adhere 
together. This name is also applied (in architec- 
ture) to some species of mortars, employed either 
to unite stones or bricks into masses, or as a pro 
tective covering against the weather or water. 

CEMENT, ALABASTER. Prep. I. Finely- 
powdered plaster of Paris, made into a cream with 
water. 

II. Melt yellow resin, or equal parts of yellow 
resin and beeswax, then stir in half as much finely- 
powdered plaster of Paris. 

Use. The first is used to join and fit together 
pieces of alabaster or marble, or to mend broken 
plaster figures. The second is used to join alabas- 
ter, marble, porphyry, Derbyshire spar, and any 
similar substances, that will bear being heated. It 
must be applied hot, and the stone must be made 
warm. Derbyshire, and some other stones, may 
also be joined by heating them sufficiently to melt 
a lump of sulphur, with which their edges must be 
then smeared, after which they must be placed to- 
gether, and held so until cold. Little deficiencies, 
as chips out of the corners, &c., may be filled up 
with melted sulphur or bleached shellac, colored 
to any shade, as required. 

CEMENT, ARCHITECTURAL. Prep. I. 
Reduce paper to a smooth paste by boiling it in 
water ; then add an equal weight each of sifted 
whiting and good size ; boil to a proper consistence. 

II. Paper, paste, and size, equal parts ; finely- 
powdered plaster of Paris, to make it of a proper 
consistence. Use it as soon as mixed. 

Use. To make architectural ornaments, busts, 
statues, columns, &c. It is very light, and receiver 
a good polish, but will not stand the weather. 

CEMENT, ARMENIAN. Syn. Diamond 
Cement. Persian ditto, Turkisu ditto. This 
article, so much esteemed for uniting pieces of bro- 
ken glass, for repairing precious stones, and for ce- 
menting them to watch cases and other orna- 
ments, is made by soaking isinglass in water until 
it becomes quite soft, and then mixing it with 
spirit in whicli a little gum mastic and anunonia- 
cum have been dissolved. 

The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Ar- 
menians, have a singular method of ornamenting 
watch-cases, (Jtc, with diamonds and other pre- 
cious stones, by simply glueing or cementing them 
on. The stone is set in silver or gold, and the 
lower part of the metal made flat, or to correspond 
with the part to wliich it is to be fixed ; it is then 
wanned gently, and has the glue applied, which 



CEM 



171 



CEM 



is so very strong that the parts thus cemented 
never separate ; this glue, which will strongly 
unite bits of glass, and even polished steel, and 
may be applied to a variety of useful purposes, is 
thus made in Turkey : — Dissolve five or six bits of 
gum mastich, each the size of a large pea, in as 
much spirits of wine as will suffice to render it 
liquid ; and in another vessel, dissolve as much 
isinglass, previously a little softened in water, 
(though none of the water must be used.) in 
French brandy or good rum, as will make a two- 
ounce vial of very strong glue, adding two small 
bits of gum galbanum, or ammoniacum, which 
must be rubbed or ground till they are dissolved. 
Then mix the whole with a sufficient heat. Keep 
the ghie in a vial closely stopped, and when it is 
to be used, set the vial in boiling water. Some 
persons have sold a composition under the name of 
Armenian cement, in England ; but this compo- 
sition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the 
quantity of mastich is much too small. (Eton.) 

II. The following are good proportions : isin- 
glass, soaked in water and dissolved in spirit, 2 oz., 
(thick ;) dissolve in this 10 grains of very pale 
gum ammoniac, (in tears,) by rubbing them to- 
gether ; then add 6 large tears of gum mastich, 
dissolved in the least possible quantity of rectified 
spirit. 

III. Isinglass, dissolved in proof spirit, as above, 
3 oz. ; bottoms of mastich varnish (thick but clear) 
li oz. ; mix well. 

Remarks. When carefully made, this cement 
resists moisture, and dries colorless. As usually 
met with, it is not only of very bad quality, but 
sold at exorbitant prices. 

CEMENT, BRUYERE'S WATER. Prep. 
Mix 3 gallons of clay with 1 gallon of slaked lime, 
and expose them to a full red heat for 3 hours. 

CEMENT, BUILDING. Syn. Artificial 
PuzzoLENE. Prep. This is made by exposing a 
mixture of clay or loam, broken pottery, flints, or 
silicious sand, or broken bottle-glass, with wood 
ashes, to a considerable heat in a furnace, until it 
becomes partially vitrified. It must then be ground 
to a fine powder, sifted, and mixed with one-third 
its weight of quicklime, also in fine powder, after 
which it must be packed (tight) in casks to pre- 
serve it from the air and moisture. For use, it is 
mixed up with water, and applied like Roman 
cement. 

CEMENT, BOTANY BAY. Yellow gum 
and brickdust equal parts, melted together. Used 
to cement coarse earthenware, &c. 

CEMENT, CHINESE. Prep. Dissolve shel- 
lac in enough rectified spirit to make a liquid of 
the consistence of treacle. 

II. Instead of spirit, use wood naphtha, (pyrox- 
ilic spirit.) 

III. Boil borax 1 oz. and shellac 4 oz in water 
until dissolved. 

Use. To mend glass, china, fancy ornaments, 
&c. The first form produces a cement so strong 
that pieces of wood may be joined together, cut 
slopingly across the grain, and will afterwards re- 
sist every attempt to break them at the same 
place. In many of the islands of the Indian 
Ocean, in Japan, China, and the East Indies, a 
similar cement is used to join pieces of wood for 
bows, lances, &c. Tie fluid is thinly smeared 



over each face of the joint, a piece of very thin 
gauze interposed, and the whole pressed tightly 
together and maintained so until the next day. 
Joints so made will even bear the continual flex- 
ure of a bow without separating. 

CEMENT, COPPERSMITHS'. Bullock's 
blood thickened with finely powdered quicklime. 
Use. To secure the edges and rivets of copper 
boilers, to mend leaks from joints, &lc. It must 
be used as soon as mixed, as it rapidly gets hard. 
It is extremely cheap and very durable, and is 
suited for many purposes where a strong cement 
is required. It is frequently called blood cement. 

CEMENT, CUTLERS'. Prep. I. Black 
rosin 4 lbs. ; beeswax 1 lb. ; melt, then add 1 lb. 
of finely-powdered and well-dried brickdust. 

II. Equal weights of rosin and brickdust melt- 
ed together. 

Use. To fix knives and forks in their handles. 

CEMENT, EGG. AVhite of egg thickened 
with finely-powdered quicklime. Use. To mend 
earthenware, glass, china, marble, alabaster, spar 
ornaments, &c. It does not resist moisture. 

CEMENT, ELECTRICAL AND CHEM- 
ICAL, (SINGER'S.) I. Rosin 5 lbs. ; wax and 
dry red ochre, in fine powder, of each, 1 lb. ; 
plaster of Paris 4 oz. ; melt the first two, then 
add the ochre, and, lastly, the plaster. Mix well 
together. 

II. Black rosin 7 lbs. ; well-dried red ochre and 
plaster of Paris, of each, 1 lb. ; as above. 

Use. To cement the plates in voltaic troughs, 
join chemical vessels, &c. 

CEMENT, ENGINEERS'. I. Mix ground 
white-lead with as much powdered red-lead as 
will make it of the consistence of putty. 

II. Mix equal weights of red and white lead 
with boiled linseed oil to a proper consistence. 

Use. Employed by engineers and others to 
make metallic joints. A washer of hemp, yam, 
or canvass smeared with the cement is placed 
in the joint, which is then " brought home," or 
screwed up tight. It dries as hard as stone. 

This cement answers well for joining broken 
stones, however large. Cisterns built of square 
stones, put together, while dry, with this cement, 
will never leak or come to repair. It is only ne- 
cessary to use it for an inch or two next the wa- 
ter ; the rest of the joint may be filled with good 
mortar. It is better, however, to use it for the 
whole joint. 

CEMENT, EXTEMPORANEOUS. Shel- 
lac melted and run into small sticks the size of a 
quill. Use. To join glass, earthenware, &-c. The 
edges must be heated sufficiently hot to melt the 
cement, which must be then thinly smeared over 
them, and the joint made while they are still hot. 
This is the cement so commonly vended in the 
streets of London. 

CEMENT, FRENCH. Prep. Make a thick 
mucilage with gum arable and water, then add 
starch in fine powder to thicken it. Use. Em- 
ployed by naturalists and French artificial-flower 
makers. A little lemon juice is sometimes added. 

CEMENT FOR IRON BOILERS, &c. 
Prep. Dried clay in powder 6 lbs. ; iron filings 
1 lb. ; make a paste with boiled linseed oil Used 
to stop the cracks and leaks in iron boilers, 
stoves, &-C. 



CEM 



172 



CEM 



CEMENT FOR BROKEN GLASS, CHI- 
NA, &c Various preparations and methods are 
adopted for mending broken china, earthenware, 
and glass, among which are the following: the 
white of an egg beaten with quicklime, in impal- 
pable powder, into a paste ; to which is sometimes 
added a little whey, made by mixing vinegar and 
milk. A little isinglass, dissolved in mastich var- 
nish, is another cement. Nature supplies some 
cements ready to our hands, as the juice of garlic 
and the white slime of large snails ; and it has 
been stated in a respectable scientific journal that 
a broken flint has been joined so effectually with 
this snail cement, that when dashed upon a stone 
pavement the flint broke elsewhere than at the 
cemented part. In their anxiety to unite broken 
articles, persons generally defeat themselves by 
spreading the cement too thickly upon the edges 
of the article, whereas the least possible quantity 
should be used, so as to bring the edges almost 
close together ; and this may be aided by heating 
the fragments to be joined. (Chambers's Infor- 
mation for the People.) 

(See also Armenian, Extemporaneous, Chi- 
nese Cements, &lc. &lc.) 

CEMENT, GAD'S HYDRAULIC. Prep. 
Mix 3 lbs. of well-dried and powdered clay with 
1 lb. of oxide of iron ; then add as much boiled 
oil as will reduce them to a stiff paste. 

Use. For work required to harden under water. 

CEMENT, GLASS GRINDERS'. I. Melt 
pitch and add thereto one fourth of its weight 
each of finely-powdered wood-ashes and hard tal- 
low. For coarse work. 

II. Melt 4 lbs. of black rosin, then add 1 lb. 
each of beeswax and whiting previously heated 
red hot and still warm. 

III. Shellac melted, and applied to the pieces 
previously warmed. 

Use. To fix the articles while grinding. 

CEMENT, GLUE. Prep. 1. Melt 1 lb. of 
glue without water, then add 1 lb. of black rosin 
and 4 oz. of red ochre. 

II. Melt glue without water, then stir in -J of its 
weight each of boiled oil and red ochre. 

Use. For various common purposes, especially 
to fix stones in their frames. 

CExMENT, HAMELIN'S, (or MASTICH.) 
To any given weight of the earth or earths, com- 
monly called pit-sand, river-sand, rock-sand, or 
any other sand of the same or the like nature, 
or pulverized earthenware or porcelain, add two 
thirds of such given weight of the earth or earths, 
commonly called Portland stone, Bath stone, or 
any other stone of the same or like nature, pul- 
verized. To every 5G0 lbs. of these earths, so 
prepared, add 40 lbs. of litharge, and with the 
last-mentioned given weights combine 2 lbs. of 
pulverized glass or flint stone. Then join to this 
mixture 1 lb. of minium and 2 lbs. of gray oxide 
of lead. 

When this composition is intended to be made 
into cement, to every GUf) lbs. of the composition 
are added 5 gallons of vegetable oil, as lin.seed oil, 
walnut oil, or pink oil. The composition is then 
mixed in a similar way to mortar. 

When this cement is applied to the purpose of 
covering buildings intended to resemble stono, tlie 
•urfaco of the building is washed with oil. 



CEMENT, IRON. This is formed of the 
borings or turnings of cast-iron, which should be 
clean and free from rust, mixed with a small 
quantity of sal ammoniac and flowers of sulphur. 
When wanted for use, it is mixed up with just 
enough water to thoroughly moisten it, and it is 
rammed or calked into the joints with a blunt 
calking chisel and hammer, after which the joint 
is screwed up by its bolts as tightly as possible. 
If the turnings or borings be very coarse, they are 
broken by pounding in an iron mortar, and the 
dust sifted off before use. The following are good 
proportions. 

I. Sal ammoniac in powder 2 oz. ; flowers of 
sulphur 1 oz. ; iron borings 5 lbs. ; water to mix. 

II. Sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; sulphur ^ oz. ; iron 
borings 6 lbs. ; water to mix. 

III. Sal ammoniac 2 oz. ; iron borings 7 or 8 
lbs. ; water to mix. 

IV. Iron borings 4 lbs. ; good pipeclay 2 lbs. ; 
powdered potsherds 1 lb. ; make them into a paste 
with salt and water. 

Remarks. The first of these forms is that gen- 
erally employed for common purposes, but for- 
merly much more sulphur and sal ammoniac were 
used. I am informed by one of the leading engi- 
neers of London, that the strongest cement is 
made without sulphur, and with only 1 or 2 parts 
of sal ammoniac to 100 of iron borings, (see the 
third form ;) but that when the work is required 
to dry rapidly, as for steam joints of machinery 
wanted in haste, the quantity of sal ammoniac is 
increased a little, and occasionally a very small 
quantity of sulphur is added. This addition makes 
it set quicker, but reduces its strength. As the 
power of the cement depends on the oxidizement 
and consequent expansion of the mass, it is evi- 
dent that the less foreign matter introduced the 
better. No more of this cement should be made 
at a time than can be used at once, because it 
soon spoils. I have seen it become quite hot by 
standing even a few hours, when it contained sul- 
phur ; and I have been informed by workmen, 
that when much sulphur is used, and it has been 
left together in quantity all night, combustion hais 
taken place. 

The last form produces a cement that gets very 
hard when allowed to dry slowly. 

CEMENT, JAPANESE. Syn. Rice Glue, 
Prep. Intimately mix the best powdered rice with 
a little cold water, then gradually add boiling wa- 
ter, until a proper consistence is acquired, being 
particularly careful to keep it well stirred all the 
time ; lastly, it must be boiled for 1 minute in a 
clean saucepan or earthen pipkin. 

Use. This glue is beautifully white, and almost 
transparent, for which reason it is well adapted for 
fancy paper work, which requires a strong and 
colorless cement. 

CEMENT, KEENE'S MARBLE. The fol- 
lowing is an abstract of a paper read by Mr. 
White before the Society of Arts, and will ex- 
plain the preparation of this beautiful and useful 
cement: '* Keene's Marble Cement is described as 
a combination of sulphate of lime and alum.* The 
gypsinn undergoes the same preparation as for 
plaster of Paris, being deprived of its water of crys- 

* A plciisinf? tint is nivcii to this cflmenV by wdding a lit- 
tlo solulioa (>(' green cupi)oras tu Uie aiuui liquur. 



CEM 



173 



CER 



tallization by baking. It is then steeped in a 
eaturaled solution of alum ; and this compound, 
when recalcined and reduced to a powder, is in a fit 
*tate for use. This cement lias been most exten- 
sively applied as a stucco ; but the finer qualities, 
(when colored by the simple process of infusing 
mineral colors in the water with which the ce- 
ment powder is finally mixed for working,) being 
susceptible of a high degree of polish, produce 
beautiful imitations of mosaic, and other inlaid 
marbles, scagliola, &.c. The cement is not adapted 
to hydraulic purposes, or for exposure to the weath- 
er, but has been used as a stucco in the internal 
decorations of Windsor and Buckingham palaces. 
From its extreme hardness, it has been found 
serviceable when used for imbedding and setting 
the tiles of tesselated pavements, «Scc. ; and has 
Ijeen adopted for this purpose at the French Pro- 
testant church, the new fire-proof chambers in 
Shorter's Court, and the Reform Club-House." 

In the course of the discussion which followed, 
Mr. C. H. Smith and Mr. Lee adverted to the ex- 
treme hardness of the cement as its principal re- 
commendation, when applied as stucco and for 
mouldings. 

CEMENT, MAHOGANY. Prep. I. Melt 
beeswax 4 oz. ; then add Indian red 1 oz., and 
enough yellow ochre to produce the required tint. 

II. Shellac, melted and colored as above. Very 
hard. 

Use. To fill up holes and cracks in mahogany. 

CEMENT, OPTICIAN'S. Prep. I. 1Shel- 
lac, softened with rectified spirit or wood naph- 
tha. For fine work. 

II. Melt wax 1 oz., and resin 15 oz. ; then add 
whiting 4 oz. ; previously made red hot, and still 
warm. 

III. Resin 1 lb. ; melt, then add plaster of Paris 
(dr\0 4 oz. 

Vse. To fix glasses, stones, &c., while polishing 
and cutting. The last is a very strong cement for 
rough purposes. 

CEMENT, PARABOLIC. Syn. Universal 
Cement. Prep. Curdle skim-milk, press out the 
whey, and dry the curd by a gentle heat, but as 
quickly as possible. When it has become quite 
dr\^ grind it to powder in a coffee or pepper mill, 
and mix it with -p'^ of its weight of finely-powdered 
quicklime, and a piece of camphor the size of a 
pea, also reduced to powder, to every ounce of the 
mixture. Keep it in wide-mouth 1 oz. vials, well 
corked. For use, make it into a paste with a little 
water, and applv it immediately- 

CEMENT, PARKER'S. 'This valuable ce- 
ment is made of the nodules of indurated and 
slightly ferruginous marl, called by mineralogists 
septaria, and also of some other species of argilla- 
ceous limestone. These are bunied in conical 
kilns, with pit coal, in a similar way to other lime- 
stone, care being taken to avoid the use of too 
much heat, as if the pieces undergo the slightest 
degree of fusion, even on the surface, they will be 
unfit to form the cement. After being properly 
roasted, the calx is reduced to a very fine powder 
by grinding, and immediately packed in barrels, to 
keep it from the air and moisture. 

Use. It is tempered with water to a proper con- 
sistence, and applied at once, as it soon hardens, 
and will . not bear being again softened down with 



water. For foundations and cornices exposed to 
the weather, it is usually mixed with an equal 
quantity of clean angular sand ; for u.se as a com- 
mon mortar, with about twice as much sand ; for 
coating walls exposed to cold and wet, the com- 
mon proportions are 3 of sand to 2 of cement , and for 
walls exposed to extreme dryness or heat, about 
2^ or 3 of sand to 1 of cement ; for facing cistern 

i work, water frontages, &,c., nothing but cement 
and water should be employed. 

This cement, under the name of compo, or Ro- 

! man cement, is much employed for facing houses, 
water-cisterns, setting the foundations of large edi- 

flCGS &.C. 

CEMENT, PLUMBER'S. Prep. Melt black 
rosin 1 lb., then stir in brickdust 1 to 2 lb. Some- 
times a little tallow^ is added. 

CEMENT, ROMAN. Genuine Roman ce- 
ment consists of puzzolene, (a ferruginous clay 
from Puteoli, calcined by the fires of Vesuvius,) 
lime, and sand, mixed up with soft water. The 
only preparation which the puzzolene undergoes 
is that of pounding and sifting ; but the ingredi- 
ents are occasionally mixed up with bullock's blood 
and oil, to give the composition more tenacity. 

CEMENT, SEAL ENGRAVERS. Com- 
mon resin and brickdust melted together. 

Use. To fix the pieces of metal while cutting, 
and also to secure seals and tools in their handles. 
It groW'S harder and improves every time it is 
melted. 

CEMENT, TURNER'S. Pitch, rosin, and 
brickdust melted together. 

CEMENT, WATER. Prep. 1. Good gray 
clay 4 parts ; black oxide of manganese 6 parts ; 
good limestone, reduced to powder by sprinkling it 
with water, 90 parts : mix, calcine, and powder. 

II. Mix white iron ore (manganese iron ore) 15 
parts, with lime 85 parts ; calcine and powder as 
above. Both this and the preceding must be mixed 
up with a little sand for use. A piece thrown into 
water will rapidly harden. 

III. Fine clean sand 1 cwt. ; quicklime in pow- 
der 28 lbs. ; bone ashes 14 lbs. For use, beat it 

I up with water as quickly as possible. 
I CEMENT, WATERPROOF, (OF DIHL.) 
I Pure clay, dried by a gentle heat, and powdered, 
I mixed up to the consistency of a paste with boiled 
j linseed oil. 

Remarks. It may be colored by adding a little 
j red or yellow ochre, or any similar pigment. It is 
used to cover the fronts of buildings, roofs of ve- 
randas, &c. It may be thinned with turpentine. 
CEMENTATION, (in Metallurgy.) The 
operation of surrounding a solid body with powder 
or some other body, and in this state exposing it to 
the action of heat. Steel and porcelaui undergo 
cementation. 

CERATES. Unctuous preparations possessing 
a consistence intermediate between ointments and 
plasters. The tenn is derived from Cera, wax, 
because that is the ingredient on which their so- 
lidity mainly depends. 

In the prepa:^tiou of cerates, the oils and fats 
used should br perfectly fresh, and the wax una- 
dulterated. It is a general custom with the drug- 
gists to use a less quantity of wax than what is re- 
quired to give the compound a proper consistence, 
and in many cases it is omitted altogether, and Its 



CER 



174 



CER 



place supplied by hard suet or stearine, and fre- 
quently rosin. Lard is also very generally sub- 
stituted for olive oil. The operation of melting the 
ingredients should be performed in a water or steam 
bath, and the liquid mass should be assiduously 
stirred until cold. 

CERATE, BLISTERING. Syn. Cerate of 
Spanish Flies. Ceratum Cantharides. (P. L.) 
Prep. Spanish flies in fine powder §j ; spermaceti 
cerate §vj ; soften the cerate by heat, then care- 
fully mix in the powdered flies. 

Use. To keep blisters open, and as a mild stim- 
ulant. Its use is sometimes, however, attended 
by strangury and other disagreeable symptoms. A 
blister on the scalp, dressed for 4 days with this 
cerate, was followed by the head swelling to an 
alarming size, an oedematose erysipelas over the 
face and scalp to the occlusion of the eyes, and 
great fever. These symptoms were removed by the 
use of emollient fermentations and simple dress- 
ings. (A. T. Thompson.) Very probably the ce- 
rate contained euphorbium, which it derived from 
the powdered flies being adulterated with this sub- 
stance. (See Cantharides.) 

CERATE, CALAMINE. Syn. Ceratum 
Epuloticum, (P. L. 1745.) Ceratum Lapis Ca- 
LAMiNARis, (P. L. 1788.) Ceratum Calamine, 
(P. L. 1836.) Healing Salve. Turner's Ce- 
rate. Prep. Prepared calamine (lapis calamina- 
ris) and wax, of each lb. ss ; olive oil f §xvj. Proc. 
Mix the oil with the melted wax, and as soon as it 
begins to thicken, add the calamine and stir until 
cold. 

Use. To dress excoriations, ulcers, burns, sore 
nipples, &c. It is drying and healing. 

Remarks. On the large scale this cerate is usu- 
ally made without a particle of wax. 4 lbs. of 
suet are melted with 3 lbs. of lard, and 3J lbs. of 
calamine sifted in ; the whole is then well mixed 
up for a few minutes, and after one minute's re- 
pose, it is poured off" into another vessel, a little 
coarse sediment that has fallen to the bottom be- 
ing left behind. It is then stirred until cold. In 
many cases nothing but lard and calamine are 
used. 

CERATE, CALAMINE, (WITH MERCU- 
RY.) Prep. (Ceratum Calamine cum Hydrar- 
GYRo, P. C.) Calamine cerate lb. j ; nitric oxide 
of mercury §j. Proc. Triturate the oxide until 
reduced to an impalpable powder, then add the 
cerate and thoroughly blend them together. 

GERATE, CALOMEL. Prep. Simple ce- 
rate 3vij ; calomel 3j ; mix. 

CERATE, CALOMEL, (COMPOUND.) 
Calamine cerate §ij ; calomel §j ; mix. 

CERATE, CINCHONA. (Paris Codex.) 
Equal parts of extract of cinchona and simple ce- 
rate, mixed together. 

CERATE, COMPOUND LEAD. Syn. Gou- 
lard's Cr.RATE. Ckiiatum Plumbi compositum, 
(P. L ) Prep. Solution of diucctate of load f ^iij ; 
wax §iv ; olive oil ^ pint ; camphor 3ss. Proc 
A.dd 8 0/ of llie oil to the melted wax, and as soon 
*s it begins to cool, add the solution of lead, and 
conliwue the stirring until cold ; then add the cam- 
phor dissolved in the rennxining portion of the oil. 

Uhc. a cooling cerate for burns, excoriations, 
&c 

^CERATE, COMPOUND MERCURIAL. 



Syn. Ceratum Hydrargyri compositum, (P. L.) 
Prep. Mercurial ointment and soap cerate, of 
each §iv ; powdered camphor §j ; mix. 

Use. As a stimulant application to indolent tu- 
mors, and as a resolvent in enlarged joints, &-c. 

CERATE, COPPER. Syn. Ceratum Cu- 
PRi. Prep. Liquor of ammoniated copper 1 part ; 
simple cerate 8 parts. Proc. Soften the cerate b} 
heat, then add the cupreous solution, and stir un- 
til cold. (Swediaur.) 

CERATE, COSMETIC. Syn. Pommade en 
Creme. Prep. Oil of almonds 5 oz. ; white wax 
and spermaceti, of each ^ oz. ; melt, add rose wa- 
ter 3 oz., and tincture of balsam of Mecca \ oz. ; 
stir until cold. 

CERATE, HEMLOCK. (Ceratum Conii, 
St. B. H.) Hemlock ointment 12 oz. ; sperma- 
ceti 2 oz. ; white wax 3 oz. ; melt the last t'wfo, 
then add them to tk« first, softened by a gentle 
heat. Used for invetfe late cancerous, scrofulous, 
and other sores. 

CERATE, HONE ¥ (Ceratum Mellis, P. 
C.) Lead plaster and beeswax, of each 4 oz. ; 
olive oil 6 oz. ; melt and add honey 6 oz. 

CERATE, KIRKLAND'S NEUTRAL. 
Prep. Lead plaster §viij ; olive oil and prepared 
chalk, of each §iv ; mix with heat and add sugar 
of lead 3iij, dissolved in distilled vinegar f§iv. 
Stir until cold. Use. As a cooling dressing for in- 
dolent ulcers. 

CERATE, MARSHALL'S. Prep. Palm oil 
and calomel, of each 2 oz. ; sugar of lead 1 oz. ; 
ointment of nitrate of mercury 4 oz. ; mix tho- 
roughly by rubbing them together in a Wedgewood 
mortar. 

CERATE, MERCURIAL. (Ceratum Mer- 
CURIALE, P. L. 1746.) Strong mercurial ointment 
and yellow wax, of each 6 oz. ; lard 3 oz. Melt 
the wax and lard together, then stir in the oint- 
ment. 

CERATE OF ACETATE OF LEAD. (Ce- 
ratum Plumbi Acetatis, P. L.) Acetate of lead 
in fine powder 3ij ; wax §ij ; olive oil f §viij ; melt 
the wax in 7 oz. of the oil ; then add the acetate 
of lead, separately rubbed down with the remain- 
ing oil ; stir until cold. 

Use. As a cooling cerate to bums, excoriations 
and inflamed sores. 

CERATE OF ARSENIC. (Ceratum Ar- 
SENici, P. U. S.) White arsenic in fine powdei 
3j ; simple cerate ^j ; mix. 

CERATE OF NitRATE OF MERCURY. 
(Ceratum Hydrargyri Nitratis, St. B. H.) 
Prep. Ointment of nitrate of mercury and simple 
cerate, equal parts ; mix. 

CERATE, OPIUM. (Ceratum Opii, Dr. 
Lagneau.) Prep. Opium in fine powder 3ss ; 
yelk of 1 egg ; mix, then rub it up with simple ce- 
rate §ij. 

CERATE, QUININE. (Ceratum Quini^., 
F. H.) Sulphate of quinine 1 part ; simple ce- 
rate 10 parts ; itiix well. 

CERATE, RESIN. Syn. Yellow Basili- 
coN. Basilicon Cerate. Ceratum Citrinum. 
(P. L. 1745.) C. Resins Flav^, (P. L. 1788.) 
(^kratum Resins, (P. L. 1809, 1824, and 1836.) 
Prep. Yellow resin and wax, of each lb. j ; melt; 
then add olive oil f 3xvj. Stir until cold. 

Remarks. This cerate is u mild stimulant, de- 



CER 



175 



CER 



tergent, and digestive application ; and is employed 
to dress foul and indolent ulcers. 

The above is the form of the Lond. Ph., but the 
basilicon of the shops is seldom, if ever, made in 
this manner. The following forms are those com- 
monly used on the large scale, but the product is 
inferior to the P. L. 

II. Yellow resin 10 lbs. ; beeswax 2 lbs. ; lin- 
seed oil 7 lbs. ; melt together and stir until cold. 

III. As last, but use nut oil for linseed oil. 

IV. Nut oil 1 gall. ; beeswax 5 lbs. ; yellow re- 
sin 14 lbs. 

V. Lard (common) and linseed oil, of each 3 
lbs. ; yellow resin 9 lbs. ; mix as before. 

CERATE, ROSE. Syn. Lip Salve. (Ce- 
RATUM RosATUM, P. Cod.) Oil of almonds 1 lb. ; 
white wax ^ lb. ; alkanet root 1 oz. ; melt and di- 
gest until sufBciently colored, strain, and when 
cooled a little, add otto of roses (24 drops) to per- 
fume. 

CERATE, SAVINE. (Ceratum Sabine, P. 
L.) Prep. Lard lbs. ij ; savine leaves lb. j ; wax 
^viij. Proc. Melt the wax and lard, and boil the 
leaves in the mixture, then strain tlirough a linen 
cloth. 

Remarks. The preparation of this cerate re- 
quires caution, as the active principle of the savine 
being volatile, is injured by long boiling or too high 
a temperature. The leaves are usually boiled un- 
til they are crisp, but as this takes some time, the 
essential oil, and consequently the odor, is nearly 
all dissipated. A better plan is to express l;he 
juice from the leaves, and to add it to the wax 
and oil melted together, and just beginning to cool. 
As usually met with, this ointment has a deep 
green color, and the odor of the fresh plant, but 
neither of these is derived from the leaves, in the 
common procf^ss of making it. The first is caused 
by the addition of verdigris, and the latter by add- 
ing a little of the essential oil of savine to the com- 
pound when nearly cold. The cerate prepared 
according to the form of either of the British Col- 
leges, has but a very pale green color, and that 
rapidly changes unless it be well covered up from 
the air. A greater quantity of color is got from 
the leaves by long digestion in the fat and wax in 
earthen vessels, at a moderate heat, than by hast- 
ily boiling. In this way a lively green is some- 
times produced, but it rapidly changes. 

The following forms are those that have been 
adopted by man)' druggists for the manufacture of 
this cerate. 

II. Lard and suet, of each 6 lbs. ; yellow wax 
2 lbs. ; melt them together in an earthen vessel ; 
then add 2 oz. of distilled verdigris, previously 
rubbed down smooth in a mortar, with an equal 
weight of sweet oil ; strain while hot into a large 
earthen pot, and when cooled a httle, add 1 oz. of 
oil of savine ; stir till cold. 

III. Savine leaves 4 lbs. ; yellow wax 2 lbs. ; 
lard 8 lbs. ; boil until the leaves become crisp ; then 
strain, and add, of lively-colored green ointment 5 
lbs. ; and when cooled a little, 3 drs. of oil of sa- 
vine. Stir briskly until cold. Prod. 13^ lbs. 

The practice of coloring this cerate with verdi- 
gris, which is next to universal, cannot be too se- 
verely censured, as its therapeutic action is thereby 
altered. The copper may be detected by burning 
down a little in a platinum or Hessian crucible. 



washing out the ashes with a little dilute acid, 
placing the lifiuor in a glass tube, and pouring 
thereon liquid ammonia. VVlien a blue color, am- 
moniureted copper will be produced, if copper be 
present. 

Use. To keep blisters open. 

CERATE, SOAP. (Ceratum Saponis, P. L.) 
Prep. Boil litharge §xv in distilled vinegar 1 gal- 
lon until dissolved, stirring continually ; then add 
of Castile soap ^x ; boil again until the moisture 
be entirely evaporated : then add gradually, wax 
^xiiss, and olive oil 1 pint, previously melted to- 
gether. 

Remarks. Unless the above instructions be ex- 
actly followed in every particular, the process will 
miscarry. When this is the case, it will be found 
that the cerate on cooling will separate into two 
portions, and be full of hard gritty particles. To 
prevent this, care should be taken to use soap of 
the best quality. When once this mishap occurs, 
no boiling or stirring in the world will remove it. 
The only remedy is the addition of a little more 
soap, previously melted with some water, and 
again evaporating to a proper consistence. A 
small quantity of liquor of potassa will also have 
the same effect. 

The color and consistence of this cerate wholly 
depend upon the length of time it is kept heated 
after the addition of the oil and wax. As evapo- 
ration proceeds, so do the color and consistence 
increase. Its usual color is that of a lively pale 
chocolate-brown, but occasionally it is much paler. 
This arises from its containing moisture, which, by 
stirring, reduces the color. The following form 
may be used on the large scale. 

II. Distilled vinegar 6 galls. ; litharge 5 lbs. ; 
soap 3 1 lbs. ; yellow wax 4^ lbs. ; olive oil 6 pints. 
Mix as above. (Good nut or poppy oil may be 
used for olive oil.) 

Uses. Soap cerate is used as a cool dressing for 
scrofulous swellings. Sec. It may be spread on 
linen and applied like a plaster. 

CERATE, SIMPLE. Syn. Oil and Bees- 
wax. Simple Dressing. Cerat simple, (Fr.) 
Ceratum simplex, (P. L. 1824.) Ceratum, (P. L.' 
1809 and 1836.) Prep. Olive oil f3iv; yellow 
wax ^iv ; mix by heat, and stir until cold. 

Remarks. This is the ceratum of the " London 
Pharmacopoeia." It is used as a simple emollient 
dressing for excoriations and sores. The ceratum 
simplex of the Scotch College is spermaceti cerate. 
Simple cerate is but little used, preference being 
given to the next preparation. 

CERATE, SPERMACETI Syn. White 
Lip Salve. Cerat de blanc de Baleine, (Fr.) 
Simple Cerate, (P. E.) Ceratum album, (P. L. 
1745.) C. Spermatis Ceti, (P. L. 1788.) Cera- 
tum Cetacei, (P. L. 1809, 1824, 1836.) Prep. 
Spermaceti §ij ; white wax ^viii ; olive oil 1 pint. 
Melt together and stir assiduously until cold. Use. 
As a soft cooling dressing. 

Re7narks. As soon as the materials are melted, 
they should be moved from the fire', strained into 
a clean vessel, and stirred until cold. To facilitate 
the cooling, the vessel may be placed in cold wa- 
ter or a current of cold air. This will render the 
product both whiter and finer than when allowed 
to cool by itself. The operation of melting should 
be performed in a water bath. On the large scale 



CHA 



176 



CHA 



lard or suet is substituted for oil, by which means 
less wax is required. The following is a good form 
where a cheap article is wanted. 

II. Clarified mutton suet 5^ lbs. ; white wax 
and spermaceti, of each | lb. As above. 

CERATE, SULPHUR. (Ceratum Sulphu- 
RATUM, P. Cod.) Washed sulphur 2 parts ; cerate 
of Galen 7 parts ; almond oil 1 part. Mix. 

CERATE, SULPHURET OF MERCURY. 
(Ceratum Rubrum, P. Cod.) Yellow wax, lard, 
and yellow resin, of each §j ; red sulphuret of mer- 
cury gr. XXX. Mix. 

CERATE, ZINC, AND LYCOPODIUM. 
(Ceratum Zinci cum Lycopodio, Hufeland.) Sim- 
ple cerate 3iv ; oxide of zinc and lycopodium, in 
powder, of each gr. xv. Mix. 

CERIUM. A metal discovered in 1803 by Hi- 
singer and Berzelius, in a mineral named cerite. 
It is obtained in combination with a metal called 
by Mosander Lantanium. The mixed oxides may 
be procured by dissolving calcined and powdered 
cerite in nitro-muriatic acid, filtering, neutralizing 
with pure potassa, and then precipitating with tar- 
trate of potassa. The powder that falls down is 
next washed and calcined. 

The mixed oxides may be separated by solution 
in nitric acid, evaporation, and calcination. The 
mass previously powdered is then to be digested in 
water containing 2§ of nitric acid ; the undissolved 
portion is the oxide of cerium. The solution con- 
tains the oxide of lantanium, which may be ob- 
tained as a carbonate by adding a solution of car- 
bonate of potassa. 

The combination of these metals is but little 
known, and is now the subject of investigation 
by- several eminent foreign chemists. Various 
compounds of these metals with the acids, sulphur, 
and chlorine have been formed. 

CETENE. A colorless oily-looking liquid, ob- 
tained by repeatedly distilling ethal with glacial 
phosphoric acid. It is inflammable and soluble in 
alcohol and ether. 

CETINE. ,. Syn. Pure Spermaceti. Prep. 
Dissolve spermaceti in boiling alcohol, and collect 
the crystals that deposite on cooling. Prop. 
Bright pearly crystals ; melts at 120° ; sublimes 
at 670°. 

CHAIRS. The black leather work of chairs, 
settees, &c., may be restored by first washing off 
the dirt with a little warm soap and water, and 
afterwards with clean water. The brown and 
faded portions may now be restained by means 
of a little black ink, or preferably black reinver, 
and when this has got thoroughly dry, they may 
be touched over with white of egg, strained and 
mixed with a little sugar-candy. When the latter 
is nearly dry, it should be polished off with a clean 
dry brush. 

^ A similar process will revive ladies' and gentle- 
men's dress boots and shoes. 

CHALK. Syn. Earthy Carbonate of Lime. 
Perhajjs there is no one thing bettor known, or 
more universally distributed throughout England, 
than chalk. It is hero largely usod in the manu- 
factures, the arts, and in inedicine ; and it forms 
an important geological feature of the country. It 
was tlio liiils of chalk, the white clifls of England, 
that (onferred on it the name of Albion, (from 
albus or albens, white.) The chalk formation 



ranges over a great portion of the country, and in 
many cases obtains an elevation of nearly 1000 
feet above the level of the sea. There are various 
kinds of chalk, principally distinguished by thei* 
color. 

CHALK, PRECIPITATED. Syn. Creta 
Precipitata. Prep. {Calcis Carbonas Precipi- 
tatam, P. D.) Add a solution of carbonate of soda 
in 6 times its weight of water, to another of mu- 
riate of lime. Wash the precipitate repeatedly 
with distilled water. 

Use. Precipitated chalk is ordered by the Irish 
College to be used in the preparation of " quick- 
silver with chalk." It is also frequently used as 
an ingredient in aromatic confection, cretaceous 
tooth-powder, &c., and is preferable in every case 
where chalk is ordered, and expense is not an 
object. 

CHALK, PREPARED. Syn. Creta. Cal- 
CIS Carbonas Friabilis, (P. L.) Friable Car- 
bonate OF Lime, (P. E.) Creta Alba, (P. D.) 
Prep. Rub chalk ib.j with sufficient water, added 
gradually, until reduced to a very fine powder ; 
then put this into a large vessel with water, agitate 
well, and, after a short interval, pour off" the super- 
natant water, still turbid, into another vessel, and 
let the suspended powder subside. In the same 
way shells are prepared, after being first freed 
from impurities, and washed with boiling water 
(P. L.) 

Remarks. On the large scale the chalk is 
ground in mills, and the deposite made in large 
reservoirs. It is now seldom prepared by the 
druggist. 

Use. Prepared chalk is used in medicine as an 
absorbent, antacid, and desiccant. It forms a val- 
uable dusting powder in excoriations, ulcers, &c., 
especially in children. It is administered in d)'s- 
pepsia, heartburn, acidity of the stomach, &lc. In 
diarrhoea, depending on acidity or irritation, it is 
very serviceable, either alone, or combined with 
aromatics, astringents, or opium. Dose. lOgrs. to 
a spoonful. The precipitated chalk is preferable 
when it can be obtained pure, and either that or 
the prepared chalk must alone be used in medi- 
cine. The latter is, however, the cheaper of the 
two, and is consequently the one more generally 
used. 

Pur. Precipitated chalk is frequently adulter- 
ated, and, in many cases, the article sold as such 
does not contain one particle of carbonate of lime. 
The following extract from a letter published in 
the " Annals of Chemistry," will throw some light 
on this subject. The truth of Mr. Bartlett's as- 
sertions I can testify to. " An article has been 
offered and purchased by both wholesale and retail 
druggists, (in one instance, I believe, to the extent 
of a ton weight,) under the name of precipitated 
chalk, at Bd. or lOrf. per lb. instead of \s. Ul. or 
Is. 6rf., the price of the genuine article. This 
article appears beautifully white and flocculent, 
having all the appearance of the genuine, but is 
nothing more than pure sulphate of lime."' " It 
is well known that the carbonic acid gas of the 
soda-water manufacturer is obtained from whiting, 
and that it is disengaged therefrom by sulj)huric 
acid. A short time since it was inquired of us tc 
what purpose the pappy residuary nuiss of sulphate 
of lime and excess of whiting could be applied in 



CHA 



177 



CHA 



chemistry ? At the time we were unable to fur- 
nish a satisfactory reply ; the impression of our 
querist being that, on account of the secrecy ob- 
served in removing it, he had no doubt the uses to 
which it could be applied involved a good profit. 
We think Mr. B.'s letter may be received as a clue 
to the uses of this residue. Creta precipitata 
should be entirely soluble iu acetic acid, with ef- 
fervescence ; the sulphate of lime, on the con- 
trary, is insoluble." (Ann. Chem. and Pract. 
Pharm.) 

The following are the tests of purity mentioned 
in the London Phar. : — " Entirely soluble in dilute 
muriatic acid, with effervescence. After this so- 
lution has been boiled, no precipitate is produced 
when ammonia is dropped in." 

CHAMBERLAIN'S RESTORATIVE 
PILLS. A quack medicine, composed of cinna- 
bar, sulphur, and sulphate of lime, made into pills 
with mucilage. 

CHAMBERLIGHT, IMPROVED. Take a 
common cylindrical ointment pot, a 2 oz.-size in 
the wmter, (in the summer a smaller one ;) fill 
this with any kind of fat, as the waste fat from 
the kitchen for instance. Trim by about ^ an 
inch of the common wax-wick, sold at the tallow- 
chandler's, simply stuck into a thin slice of a 
wine-bottle cork, upon which place a strip of stout 
filtering paper, about half the diameter of the 
cork in breadth, and a diameter and a half in 
length. It need not be quite so broad, but it must 
be at least the length stated. The reason for 
using the bibulous paper is, that it feeds the wick 
properly ; without it, or some such contrivance, it 
will not burn. Remove with the handle of a tea- 
spoon sufficient of the fat to allow the cork to be 
a little below the surface, and then place the fat 
so removed over the cork. and paper, neatly spread- 
ing it to make an even surface. The light is now 
prepared. (Ann. of Chem.) 

CHAMOMILE DROPS. Prep. Dissolve 1 
oz. of essential oil of chamomile in 1 pint of recti- 
fied spirit of wine. Use. As a stomachic and 
stimulant. Dose. 5 to 30 drops ; ^ an oz., shaken 
with about 1 pint of pure water, forms an excel- 
lent chamomile water. 

CHAPPED HANDS AND LIPS. The ap- 
plication of a little cold cream, pomatum, sper- 
maceti ointment, lard, or any similar article, will 
generally prevent chaps and chilblains on the lips 
and hands. Persons employed in oil works, or 
about oil, and who have consequently their hands 
continually imbued therewith, never suffer from 
these things. A little oil or unguent of any kind, 
well rubbed over the hands on going to rest, (re- 
moving the superfluous portion with a cloth,) will 
not only preserve them from cold, but render 
them beautifully soft and white. It is said that a 
favorite actress, celebrated for the beauty of her 
hands, covei-s them nightly with the flare of a 
calf or lamb with the fat attached, over which is 
drawn a glove of leather. (What inconvenience 
and even pain will not persons suffer to gratify 
their pride I) 

CHARCOAL. A peculiar and well-known 
black substance, obtained from organic matter, by 
calcination in close vessels. There are two kinds 
of charcoal met with in commerce, viz., animal 
(bone) and vegetable, (wood.) 
23 



I. (Animal charcoal.) The preparation of this 
kind of charcoal has been already explained. 

II. (Vegetable charcoal.) Prep. This is pre- 
pared for fuel by cutting pieces of wood, of from 
1 to 3 or 4 inches in diameter, into lengths, varj'- 
iug from 1 to 2 or 3 feet, forming them into a 
conical pile, covering them with turf or clay, to 
exclude the air, leaving only 2 or 3 small holes at 
the bottom for lighting the wood, and a few othei-s 
still smaller at top to admit the escape of the 
smoke. The wood is now kindled, and the com- 
bustion allowed to proceed slowly for b or 10 days, 
more or less, until the volatile matter of the wood 
be driven off, when the air holes are stopped up 
with clay, and the further combustion of the pile 
arrested. The whole is then allowed to remain 
until cold, before it is broken up. In case of very 
high winds occurring during the carbonization of 
the wood, the holes to windward are stopped up 
with clay or earth, to prevent the mass burnmg 
too rapidly. 

The charcoal employed in the manufacture of 
gunpowder is burnt in close iron cylinders, and 
has hence received the name of " cjlinder char- 
coal." For this and other nice purposes, it is es- 
sential that the last portion of the tar'and vinegar 
be suffered to escape, and reabsorption of the crude 
vapors prevented, by cutting olf the communica- 
tion between the cylinders and the condensing ap- 
paratus, as without this precaution, on the fire 
being withdrawn, this would certainly take place, 
and the product be much reduced in quality. The 
dogwood, alder, and willow are those used for ma- 
king charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The Dutch 
white willow, and after that the Huntingdon wil- 
low, are said to yield the best charcoal for gun- 
powder. (Lieut.-Col. Moody.) 

It has been stated, that in charring wood, a 
portion of it is sometimes converted into a species 
of pyrophorous. Perhaps this might have been 
the cause of the late dreadful explosion at the 
above works. 

Uses, <^c. Charcoal is used as a fuel, and in 
metallurgy for tempering metals. Reduced to 
powder, it is used to surround vessels and bodies 
required to retain their heat for some time. A 
coating of charcoal formed on piles and stakes of 
wood, by charring them, is frequently adopted to 
promote their preservation, as it is unchangeable 
by air and moisture. Powdered fresli-burnt char- 
coal restores tainted meat and putrid water, decol- 
ors vegetable solutions, and withdraws lime from 
sirups filtered through it. For both these purposes 
animal charcoal is best. 

Charcoal varies in its qualities according to the 
substance from which it is prepared ; that of the 
soft woods, as the willow or alder, is best for 
crayons, and for making gunpowder ; that of the 
harder woods is used for fuel, or for a support for 
substances exposed to the flame of the blowpipe. 
Charcoal of animal substances has the greatest 
clarifying power. That made by a low red heat, 
not exceeding cherry red, has a dull surface, and 
is best for clarifying liquids, and probably for ma- 
king gunpowder, and for fuel. If the heat bo 
carried beyond this point, the charcoal acquires a 
brilliant surface, and is considerably inferior for 
clarifying, and probably for every other use. 

Oak, beech, and hazel charcoal dtxe those com- 



CHA 



178 



CHE 



monly sold in London for fuel. Willow charcoal 
is also occasionally found mixed therewith, and is 
frequently picked out for crayons, polishing copper- 
plates, for grinding, to make tooth-powders, poul- 
tices, &.C. Chesnut charcoal is preferred by smiths 
for forging, as it not only burns slowly, but dead- 
ens as soon as the blast ceases. Areca-nut char- 
coal is preferred as a dentifrice, but that from the 
wil.ow is commonly sold for it. 

In medicine, charcoal is principally used as an 
antiseptic or disinfectant, either in the form of 
powder or made into a poultice. It has been 
given internally in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, 
and heartburn, with advantage. Dose. 10 grs. to 
a tablespoonful, ad libitum. An ointment made 
with lard and charcoal has been employed in some 
skin diseases. 

Ant. In cases of asphyxia, produced by respi- 
ring the fumes of burning charcoal, the treatment 
is similar to that described under carbonic acid. 

If the person has been only so much exposed to 
the vapor as to stagger, on coming into the fresh 
air it goes off; but the head remains affected. 
When the exposure has been so long that sleepi- 
ness comes on, the patient should be immediately 
bled, cold water thrown upon the head, &c., and 
stimulating applications to the feet. There have 
been instances of recovery by these means, even 
when respiration had ceased, and some part of the 
animal heat had been lost. If life does not quickly 
return it will be highly proper to attempt artificial 
respiration. (See Asphyxia.) The most simple 
excitant in this species of asphyxia, is the passage 
into the nasal fossas of a feather dipped in common 
vinegar. It is the means which has always first 
caused the muscular contractions indicating revi- 
val. (Gabriel Pelletan.) 

Gilders, jewellers, copper-plate printers, brasiers, 
&c., who use small open fires of burning charcoal, 
should endeavor to create a draught of air to carry 
off the fumes, and should take care to keep to 
" windward," (as sailors call it,) by which means 
they will avoid them. Vessels containing milk of 
lime have been employed to absorb the gas, but 
their action must necessarily be very limited. 
The only certain remedy is thorough ventilation. 
This should be adopted, even at slight personal 
inconvenience in other respects. 

CHARCOAL CRAYONS. Prep. Saw the 
finest-grained, softest, and blackest pieces of char- 
coal, into slips of the size required, put them into 
a pipkin of melted wax, and allow them to mace- 
rate over a slow fire for half an hour, then take 
them out and lay tliem on blotting-paper to dry. 

Rernarks. The above process may also be em- 
ployed for red and black chalk. Drawings made 
with these crayons are very permanent, and if 
warmed slightly on the wrong side, the lines will 
adhere and become as durable as ink. These 
crayons may also be made by simply shaping the 
charcoal with a knife. Willow charcoal should 
be used for this purpose. 

CHARCOAL, LARDNER'S PREPARED. 
Prep. Mix well togeth(!r 1 oz. of finely-ground 
charcoal with 3 oz. of prepared chalk. Use. As 
a tooth-j)owder. 

CHAlilMNG, SURFACE. The operation by 
whicii tlie surface of wood is carbonized, lo pre- 
vent itH decay on exposure to air and moisture. 



Stakes and piles are generally thus treated before 
they are driven into the ground. Casks are char- 
red on the inside by coopers when they are in- 
tended to hold water. In both these cases the fire 
is applied directly to the wood. A new method 
has, however, been lately employed with apparent 
success. This consists in washing the wood with 
the strongest oil of vitriol. In this way, not only 
the outer surface, but the surface of all the cracks 
and holes, gets carbonized, which is not the case 
when heat is employed. 

CHEESE. The curd of milk compressed into 
a solid mass. 

Qual., ^c. This well-known substance has been 
objected to as an article of diet, but without suf- 
ficient reason. That the inferior kinds of cheese 
are not very digestible must be acknowledged, and 
when eaten in quantity may overload the stomach : 
but when the quality is good, and the digestive 
organs are in a healthy condition, it must evident- 
ly prove not only wholesome but very nutritious. 
Like all other food, cheese digests nore readily 
when well masticated, and the neglect of this pre- 
caution is one reason why it frequently disagrees 
with delicate stomachs. It is rendered more 
agreeable to most palates by toasting, but becomes 
less digestible by that operation. The basis of 
cheese is caseine or coagulated curd, a proteine 
substance ; it therefore cannot fail to prove nutri- 
tious, provided it be properly digested. Cheese- 
curd, carefully freed from water and milk by ex- 
pression, and the addition of salt, is a mixture of 
caseine and butter ; it contains all the phosphate 
of lime, and part of the phosphate of soda, of the 
milk. (Liebig.) When taken as a condiment, 
especially when rich and old, it powerfully pro- 
motes the secretion of the saliva and gastric juice, 
and thereby aids the stomach in performing its 
proper functions. 

Principles of Cheesemaking. When any 
vegetable or mineral acid is added to milk, and 
heat applied, a coagulum is formed, which, when 
separated from the liquid portion, constitutes cheese 
Neutral salts, earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and 
gum Arabic, as well as some other substances, 
also produce the same effect ; but what answers 
best is rennet, or the mucous membrane of the last 
stomach of the calf. Alkalis dissolve this curd 
at a boiling heat, and acids again precipitate it. 
The solubility of cheese in milk is occasioned by 
the presence of alkaline phosphates and of free 
alkalis. In fresh milk these may be readily de- 
tected by the property it possesses of restoring the 
color of reddened litmus paper. The addition of 
an acid neutralizes the alkali, and so precipitates 
the curd in an insoluble state. 

"The acid indispensable to the coagulation of 
milk, is not added to the milk in the preparation 
of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the ex- 
pense of the milk-sugar present. A small quanti- 
ty of water is left in contact with a small quantity 
of a calf's stomach for a few hours, or for a night ; 
the water absorbs so minute a portion of the mu- 
cous membrane as to bo scarcely ponderable ; this 
is mixed with milk ; its state of transibrniation ia 
communicated, (and this is a most important cir- 
cumstance,) not to the cheese but to the milk- 
sugar, the elements of which transpose them 
selves into lactic acid, wliich neutralizes the al 



CHE 



179 



CHE 



kali, and thus cau-'°s the separation of the cheese. 
By means of litmjs paper the process may be fol- 
lowed and observed through all its stages ; the al- 
kaline reaction of the milk ceases as soon as the 
coagulation begins. If the cheese is not immedi- 
ately separated from the whey, the formation of 
lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and the 
cheese itself passes into a state of decomposition. 

" When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place, a 
series of transformations take place, in consequence 
of which it assumes entirely new properties ; it 
gradually becomes semi-transparent, and more or 
less soft throughout the whole mass ; it exhibits a 
feebly acid reaction, and develops the character- 
istic caseous odor. Fresh cheese is very sparingly 
soluble in water, but after having been left to itself 
for two or three years, it becomes (especially if all 
the fat be previously removed) almost completely 
soluble in cold water, forming with it a solution, 
which, like milk, is coagulated by the addition of 
the acetic or mineral acids. The cheese, which 
while fresh is insoluble, returns during the matu- 
ration, or ripening, as it is called, to a state similar 
to that in which it originally existed in the milk. 
In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses which 
are nearly inodorous, and in the superior kinds of 
French cheese, the caseine of the milk is present 
in its unaltered state. The odor and flavor of the 
cheese is owing to the decomposition of the butter ; 
the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic 
acids, and the volatile butyric acid, capric^and 
caproic acids, are liberated in consequence of the 
decomposition of glycerine, (the sweet principle of 
oils, or, eis it might be termed, the sugar of oils.) 
Butyric acid imparts to cheese its characteristic 
caseous odor, and the differences in its pungency 
or aromatic flavor depend upon the proportion of 
free butyric, capric, and caproic acids present. 

" The transition of the insoluble into soluble 
caseine depends upon the decomposition of the 
phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of the but- 
ter ; margarite of lime is formed while the phos- 
phoric acid combines with the caseine, forming a 
compound soluble in water. 

" The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese, es- 
pecially those called meager or poor cheeses, is 
caused by certain fetid products containing sul- 
phur, and which are formed by the decomposition 
or putrefaction of the caseine. The alteration 
which the butter undergoes, (that is, in becoiping 
rancid,) or which occurs in the milk-sugar still 
present, being transmitted to the caseine, changes 
both the composition of the latter substance and 
its nutritive qualities. 

" The principal conditions for the preparation of 
the superior kinds of cheese, (other obvious cir- 
cumstances being of course duly regarded,) are a 
careful removal of the whey, lohich holds the 
milk-sugar in solution, and a low temperature 
during the maturation or ripening of the cheese." 
(Liebig's Lectures.) 

Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavor, ac- 
cording to the method employed in its manufacture, 
and the richness of the milk of which it is made. 
It is thought by some that the pasture, or the food 
on which the cows feed, exercises considerable in- 
fluence upon the quality of the cheese ; but this 
influence, if any, is very slight and subordinate. 
As the cheese made on the same farm does not I 



vary in any important degree, whether made in 
winter or summer, while tlie food must differ con- 
siderably from the luxuriance of vegetation at the 
one period, and its scantiness and the absence of 
flowering plants at the other. So long as the cows 
receive sufficient food of good quality, the precise 
description appears of little consequence. Much 
depends upon the richness of the milk, or the 
quantity of cream it contains, and consequently, 
when a superior quality of cheese is desired, cream 
is frequently added. This plan is adopted in the 
manufacture of Stilton cheese. The addition of a 
pound or two of butter to the curd for a middling 
size cheese, will also vastly improve its quality. 
To ensure the richness of the milk, it is of course 
necessary that the cow be not only properly fed, 
but be of a good breed, such as are commonly 
known as good milkers. The breeds cultivated in 
Alderney, Cheshire, Gloucester, North Wiltshire, 
Chedder, and Guernsey, deserve notice in this re- 
spect. 

Tije taste and odor of cheese vary in almost 
every county of England, and even in portions of 
the same county, where the herbage is similar ; 
it is therefore evident that the mode of manipu- 
lating and the quality of the milk must be the 
chief causes of the difference. Stilton, Chedder, 
Cheshire, and Gloucester, are among the most 
celebrated places or districts for its manufacture in 
England. 

Cheese is generally made from the milk of cows, 
but occasionally from that of ewes, and sometimes, 
though more rarely, from the milk of goats. 

Process of Cheesemaking. The materials 
employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. 
Rennet is the stomach of the calf, and may be 
used either fresh, or salted and dried. It is gen- 
erally kept in the latter state, for the sake of pre- 
serving it good. The stomach is taken from the 
calf as soon as killed, and after being cleared of 
the curd always found in it, it is well salted both 
on the outside and in, and after draining for a suf- 
ficient time, it is stretched out upon a stick and 
dried. The milk may be of any kind, from the 
poorest skimmed-milk to that rich in cream, ac- 
cording to the quality of the cheese required. The 
poorest kind of cheese is made from the former, 
and the finer from the latter, to which cream is 
frequently added. 

The materials being ready, the greater portion 
of the milk is put into a large tub, and the re- 
mainder sufficiently heated to raise the whole 
quantity to the temperature of new milk. The 
whole is then whisked together, the rennet added, 
and the tub covered over. It is now allowed to 
stand until completely turned, when the curd is 
struck down several times with the skimming- 
dish, after which it is allowed to subside. The vat 
covered with cheese-cloth is next placed on a 
" horse or ladder" oven the tub, and filled with 
curd by means of the skimmer ; the curd is pressed 
down with the hands, and more added as it sinks 
This process is repeated until the curd rises to 
about 2 inches above the edge. The cheese thus 
partially separated from the whey is now placed in 
a clean tub, and a proper quantity of salt added^ 
or the salt is added to it without removing it from 
the vat, after which a board is placed over and 
under it, and pressiure applied for 2 or 3 houra 



CHE 



180 



CHE 



The cheese is next turned out and surrounded by 
a fres cheese-cloth, and pressure again applied for 
8 or 10 hours, when it is commonly removed from 
the press, salted all over, and pressed again for 15 
to 2U hours. The quality of the cheese especially 
depends av this part of the process, as if any of the 
whey be ic;'t in the cheese, it vi^ill not keep, but 
will rapidly oecome bad-flavored. Before placing 
it in the press the last time, the edges should be 
pared smooth and sightly. It nov/ only remains to 
wash the outside of the cheese in warm whey or 
water, wipe it dry, and color it with annotto as is 
usually done. 

There are several methods of collecting tlie curd 
adopted, and as the flavor of the ;heese varies 
accordingly, it is as well to notice vhem. One 
way is to break the curd early, and to remove the 
whey as soon as possible ; another plan is to gather 
it with the hands very gently towards the sides of 
the tub, letting the whey run off through the fin- 
gers until it becomes cleared, and ladling it off" as 
it collects. A third method is to remove it as 
quickly as possible with the curd-skimmer. Of 
these the second plan is said to be the best, as it 
preserves the oily particles, many of which are lost 
by the other methods. 

The cheese being made, it now only remains to 
place it in a proper situation to mature or ripen. 
In England a cool, and slightly dainp cellar, is 
commonly regarded as the best to bring it forward. 
The temperature should on no account exceed 50° 
at any portion of the year, but an average of about 
45° is preferable when it can be procured. A 
place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is 
unfit for storing cheese. " The quality of Roche- 
fort cheese, which is prepared from sheep's milk, 
and is very excellent, depends exclusively upon 
the places where the cheeses are kept after press- 
ing and during maturation. These are cellars, 
communicating with mountain grottoes and cav- 
erns, which are kept constantly cool, at about 41° 
to 42° Fahr., by currents of air from clefts in the 
mountains. The value of these cellars as store- 
houses varies with their property of maintaining 
an equable and low temperature. Giron (Ann. de 
Chim. et Phys. xlv. 371) mentions that a certain 
cellar, the construction of which had cost 480Z., 
(12,000 francs,) was sold for 8,600Z., (215,000 
francs,) being found to maintain a suitable tem- 
perature, a convincing proof of the importance at- 
tached to temperature in the preparation of these 
superior cheeses." (Liebig's Lectures.) 

It will thus be seen that very slight differences 
in the materials, the preparation, or the storing of 
cheese, will materially influence the quality and 
flavor. Tiie richness of the milk, — the addition to 
or subtraction of cniarn from the milk, — the sep- 
aration of the curd from the whey with or without 
compression, — the suiting of the curd, — the collec- 
tion of the curd, either whole or broken, before 
pressing, — the addition of coloring matter, as an- 
aotto or safF/on, or of fhivoriug, — the place and 
method of storing, — and tli(^ length of time allowed 
for maturation, all t<>n(l to alter the taste aufl odor 
of tile cheese, in sonui or other parti('iilar, and that 
in a way readily perceptible to the relined palate. 
Tlie nature of the pasture, or llie food on which 
the cows arc fed, as well as tlieir j)artirular b^r(^(l, 
no doubt also tend > in some Blight degree to pro- 



mote the same diversity of flavor and quality. H"© 
other alimentary substance appears to be so mate- 
rially affected by slight variations in the quality of 
the materials from which it is made, or by such 
apparently trifling differences in the methods of 
preparing it. 

Var. There are several varieties of cheese met 
with in trade, differing from each other in quahty 
or flavor ; and these are generally distinguished by 
the names of the places where they have been 
manufactured, and sometimes, though more rarely, 
by their flavor, or the milk from which they are 
manufactured. Three divisions may however be 
made, depending upon the quality of the materials, 
each of which is well marked, and to one or the 
other all kinds of cheese belong. These are skirn- 
med-milk, raw-milk, and cream cheeses, the names 
of which respectively express the materials of which 
the)- are made. The following are the principal 
cheeses met with in Europe. 

Brickbat cheese, made in Wiltshire of new milk 
and cream. This name is given to it from its be- 
ing made into forms resembling brickbats. 

Chedder cheese, named after the place where it 
is made. This is a fine kind of cheese, with a 
spongy appearance, the eyes or vesicles of which 
contain a rich oil. It is made up into round thick 
cheeses of considerable size. 

Cheshire cheese. The best Cheshire cheese is 
made of new milk without skimming, the morn- 
ing's milk being mixed with that of the preceding 
evening, previously warmed, so that the whole 
may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this 
t.he rennet is added, in less quantity than is com- 
monly used for other kinds of cheese. On this 
point, much of the flavor and mildness of the 
cheese is said to depend. A piece of dried rennet, 
of the size of half-a-crown, put into a pint of wa- 
ter over night, and allowed to stand until the next 
morning, is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk. 
The curd is next broken down and separated from 
the whey, after which it is put into a cheese vat 
and pressed very dry. It is next broken very small 
with the hands, and mixed with a proper quantity 
of salt, and about half its weight of curd, from 
yesterday's batch, kept for the purpose. The 
mixed curds are now pressed tightly with the 
hands, into a cheese-vat, previously lined with 
cheese cloth, pressed for 4 or 5 hours, then taken 
out, turned, and again put into the press and left 
for the night. It is taken out next mornnig, well 
salted, and left until the salt is quite melted, when 
it is wiped dry, placed in a dry, cool situation, and 
turned every day until it becomes fit for the mar- 
ket. 

" If the milk be set together very warm, the 
curd will be firm: in this case, the usual mode is 
to take a connnon case-knife, and make incisions 
across it, to the full depth of the knife's blade, at 
the distance of about 1 inch ; and again cros'swise 
in the same manner, the incisions intei"sectir.g, each 
other at right angles. The whey rising through 
these incisions is of a fine pale green color. The 
clieese-niaker and two assistants (hen proceed to 
break the curd: this is performed by their repeat- 
edly putting their hands down into the tub; the 
cheese-makers, with the skiinniing-dish in one 
hand, breaking every part of it as they catch it, 
raising the curd from the bottom, and still breaking 



CHE 



181 



CHE 



it. This part of the business is continued till the 
whole is broken uniformly small ; it genenilly 
takes up about 40 minutes, and the curd is then 
left covered over with a cloth for about half an 
hour to subside. If the milk has been set cool 
together, the curd, as before mentioned, will be 
much more tender, the whey will not be so green, 
but rather of a milky appearance." (Cheshire 
County Agricultural Report.) 

Cream cheese. This is either made of the " strip- 
pings," (the last of the milk drawn from the cow 
at each milking,) or of a mixture of milk and 
cream. It is usually made up into small pieces, 
and a gentle pressure, as that of a 2 or 4 lb. weight, 
applied to press out the whey. After twelve hours, 
it is placed upon a board or wooden trencher, and 
turned every day, until dry. In about three weeks, 
it will be ripe. Nothing but raw cream, turned 
with a little rennet, is employed, when a very rich 
cheese is wanted. A little salt is generally added, 
and frequently a little powdered lump sugar. The 
vats employed for cream cheeses are usually square, 
and of small size. 

Cottenham cheese, named from the town where 
it is made, is a species of cream cheese, superior to 
Stilton, from which it also differs in shape, being 
flatter and broader than the latter. Its superiority 
is said to be derived from the rich grasses growing 
on the fens of Cambridgeshire. 

Derbyshire cheese is a small rich variety, of a 
pale color, very similar to the following : 

Dunlop cheese, named after a town in Ayr- 
shire, where it was originally made. It is very 
'rich, white, and buttery, and is made up into 
round forms, weighing from -i cwt. to ^ cwt. It 
is now made very generally throughout the whole 
of Scotland. 

Dutch cheese. This is very commonly met with 
in England, and is readily distinguished by its 
globular form. The cheeses made at Edam are 
very highly salted ; those made at Gouda are less 
so. The common size of these cheeses is from 5 
to 14 lbs. 

French cheese. The Rochefort and the Neuf- 
chatel are the most esteemed. 

German cheese. The only kind made in Ger- 
many of any celebrity, is the Westphalian, which 
derives its peculiar flavor from the curd being al- 
lowed to become partially putrid before being 
pressed. It is made up into small balls or cylin- 
ders, of about a pound weight, somewhat resem- 
bling in shape the pounds of butter in some parts 
of the west of England. 

Gloucester cheese. There are two varieties of 
this cheese : the single, made of milk deprived of 
part of its cream, and the double, made of milk 
retaininor the whole of the cream. The best kind 
has a fine mild taste ; a semi-buttery consistence, 
without being friable, and is made up mto large 
round flattish forms. 

Green or sage cheese is made from milk pre- 
viously mixed with the juice or an infusion or de- 
coction of sage leaves, to which some marygold 
flowers and parsley are frequently added. 

Lincolnshire cheese is made of new milk and 
cream, and formed into pieces about 2 inches 
thick. It is very soft, and without great care, will 
act keep over two months. Some persons sprinkle 
dry salt over them, when they will keep better. 



Norfolk cheese. This is remarkable for the curd 
being dyed yellow, with annotto or sallron. It is 
of very good but not superior quality, and usually 
weighs from \ to Jj cwt. 

Neufchaiel cheese. After Rochefort cheese, this 
is the best manufactured in France. It is made 
of cream, and seldom exceeds 5 or G oz. in 
weight. 

Parmesan cheese. This is made at Parma, and 
in other parts of Lombardy. Its peculiar flavor is 
said to arise from the luxuriance of vegetation in 
that part of Italy, and from the great abundance 
of aromatic flowers in the pastures. It is more 
probable, however, that the application of heat to 
the curd of the milk, to harden it, as is the com- 
mon practice in Lombardy, is the true cause of its 
flavor. The following method is said to produce 
a cheese equal to the best Parmesan ; 

" Let the day's milk ',<? heated to the degree of 
120° of Fahrenheit, then removed from the fire 
until all motion ceases, put in the rennet, allow an 
hour for the coagulation, after which set the curd 
on a slow fire until h'eated to 150°, during which 
the curd separates in small lumps. A few pinches 
of saffron are then thrown in, together with cold 
water sufficient to reduce it instantly to a bearable 
heat, when the curd is collected bypassing a cloth 
beneath it, and gathering it up at the corners. 
Place the curd in a circle of wood without a bot- 
tom ; lay it on a table covered by a round piece 
of wood, pressed down by a heavy stone. The 
cheese will acquire sufficient consistence in the 
course of a night to bear turning, when the upper 
side is to be rubbed with salt, and continued alter- 
nately for forty days." 

" In Italy, the outer crust is next cut off, and 
the new surface varnished with linseed oil ; but 
that may well be omitted, as well as coloring one 
side of it red." 

Polish cheese. This is generally of very inferior 
quality, and made in imitation of English cheese. 

Rochefort cheese. This is made of ewe's milk, 
and is the best kind prepared in France. It re- 
sembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal richness 
or quality. By kneading the gluten of wheat 
with a little salt, and a small portion of a solution 
of starch, it acquires the taste, smell, and unctu- 
osity of cheese ; so that after it has been kept a 
certain time, it is not to be distinguished from the 
celebrated Rochefort cheese^ of which it has all 
the pungency. (Roulle.) See the remarks on the 
Principles of Cheesemaking, above. 

Russian cheese. This is generally of a very in- 
ferior kind. The best sort is that made in imita- 
tion of English cheese ; the commoner kinds 
merely consist of salted curd, placed in a bag and 
wrung dry, by two persons twisting the ends in op- 
posite directions. It is usually not only bad tasted, 
but dirty. 

Slipcoat or soft cheese is a very rich white 
cheese, somewhat resembling butter, made for 
present use. 

Stilton cheese, named after the town where it 
was originally made, is at once the richest and 
finest variety of cheese manufactured in England. 
It is prepared from raw milk, to which cream ta- 
ken from other milk is added. Its shape is pecu- 
liar, being generally twice as high as it is broad. 
It is generally twice the price of Cheshire or dou-« 



CHE 



182 



CHI 



ble Gloucester. Like wine, this cheese is vastly 
improved by age, and is therefore seldom eaten 
before it is two years old. A spurious appearance 
of aore is sometimes given to it by placing it in 
a warm damp cellar, or by surrounding it with 
masses of fermenting straw, or rotten cow-dung. 

Suffolk cheese is made from skimmed milk, and 
is usually shaped into lound flat forms, weighing 
from 24 lbs. to 30 lbs. each. It much resembles 
the skimmed or " scald" milk cheese made in 
Devonshire. 

Swiss cheese. The principal cheeses made in 
Switzerland are the Gruyere, or Jura, and the 
Schahzieger, or green cheese. The latter is fla- 
vored with melilot. 

Wiltshire cheese resembles poor Cheshire or 
Glo'ster. The outside is generally covered with 
red paint, made by mixing up ruddle or red ochre 
with whey, and laying it in with a brush. 

Yorkshire cheese is a fine variety of cream 
cheese, but will not keep. 

Concluding Remarks. It is surprising that 
cheese is not more frequently made an article of 
domestic manufacture, especially by housewives 
resident in the country. The operations of cheese- 
making are all exceedingly simple, and not at all 
laborious, and will, in most cases, amply repay the 
outlay for the milk. With the peasantry, who 
can usually procure a few gallons of milk from the 
houses of the farmers for whom they work, it re- 
ally appears a want of common foresight, not to 
provide themselves with a few pounds of this 
wholesome and nutritious article, which is looked 
upon by some of those roughly-fed children of the 
soil, as a luxury beyond their reach. In a family 
where cheese is generally relished by the majority 
of the members, it becomes quite as necessary to 
have home-made cheese as home-made bread, and 
there is scarcely a portion of the United Kingdom 
where milk may not be obtained, during the sum- 
Tier months, at such a price as to render it impor- 
tant in a pecuniary point of view. Besides, cheese 
is not unfrequently colored with stains and pig- 
ments which are injurious, and even poisonous. 
Several persons have nearly lost their lives, from 
eating cheese colored with annotto, for instance. 
This dye is commonly adulterated with red-lead, 
so that the farmer (cheesemaker) may very inno- 
cently introduce a dreadful poison, when he only 
intends to improve the color. By making our own 
cheeses, the hability to such an accident is 
avoided. 

When a whole cheese is cut, and the consump- 
tion small, it is generally found to become unpleas- 
antly dry, and to lose flavor before it is consumed. 
This is best prevented by cutting a sufficient quan- 
tity for a few days' consumption from the cheese, 
and placing the remainder in a cool place, rather 
damp than dry, spreading a thin film of butter 
over the cut surface, and covering it with a cloth 
to keep off" the dirt. This removes the objection 
existing in small families against purchasing a 
whole cheese at a time. The common practice of 
buying small quantities of cheese should be avoid- 
ed, as not only a higher price is paid for any given 
quality, but there is little likelihood of obtaining 
exactly the same flavor twice rnnning. Sliould 
cheese become too dry to be agreeable, it may be 
used for stewing, or when grated cheeso is wanted. 



Toasted cheese is much relished by some per- 
sons, but is seldom met with well prepared. The 
following has been handed to the wr^o-^ bv the 
cook of a certain nobleman who prides himseif an 
his gustful appetite. Cut the cheese into slices of 
moderate thickness, and put them into a tinned 
copper saucepan, with a little butter and cream, 
simmer very gently until quite dissolved, then re- 
move it from the fire, allow it to cool a little, and 
add some yelk of egg, well beaten ; make it into 
a shape, and brown it before the fire. 

CHELTENHAM SALTS. Prep. Glauber 
salts 1 oz. ; Epsom salts | oz. ; culinary salt a tea- 
spoonful ; sulphate of iron 2 grs. ; reduce thera 
separately to fine powder, then mix them. 

II. Glauber salts and Epsom salts, of each 28 
lbs. ; common salt 7 lbs. ; sulphate of iron 1^ oz. ; 
mix. 

Remarks. The above salts must be dried in an 
oven, or over the fire, before reducing them to 
ponder. The Glauber's should be dried by itself, 
as it liquefies when slightly heated. Cathartic and 
tonic. Dose. ^ oz. to 1^ oz. 

CHELSEA PENSIONER. Prep. Gum gua- 
iacum \ oz. ; rhubarb ^ oz. ; cream of tartar 2 
oz. ; flowers of sulphur 4 oz. ; nutmegs 2 in num- 
ber, (all in powder ;) honey 1^ lb. ; make them 
into a confection by beating them together in a 
mortar. 

Remarks. The dose is two tablespoonfuls, night 
and morning, in rheumatism. The name is said 
to have been given to it from the circumstance of 
a Chelsea pensioner having cured Lord Amherst 
with it. 

CHILBLAIN. An inflammatory swelling, of 
a purple or lead color, produced by the action of 
cold. Children, especially those of a scrofulous 
habit, and elderly persons, are generally most lia- 
ble to chilblains. The common cause of chilblains 
is holding the hands or feet to the fire, after expo- 
sure to cold. The sudden change of temperature 
partially destroys the vitality, and prevents the 
proper flow of blood through the part. The best 
preventives of chilblains are woollen socks or 
stockings, good waterproof shoes, woollen gloves, 
exercise, and friction. When chilblains have once 
formed, the best treatment is friction, with stimu- 
lants, as spirits of wine and camphor, turpentine, 
opodeldoc, dilute spirits, camphorated oil, &.c. 
Linnaeus recommends bathing the part with dilute 
muriatic acid, just strong enough to faintly prick 
the skin. When the inflamed parts have ulcera- 
ted, they are commonly called kibes. In this stat* 
they should be dressed wnth a little resin cerate, oi 
elemi ointment, and if fungous granulations ap- 
pear, they must be removed by touching thera 
with nitrate of silver or bhie vitriol. 

CHILBLAINS, LOTIONS FOR, (POPU- 
LAR.) I. Dissolve white copperas 1 oz. in water 1 
pint, and occasionally apply it to the affbcted parts. 

II. Dissolve sal ammoniac 1 oz. in vinegar | 
pint ; as above. 

III. Mix compound soap liniment 2 oz. with 
tincture of Spanish flies 1 oz. ; as above. 

IV. Vinegar and spirit of wine, (or rum,) oi 
each \ pint ; sal ammoniac, in powder, 1 oz. ; mix 
and shake until the latter dissolves. 

V. Spirits of salts 1 oz. ; water } pint ; mix ; M 
above. 



CHI 



183 



CHL 



CHILBLAINS, OINTMENT FOR. Prep. 
Ointment of nitrate of mercury 1 oz. ; camphor 1 
dr. ; oil of turpentine 2 drs. ; oil of olives 4 drs. ; 
mix well together. To be applied, by gentle fric- 
tion. 2 or 3 times daily. 

II. Calomel and camphor, of each 1 dr. ; sper- 
maceti ointment 4 drs. ; oil of turpentine 2 drs. ; as 
last. 

Remarks. All the preceding lotions and oint- 
ments are intended for chilblains before they 

CHILBLAINS, RUSSIAN REMEDY FOR. 

A common remedy for chilblains among the peas- 
ants in Russia is the rind of perfectly ripe cucum- 
bers, dried with the soft parts attached, and placed 
with the inner side, previously soaked in warm 
water, over the sore parts. Dumitriefsky confirms 
the efficacy of this remedy. (Med. Zeitung.) 

CHIMNEYS ON FIRE may be readiiy extin- 
guished in several ways, without having recourse 
to throwing water down them from the top, by 
which much damage is frequently done to the fur- 
niture in the rooms. One of the simplest methods 
is, to scatter a handful of flowers of sulphur over 
the dullest part of the burning coals, the mephitic 
vapors arising from which will not support com- 
bustion, and consequently extinguish the flames. 
Another method is, to shut the doors and windows, 
and to stop up the bottom of the chimney with a 
piece of wet carpet or blanket, throwing a little 
water or flowers of sulphur, or salt, on the fire im- 
mediately before doing so. By this means Ihe 
draught is stopped, and the burning soot must be 
extinguished for want of air. If the cliimney be 
stopped at top, instead of the bottom, the whole of 
the smoke must, of course, be driven into the 
apariment. If every fireplace were provided with 
a danjper, or shutter of sheet-iron or tin plate, suf- 
ficiently large to choke it thoroughly, fires in chim- 
neys would become of little consequence, as it would 
only be necessary to apply this damper to put them 
out. 

CHINA, (CHOICE OF.) In purchasing chi- 
na, glass, and earthenware, care should be taken 
to select those sets thai in case of breakage can be 
readily matched. Peculiar or rare patterns should 
be avoided, for if any such be broken, it will gen- 
erally be found very difficult and expensive, and 
frequently impossible, to replace them. 

Cleaning. China (when very dirty) is best 
cleaned with finely-powdered fuller's earth and 
warm water, afterwards rinsing it well in clean 
water. A little clean soft soap may be added to 
the water instead of fuller's earth. The same plan 
is recommended for cleaning glass. 

Packing. As there is considerable art in pack- | 
ing brittle hollow-ware, in such a way that it will ! 
stand exposure to the jolting, blows, and agitation ! 
of land-carriage, it is better, where it is of much ! 
value, or in quantity, to have it done by a person ' 
used to the job. A man, accustomed to packing ! 
such articles, may be readily procured at any 
glass-works, or china warehouse, for a trifling con- i 
sideration. I 

CHINA-ROOT STARCH. A reddish-colored 
farina, procured from the smilax china. 

CHINESE SHEET-LEAD. The Chinese em- 
ploy large quantities of sheet-lead in packing their 
tea, which they make in the following way : — 



Melted lead is poured from a crucible upon a larg« 
flat stone, placed upon the ground, and inmiedi- 
ately another stone is dashed upon t le fluid lead, 
which is thus pressed out into a very thin plate or 
leaf. This is instantly removed, and the operation 
repeated as rapidly as possible. The rough edges 
of the plates are afterwards cut off, and then sol- 
dered together for use. The Chinese employ two 
men in this process ; one to pour on the melted 
lead, and the other to work the stone. A similar 
method has been adopted for some years in Eng- 
land, to form the plates of zinc for galvanic batte- 
ries. 

CHIRAYITINE, SULPHATE OF. The 
substance sold under this name is sulphate of quina. 
Chirayita yields no alkaloid, but merely a bitter 
matter. 

CHLORAL. A substance prepared by the ac- 
tion of chlorine on alcohol. 

Prep. Place anhydrous alcohol in a tubulated 
retort, and pass dry chlorine gas through it, at first 
in the cold, but afterwards with the application of 
a gentle heat. As soon as the chlorine passes im- 
decomposed through the liquor at the boiling tem- 
perature, the process is complete. On cooling, the 
liquid in the retort solidifies, forming a crystalline 
rnass of hydrated chloral. This must be melted 
by gentle heat, and agitated with thrice its volume 
of oil of vitriol, when, on increasing the heat a lit- 
tle, an oily stratum of impure chloral will rise to 
the surface. This must be removed, boiled for 
some time, to drive off some free hydrochloric acid 
and alcohol, and next distilled with an equal vol- 
ume of oil of vitriol ; lastly, it must be rectified 
from finely-powdered quicklime, stopping the pro- 
cess as soon as the surface of the lime becomes 
dry. 

Pemarks. The chlorine is best introduced by a 
cube inserted into the tubulature of the retort, and 
a long tube, bent upwards, should be connected 
with the beak to convey away the hydrochloric 
acid gas extricated, and to allow the volatilized 
alcohol and chloral to condense and flow back into 
the retort. 

Prop. Chloral is an oily liquid, possessing an 
ethereal smell ; it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and 
water, but its solution iu the latter rapidly changes 
into a semi-solid crystalline mass of hydrate of 
chloral, soluble in a larger quantity of water. 
Chloral boils at 202°, and has a sp. gr. of 1-502. 

CHLORATE. A compound of chloric acid 
with a base. The chlorates are ver}^ similar to the 
nitrates, both in their properties and composition. 
They are all decomposed at a red heat, metallic 
chlorides being formed, and oxygen gas given off 
Like the nitrates, they deflagrate with inflamma- 
ble substances, but with greater facility and vio- 
lence. A mixture of this kind will detonate with 
a slight blow or friction. All the chlorates are so- 
luble in water. 

Tests. Rubbed with sulphur, or phosphorus, they 
explode violently ; mixed with muriatic acid, and 
then with water, a liquid is formed, possessing 
bleaching properties. When heated, they evolve 
oxygen. Thrown on red-hot coals, they defla- 
grate like nitre. Sulphuric acid turns them orange 
red. The following simple method of testing the 
commercial chlorates has been proposed by M» 
Choron : 



Cnju 



184 



CHL 



" The protoxide of lead, heated with chlorate 
of potassa in a glass tube closed at one end, gives 
puce oxide of lead, (Pb O^,) mixed with a small 
quantity of minium. On this new reaction is 
founded the test which I propose with relation to 
the chlorates. It consists in slowly heating to fu- 
sion an intimate mixture of the chlorate and li- 
tharge in suitable proportion, covering it with a 
layer of chloride of sodium ; in treating the fused 
mass with dilute nitric acid ; then in collecting on 
a filter the puce oxide obtained, by aid of which 
the quantity of chlorate employed may be ap- 
proximately calculated. 

" This prompt and cheap process appears to me 
sufficiently accurate to be employed in the arts." 
(Comptes Rendus, xiv.) 

CHLORATE OF BARYTA. (Wheeler's 
process.) Digest for a few minutes a concentra- 
ted solution of chlorate of potassa, with a slight 
excess of silicated hydro-fluoric acid. A precipi- 
tate of double fluoride of silicon and potassium 
will subside, and chloric acid remain in solut/wn. 
.Filter, neutralize with carbonate of baryta ; again 
filter, when prismatic crystals of chlorate of bary- 
ta may be obtained by cautious evaporation. 

Prop., ^c. Soluble in 4 parts of cold water. 
Used to make chloric acid. This salt may also 
be formed by passing chlorine through a strong 
milk of hydrate or carbonate of baryta, in the 
same way as in making chlorate of potassa. 

CHLORATE OF POTASSA. Syn. Hyper- 

OXYMURIATE OF PoTASH. OxYMURIATE OF DITTO. 

Prep. I. Transmit chlorine gas through a solution 
of pure potassa, or its carbonate, until the alkali 
be completely neutrahzed, then boil for a few min- 
utes, gently evaporate until a pellicle, forms on the 
surface, and set it aside, where it will cool very 
slowly. Crystals of the chlorate will form ae the 
liquor cools, and must be collected, carefully 
washed with a little cold water, and purified by 
re-solution and crystallization. The mother liquor, 
by evaporation, will yield more crystals, or it may 
be saved for a future operation. 

Remarks. This operation is best conducted in a 
Woolf's apparatus, or similarly arranged vessels. 
When the process is about half completed, as in- 
dicated by litmus paper, ceasing to be darkened, 
and beginning to be blanched, it is better to inter- 
rupt the operation, and to remove any chloride of 
potassium that may have fallen down ; this may 
be washed with a little water, and the washings 
added to the liquor, when the chlorine should be 
again passed through the solution. When the bub- 
bles of gas pass through without any being sensi- 
bly absorbed, the process is completed. The gas 
tube should be of large dimensions at the end ijn- 
mersed in the saline solution, and care should be 
taken that it does not get stopped up with crystals. 
In general the pure chlorate obtained from the 
second crystallization, amounts to about j\ of the 
weight of the potash employed. The smallness 
of the product arises from a large portion being 
converted into chloride of potassium. 

II. {Graham's process.) Tiiis consists in sub- 
mitting equal equivalents of carbonato of potassa, 
and hydrate of lime mixed with water, to the ac- 
tion of chlorine, in a similar way to the above. 

III. (Liehig's process.) a. The ciilorine is 
passed into a mixture of one equivalent of chlo- 



ride of potassium, and 6 equiv; lents of hydrate of 
lime, previously stirred with water to the consist- 
ence of a thin paste, whereby the lime unites 
with the chlorine, forming chloride of calcium, 
and the chloride of potassium is converted into 
chlorate potassa ; the latter is then separated by 
crystallization. (Buchner's Repert.) 

b. Heat chloride of lime in water until it ceases 
to affect vegetable colors, then dissolve it hi hot 
water, concentrate by evaporation, and add chlo- 
ride of potassium. After cooling, a quantity of 
crystals of chlorate of potassa are obtained. Chlo- 
ride of lime, of so bad a qviality as to be worthless 
for other purposes, may be employed ; hence this 
is a very economical process. 

IV. (Vee's process.) Heat a solution of chlo- 
ride of lime, marking 18 or 20° Baume, in a 
leaden or cast-iron vessel, and when hot, dissolve 
therein enough chloride of potassium, to raise the 
hydrometer 3 or 4 degrees ; then concentrate 
quickly, but cautiously, until the gravity of 30 or 
31° Baume be obtained, and set it aside to crys- 
tallize. The mother water, concentrated to 36°, 
will yield more crystals. By re-solution in water, 
concentrating to 15 or 16°, filtering and again 
cooling, pure chlorate of potassa will be obtained 
This is a good and economical process. 

V. (Patent process of M. Romer.) This con- 
sists in placing pure carbonate of potassa on shelves 
in an air-tight chamber, communicating with a 
retort, filled with the materials for generating 
chlorine, by which the alkali becomes surrounded 
with an atmosphere of chlorine. The operation is 
allowed to proceed for 12 hours without interfe- 
rence, after which, the heat of a water bath is 
applied to the retort for 6 hours longer. The ap- 
paratus is now opened, and the chlorate of potassa 
thus formed, is purified and freed from muriate by 
solution and crystallization. The materials for 
geja^rating the chlorine, are — crystallized peroxide 
of manganese, in fine powder, 10 lbs. ; plumbago 
10 lbs. ; common salt 30 lbs. ; strongest oil of vit- 
riol 20 lbs. ; water 16 lbs. ; the weight of the car- 
bonate of potassa placed upon the shelves is 10 lbs 
Not being acquainted with the product obtained 
by this process, I cannot speak as to its value. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Crystallizes in four and six 
sided pearly scales; dissolves in 16 parts of water 
at 60°, and in 2^ parts at 212°. At about 450°, 
it undergoes the igneous fusion, and on increasing 
the heat almost to redness, effervescence ensues, 
and pure oxygen gas is given off". It yields 39-15§ 
by weight of this gas, (Ure,) and becomes changed 
into chloride of potassium. It will bear a heat 
of 600° Fahr. without undergoing any change. 
When mixed with inflanunable substances, and 
triturated, heated, or subjected to a smart blow, it 
explodes with great violence. It also fulminates 
when thrown into strong acids. As a medicine, 
it is stimulant and diuretic. Dose. 5 to 15 gr. or 
more. It is principally used in the manufacture 
of fireworks, oxygen gas, luciier matches, &c., 
and was formerly used to fill percussion ca[)s, but 
was abandoned for fulminating mercury, as it was 
fouiul to rust the nipples of the guns, which th» 
latt(>r does not do. 

The following experiments with this salt, which 
are menlioiu'd in most chemical works, may amuse 
the young experimentalist. — Rub 2 gr. into powder 



CHL 



185 



CHL 



in a mortar, add 1 gr. of sulphur, mix them well 
by gentle ti'ituration, then collect the powder into 
a heap, and press upon it suddenly and forcibly 
with the pestle ; a loud detonation will ensue. If 
the mixture be wrapped in strong paper, and struck 
with a hammer, the report will be still louder. 
5 gr. of the salt, mixed in the same manner with 
2i of charcoal, will be inflamed by strong tritura- 
tion, especially if a grain or two of sulphur be 
added, but without much noise. If a little sugar 
be mixed with half its weight of the chlorate, and 
a little strong sulphuric acid poured on it, a sudden 
and vehement inflammation will ensue ; but this 
experiment requires caution, as well as the follow- 
ing. To 1 gr. of the powdered salt in a mortar, 
add i a gr. of phosphorus ; it will detonate with a 
loud report, on the gentlest trituration. In this 
experiment the hand should be defended by a 
glove, and great care should be taken that none 
of the phosphorus get into the eyes. Phosphorus 
may be inflamed by it under water, by putting 
into a wine glass 1 part of phosphorus and 2 of 
the chlorate, nearly filling the glass with water, 
and then pouring in, through a glass tube reach- 
ing to the bottom, 3 or 4 parts of sulphuric acid. 
This experiment, too, is very hazardous to the 
eyes'. If olive or linseed oil be taken instead of 
phosphorus, it may be inflamed by similar means 
on the surface of the water. This salt should not 
be kept mixed with sulphur, or perhaps any in- 
flammable substance, as in this state it has been 
known to detonate spontaneously. The addition 
of sulphuric acid to such mixtures immediately 
causes them to inflame and explode ; but this ex- 
periment does not succeed with diamond powder. 
(Chenevix.) 

Pur. The usual impurity is muriate of potash. 
This is readily detected by adding a few drops of 
a solution of nitrate of silver, which will give a 
curdy white precipitate soluble in liquor of ammo- 
nia, if a muriate be present, whereas the solution 
will remain clear, if the salt be pure. The tests 
are the same as those mentioned under chlorate. 
The salt may be known to contain potash, by the 
tests described under the article potassa, and may 
thus be distinguished from chlorate of soda. 

CHLORATE MATCHES. Prep. Chlorate 
of potassa 30 grs. ; flowers of sulphur 10 grs. ; 
powdered lump sugar 8 grs. ; powdered gum ara- 
ble 5 grs. ; vermilion enough to color. Proc. Re- 
duce the chlorate to fine powder in a marble or 
wedgewood-ware mortar, then place it on a stone 
slab, add the other ingredients, and mix them all 
together with a wooden or bone knife, adding just 
sufficient water to make a paste. Into this mix- 
ture the points of matches, made of slips of thin 
wood or pasteboard, are to be dipped, and after- 
wards carefully dried in a moderately warm situa- 
tion. 

Remarks. These matches, dipped into a little 
sulphuric acid, or exposed to smart friction, imme- 
diately enflame. The risk of spilling the acid may 
be avoided by placing a little asbestos in the bottle, 
and pouring thereon only as much sulphuric acid 
as the asbestos will absorb. It is only the compo- 
sition on the match that should be touched with 
the acid, for if the wood be well wetted it will not 
burn. To ensure success it is best to dip them into 
melted brimstone to the height of about f of an 
24 



inch before applying the composition. Thesf 
matches once occupied the place that Lucifers did 
a few years since, and that Congreves do now. 

CHLORATE, PRIMING, (for Guns.) Prep. 
Pulverize the best gunpowder, and make it into a 
paste with water ; then add half its weight of chlo- 
rate of potassa, and, while semi-fluid, drop it into 
the empty copper caps ; place them aside in a 
warm situation to dry. 

Remarks. The same precautions must be ob- 
served in mixing the ingredients, as directed in the 
last article. This priming is now superseded by 
fulminating mercury, which, as before observed, 
does not rust the nipple and foul the touchhole, 
like the chlorate mixture. 

CHLORATES, (PER-.) Salts formed by the 
union of perchloric acid with the bases. The j)er- 
chlorate of potassa may be formed by adding well- 
dried and finely-powdered chlorate of potassa, in 
small portions at a time, to an equal weight of con- 
centrated oil of vitriol, gently warmed in an open 
vessel. The bisulphate of potassa formed must 
then be washed off" with a little cold water, and 
the residuum of perchlorate dissolved in boiling 
water and crystallized. Remarks. These salts are 
distinguished from the chlorates by not turning yel- 
low with hydrochloric acid. The other perchlorates 
may be formed by neutralizing the acid with the 
base. The perchlorate of potassa requires 65 times 
its weight of cold water for its solution, while the 
chlorate only requires 16. 

CHLORIC ACID. An acid composed of 
chlorine and oxygen. 

Prep. Dissolve chlorate of baryta in 16 times its 
weight of water ; then add dilute sulphuric acid 
until all the baryta be precipitated as sulphate. 
The clear liquid may then be concentrated by eva- 
poration until it acquires a thin oily consistence. 

Props. In this state it has a yellowish tint, 
emits a smell like nitric acid, and sets fire to pa- 
per and other dry organic matter thrown into it. 
By heat it is resolved into chlorine and oxygen. It 
may be readily detected by its forming chlorate of 
potassa with that of alkali. 

CHLORIC ACID, (PER-.) A compound of 
chlorine and oxygen, containing 2 eq. more of the 
latter than the last acid. 

Prep. Put any quantity of powdered perchlorate 
of potassa into a retort, and pour thereon ^ its 
weight of strong sulphuric acid, previously diluted 
with an equal weight of water. Heat must now 
be applied, and as it rises to 284° F., vapors of 
this acid will pass over and condense as a color- 
less liquid in the receiver. 

Remarks. This is a more stable compound than 
chloric acid, and does not inflame organic sub- 
stances. By distilling it from concentrated sul- 
phuric acid, SeruUas obtained it in a solid form. In 
this stafe it hisses when thrown into water, like 
red-hot iron. 

CHLORIDES. Compounds of chlorine wnth 
the bases in definite proportions. The tests for the 
chlorides are the same as for chlorine. (See Chlo- 
rine.) 

CHLORIDES OF CARBON. Prep. I. {Per- 
chloride.) Expose the oily compound formed by 
mixing equal volumes of moist chlorine and de- 
fiant gas, to the direct solar rays in a vessel full of 
chlorine gas. Hydrochloric acid is given oflf and 



CHL 



186 



CHL 



perchloride of carbon formed. Props. Solid ; smells 
somewhat like camphor ; it is twice as heavy as 
water, fusible, volatile ; soluble in alcohol, ether, 
and oils, and slightly so in water ; combustible. 

II. (Protochloride.) When the perchloride of 
carbon is passed through a glass or porcelain tube 
filled with fragments of glass or rock crystal heat- 
ed to redness, chlorine is separated, and a vapor 
formed, which must be condensed by the applica- 
tion of cold. This is the protochloride of carbon. 
Prop. Liquid, limpid, and colorless ; vaporizes at 
165° F. 

CHLORINE. Syn. Oxymuriatic Acid. An 
elementary substance discovered by Scheele in 
1774, and named by him dephlogisticated marine 
acid. It was afterwards called by the French 
chemists oxygenized duaA. oxymuriatic acid, on the 
supposition of its being a compound of muriatic acid 
and oxygen. In 1809, Gay Lussae and Ther- 
nard suggested that it might be regarded as a sim- 
ple substance : but it was reserved for Sir H. Davy 
to prove the truth of this suggestion. After some 
researches, in which every method of decomposing 
it was tried that genius and experience could sug- 
gest, he declared it to be a simple body, and gave 
it its present name, (from xXwpdf , green,) on account 
of its color. 

Prep. I. Mix together in a glass flask or retort 

Brand .... 4 water 
Liebig .... 2 " 
Thernard . . . 4 " 



strong muriatic acid with half of its weight of 
finely -powdered peroxide of manganese. Chlorine 
gas is immediately evolved even in the cold, but 
much more rapidly on the application of a gentle 
heat. Remarks. This gas must be collected in 
clean dry bottles by displacement. The tube con- 
ducting the gas must reach to the bottom of the 
bottle, when the chlorine, being heavier than the 
air, will displace the latter, without mixing with it. 
The bottle is known to be full by the gas over- 
flowing the mouth, which is easily perceived by its 
green color. The bottle must now be closed up 
with an accurately-fitting stopper, previously 
greased, and an empty one put in its place, which 
must be subsequently treated in like manner. To 
free the gas entirely from muriatic acid, it may be 
passed through water; and to render it dry, it may 
be passed over dry chloride of calcium. Chlorine 
gas may also be collected v ver a saturated solution 
of common salt in the pneumatic trough. 

II. Pour common muriatic acid, diluted with an 
equal weight of water, upon half its weight of 
chloride of lime, and proceed as before. 

III. Pour sulphuric acid, diluted with water 
upon a mixture of common salt and binoxide of 
manganese previously placed in a retort. The 
proportions ordered by different authorities vary; 
the following are the principal : 



Graham' 



as much dilute acid 



5 acid 


3 oxide 8 salt 


2 " 


1 " 3 " 


4 " 


2 " 3 « 


contains 13 of oil vitriol 


6 " 8 " 



Remarks. The first or second process is the 
most convenient for small experiments in the la- 
boratory, and the latter may b^ adopted where 
peroxide of manganese cannot be procured. The 
third is the cheapest method, and that employed 
on the large scale. Mr. Julius Seybel has lately 
taken out a patent for improvements in the manu- 
facture of sulphate of soda and chlorine, which are 
formed by one operation. This is done by decom- 
posing common salt by sulphuric acid, in closed 
vessels of lead, or lined with lead, having heat ap- 
plied externally ; and in employing the vapor of 
the muriatic acid thus formed to act on manga- 
nese immersed in water, such vapor being con- 
ducted below and permitted to escape upwards 
through the water and manganese. 

Prop. Chlorine is a gaseous substance, possess- 
ing a yellowish green color, a pungent suffocating 
odor, and an astringent taste. Its most remarka- 
ble properties are, its power of destroying almost 
all vegetable and animal colors, and the putrid 
odor of decomposing organic matter ; hence its 
value as a bleaching agent, and as a disinfectant and 
fumigant. Water absorbs twice its volume of this 
gas, and acquires a yellowish color. Under a pres- 
sure of about four atmospheres it condenses into a 
yellow transparent liquid. With the bases, chlorine 
forms an important series of compounds, called 
chlorides, chloriirets, or muriates, of which calomel 
and common salt may bo taken as examples, the 
first being a chloride of mercury, and the second 
of sodium. The metallic chlorides are mostly solid 
at common temperatures, and all, save two, (nior- 
cury and silver,) soluble in water. 'I'hey are fusi- 
ble, and often crystalline. The chlorides of tin, 
antimony, arsenic, and mercury, are volatile and 



sublime unchanged. The chlorides are generally 
colorless, and resemble the salts in appearance. 
They are mostly decomposed by a strong heat. 
They are not decomposed by pure anhydrous sul- 
phuric acid, but readily so by oil of vitriol. The 
metallic chlorides may generally be formed by the 
direct action of chlorine on the metals at common 
temperatures, and in many instances the union is 
accompanied by the evolution of light and heat 
They may also be frequently formed by dissolving 
the oxides, carbonates, or hydrates of the bases, in 
muriatic acid, and crystallizing, or applying heat, 
until all the water is expelled. Chlorine has such 
a strong attraction for the metals that it displaces 
oxygen in nearly all cases at a red heat. 

Tests. This gas is readily distinguished from 
other gases by its color, odor, and bleaching prop- 
erties. It forms a white curdy precipitate with 
nitrate of silver, (chloride of silver,) which is inso- 
luble in nitric acid, but readily so in liquid ammo- 
nia, and is blackened by light. Its aqueous solu- 
tion dissolves gold leaf, and instantly blackens a 
piece of silver plunged into it. It rapidly destroys 
the color of iodide of starch, solution of indigo, lit- 
nnis, and turmeric. The soluble chlorides may be 
readily detected by acidulating their solutions with 
nitric acid, and then adding a solution of nitrate of 
silver, when chloride of silver will be j)recij)itated, 
aiul uuiy be recognised in the way just mentioned. 
The insoluble chlorides may be tested by digesting 
tluMti in a little liquor of potassa, when a solution 
(>r chloride of potassium will be formed, which may 
ho treated as a liquid chloride ; or the chloride 
may be dissolved in nitric acid, and tested with 
nitrate of silver as before. A simple method of 
detecting free chlorine is to hold a rod, dipped in 



CHL 



187 



CHL 



water of ammonia, over it, when white fumes of 
sal ammoniac will be formed ; this, coupled with 
the property of bleaching colors, may, in most 
cases, be taken as evidence of the presence of this 
substance. (See Chlorometrv.) 

Ant. When the fumes of chlorine are inhaled, 
it proves an irritative poison. Tlie best antidotes 
are said to be ammoniacal gas or the vapors of warm 
water, of wine, or of ether. The writer of this ar- 
ticle once suffered severely from getting a full in- 
spiration of this gas, by the bursting of a large ves- 
sel employed in its manufacture, and which was 
full at the time. For a minute or two he was 
completely overcome ; but, on being removed into 
the fresh air, he rapidly recovered, and, with the 
exception of a violent and convulsive cough, which 
lasted several hours, felt even better than he did 
before. The gas appeared to have acted both as 
a mental and bodily stimulant. Every known an- 
tidote was tried in this case, but without any ap- 
parent advantage. The effects gradually wore off, 
after the lapse of seven or eight hours. " 

CHLORINE, LIQUID. Syn. Oxymuriatic 
Acid Oxymuriatic Water. Solution of Chlo- 
rine. Chlorine Water. Dephlogisticated 
Spirit of Salt. Prep. I. (Aqua Chlorinii, P. D.) 
Mix 87 parts of sulphuric acid with 124 of water, 
and pour it upon 100 parts of dried muriate of soda 
and 30 parts of oxide of manganese, previously 
mixed together and placed in a retort. Conduct 
the gas evolved into 200 parts of distilled water. 

II. {Aqua Chlorinei, P. E.) Muriate of soda 
60 grs. ; red oxide of lead 350 grs. ; triturate to- 
gether, and put them into f^ viij of distilled water 
contained in a stoppered bottle ; then add 2 fluid 
drachms of sulphuric acid, put in the stopper, and 
agitate occasionally imtil the oxide of lead turns 
wiiite. The clear liquid (after subsidence) is to be 
poured off into another stoppered bottle. 

III. Pass chlorine gas, procured by any of the 
methods mentioned under Chlorine, into water, 
until it will absorb no more. 

CHLORITES. Salts formed of the chlorous 
acid with the bases. The alkaline chlorites may 
be formed by passing a current of chlorous acid 
gas into a solution of the pure alkalis. They are so- 
luble and remarkable for theii- bleaching and ox- 
idizing properties. 

CHLORITES, (HYPO-.) These are formed 
by the action of chlorine gas on the salifiable bases. 
Chloride of lime, soda, and potash are said by 
some to be hypochlorites, but this is undecided ; in 
fact, the very existence of the hj^ochlorites has 
been denied. 

CHLORO-CARBONIC ACID. Syn. Phos- 
gene. Culoro-carbonous Acid. Prep. Expose 
equal volumes of caibonic oxide and dry chlorine 
to the rays of the sun, or diffused daylight. In the 
first case combination ensues in a few minutes, in 
the second after a few hours. Prep. A colorless 
gas, having a disagreeable odor; easily decom- 
posed, especially by water. 

CHLOROMETER. Syn. Chlorimeter. An 
instrument for testing the strength of chlorides. 

CHLOROMETRY. Syn. Chlorimetry. Chlo- 
rimetrie, (Fr.) The process or operation of test- 
ing the decoloring power of the compounds of chlo- 
rine. It is principally applied to those met with in 
commerce, — the chlorides of lime, potash, and so- 



da. Among the numerous tests proposed for thia 
purpose, the following appear to be those most 
worthy of notice. 

I. {Daltons test.) Weigh exactly 78 grs. of 
pure proto-sulphate of iron, previously dried by 
strong pressure between the folds of cloth, and dis- 
solve it in 2 oz. of distilled water, to which add a 
few drops of muriatic or sulphuric acid. Next 
weigh out exactly 50 grs. of the chloride of lime, 
well mix it in a mortar with 2 oz. of tepid water, 
and pour the mixture into a graduated tube or al- 
kalimeter. Then fill the measure up to with the 
washings of the mortar. The whole should be now 
well mixed, by placing the thumb over the orifice 
and shaking it. The solution of chloride of lime 
is next to be gradually and cautiously added to the 
solution of sulphate of iron, until the latter be com- 
pletely peroxidized, which may be known when it 
ceases to be affected by the red prussiate of potash. 
The latter test is applied by putting a drop of its 
solution upon a white plate, and touching it with 
the point of a glass stirrer or rod, dipped in the 
liquor imder examination. As soon as the test in- 
dicates that enough of the solution of the chloride 
has been added, the number of measures poured 
from the alkalimeter must be carefully observed, 
from whence the richness of the sample may be 
estimated, as follows: — As 100 of the alkalimeter 
divisions contain exactly 50 grs. of the chloride, 
each measure will contain half a grain, and, con- 
sequently, any number of measures consumed, will 
represent half that number of grains of the chlo- 
ride under examination ; and the weight of the 
chloride thus used will have contained 10 grs. of 
chlorine — the constant quantity of that substance 
required to peroxide the given solution of sulphate 
of iron. Thus ; — If 80 measures of the liquor in 
the alkalimeter be consumed, this quantity will 
have contained 40 grs. of the chloride and 10 grains 
of chlorine. By dividing 1000 by this number, the 
per centage of chlorhie will be obtained, thus : 

12i«=25g. 
40 " 

The above method admits of much greater ac- 
curacy, if the chloride of lime be dissolved in tepid 
water, placed in a Schuster's alkalimeter, previ- 
ously weighed, and the solution made up to ex- 
actly 1000 grs. when cold. The quantity con- 
sumed may here be ascertained with great exact- 
ness. Every grain of the solution will be only 
equal to -p^^ of a grain of the chloride. The quan- 
tity of the solution consumed is determined by 
weighing the alkalimeter before and after the op- 
eration. The difference is the quantity that h£is 
been used. 

A modification of this plan has been suggested 
by Mr. Crum. He proposes to make the solution 
of the sulphate of iron in a stoppered bottle, and 
to add the chloride in the state of powder from a 
weighed quantity. 

II. {Crum's process.) Mix equal weights of wa- 
ter and muriatic acid, and dissolve therein caist- 
iron borings until saturated. To ensure perfect 
saturation a large excess of iron is employed, and 
the liquid kept at the heat of boiling water for 
some time. One measure of the solution, marking 



40^ 



Twaddle's scale, (sp. gr. 1-200,) is mixed 



with an equal quantity of acetic acid, (sp. gr. 1'048-) 



CHL 



188 



CHL 



This forms the proof solution, which, if mixed with 6 
or 8 parts of water, is quite colorless, but chloride of 
lime occasions the production of peracetate of iron, 
which gives it a red color. 

The above proof-solution is then poured into 12 
two-oz. vials, of exactly equal diameters, to the 
amount of i of their capacity ; these are filled up 
with bleaching liquid of various strengths ; the first 
at -V of a degree of Twaddle, the second -2^, and 
so on up to If or 1°. They are then well corked 
up, and, after agitation, arranged side by side on 
a tray, furnished with holes to receive them, m 
the manner represented in the engraving. A se- 




nes of test vials are thus formed, showing the vari- 
ous shades of color that the solutions of the given 
strengths are capable of producing. To ascertain 
the strength of an unknown sample of bleaching 
liquor, the proof solution of iron is put into a vial, 
exactly similar to the 12 previously used, and in 
precisely the same proportion, (~.) The vial is 
then filled up with the bleaching liquor, well 
shaken, and placed beside that one of the 12 al- 
ready prepared which it most resembles in color. 
The number on that vial expresses the strength of 
the sample under examination, in yV^hs of a de- 
gree of Twaddle's hydrometer. 

Table exhibiting the quantity of Bleaching Liquid, 
at 6° on Twaddle's scale, (sp. gr. 1'030,) requi- 
red to be added to a weaker liquor, to raise it to 
the given strengths. Adapted from Mr. Crum's 
table by Mr. Cooley. 



Strength 

of sample 

in^V°- 


Required 
Strength. 


Proportions 

Given 
Sample. 


required. 

Liquor 
at 6°. 






Parts. 


Part. 


Water. 


8 o 
1 2 


8 




1 


do. 


H 




2 


do. 


11 




3 


do. 


13i 




4 


do. 


17 




5 


do. 


23 




6 


do. 


35 




7 


do. 


71 




Water. 


A° 


11 




1 


do. 


13i 




2 


do. 


17 




3 


do. 


23 




4 


do. 


35 




5 


do. 


71 




Water. 


tY 


17 




1 


do. 


23 




2 


do. 


35 




3 


do. 


71 




Water. 


U 


23 




1 


35 




2 


do. 


71 





Remarks. The preceding method is admirably 
suited for weak solutions, such as are employed for 
bleaching textile fabrics, and is well adapted (from 
its simplicity) to the purposes of practical men. It 
is employed in many of the Scotch bleacliing 
houses. 

According to Mr. Crum, the range of strength 
within which cotton is safe, is very limited. A 
solution at 1° of Twaddle's scale, (sp. gr. 1-005,) is 
not more than safe, while one at i° is scarcely 
sufficiently strong for the first operation on stout 
cloth, unless it be packed more loosely than usual. 
(Trans. Glasgow Phil. Soc.) 

III. (lire's test.) This consists in adding watei 
of ammonia of a known strength, tinged with 
litmus, to a solution of a given weight of the chlo- 
ride, until the whole of the chlorine be neutralized, 
which is known by the color ceasing to be destroy- 
ed. From the quantity of ammonia consumed, the 
strength is estimated. During the above process 
azote is evolved, and the estimation cf the volume 
thus liberated has been proposed as a^^tother easy 
method of chlorimetry by Dr. Ure. 

This gentleman recommends the two substances 
to be mixed in an inverted and graduated syphon 
tube over mercury. (See Engraving.) " The 
shut end a and the open end b, are both f\(^ 
graduated to one scale ; for example, to 
-^ of an inch, or to grain or 10 grain 
measures. The tube is to be filled with 
mercury, and then 10 measures of it are 
to be displaced at the open end, by in- 
serting a wooden plug. This space 
being filled with a solution of a given 
weight of chloride of lime, is to be turn- 
ed up into the shut end, by covering the 
open end with the finger and inverting 
the tube ; a few drops of water may be sent 
through to wash the mercury. The ammonia 
being now let up will cause a reaction, and evolve 
a quantity of azote, equivalent to the chlorine pres- 
ent. The action may be accelerated by holding 
the sealed end of the tube over the flame of a 
spirit-lamp. The mercury is protected from the 
chlorine by the ammonia ; and should any notion 
be entertained of such an action, the ammonia 
may be let up first. I have made innumerable 
researches over mercury, with a detached appa- 
ratus of this kind, which combines precision with 
rapidity of result." (lire's Diet. Arts.) 

IV. (Process of M. Gay Lussac.) One part 
of the best indigo is dissolved in 9 parts of strong 
sulphuric acid, by the aid of a gentle heat. This 
solution is then mixed with distilled water, in such 
proportion, that 1 volume of chlorine gas shall ex- 
actly decolor 10 volumes of this solution. Each 
measure so decolored is called a degree, and each 
degree is divided into fifths. 5 grains of the best 
chloride of lime, dissolved in 500 grain measures of 
water, will possess the above power, and indicate 
10° or proof, and will decolor 10 times its volume 
of the indigo solution. Tiie objections to this meth- 
od of chlorimetry are, that tiie indigo solution 
alters by keeping, and that it is not adapted for 
testing strong solutions of chloride of lime. " I 
have tried the indigo test in many ways, but never 
could confide in it." (Ure.) 

CIILORO-NITROUS GAS. A gaseous com- 
pound, discovered by E. Davy. It is obtained 



CHO 



189 



CHO 



by treating fused chloride of sodium, potassium, 
or calcium, in powder, with as much strong nitric 
acid as is sufficient to wet it, when this gas is 
evolved. Prop. It has an orange color, smells 
like chlorine, and bleaches. Soluble in water. 

CHLOROPHYLL. Syn. Culorophile. 
CHLOROPiivLE. The green coloring matter con- 
tained in the leaves, stalks, unripe fruit, and juices 
of most plants. It is extracted by ether, and pu- 
rified by successive solutions in alcohol and muriatic 
acid ; from the last it is precipitated pure by water. 

Prop. A dark green mass, producing a grass- 
green powder. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, 
acids, alkalis, and oils. If an earthy or metallic 
salt be mixed with the alcoholic solution, and an 
alkaline carbonate be added, the earth or oxide is 
thrown down in combination with this coloring 
matter, forming a green lake, possessing consider- 
able permanency. Pelletier and Caventou, who 
first discovered chlorophyll, obtained it by simply 
pressing the leaves, washing in water, and after- 
wards treating it with alcohol. 

CHLOROUS ACID. Syn. Peroxide of 
Chlorine. A compound of oxygen and chlorine. 
Prep. Chlorate of potassa in fine powder, made 
into a paste with strong sulphuric acid, is put into 
a retort and heated in a water-bath, hot but not 
boiling. A yellowish green gas is given off, which 
may either be collected in dry bottles, or passed 
into water, when it will form liquid chlorous acid. 

Props., ^c. Its aqueous solution undergoes 
gradual decomposition, yielding chlorine and Chlo- 
ric acid. It possesses powerful oxidizing and 
bleaching properties, and unites with the bases 
forming salts called chlorites. These are all solu- 
ble in water, and possess bleaching powers like the 
acid. They may be recognised by the evolution 
of chlorous acid gas when acted on by an acid. 

CHOCOLATE. Syn. Chocolada. Choco- 
LAT, (Fr.) The roasted cacao nut made into a 
paste by triturating it in a heated mortar, with 
sugar and aromatics, and cast in tin moulds, in 
which it concretes into cakes on cooling. The 
term is derived from two Indian words, choco, 
sound, and atte, water ; because of the noise made 
in its preparation. (Dr. Alston.) 

Qual. Chocolate is nutritive and wholesome, if 
taken in moderation, but is sometimes apt to disa- 
gree with weak stomachs, especially those that are 
easily affected by oily substances or vegetable food. 
The quantity of aromatics mixed with the richer 
varieties, improve the flavor, but render them more 
stimulant and prone to produce nervous symptoms, 
and complaints of the head. 

Prep. The nuts are first roasted, (on the small 
scale this may be done in a frying-pan.) and after 
being cleared from the husks, reduced to coarse 
powder; they are then beaten in an iron mortar, 
the bottom of which is heated, until they are re- 
duced to a paste, which is effected by the action 
of the heat on the oil or butter they contain. This 
paste or semi-fluid mass is then poured out into 
moulds, and left until cold, when it forms cake 
chocolate, or chocolate paste; or it may be re- 
duced to coarse powder, by grinding, when it is 
known under the name of chocolate powder. 

Remarks. Chocolate, prepared as above, with- 
out the addition of aromatics, is known in the 
trade as plain chocolate. The Spaniards flavor it 



with vanilla, cloves, and cinnamon, and frequently 
scent it with musk and ambergris. In general, 
they add too large a quantity of the last four arti- 
cles. The Parisians, on the contrary-, use but lit- 
tle flavoring, and that principally vanilla. They 
employ the best caracca nuts, and add a con-sider- 
able quantity of refined sugar. 

The mass of the common chocolate sold in Eng- 
land, is prepared from the cake left after the ex- 
pression of the oil, and this is frequently mixed 
with the roasted seeds of ground peas, and maize 
or potato flour, to which a sufficient quantity of 
inferior brown sugar, or treacle and mutton suet is 
added, to make it adhere together. In this way is 
made the article commonly marked in the shops 
at 8d., 9d., and lOd. the pound. I know a person 
who lately bought a large quantity at 5d., where- 
as good nuts, in their unprepared state, cost at 
wholesale more than double the money. 

To excel in the manufacture of chocolate re- 
quires some little experience. The roasting of the 
nuts must be done with great care, and the pro- 
cess stopped as soon as the aroma is well devel- 
oped. They should then be turned out, cooled, 
and fanned from the husks. On the large scale, 
chocolate is made rH mills, worked by steam pow- 
er, and the machinerj'- employed in the grinding, 
admirably fulfils its duty. 

The South American beans are esteemed the 
best for making chocolate. Like wine, it improves 
by age, if kept in a dry but not too warm a 
place. 

CHOCOLATE CREAM. Prep. Chocolate 
scraped fine 1 oz. ; thick cream 1 quart : sugar 
(best) 6 oz. ; heat it nearly to boiling, then remove 
it from the fire, and mill it well. When cold, add 
the whites of 8 or 10 eggs ; whisk rapidly, and 
take up the froth on a sieve ; serve the cream in 
glasses, and pile up the froth on the top of 
them. 

CHOCOLATE DROPS. Reduce 1 oz. of 
chocolate to fine poTvder by scraping, and add it to 
1 lb. of finely-powdered sugar ; moisten the paste 
with clear water, and heat it over the fire until it 
runs smooth, and wnll not spread too much when 
dropped out ; then drop it regularly on a smooth 
plate. Avoid heating it a second time. 

CHOCOLATE FOR ICING. Syn. Sorbet 
Au Chocolat. Prep. Rub 2 oz. of chocolate to a 
paste with 2 tablespoonfuls of hot milk, then add 
cream for icing 1 quart. Ice as wanted for 
use. 

CHOCOLATE FOR THE TABLE. Prep. 
Put the milk and water on to boil ; then scrape 
the chocolate fine, from one to two squares to a 
pint, to suit the stomach: when the milk and 
water boils, take it off the fire, throw in the choc- 
olate, mill it well, and ser\'e it qp with the froth, 
which process will not take five minutes. The 
sugar may either be put in with the scraped choc- 
olate, or added afterwards. 

It should never be made before it is wanted; 
because heating again injures the flavor, destroys 
the froth, and separates the body of the chocolate ; 
the oil of the nut being observed, after a few min- 
utes' boiling, or even standing long by the fire, to 
rise to the top, which is the only cause why choc- 
olate can offend the most delicate stomach. 

CHOCOLATE, FRENCH. Prep. Finest ca- 



CHR 



190 



CHR 



cao nuts 3 lbs. ; best refined sugar 1 lb. ; beans of 
vanilla 2 in number ; grind together, as before de- 
scribed. 

CHOCOLATE MILK. Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. 
of chocolate in 1 pint of ne^O^ milk 

CHOCOLATE POWDER. Cake chocolate 
scraped or ground. Usually sold in tin canisters. 

CHOCOLATE, SPANISH. Prep. I. Ca- 
racca nuts 11 lbs.; sugar (white) 3 lbs.; vanilla 
1 oz. ; cinnamon (cassia) ^ oz. ; cloves ^ dr. ; as 
above. 

II. Caracca nuts 10 lbs. ; sweet almonds 1 lb. ; 
sugar 3 lbs. ; vanilla 3 oz. ; as above. 

III. Caracca nuts 8 lbs. ; island cacao 2 lbs. ; 
white sugar 10 lbs. ; aromatics as above. 

IV. Island cacao 7 lbs. ; farina to absorb the 
oil ; inferior. 

CHOCOLATE, VANILLA. Syn. Chocolat 
A LA Vanilla. Caracca nuts 7 lbs. : Mexican va- 
nilla 1 oz. ; cinnamon ^ oz. ; cloves 3 in number ; 
as before. 

II. Best chocolate paste 21 lbs. ; vanilla 4 oz. ; 
cinnamon 2 oz. ; cloves ^ dr. ; musk 10 grs. ; as 
before. 

CHOLERA. Syn. Cholera Morbus. Eng- 
lish Cholera. (From ;\;oXj7, bile, pgw, / flow. 
Celsus.) A disease characterized by bilious vom- 
iting and purging, accompanied by great pain and 
debility. It most frequently occurs towards the 
end of the summer and the beginning of autumn, 
and appears to be produced by sudden changes of 
temperature, checked perspiration, and the exces- 
sive use of indigestible fruit, &c. It is usually ac- 
companied by fever, thirst, and severe abdominal 
pains, and sometimes by cold sweats, extreme de- 
bility, feeble pulse, «Slc., under which the patient 
sinks in 24 hours. 

Treat. In most cases this complaint is not dan- 
gerous, and yields to proper treatment in a few 
days. As soon after the commencement of the 
attack as possible, some mild aperient, as castor 
oil, should be administered, and its action acceler- 
ated by drinking copiously of diluents, as barley- 
water, toast and water, water gruel, &c. Opiates 
may be employed, both topically and by the 
mouth. A teaspoonful of laudanum rubbed over 
the region of the stomach and bowels, is a simple 
method, and will generally allay the pain. 15 or 
20 drops of laudanum, mixed with a tablespoonful 
of good brandy, may also be taken every hour, if 
the pain be severe. Should the stomach reject it, 
or the vomiting be apparently increased by drink- 
ing copiously, the same treatment should be per- 
severed iiL When the violence of the symptoms 
has abated, tonics and bitters, as gentian, calom- 
ba, orange-peel, &c., may be had recourse to. 

CHROMATE. a saline compound, formed 
by the union of the chromic acid with a base. Tiie 
chromates are characterized by their yellow or red 
color, the latter predominating when the acid is in 
excess. 

Prep. The insoluble salts of chromic acid, as 
those of baryta, zinc, lead, mercury, silver, &c., 
may be made by mixing a soluble salt of those 
bases, with neutral chromatc of potassa. The 
first three are red, the fourth orange, and the fifth 
deep red or [)urple. 

Tests. 1. On boiling achromato in hydrochloric 
acid, mixed with alcohol, chromic acid is first set 



free, and then decomposed, forming a green solu- 
tion of chloride of chromium. 2. With acetate of 
lead, the chromates give a yellow precipitate : 
3, with nitrate of silver, a reddish violet ; 4, with 
nitrate of mercury, a red one. 

CHROMATE OF POTASH. Syn. Salt of 
Chrome. Neutral Chromate of Potassa. On 
the large scale this salt is prepared from chrome 
ore, a natural octohedral chromate of iron, found 
in various parts of Europe and America. 

Prep. I. The ore, freed as much as possible 
from its gangue, is ground to powder in a mill, and 
mixed with ^ or ^ of its weight of bruised nitre, 
and in this state exposed to a powerful heat for 
several hours, on the hearth of a reverberatory 
furnace, during which time it it frequently stirred 
up with iron rods. The calcined matter is next 
raked out and lixiviated with water. A beautiful 
yellow-colored solution results, which is evapora- 
ted briskly over a naked fire, when the chromate 
of potash falls down under the form of a granular 
yellow salt, which is removed from time to time 
with a ladle, and thrown into a wooden vessel, 
furnished with a bottom full of holes, called the 
draining box, where it is left to drain and dry. In 
this state it forms the commercial chromate of 
potash. By a second solution and crystallization, 
it may be obtained in larger and more regular 
crystals. 

Remarks. As the object to be aimed at in con- 
ducting this process, is to procure a neutral chro- 
mate of potassa, it is evident that the quantity of 
chrome oxide in the ore should be first ascertained, 
so that the proper quantity of nitre may be added. 
In every case, the proportion of nitre or alkali 
should be slightly less than what is absolutely re- 
quired to saturate the ore, as the production of a 
neutral salt is thereby ensured ; and should not the 
whole of the chrome oxide be decomposed by the 
first burning, it may easily be roasted a second 
time with fresh alkali, should the remaining quan- 
tity be thought worth saving. These remarks also 
apply to the following formulae. 

II. Chrome ore (containing 50§ of protoxide of 
chrome) 2 parts ; saltpetre 1 part ; as last. 

III. Chrome ore of 34§, 4 parts; potashes 2 
parts ; nitre 1 part ; as above. 

IV. Chrome ore of 34§, 10 parts ; potashes 5 
parts ; peroxide of manganese 1 part ; as last. 

V. {Process of Mr. Charles Watt, jun.) " I 
have tried numerous experiments, with a view to 
the employment of cheaper salts than the nitrates 
in this branch of manufacture. I have found that 
the sulphates of potassa and soda may be entirely 
substituted for the nitrates of those bases, by the 
simultaneous employment of lime, which assists in 
the decomposition of the sulphate. 

" The process is as follows : — The sulphate is to 
be ground, or otherwise intimately mixed with the 
pulverized ore, and the lime* is then added, which 
should also be intimately mixed with the mass. 
It is then to be subjected, for about 4 hours, to a 
strong red heat. The nature of the furnace to be 
employed for the purpose is not of any great ini- 

* "It is quite immaterial whether the lime be in a state 
of carbonate, or otherwise ; but I tliinlt, fjeiicraliy speak- 
in^', it will 1)0 (omul quite as advantageous to employ thai 
which has been burnt, as it will save trouble and e.vpenstt 
in (grinding." 



CHR 



191 



CHR 



portance, so long as carbonaceous matters from 
the fire are entirely excluded, a)id the required 
temperature is attainable. Unless strong heat is 
employed, no decomposition will take place ; the 
temperature already employed in manufacturing 
this article from the nitrates, will be sufficient, and 
the furnaces used in every way suitable. The 
mass should be well raked about every half hour, 
to ensure the whole of it being sufficiently heated. 

" Proceeding thus, the manufacturer may ascer- 
tain whether the process is complete by taking out 
a sample from the furnace, and treating it with a 
slight preponderance of dilute pure nitric acid, then 
adding chloride of barium ; if, on this addition, 
much precipitate of sulphate is formed, the opera- 
tion is not completed ; but if, on the other hand, 
only a slight milkiness is produced, the ' batch' 
may be considered as finished. 

" I have found, from numerous analyses, that 
diiFerent samples of the ore vary considerably in 
the quantity of oxide of chromium which they con- 
tain, and I therefore advise every manufacturer to 
analyze a fair average sample before he makes a 
purchase." 

The following is the plan which Mr. Watt has 
adopted for this purpose : — 

" Take a given weight of the ore, say 200 gr., 
previously reduced to a fine powder, and intimately 
mix it with twice its weight of the nitrate of po- 
tassa or soda,* adding a little slaked lime to pre- 
vent it from fluxing ; place it in an iron crucible, 
and subject it to a strong red heat for about 3" or 4 
hours ; then treat the mass with water to dissolve 
out the chromate. The insoluble matter having 
been washed several times until the water has 
ceased to come off colored, the washings are to be 
added together and evaporated to concentrate the 
solution. This being done, it is to be treated with 
an excess of dilute sulphuric acid to liberate the 
chromic acid, and then treated with spirit of 
wine, by which the chromic acid will be reduced 
to the state of green oxide, which will remain in 
solution in the preponderance of sulphuric acid em- 
ployed. A solution of caustic ammonia in excess 
is then to be added, which will precipitate the 
oxide of chromium ; the mass is then boiled to 
evaporate the superabundance of ammonia. 

" It must now be passed through a filter to col- 
lect the oxide, and a little fresh water poured on it 
to .free it from any saline matter: then gently dry 
on the filter, when it may be entirely removed 
with ease, as the oxide, which was previously of a 
very bulky nature, contracts very considerably. 
It may then be subjected to a dull red heat in a 
silver, platinum, or porcelain crucible, and after- 
wards its weight ascertained, from which the per 
centage of oxide of chromium which the ore con- 
tains, and, consequently, the amount of sulphate 
required to convert it into a chromate, may be cal- 
culated." (Chemist, iv. 70.) 

Prop., Uses, cj-c. The commercial chromate of 
potash has a bright yellow color, but in other re- 
spects, resembles coarse culinary salt. It is used 
in various processes in the arts, — in dyeing, bleach- 
ing, the manufacture of chromic acid, bichromate 
of potassa, and several other chromates. 



* " It will be as well to use a nitrate in the analysis ; the 
quantity being small, it will be of no consequence." 



Pur. Chromate of potasii is very commonly 
adulterated with sulphate and nmriate of potash, it 
therefore becomes unportant to the manufacturer 
to be able to test its purity. 

I. ( Test of M. Zuher.) Add tartaric acid, dis- 
solved in 50 parts of water, to a like solution of the 
sample. As soon as the decomposition is complete, 
and the color verges towards the green, the super- 
natant liquor should afford no precipitate with 
either the nitrate of silver or baryta, whence the 
absence of muriates and sulphates may be inferred. 
The proportions are, 8 parts of tartaric acid to 1 
part of the chromate, both in solution. If saltpetre 
be the adulterating ingredient, the sample will de- 
flagrate when thrown upon burning coals. 

Mr. Watt says, " A short time ago, I was sup- 
plied with a sample which was nothing but sul- 
phate of soda and chloride of sodium, colored with 
a strong solution of the chromate, and which 
caused a white precipitate in any of the soluble 
salts of lead. For the benefit of the purchaser, I 
subjoin the following "method of examining the 
chromates of potassa and soda. 

" First ascertain the quantity of moisture con- 
tained in the sample, by weighing out a certain 
portion, drying it on a sand-bath, and again weigh- 
ing ; the loss of weight will give the quantity of 
water: then dissolve it in distilled water, and add 
am* soluble salt of lead until it ceases to give a 
precipitate. The mass is then to be boiled, and 
more distilled water added ; the supernatant liquor 
is then to be poured off", and if the sample under 
examination contain any chloride of sodium, small 
shining crystalline needles of chloride of lead will 
form in the liquor as it cools. The remaining pre- 
cipitate is then to be treated with strong nitric 
acid, which will decompose the chromate ; by 
adding distilled water, the nitrate of lead, formed 
by the decomposition of the chromate of lead, will 
be dissolved, and the remaining sulphate of lead, 
if any, may be dried, and its amount ascertained, 
from which the quantity of sulphate in the chro- 
mate may be calculated. 

" If it be required to ascertain the quantity of 
chloride, this may be done by redissolving the 
chloride of lead by means of heat, and operating 
on it by any of the soluble salts of silver." (Chem- 
ist, iii. 388. 

CHROMATE OF POTASH, (BI- or SU- 
PER-.) Prep. Acidulate a concentrated solution 
of the neutral chromate with sulphuric, or, still 
better, the acetic acid. Then heat the liquid and 
allow it to cool slowly, w^hen beautiful red crystals 
of bichromate of potasli will be deposited. Its 
Prop., Uses, and Tests are the same as the neu- 
tral salt. 

CHROMATE OF POTASH, SOLUTION 
OF. Prep. Dissolve neutral chromate of potash 
1 oz., in distilled water 1 lb. Use. As a test li- 
quor for metals, especially lead. 

CHROMATE OF SODA. This salt may be 
prepared in the same way as chromate of potash, 
by employing a salt of soda instead of potassa in 
the preceding processes. It may also be made on 
the small scale for experiment, by neutralizing 
chromic acid with carbonate of soda. 

Remarks. This salt has been propos^^--^ as a sub- 
stitute for chromate of potassa, and has the ad- 
vantage in cheapness. " Why nitrate of potassa 



CHR 



192 



CHR 



has been so long employed in this manufacture, I 
am at a loss to discover ; for it must be obvious 
that chromate of soda vi^ould answer all the pur- 
poses of chromate of potassa, the base being of 
little consequence, so long as it forms a soluble 
salt with the chromic acid, as it is merely useful 
as a vehicle for the chromic acid." (C. Watt, 
jun.) 

CHROME RED. Syn. Dichromate of Lead. 

SuBCHROMATE OF DITTO. ReD ChrOMATE OF DIT- 
TO. Prep. I. Boil carbonate of lead with chro- 
mate of potash, in excess, until it assumes a prop- 
er color ; wash well with pure water and dry in 
the shade. 

II. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little 
water of ammonia or lime water. 

III. (Process of Liehig and Woliler.) Fuse 
saltpetre at a low red heat in a crucible, and 
throw in chrome yellow, by small portions at a 
time, until the nitre be nearly exhausted. A 
strong ebullition takes place vipon each addition 
of the pigment, and the mass becomes black and 
remains so while hot. After it has settled for a 
minute or two, the fluid part should be poured off, 
and the mass remaining in the crucible washed 
with water, and dried by a gentle heat. 

Remarks. Great care must be taken in con- 
ducting the last process, not to employ too much 
heat, or to allow the saline matter to stand long 
over the newly-formed chrome-red, as the color is 
thus apt to change to a brown or orange. When 
well managed, the product has a crystalline tex- 
ture, and so beautiful a red color, that it vies with 
cinnabar. It has been proposed as a pigment. 

CHROME YELLOW. Syn. Chromate of 
Lead. Yellow Chromate of ditto. Prep. I. 
Add a filtered solution of nitrate or acetate of 
lead, to a like solution of neutral chromate of pot- 
ash ; collect the precipitate, wash it well, and dry 
it out of the reach of sulphureted vapors. 

II. To the lye of chromate of potash, prepared 
by roasting the chrome ore with nitre, and lixivia- 
tion with water, add a solution of acetate of lead, 
and proceed as before. 

Remarks. This substance is the beautiful pig- 
ment employed by painters. Four shades are 
usually met with in the shops, viz. : Pale yellow 
or straw color, yellow, full yellow, and orange. 
The former are made by adding a little alum or 
sulphuric acid to the solution of the chromate be- 
fore mixing it with the solution of lead ; the latter, 
by the addition of a little subacetate of lead. The 
darker color appears to arise from a little dichro- 
mate being thrown down intimately mixed with 
the neutral chromate, and the paler shades from a 
slight excess of acid. I found a little alumina in 
some samples of pale chrome yellow, which I 
lately examined, and in one instance a little sul- 
phate of lead. 

CHROMIC ACID. A compound of the metal 
chromium and oxygen. 

Prep. I. Pure chromic acid may be prepared 
by transmitting the gaseous fluoride of chromium 
into water contained in a vessel of platiiuim or sil- 
ver, and evaporating the liquid lo dryness. 

II. By conducting gaseous fluoride of chromium 
Into a silver or platinum vessel, Mie sides of which 
are just moistened witli water, and the ai)erture 
covered witli a piece of moist paper, the acid will 



be deposited under the form of red acicular crys- 
tals, which will fill the vessel. 

III. " The principle upon which this is based 
is, that nitrate of baryta, which results from the 
decomposition of the chromate of baryta by nitric 
acid, is quite insoluble in concentrated nitric acid, 
which I have verified by many experiments, and 
which fact was, I believe, first observed by Mr. 
Reuben Phillips. 

" The chromic acid may be separated from 
the nitrate of baryta by decantation, or, which is 
still better, by filtration through asbestos. Care 
must be taken not to let it come in contact witn 
any organic matter, or it will be decomposed. 

" The chromic acid is then to be evaporated to 
dryness, when the nitric acid will be volatilized, 
leaving pure chromic acid. 

" When the quantity of chromic acid prepared 
by this plan is considerable, to reduce the expense 
as much as possible, it will be as well to carry on 
the evaporation so that the superabundance of ni- 
tric acid w;hich has been used may be condensed, 
which may again be used for the same purpose. 

" The only precautions necessary to ensure the 
purity of the chromic acid prepared by this plan, 
are the following : — to use a sufficient quantity of 
nitric acid, and to take care that the nitric acid is 
sufficiently concentrated, and that it is pure, oth- 
erwise the impurities which it contains will remain 
in the chromic acid. 

" The chromate of baryta may be easily pre- 
pared by mixing together solutions of the chloride 
of barium, and any of the soluble chromates ; be- 
fore it is used for the preparation of pure chromic 
acid, it should be washed several times." (Chem- 
ist, iii. 266.) 

On the commercial scale, crude chromic is pre- 
pared by either of the following plans : 

IV. To a saturated solution of 100 parts of chro- 
mate of potash in water, add 49 parts of sulphuric 
acid, (sp. gr. 1-845.) This is the common process, 
but the product contains sulphate of potash. 

V. Digest chromate of baryta in an equivalent 
proportion of sulphuric acid, diluted with water ; 
after a few hours decant the clear liquid. 

VI. Digest chromate of lead in sulphuric acid in 
equivalent proportions. 

Mr. Charles Watt, jun., recommends chro- 
mate of lime as a source of chromic acid. This 
salt he prepares from the oxide of chromium, con- 
tained in the residual liquor of the process of 
bleaching with chromic acid, and this he effects by 
a very inexpensive process. The chromic solution 
is placed in a wooden vessel, and slaked lime cau- 
tiously added until the sulphuric or muriatic acid 
present is saturated, carefully avoiding excess, as 
oxide of chrome would be then precipitated. After 
an hour's repose the clear portion is decanted, and 
finely-slaked lime added, until all the oxide is 
thrown down ; whicii may be known by the liquor 
becoming clear when allowed to settle. During 
the addition of the lime, constant agitation nuist be 
employed. The oxide of cin-omium nuist now be 
allowed to settle, and after the liquid ])ortion is de- 
canted, washed with a few pailfuls of clean water. 
After the latter has drained ofl', the residual mix- 
ture of oxide of ciu-omium and linu> must tlien bo 
placed about 2 inches thick upon a huge Hat iron 
plate, set evenly over a fire, and turned every half 



CHR 



193 



CID 



hour until the process be completed, which may be 
known by the mass assuming a yellow color, in- 
stead of the grayish one it previously possessed. 
Care must be taken not to employ too much heat, 
as the product of this process (chronuite of lime) is 
readily decomposed, and assumes a green color, in 
which case it is rendered useless. From the chro- 
mate of lime the acid is procured by the action of 
an equivalent proportion of sulphuric acid. This 
priicess has the great recommendation of cheap- 
ness, and Mr. Watt says that he has employed it 
in tlie factory of jMessrs. Haws, for nearly two 
years, with jierfect success. 

Prop., Uses, <^c. Pure chromic acid forms red 
crystals, and is soluble in water and alcohol. It is 
readily decomposed by the action of light and con- 
tact with organic matter. Hence it should be kept 
in stoppered glass bottles, and its solution filtered 
through asbestos. The ease with which it parts 
with a portion of its oxygen constitutes its value as 
a bleaching agent. It is largely employed in the 
arts, in calico-printing, bleaching of textile fabrics, 
tallow, oils, «Scc. 

CHR0MIU:M, (from xpu/za, color.) A metal 
discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. 

Prep. I. Mix dry chloride of chromium with oil, 
place the paste in a crucible lined with charcoal, 
iute on the cover, and expose it for an hour to an 
intense heat. (Vauquelin.) 

II. Heat the compound of terchloride of chro- 
mium and ammonia to redness, and expos'e it- to a 
current of dry ammoniacal gas. (Liebig.) 

Remarks. The product of the first process has a 
whitish-yellow color, and a metallic lustre ; that 
of the second is a black powder. Metallic chro- 
mium has not been applied to any use in the arts. 

CHROMIUM, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Ses- 
UUICHX.ORIDE OF CuRo.MiuM. Prep. I. Dissolve the 
hydrated oxide in mimatic acid, and evaporate to 
dryness. 

II. Digest chromate of lead in muriatic acid 
mixed with a little alcohol, and throw down the 
excess of lead with sulphureted hydrogen. 

III. Pass dry chlorine over a mixture of chrome 
oxide and charcoal heated to redness, in a porce- 
lain tube. The chloride collects as a sublimate, of 
a peach or purple color. 

Remarks. By the first process the product is a 
green po^rdcr, which, when heated to 400°, be- 
cornes purplish red, and then forms pure, dry chlo- 
ride of chromium. This process should be per- 
formed in a tube filled with carbonic acid gas. 

CHROMIUM, OXIDE OF. St/h. SEsaui- 
oxiDE OF Ditto. I*,ep. To a solution of chromate 
of potash, add another of protonitrate of mercury 
as long as any precipitate falls down. This must 
be well washed in water, and heated to redness in 
an earthen crucible. 

II. Expose bichromate of potash to a strong red 
heat, then wash out the potassa with water. 

III. Expose bichromate of potash, mixed with 
half its weight of sulphur, as above. 

Prop. A green powder, insoluble in water. 
Fused with borax or glass, it imparts a beautiful 
green color. The emerald owes its color to tliis 
oxide. With the acids it forms salts which also 
have a gTeen color. These compounds may be 
made by adding equal parts of muriatic acid and 
alcohol to a boiling solution of chromate of potassa, 
25 



in water, in small portions at a time, until the red 
tint disappears, and the liquid assumes a green 
color. Pure ammonia, in excess, should now be 
added, when a hydrated green oxide will subside, 
which, after being washed with water, may be 
dissolved in the acids. Oxide of chrome is much 
used in the manufacture of colored glasses and 
enamels, and in dyeing. 

Remarks. The above appears to be the only ox- 
ide of chromium, in opposition to the assertion of 
Berzelius, that there is a protoxide and deutoxide. 

CHRYSAMMIC ACID. Prep. Add 1 part 
of aloes to 8 of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1*37, and heat 
the mixture in an open vessel. When the first 
violent action is over, introduce the whole into a 
retort, and distil to two-thirds. Then add 4 parts 
more of nitric acid, and keep the mixture nearly 
at the boiling point for some days, or as long as gaa 
is disengaged. Water should next be added, which 
will throw down impure chrysammic acid, while 
chrysolepic acid and oxalic acid will remain in so- 
lution. The precipitate must be well washed with 
water combined with potash, and purified by re- 
crystallization. The crystals are next dissolved in 
water, and nitric acid added, when a golden yel- 
low powder will be deposited, which is chrysammic 
acid. 

Prop. Soluble in alcohol, ether, and hot acids ; 
explodes by heat, and forms salts, called chrysam- 
mates, with the bases. The salt of potash, pre- 
pared as above, is a beautiful crystalline carmine 
red powder, and when slowly produced it forms 
beautiful small greenish golden crystals. The salts 
of soda and magnesia are similar. Ammonia forms, 
with chrysammic acid, a deep purple solution, 
which deposites dark green crystals. The other 
salts of this acid are all of great "beauty, and mostly 
of various shades of red, and exhibit a golden lus- 
tre under the polish insf steel. 

CIDER. Syn. Cyder. Pomatiuji. Cidre, (Fr.) 
Tlie fennented juice of the apple. Cider and per- 
ry were known to antiquity, and are mentioned 
by Pliny, who calls them the wine of apples and 
pears. Modern Europe is, however, indebted to 
the Moors of Biscay, who introduced its manufac- 
ture into Normandy, whence it spread into the 
other provinces of France, into England, Genna- 
ny, Russia, and America. The best cider made 
at the present day is that of Normandy, Hereford- 
shire, and New Jersey, (U. S.,) and, next, that of 
Devonshire and Somersetshire. The last is, how- 
ever, very inferior. Cider is made in all the tem- 
perate climates of the world, where the heat is 
insufficient to produce the grape, and the cold not 
so great as to interfere with the growth of the 
apple. 

The process of making cider varies in different 
parts of England, but in every case essentially 
consists of — the collection of the fruit ; the expres- 
sion and' fermentation of the juice : and the storing 
and management of the fermented liquor. 

The apples are crushed or ground in a mill, and 
the pulp placed in haircloth or coarse canvass bags, 
and subjected to powerful pressure : the liquor 
which runs ofF is put into casks, and freely ex- 
posed to the air in the shade, and allowed to fer- 
ment. This part of the process is carefully watched, 
and as soon as the sediment lias subsided, the liquor 
is racked off into clean casks. Before winter the 



CID 



194 



CID 



iasks are stored in a cellar, or other cool place, I 
where the temperature is low and regular, and by 
the following spring the liquor is fit for use or bot- 
tling. 

Remarks. Much of the excellence of cider de- 
pends upon the temperature at which the ferment- 
ation is conducted ; but this is a point utterly over- 
looked by the manufacturers of this liquor. Instead 
of the apple-juice, as soon as expressed from the 
fruit, being placed in a cool situation, where the 
temperature should not exceed 50° of Fahr., it is 
frequently left exposed to the full heat of autumn. 
In this way much of the alcohol formed by the 
decomposition of the sugar is converted into vine- 
gar, by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen, and 
thus the liquor acquires that peculiar and unwhole- 
some acidity, known in the cider districts by the 
name of " roughness." On the contrary, if the 
fermentation be conducted at a low temperature, 
nearly the whole of the sugar is converted into 
alcohol, and this remains in the liquor instead of 
imdergoing the process of acetification. The ace- 
tous fermentation, or the conversion of alcohol into 
vinegar, proceeds most rapidly at a temperature 
of 95° Fahr., and at lower temperatures, the ac- 
tion becomes slower, until at 46° 50" Fahr., no 
such change takes place. (Liebig.) It is therefore 
quite evident that if the saccharine juice of apples, 
or any other fruit, be made to undergo the vinous 
fermentation in a cool situation, less of the spirit 
resulting from the transformation of the sugar will 
be converted into acetic acid, and consequently 
more will be retained in an unaltered state in the 
liquor, and tend not only to improve its quality, 
but by its conservative and chemical action, to 
precipitate the nitrogenous substances, or exciters 
of future change. Independently of differences in 
the quality of the fruit, this is the principal cause 
of the superiority of the cider made by one person 
over another, living in the same district. The one 
has probably a cooler barn and cellar than the 
other to store his cider in. In practice it has been 
found that sour and rough-tasted apples produce 
the best cider. This arises because they contain 
less sugar and more malic acid, and the presence 
of the latter impedes the conversion of alcohol into 
vinegar. But cider made with such apples can 
never equal in quality that prepared at a loio tem- 
perature from fruit abounding in sugar. In De- 
vonshire the pressing and fermentation are con- 
ducted in situations where the temperature varies 
but little from the external air, and fluctuates with 
all its changes ; the result is that Devonshire cider, 
of the best class, will rarely keep more than 5 or 
6 years, and seldom improves after the second or 
third year, while the cider of Herefordshire and 
Worcestershire, where these operations are more 
carefully attended to, will keep for 20 or 30 years. 
In the cider counties the culture of the apple 
engages especial attcution. Dry rising ground, 
sheltered from the northerly and easterly winds, 
is best suited for an orchard. The fruit, after be- 
ing gathered, is usually left for 14 or 15 days, in 
a barn or loft, to mellow or mature, during which 
time a considerable portion of the nuicilage is de- 
composed, and alcohol and carbonic acid developed. 
The spoiled apples nhould then bo sejjaratcd from 
the sound ones, as they not only imi)arl. a bad fla- 
vor to the cider, but prevent its spontaneous clari- 



fication. Unripe apples should also be avoided, as 
they do not contain sufficient sugar to undergo the 
vinous fermentation, while they contribute to ren- 
der the liquor rough and acidulous. Sour and 
rough-tasted apples are usually preferred by farm- 
ers for making cider, but fruit abounding in sugar 
would be preferable, provided the same skill were 
exercised in the manufacture of cider as in the 
process of brewing malt liquor. 

As the juice of apples contains less sugar in pro- 
portion to the amount of acid and nit^ogenized 
matter than that of grapes, the addition of some 
of this article would render it more suitable for the 
production of a vinous liquor. Good West India 
sugar is the best for this purpose. 1 have tasted 
cider made in this way, and that had been stored 
in fresh emptied rum puncheons, that had all the 
pungency and vinosity of foreign wine. 

The best cider yields about 9 or 10§ of real alco- 
hol. Ordinary cider from 4 to 6§. 

CIDER, DEVONSHIRE. The api j^, after 
being plucked, are left in heaps in the orchard 
for some time, to complete their ripening, and ren- 
der them more sacch.^ ime. They are then crashed 
between grooved cylinders, surmounted by a hop- 
per, or in a circular trough, by two vertical edge- 
wheels of wood moved by a horse ; after passing 
through which, they are received into large tubs 
or cives, and are then called pommage. They 
are afterwards laid on the vat in alternate layers 
of the pommage and clean straw, called reeds. 
They are then pressed, a little water being occa- 
sionally added. The juice passes through a hair 
sieve, or similar strainer, and is received in a large 
vessel, whence it is run into casks or open vats, 
where every thing held in mechanical suspension 
is deposited. The fermentation is often slow of 
being developed ; though the juice be set in No- 
vember or December, the working sometimes 
hardly commences till March. Till this time the 
cider is sweet ; it now becomes pungent and vi- 
nous, and is ready to be racked for use. If the 
fermentation continue, it is usual to rack it again 
into a clean cask that has been well sulphured out, 
and to leave behind the head and sediment ; or 
two or three cans of cider are put into a clean cask 
and a match of brimstone burned in it : it is then 
agitated, by which the fermentation of that quan- 
tity is completely stopped. The cask is then nearly 
filled, the fermentation of the whole is checked, 
and the cider becomes fine. If, on the first opera- 
tion, the fermentation is not checked, the process 
of racking is repeated until it becomes so, and is 
continued from time to time till the cider is in a 
quiet state and fit for drinking. 

A connnon practice in Devonshire is to add a 
stuff called " stum," sold by the wine-coopers, or 
an article called " anti-ferment," sold by the di'ug- 
gists, for the purpose of checking the fermentation, 
but a much better plan is to rack, as above de- 
scribed, into a well-snlphurod cask, and to add 5 
or () oz. of nuistard-seed, and ^ oz. cloves, both well 
bruised ; racking into a fresh-emptied spirit cask is 
also a good plan. 

About six sacks, or twenty-four bushels of ap- 
])les, are used for a hogshead of G3 gallons. If the 
weather be warm, it will bo necessary to carry on 
the process in the shade, in the open air, and by 
every means to keep tiie juice as cool as j>ossibIe 



CID 



195 



CIN 



In nine months it will usually be in condition 
for bottling or drinking ; if it continues thick use 
some isinglass linings, and if at any time it fer- 
ments and threatens acidity, the cure is to rack it, 
and leave the head and sediment beliind. 

CIDER, CHAMPAGxNE. Prep. Good pale 
vmous cider 1 hogshead ; proof spirit (pale) 3 gal- 
lons ; honey or sugar 14 ibs. ; mix, and let them 
remain together in a temperate situation for 1 
month ; then add orange-flower water 1 quart ; 
and hue it down with skinmied mijk i a gallon. 

Remarks. This will be very pale ; and a simi- 
lar article, when bottled in champagne bottles, 
silvered, and labelled, has been often sold to the 
ignorant for champagne. It opens very brisk, if 
managed properly. 

CIUEK CHEESE. The residuum or cake of 
pommage or bruised apples, from which the juice 
has been expressed. It forms excellent food for 
pigs, and is verj' acceptable to them. 

CIDER, FRENCH. After the fruit is mashed 
in a mill, between iron cylinders, it is allowed to 
remain in a large tun or tub for 14 or 1 5 hours, 
before pressing. The juice is placed in casks, 
which are kept quite fall, and so placed upon 
gawntrees, or stillions, that small tubs may be put 
under them, to receive the matter that works over. 
At the end of 3 or 4 days, for sweet cider, and 9 
or 10 days for strong cider, it is racked into sul- 
phured casks, and then stored in a cool place. 

CIDER, MANAGEMENT OF. Cider should 
be stored in a cool place, and should not be ^-unk 
before it becomes sufficiently mature. To improve 
the flavor of a hogshead of cider, 1^ gallons of 
good brandy or rum are frequently added, with 
2 oz. of powdered catechu, (dissolved in water,) 
7 lbs. of good moist sugar or honey, ^ oz. each of 
bitter almonds and cloves, and 4 oz. of mustard 
seed. These must be well rummaged in, and oc- 
casionally stirred up for a fortnight, after wiiich it 
must be allowed to repose for 3 or 4 months, when 
it will usually be found as bright as wine. Should 
this not be the case, it must be fined with a pint 
of isinglass finings, or a dozen eggs, and in a fort- 
night more it will be fit for use. If the cider be 
preferred pale, omit the catechu, and instead of 
isinglass fine with a quart of skimmed milk. If 
wanted of a light reddish, or rose tint, use ^ oz. 
of cochineal, and omit the catechu. 

Preparatory to bottling cider it should be exam- 
ined, to see whether it be clear and sparkling. If 
not it should be clarified in a similar way to beer, 
and left for a fortnight. The night before it is in- 
tended to put it into bottles, the bung should be 
taken out of the cask, and left so until the next 
day, when it may be bottled, but not corked down 
until the day after, as, if this be done at once, 
many of the bottles will burst by keeping. The 
best corks, and champagne-bottles should be used, 
and it is usual to wire and cover the corks with 
tinfoil, after the manner of champagne. A few 
bottles may be kept in a warm place to ripen, or 
a small piece of lump sugar may be put into each 
bottle before corking, if the cider be wanted for 
immediate use, or for consumption during the 
cooler portion of the year, but for warm weather 
and for long keeping this is inadmissible. The 
bottled stock should be stored in a cool cellar, 
when the quality will be greatly improved by age. 



Cider for bottling should be of good quality, and 

at least 18 months old. 

CIDER, MADE. An article under this name 
is made in Devonshire, for the supply of the Lon- 
don market, it having been found that the ordi- 
nnry cider will not stand a voyage to the metrop- 
olis without some preparation. The finest quality 
of made cider is only ordinary cider racked into a 
clean cask, and well sulphured; but the mass of 
that which is sent to London, is mixed with water, 
treacle, and alum, and then fined down, after 
which it is raclzed into well-matched casks. The 
larger portion of the cider sold in London, profess- 
ing to be Devonshire cider, would be rejected even 
by the farmers' servants in that county. 

CIDIJr MOIL. Sy II. Water Uoih. A weak 
cider or liquor, prepared by adding water to the 
pressed cake, and fermenting. Very inferior. 

CIDER, RAISIN. This is made in a similar 
way to raisin wine, but without employing sugar, 
and with only 2 lbs. of raisins to the gallon, or 
even more, of water. It is usually fit for bottling 
in 10 days, and in a week more is readv for use. 

CIDER-SPIRIT. Syn. Cider BrIndy. Ob- 
tained from cider by distillation. It is largely 
manufactured in America, where a very decent 
article may be purchased for about 50 cents per 
gallon, at proof. An illicit distillation of this spirit 
is frequently carried on by the farmers in the west 
of England. 

CIGARS, MERCURIAL. M. Paul Bernard 
lately proposed to the Academic de la Medecine 
the use of cigars impregnated with a weak solu- 
tion of bichloride of mercury, for persons afflicted 
with syphilitic affections of the throat and palate, 
as a mode of conveying mercurial fumigation. It 
has been proposed first to deprive the tobacco of its 
nicotin by frequent washings. (Lancet, May 13, 
1843.) 

CINCHONA BARK. There are three kinds 
of cinchona bark employed in medicine ; the cor- 
tex cinchonse lanci^olise, (of the London and Dub- 
lin Pharmacopoeias.) or the cortex cinchonse con- 
daminea, (of the Ed. Ph.,) commonly known in 
commerce as pale, crown, loxa, or quillbark ; the 
cortex cinchonae cordifoiiae, (Lond. and Dub.,) or 
the cortex cinchonse flavae, (Ediu.,) commonly 
known as yellow or royal yellow bark ; and the 
cortex cinchonaa oblongifoliae, (Lond. and Dub.,) or 
red cinchona bark, (Edin. :) medically considered, 
they are all tonic and febrifuge, and ma)^ be given 
in powder, from 20 grs. to 3ij, every two or four 
hours, so as to get down an ounce between each 
fit of intermittent fever ; used also to stop the 
progress of gangrene ; they are also given in infu- 
sion and decoction. Since the introduction of the 
cinchona alkaloids, the employment of bark in 
substance has considerably lessened. 

Pur. The officinal species of cinchona bark are 
frequently imported mixed with other kinds, that 
contain less of the febrifuge principle. The most 
common adulteration is, however, the admixture 
of the same drug that has been exhausted of its 
active portions. This method consists in employ- 
ing the bark, but slightly broken, (or generally 
whole, as imported.) for the manufacture of sul- 
phate of quinine, cinchonine, and tincture, infu- 
sion, decoction, and extract of bark, after which it 
is carefully dried, without injury to its color, and 



CIN 



196 



CIN 



mixed up with fresh bark for sale, or is sent to 
the mill to be ground into powder. The greater 
amount of adulteration is generally practised on 
the powder, on account of the fraud being less 
easily detected when the drug is in the pulveru- 
lent state. Not only is the worst description of 
bark chosen for grinding, frequently largely ad- 
mixed with exhausted bark, as just mentioned, but 
" the roots of bistort, calamus aromaticus, avens, 
water-avens, and tormentil ; oak bark, that of sev- 
eral kinds of willow, horse-chesnut, ash, and the 
sloe bush ; mahogany sawdust, the dried herbs 
of yellow loosestrife, bugle, water-horehound, and 
self-heal, are used either as substitutes or to re- 
duce the price of the ground bark ; as is also the 
root of Geum montanvim. The barks of Pinknea 
pubescens, Unnona febrifuga, Swietenia febrifuga, 
Cedrela tuna. Magnolia glauca, M. acuminata, 
M. tripetala, Achras sapota, Rubus trivialis, and 
R. villosus, are also used as substitutes," (Gray ;) 
and, in fact, any trash that will possibly produce 
a powder at all resembling that of bark, or that 
can be made so by grinding and the addition of 
coloring. 

Tests. The simplest and only certain method 
of ascertaining the quality of cinchona bark, and 
of detecting fraudulent admixture, is by an assay 
for the alkaloid. (See Quinometry.) The tannic 
acid which exists in every species of cinchona 
bark, may be recognised by its precipitating the 
sesquichloride of iron of a green color, gelatine of 
a whitish color, and a solution of tartar emetic of a 
dirty white. 

CINCHONIA. Syn. Cinchonine. Cincho- 
NINA. CiNCHONiuM. An alkaline principle ex- 
tracted from pale cinchona bark, in the same way 
as quinine is from yellow cinchona bark. 

Prep. I. Add ammonia to a dilute solution of 
sulphate of cinchonine, as long as any precipitate 
falls. Wash with cold water, dissolve in alcohol 
and crystallize. 

II. A pound of bruised bark is boiled in about a 
gallon of water, to which 3 fluid drachms of sul- 
phuric acid have been previously added. A simi- 
lar decoction is repeated with about half the quan- 
tity of liquid, and so on till all the soluble matter 
is extracted. The decoctions are then mixed to- 
gether, and strained ; and powdered slaked lime 
is added, in a proportion somewhat greater than 
necessary to saturate the acid ; the precipitate 
that ensues (a mixture of cinchonina and sulphate 
of lime) is collected, dried, and boiled for some 
minutes in strong alcohol, which is then decanted 
ofF while still hot, and fresh portions successively 
added for the repetition of the same operation, un- 
til it ceases to act on the residuum, which is then 
merely sulphate of lime. The difFerent alcoholic 
Bolutions are then put into a retort or still, and 
considerably evaporated, during which, and espe- 
cially on cooling, acicular crystals of cinchonina 
are deposited. Wiien the whole is thus collected, 
the crystals, if yello-v or discolored, must be again 
dissolved in boiling alcohol, and thus, by recrystal- 
lizalion, they will be obtained colorless. (Brande's 
Manual of Pharm.) 

in. IJoil Peruvian bark in alcohol until all the 
bitterness is extracted ; distil to dryness, dissolv(^ 
the extract in boiling water, rendered very sour, 
M'ith muriatic acid ; add calcincul nuiiinesia, boil 



for a few minutes till the liquor is clear; when 
cold, filter, wash the sediment left on the filter 
with cold water, dry it, boil alcohol upon it until 
all the bitterness is extracted ; pour off the alcohol, 
and, as it cools, the cinchonine will crystallize. It 
may be purified by solution in a very weak acid, 
and the addition of an alkali. 

Prop, and Uses. These are similar to quinine. 
It is, however, rather less soluble in water than 
that alkaloid, as it requires 2500 parts of water, 
at 60°, for its solution. It forms salts with the 
acids, all of which may be made in the same 
manner as those of quinine. The neutral sul- 
phate, bisulphate, disulphate, muriate, nitrate, io- 
dide, iodate, &c. have been formed and examined. 

Purity and Tests. (See Quinine.) 

CINNAMMIC ACID. A substance discovered 
by Dumas and Peligot in oil of cinnamon. It crys- 
tallizes out of the oil when long exposed to the at- 
mosphere. 

Prep. Dissolve oil of balsam of Peru in potassa 
water, evaporate to dryness, .L'^solve the residuum 
in boiling water, and add an excess of muriatic 
acid. The cinnammic acid is deposited in crys- 
tals as the solution cools, and may be purified by 
re-solutiun and crystallization. 

II. By cautious distillation of balsam of Tolu by 
a gentle heat it fuses, and a little water and vola- 
tile oil first comes over, followed by cinnammic 
acid, in the form of a heavy oil, which condenses 
on the cool parts of the neck of the retort, as a 
white crystalline mass. Towards the end of the 
process, some empyreumatic oil distils over. The 
acid must be purified by pressure between the 
folds of filtering paper and solution in boiling wa- 
ter. On cooling, minute colorless crystals of cin- 
nammic acid will be deposited. Pure balsam of 
Tolu yields about | of its weight of this acid. (Mr. 
Heaver in the Ann. Chym.) 

Prop. Colorless transparent scales, or prisms, 
scarcely soluble in water, but freely so in alcohol. 
Fuses at 240° ; volatilizes unchanged at 555°. It 
forms salts with the bases, called cinnammates, 
which generally resemble the benzoates. 

CINNAMEINE. Syn. Oil of B.^lsam of 
Peru. Prep. Add an alcoholic solution of bal- 
sam of Peru, to a like solution of potassa. A com- 
pound of resin and potassa is precipitated, and 
cinnammate of potassa and cinnameine are left in 
solution. On adding water, the latter separates 
and floats upon the surface. 

II. Add 2 measures of balisdm of Peru to 3 of 
liquor of potassa, (sp. gr. 1*300,) apply a gentle 
heat, when a yellowish brown oil will separate 
and float above a heavy black liquid, containing 
the potash. The former must be collected, and 
may be purified by cautious distillation. 

Prep., ij'C. It dissolves in alcohol and ether, 
and by the action of alkalis is converted into cin- 
nammic acid. 

CINNAMON. From the high price of this 
drug, it lias become a general practice to substitute 
cassia for it, wliich so exceedingly resembles it that 
most pei-sons, unacquainted with tlie drug, regard 
them as the same. Cassia is, however, not only 
thicker and coarser than cinnamon, but its frac- 
ture is short and resinous, and its flavor is more 
biling and hot, while it lacks the peculiar sweetish 
taste of the latter spice. The thickness of ciuua 



CIT 



197 



CIT 



mon seldom exceeds that of good drawing paper. 
The same remarks are also applicable to the oil 
and powder. In pharmacy it is a general practice 
to employ cassia and its preparations whenever 
those of cinnamon arc ordered. Both these drugs 
are wholesome aroniatics. The principal con- 
sumers of genuine cinnamon are the chocolate- 
makers of France, Spain, Italy, and Mexico. The 
Germans, Turks, and Russians prefer chocolate 
flavored with cassia. " Some cinnamon, sent to 
Constantinople by mistake, proved unsaleable at 
any price, while cassia, worth about sixpence per 
pound, was in great request." (Pereira.) 

CITRATES. Salts formed of the citric acid 
and the bases. 

Prep. Those in general use may be all made 
by the addition of either the hydrate, oxide, or 
carbonate of the base, to a solution of the acid in 
water, until the latter be neutralized, when cxy&- 
tals may generally be obtained by evaporation. 

Prop., ^'C. The citrates are mostly soluble, and 
when heated, froth, blacken, and are decomposed. 
When an anhydrous citrate is decomposed by an 
alcoholic solution of hydrochloric acid, the v itric 
acid is principally transformed into hydrated aconi- 
tic acid. 

Char, and Tests. The citrates are character- 
ized by giving a white precipitate with acetate of 
lead, soluble in ammonia, and also a white precip- 
itate with nitrate of silver, which, by the applica- 
tion of heat, froths up, deflagrates, and leaves an 
abundant ash, which, on increasing the heat, be- 
comes pure silver. 

Remarks. The principal citrates are citrate of 
ammonia, (soluble and crystallizable ;) citrate of 
potash, (very soluble and deliquescent ;) citrate of 
soda, (large crystals, soluble ;) citrate of haryta, 
(beautiful shining silvery bushes, scarcely soluble ;) 
citrate of lime, (see Citric Acid ;) magnesia, 
alumina, a.nd protoxide of manganese, each form 2 
salts with citric acid, one soluble, the other insolu- 
ble ; citrate of protoxide of iron, (scarcely soluble 
and crystallizable ;) percitrate of iron, (soluble and 
brown ;) ammonio- citrate of iron, (garnet colored, 
very soluble ;) citrate of zinc, (scarcely soluble ;) 
citrate of lead, (insoluble white powder ;) citrate 
of copper, (green powder ;) citrate of silver, (bril- 
liant white powder ;) potassio-citrate of antimony, 
(dazzling white prisms.) 

CITRATE, OR AMMONIO-CITRATE OF 
IRON. Syn. Ammonio-Citrate of Peroxide of 
Iron. Ferro-Citrate of Ammonia. Percitrate 
OF Iron and Ammonia. There are three salts 
generally known under this name — two, having 
the peroxide for their base, and one, the protoxide. 
There is also a fourth, formed from the magnetic 
oxide of iron, which has scarcely been introduced 
into this country, though commonly employed in 
France, and highly recommended by Beral. The 
salt at present so much advertised as citrate of 
iron, is a double citrate of iron and ammonia — an 
ammonio-citrate, and as such I shall describe it. 
I find that several other double citrates of iron 
may b6 prepared, but they are possessed of inferior 
qualities to those just mentioned. They therefore 
offer no inducement for their manufacture. 

I. This salt is most conveniently formed by dis- 
solving moist hydrated peroxide of iron in liquid 
citric acid, (pure,) assisting the solution by heat, 



and then bringing it to a perfectly neutral state by 
the addition of a little sesquicarbonale of ammonia. 
It must then be filtered, cooled, and spread very 
thinly on Avarm sheets of glass to dry, which it 
will rapidly do, and may then be easily delaclied 
from the glas-s, in thin scales, or lamella;, of great 
brilliancy and beauty. Only a gentle heat inu.st 
be employed, not exceeding that of a water-bath. 
This is the mystery of producing those beautiful 
transparent ruby-colored scales which are so much 
admired. 

II. Competition in the sale of this article has in- 
duced the manufacturer to adopt a cheaper for- 
mula than that originally publislied by Beral and 
employed by many houses. It is now generally 
prepared by placing together, for some days, in a 
warm situation, a mixture of iron filings, and citric 
acid in powder, with barely sufficient water to co- 
ver them, occasionally stirring and replacing the 
water as it evaporates. A saturated solution is 
made in distilled water, there being previously ad- 
ded more citric acid, (about half the weight of the 
acid first used,) if required ; it is the. eulralized 
with liq. ammon. fort., (about \\ oz. of liquor oT am- 
monia, sp. gr. -882, to every gallon of the solution 
of sp. gr. 1-025,) and concentrated by evaporation : 
the same plan mentioned above is then followed, 
to complete the process. The first part of this pro- 
cess produces a salt of the protoxide of iron, which 
is afterwards converted, by exposure to the atmo- 
sphere, into a citrate of the magnetic oxide, and 
lastly into citrate of peroxide of iron. 

Remarks. This beautiful salt is of a rich ruby 
color, and may be obtained under the form of glis- 
tening transparent scales, very soluble in aqueous 
menstrua, while its solution is not so easily decom- 
posed as that of many other salts of iron. It is 
nearly tasteless, and highly deliquescent. The ab- 
surd statements put forth in advertisements re- 
specting this preparation being compatible with the 
volatile and fixed alkalis and their carbonates, 
&c., I find to be incorrect ; for on adding some 
liquor potassse to a solution of this salt, it imme- 
diately became turbid, exhgled aminonia in large 
quantities, and deposited oxide of iron. I found the 
same take place with the carbonate ; and no doubt, 
had I extended the experiments to the other arti- 
cles mentioned as compatible, I should have met 
with another similar result. It is doubtful whether 
this article has not obtained a larger sale from its 
pleasing appearance, than from its medicinal vir- 
tues. I know several parties who have prepared 
this salt in lumps or powder, by simple evapora- 
tion of the solution to dryness, who have been un- 
able to sell it under that form, even at a lower 
price. 

M. Beral, in his directions for the preparation of * 
this salt, directs a platina capsule to be used, aa 
well as attention to other minutias, which I find 
quite unessential to the success of the operation. 
Glass, Wedgewood ware, or even metallic vessels, 
may be employed ; the former, however, are pref- 
erable. I find that boiling water will dissolve 
about twice its weight of citric acid, and retain 4| 
of this quantity in solution when cold, and that it 
takes rather more than twice the weight of the 
citric acid, in most hydrated protoxide of iron, to 
produce saturation. 

We may, therefore, with great advantage, em- 



CIT 



198 



CIT 



ploy the following formula, which contains nearly 
the proportions recommended by Beral, but which 
has the advantage of employing the protoxide for 
the peroxide, and thus saving the nitric acid neces- 
&ary to form the latter. 

Crystals of citric acid, . 1 part. 

Boiling distilled water, . . 2 do. 

Dissolve ; add 

Moist hydrated protoxide of iron, . 2J do. 

Continue t"he heat until the acid is saturated, 
then add ammonia q. s. Filter, &c. 

It is better to use more oxide than the acid will 
dissolve, as the remainder may be employed in a 
future operation..* Less water . may be used, or 
even a larger quantity than that mentioned ; but 
in the first case, the liquid will become difficult to 
filter — in the latter, it will require more evap- 
oration. 

CITRATE OF IRON. Syn. Citrate of 
Peroxide of Iron. Percitrate of Iron. Prep. 
As the last, omitting the ammonia. It resembles 
the ammonio-citrate, but is only slightly soluble 
in water. 

CITRATE OF PROTOXIDE OF IRON. 
Syn. Protocitrate of Iron. Prep. This salt is 
easily formed by digesting iron filings or wire in 
liquid citric acid. It presents the appearance of a 
white powder, nearly insoluble in water, and rap- 
idly passing to a higher state of oxidation under 
the influence of light, damp, or warmth, or mere 
exposure to the air under most ordinary circum- 
stances. Its taste is very metallic, and it is best 
exhibited under the form of pills, mixed with gum 
and sirup, or sirup alone, to prevent it from being 
prematurely decomposed. 

CITRATE OF MAGNETIC OXIDE OF 
IRON. Prepared from the magnetic oxide of 
iron, in the same way 'as the last. It may be 
formed into beautiful transparent scales, or la- 
mellae, in a similar manner to the ammonio- 
citrate. Its solution is of a lively green color, 
permanent in the air, but possessing an intensely 
ferruginous taste. For this reason, this citrate can 
only be exhibited in pills or sirup. 

CITRIC ACID. Syn. White Citric Acid. 
Concrete Acid of Lemons. Crystallized ditto. 
Acid citrique, (Fr.) Citronensaure, (Ger.) 
An acid peculiar to the vegetable kingdom, and 
found in the juices of several kinds of fruit, espe- 
cially those of the genus citrus. 

The process of its manufacture consists in sep- 
arating it from the mucilage, sugar, and other 
foreign matter with which it is combined. 

Prep. Each of the British Colleges gives a 
formula for the preparation of citric acid. 

I. {Acidum citricum, P. L.) Take of lemon 
juice 4 pints ; prepared chalk ^ivss ; diluted sul- 
phuric acid f §xxviiss ; distilled water 2 pints. 
Add the chalk by degrees to the lemon juice, 
heated, and mix ; set by, that the powder may 
precipitate ; afterwards pour off the supernatant 
liquor Wash the citrate of lime frequently with 
warm water; then pour upon it the diluted sul- 
phuric acid and tlie distilled water, and boil for 15 
minutes; press the liquor strongly through a linen 
cloth, and filter it. Evaporate the filtered liquor 
with a gentle heat, and set it aside that crystals 
may form. To obtain the crystals pure, dissolve 
them in water a second and a third time ; filter 



each solution, evaporate, and set it apart to crys- 
tallize. The process of the Dublin and Edinburgh 
Colleges is similar, but the latter orders the washed 
citrate of lime to be squeezed in a powerful press, 
and also the filtered solution of citric acid to be 
tested with nitrate of baryta, and if " the precipi- 
tate is not nearly all soluble in nitric acid, add a 
little citrate of lime to the whole liquor, till it stand 
this test." 

Remarks. The preparation of citric acid has be- 
come an important branch of chemical manufac- 
ture, from the large consumption of this article in 
various operations in the arts. In conducting this 
process, some little expertness and care are neces- 
sary to ensure success. The chalk emploj^ed 
should be dry, and in fine powder, and be added 
to the juice until it be perfectly neutralized, and 
the quantity consumed must be exactly noted. 
The precipitated citrate of lime should be well 
washed, and the sulphuric acid diluted with 6 or 
8 times its weight of water, poured upon it while 
still warm, and thoroughly mixed with it. The 
agitation must be occasionally renewed for 8 or 
10 hours, when the dilute citric acid must be poured 
off, and the residuum of sulphate of lime thorough- 
ly washed with warm water, and the washings 
added to the dilute acid. The latter must then be 
poured off from the impurities that may have been 
deposited, and evaporated in a leaden boiler, over 
the naked fire, until it acquires the gravity of ri3, 
when the process must be continued by steam heat 
until a pellicle appears upon the surface. This 
part of the process requires great attention and 
judgment, as, if not properly conducted, the whole 
batch may be carbonized and spoiled. 

The proper time for withdrawing the heat is in- 
dicated by the liquid assuming a sirupy aspect, and 
by a film or pellicle appearing, first in small 
patches, and then gradually creeping over the 
whole surface. At this point the evaporation 
must be stopped, and the concentrated solution 
emptied into warm and clean crystallizing vessels, 
set in a dry apartment, where the thermometer 
does not fall below temperate. At the end of 4 
days the crystals will be ready to remove fi om the 
pans, when they must be well drained, redissolv- 
ed in as little water as possible, and after being 
allowed to stand for a iew hours to deposite impuri- 
ties, again evaporated and crystallized. When 
the process has been well managed, the acid of 
the second crystallization will usually be suffi- 
ciently pure ; but if this be not the case, a third, 
or even a fourth crystallization must be had re- 
course to. The mother liquors from the several 
pans are collected together, and, by evaporation, 
yield a second or third crop of crystals. Citric 
acid crystallizes with great ease, but in some cases, 
where all the citrate of lime has not undergone de- 
composition by the sulphuric acid, a little of that 
salt is taken up by the free citric acid, and mate- 
rially obstructs the crystallization. This is best 
avoided by exactly apportioning the quantity of 
the sulphuric acid to that of the chalk used, al- 
ways remembering that it requires a quantify of 
li(|uid sulphuric acid, containing exactly 40 parts 
ol' dry acid, to decouipose !S() parts of carbonate of 
liuie. Conunercial sulphuric acid is usually of the 
sp. gr. of 1-845, it will therefore take exactly 49 
lbs. of this acid for 50 lbs. of chalk. 



CIT 



199 



CLA 



Sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1-8418 contains exactly 
80 per cent, of real acid ; it is, consequently, a 
very convenient way to use it of this strength, 
when the quantity of chalk and acid may be ex- 
actly the same. In practice it is found that a 
very slight excess of sulphuric acid is better than 
leaving any citrate of lime undecomposed. This 
excess must, however, be venj trifling. This 
may be ascertained by nitrate of barytes, which 
will give a white precipitate, insoluble in nitric 
acid if oil of vitriol be present. The first crop of 
crystals is called " brown citric acid," and is much 
used by the calico printers. Sometimes a little 
nitric acid is added to the solution of the colored 
crj'stals, for the purpose of whitening them. Good 
lemon-juice yields fully 5§ of lemon acid, or 2 
gallons yield about 1 lb. of crystals. If the im- 
ported citrate of lime be used, a given quantity 
must be heated to redness, and then weighed, 
when the per centage of limt present will be 
ascertained ; every 28 lbs. of which will require 
49 lbs. of sulphuric acid of 1-845, (or a quantity 
containing exactly 40 parts of dry acid,) for its 
complete decomposition. 

Prop., Uses, cj-c. Form, rhomboidal prisms ; 
clear, colorless, odorless, sour, and deliquescent in 
a moist atmosphere. It is an agreeable acid, at 
once cooling and antiseptic. It is much used in 
medicine as a substitute for lemon juice, and to 
form effervescing draughts, citrates, &,c. 

20 grs. commercial citric acid in crystal^ 

-y ■ - 

are equivalent to 

f -^ ^ 

29 grs. crystals of bicarbonate of potassa ; 

24 grs. of commercial carbonate of do. ; 

17 " sesquicarbonate of ammonia ; 

41 " crystals of carbonate of soda ; 

24 " commercial sesquicarbonate of soda. 

The bicarbonate of potassa is that generally 
used for making saline draughts with citric acid, 
and flavored with tincture of orange peel and sim- 
ple sirup, or sirup of orange peel alone, forms a 
most delicious effervescing beverage. 

Pur. and Tests. Citric acid is frequently adul- 
terated with tartaric acid. This may be easily 
detected by dissolving a little in a small quantity 
of water, and adding cautiously a solution of car- 
bonate of potash, taking care that the acid be in 
excess. If any tartaric acid be present, a white 
precipitate of cream of tartar will be formed. The 
London College states that " it is entirely soluble 
in water, and what is thrown down by acetate of 
lead from this solution, is entirely soluble in dilute 
nitric acid. No salt of potassa, except the tar- 
trate, yields a precipitate with the aqueous solu- 
tion. It is entirely destroyed by heat." (P. L.) 
" When a few drops of a solution of citric acid are 
added to lime water, a clear liquid results, which, 
when heated, deposites a white powder, soluble in 
acids without effervescence." (Liebig.) 

CITRONELLE. Syn. Eau de Barbades. 
Prep. I. Fresh orange peel 2 oz. ; fresh lemon 
peel 4 oz. ; cloves ^ drachm ; corianders and cinna- 
mon, of each 1 drachm ; proof spirit 4 pints. Di- 
gest for 10 days, then add water 1 quart, and dis- 
til i gallon. To the rectified cordial add white 
sugar 2 lbs. 

II. Add of essence of orange ^ drachm ; essence 



of lemon 1 drachm ; oil of cloves and cassia, of 
each 10 drops ; oil of coriander 20 drops to 5 pinta 
of spirit — at .38 o. p. Agitate until dissolved, then 
add distilled or clear soft water 3 pints ; well mix, 
and if the liquor be not clear, shake it up with a 
spoonful of magnesia, and filter it through blotting 
paper, placed on a funnel ; when it has all run 
through and is clear, add a sufficient quantity of 
sugar. 

Remarks. This last form does not require distil- 
lation. 

CITRONS. The fruit of the citron tree (the 
citrus medica) is acidulous, antiseptic, and antiscor- 
butic ; it excites the appetite and stops vomiting. 
Mixed with cordials, it is used as an antidote to 
the manchineel poison. The rind of the fruit is 
odorous, aromatic, and tonic, and yields the es- 
sence de cedrat, so much esteemed by the liqueur- 
ist and perfumer. The fragrant essence of the 
rind may be easily obtained by the following sim- 
ple process : — After cleaning off any speck in the 
outer rind of the fruit, break off a large piece of 
loaf sugar, and rub the citron on it till the yellow 
rind is completely absorbed. Those parts of the 
sugar which are impregnated with the essence are, 
from time to time, to be cut away with a knife, 
and put into an earthen dish. The whole being 
thus taken off, the sugared essence is to be closely 
pressed, and put by in pots, where it is to be 
squeezed down hard ; have a bladder over the pa- 
per by which it is covered, and tied tightly up. It 
is at any time fit for use, and will keep for many 
years. Exactly in the same manner may be ob- 
tained and preserved the essences of the rinds of 
Seville oranges, lemons, bergamots, &lc. 

CITRON PEEL, CANDIED. Prep. Soak 
the peels in water, which must be frequently 
changed, until the bitterness is extracted, then 
drain and place them in sirup, until they become 
soft and transparent ; the strength of the sirup be- 
ing kept up by boiling it occasionally with fresh 
sugar. When they are taken out, they should be 
drained and placed on a hair sieve to dry, iu a dry 
and warm situation. ^ 

Use. Stomachic : much used as a sweetmeat, 
and by the confectioner and pastry-cook. 

CIVET. Syn. ZiBETHU.M. A perfume, ob- 
tained from the civet cat, a fierce carnivorous 
quadruped, somewhat resembling a fox, found in 
China, and the East and West Indies. " Several 
of these animals have been brought into Holland, 
and afford a considerable branch of commerce, es- 
pecially at Amsterdam. The civet is squeezed out 
in summer every other day, in winter twice a week ; 
tli^ quantity procured at once is from 2 scruples to 
1 drachm or more. The juice thus collected is 
much smoother and finer than that which the an- 
imal sheds against trees and stones in its native 
climate." (Ure.) It is freqtiently adulterated 
with spermaceti and butter, and a similar sub- 
stance to civet, but of a darker color, and obtained 
from the polecat, is frequently mixed with it. 

CLAIRET. Syn. Rossalis des six gkaines. 
Prep. Aniseed, fennel seed, coriander seed, cara- 
way seed, dill seed, and seeds of daucus creticus, 
of each 1 oz. ; bruise them in a clean mortar, then 
steep them in ^ a gallon of proof sph-it for 1 week, 
strain, and add 1 lb. of loaf sugar. 

CLARET RAGS. Syn. Tournesol en Dfu^ 



CLE 



200 



CLO 



PKAU. Bezetta Ccerulea. Prep. I. Color 

of clean linen with auvergne or ground archel, 

(lichen parellus.) 

II. Dip pieces of clean linen into the juice of 
mulberries, blood-red grapes, lees of red wine, &c. 

Use. To color jellies and confectionary, and the 

CLARIFICATION. This word (from clarus, 
clear, and facio, 1 make) means, properly, any 
process of freeing a fluid from heterogeneous mat- 
ter, and thus includes filtration. In its commoner 
sense, however, it is applied to the process of clear- 
ing liquids by the addition of some substance that 
either inviscates the feculous matter, and subsides 
with it to the bottom, or, that induces such a change 
in its nature or bulk, that it subsides by its own 
density, in each case leaving the liquor transparent. 
Albanum, gelatin, acids, certain salts, blood, lime, 
plaster of Paris, alum, heat, alcohol, &c., serve in 
many cases for this purpose. The first is used 
under the form of white of egg, for the clarification 
of sirups, as it combines with the liquid when cold, 
but on the application of heat, rapidly coagulates 
and rises to the surface, carrying the impurities 
with it, forming a scum which is easily removed 
with a skimmer. It is also much used for fining 
wines and liqueurs, particularly the red wines and 
more limpid cordials. Gelatin, under the form of 
isinglass, dissolved in water, or weak vinegar, is 
used to fine white wines, beer, cider, and similar 
liquors, that contain a sufficient quantity of either 
spirit or astringency (tannin) to induce its precipi- 
tation. Sulphuric acid is frequently added to weak 
liquors for a similar purpose, either alone, or after 
the addition of white of egg, or gelatin, both of 
which it rapidly throws down in au insoluble form. 
A pernicious practice exists among some unprinci- 
^>led parties, of using certain salts of lead and pot- 
ash to clear their liquors, especially those that are 
expected to sparkle in the glass, as cordial, gin, 
&c. For this purpose, a little sugar of lead, dis- 
solved in water, is first mixed up with the fluid, 
and afterwards about half its weight of sulphate of 
potash, also dissolved in water, is added, and the 
liquor is again roused up. By standing, the sul- 
phate of lead, formed by this mixture, subsides, and 
leaves the liquor clear. Blood is used in the same 
way as isinglass or white of eggs, for fining red 
wines, beer, and porter. Lime, alum, alcohol, and 
heat, act by curdling or coagulating the feculen- 
cies, and thus, by increasing their density, induce 
their subsidence. Plaster of Paris acts partly like 
the above, and partly like albumine, or gelatin, 
by enveloping and forcing down the suspended 
matter. Sand is often sifted over liquors for the 
simple purpose of acting by its gravity, but appears 
to be quite useless. The juices of plants are clari- 
fied by heat, which coagulates the albumine they 
contain. Marl, or clay, is frequently used to clear 
cider and perry. A strip of isinglass is generally 
employed to clarify coffee. (See Wines, Brew- 
ing, Cordial, Coffer, Inkcision.) 

CLEANING. The best way to clean a house is 
to keep it cleanhy a daily attention to small things, 
and not allow it to get into such astute of dirtiness 
and disorder as to require great, and periodical 
cleanings. Some mistresses, and also some ser- 
vants, seem to have an idea that a house sliould 
undergo " regular cleanings," or gieut washing and 



scrubbing matches once every three or six months, 
on which occasions the house is turned almost in- 
side out, and made most uncomfortable. All this 
is bad economy, and indicates general slovenliness 
of habits. (Chambers.) 

CLEAR-STARCHING. This is practised as 
follows : " Rinse the articles in three waters, dry 
them, and dip them in a thick starch, previously 
strained through muslin ; squeeze them, shake 
them gently, and again hang them up to dry ; and 
when dry, dip them twice or thrice in clear water, 
squeeze them, spread them on a linen cloth, roll 
them up in it, and let them lie an hour before iron- 
ing them. Some persons put sugar into the starch 
to prevent it sticking while ironing, and others stir 
the starch with a candle to effect the same end ; 
we object to these practices as injurious to the ar- 
ticle starched, or as very nauseous. The best plan 
to prevent sticking is to make the starch well, and 
to have the irons quite clean and highly polisheJ " 

CLOTH, CLEANING AND SCOURINC-^ 
OF. The common method of cleaning cloth is by 
beating and brushing, unless when very dirty, 
when it undergoes the operation of scouring. This 
is best done on the small scale, as for articles of 
wearing apparel, &lc., by dissolving a little curd 
soap in water, and, after mixing it with a little ox- 
gall, to touch over all the spots of grease, dirt, &c., 
with it, and to rub them well with a stiff" brush un- 
til they are removed, after which the article may 
be well rubbed all over with a brush or sponge 
dipped into some warm water, to which the pre- 
vious mixture and a little more ox-gall has been 
added. When this has been properly done, it only 
remains to thoroughly rinse the article in clean 
water until the latter passes off" uncolored, when it 
must be hung up to dry. For dark-colored cloths 
the common practice is to add some fuller's earth 
to the mixture of soap and gall. When nearly 
dry, the nap should be laid right, and the article 
carefully pressed, after which a brush, moistened 
with a drop or two of olive oil, should be several 
times passed over it, which will give it a superior 
finish. Cloth may also be cleaned in the dry way 
as follows : — First, remove the spots as above, and, 
when the parts have dried, strew clean damp sand 
over it, and beat it in with a brush, after which 
brush the article with a hard brush, when the sand 
will readily come out, and bring the dirt with it. 
Black cloth which is very rustj^, should receive a 
coat of reviver after drying, and be hung up until 
the next day, when it may be pressed and finished 
off" as before. Scarlet cloth requires considerable 
caution. After being thoroughly rinsed, it should 
be repeatedly passed through cold spring water, to 
which a tablespoonful or two of solution of tin has 
been added. If much faded, it should be dipped 
in a scarlet dye-bath. Buff cloth is generally 
cleaned by covering it with a paste made with 
pipe-clay and water, which, when dry, is rubbed 
and brushed off". 

Fruit spots and similar stains may frequently 
bo removed by holding the part over a common 
brimstone match, lighted, or by water acidulated 
with a little salt of lemons, oxalic or muriatic acid ; 
but care must be taken not to apply this liquid to 
colors that it will injure. 

The stains of acids may be removed by wash- 
ing the part with a little spirits of hartshorn or 



CLO 



201 



COB 



liquid ammonia ; those of alkalis, by water acidu- 
lated with lemon juice or tartaric acid. 

Grease spots may generally be taken out by 
means of a little soft soap ; or, if the color be deli- 
cate, or a false dye, a little ox-gall or curd soap 
will be better. These must be used as above de- 
scribed Stains of painters^ oils, wax, paints, or 
varnishes, will not usually yield to the above plan ; 
in these cases, a simple way is to soak the part in 
spirits of turpentine, and, when softened, to wash 
it off with the same fluid. Ether or essential oil 
of lemons will also quickly remove these spots, but 
is too expensive for general use. 

CLOTH, INCOMBUSTIBLE. Th * s made 
of fibres of asbestos by weaving. It will bear a 
considerable heat without injury. Cotton and linen 
fabrics prepared with a solution of sal ammoniac, 
or phosphate of ammonia, may be placed in contact 
with ignited bodies without danger. They will 
carbonize, but not inflame. Solutions of alum, 
sea salt, &c., have been used for the same pur- 
pose. It is by a knowledge of this property of 
culinary salt, that jugglers are enabled to perform 
the common trick of burning a thread of cotton 
while supporting a ring or a key, without the lat- 
ter falling to the ground. The cotton is reduced 
to a cinder, but, from the action of the salt, its 
fibres still retain sufficient tenacity to support a 
light weight. 

CLOTH, RENOVATION OF. The article 
undergoes the process of scouring before descril^ed, 
and, after being well rinsed and drained, it is put 
on a board, and the threadbare parts rubbed with 
a half-worn hatter's card, filled with flocks, or 
with a teazle or a prickly thistle, until a nap is 
raised. It is next hung up to dry, the nap laid the 
right way with a hard brush, and finished as be- 
fore. When the cloth is much faded, it is usual to 
give it a " dip," as it is called, or to pass it through 
a dve-bath, to freshen up the color. 

CLOTHES, BRUSHING AND PRESER- 
VATION OF. If very dusty, hang them on a 
horse or line, and beat them with a cane ; then 
lay them on a clean board or table, and well brush 
them, first with a stiff" brush, to remove the spots 
of mud and the coarsest of the dirt, and next with 
a softer one, to remove the dust and to lay the nap 
properly. If clothes be wet and spotted with dirt, 
dry them before brushing, and then rub out the 
spots with the hands. The hard brush should be 
used as little as possible, and then with a light hand, 
as it will, if roughly and constantly employed, soon 
render the cloth threadbare. Should there be spots 
of tallow-grease on the clothes, take it off" with 
the nail, or, if that cannot be done, have a hot 
iron with some thick brown papery lay the paper 
on the part where the grease is, then put the iron 
upon the spot ; if the grease comes through the 
paper, put on another piece, till it ceases to soil it. 
After the clothes are brushed, they should be 
hung up in a clean place, free from dust, if want- 
ed for immediate use ; but if intended to remain 
unused for some time, they should be placed away 
on the shelves of the clothes' closet or wardrobe. 
The latter should always be in the driest situation 
possible, as if the clothes be exposed to the least 
damp, they not only acquire an unpleeisant smell, 
but gradually become rotten. 

CLOVES. The flower buds of the eugenia 



caryophyllata, dried and smoked. It is a common 
practice to adulterate this spice in the same man- 
ner as cinchona bark. Cloves from which the oil 
has been distilled are dried and rubbed between 
the hands, previously moistened with a little sweet 
oil, to brighten their color, after which they are 
mixed up with fresh spice for sale. 

COACH ACCIDENTS. " Should the horsea 
run off", in defiance of all restraint, while you are 
in a coach, sit perfectly s(ill, and in anticipation 
of the possible overturn, keep your legs and arms 
from straggling. Sit easily and compactly, so that, 
when upset, you will gently roll over in the direc- 
tion you are thrown. We have seen ladies in these 
circumstances scream wildly, and throw their arms 
out of the windows, thus exposing themselves to 
the chance of broken limbs. If run away with in 
a gig, either sit still collectedly, or drop out at the 
back, so as to fall on your hands. Never jump 
from a rapidly-moving vehicle, unless (supposing it 
impossible to slip down behind) you see a precipice 
in front, in which case any risk of personal dam- 
age is preferable to remaining still. The Duke of 
Orleans lost his fife by neglecting these simple pre- 
cautions." 

COAK. Syn. Coke. Charred Coal. Min- 
eral Charcoal. Carbonized coal. The princi- 
ple of its manufacture is similar to that of charcoal. 
There are three varieties of coak, viz. 

I. {Kiln-made coak. Stifled coak.) Made by 
burning the coal in a pile, kiln, or stove. It has 
a dull black color, and produces an intense heat 
when used as fuel. The coal is frequently burnt 
in a series of shallow stoves, with as little access 
of air as will support the combustion, and the 
smoke conducted through proper horizontal tun- 
nels to a capacious brick chamber, 100 j^ards or 
more in length, kept as cool as possible by a 
stream of water passing over its roof, or by a shal- 
low pond resting on it. Here the bituminous va- 
pors are condensed in the form of tar, along with 
a considerable quantity of crude ammoniacal salt. 
Common coal yields about 3§ of tar when treated 
in this way, but some strong bituminous coal will 
give i or g of its weight. This tar, when inspis- 
sated, gives 75§ of pitch, and 20 to 24§ of a crude 
species of naphtha, that is excellent for out-door 
painting. The ammonia is made into sal ammo- 
niac. The screenings, or dust-coal, separated 
from the better kinds of bituminous coal, is the sort 
commonly used for making coak in ovens. 

II. {Gas coak. Distilled coak.) The cinder left 
in the retorts after the gas has been distilled off. 
Its color is gray, and it only produces a weak heat 
in burning, not sufficient to smelt iron. 

III. {Slate coak. Carbon mineral.) From bi- 
tuminous slate, burned in covered iron pots, in a 
similar way to that adopted for making bone-black 
Also burnt in piles. It is black and friable. Used 
to clarify liquids, but vastly inferior to bone-black, 
and does not abstract the lime from sirups. 

COBALT. Syn. Regulus of Cobalt. A met- , 
al discovered by Brandt, in 173.3. It is found in 
ores, associated with arsenic and other metals, and 
is constantly present in meteoric iron. 

Prep. Dissolve oxide of cobalt in muriatic acid, 
and pass sulphureted hydrogen gas through the 
solution, until all the arsenic is thrown down ; filter, 
and boil with a little nitric acid, then add an ex- 



COB 



202 



coc 



cess of carbonate of potassa, and digest the pre- 
cipitate in a solution of oxalic acid to remove any 
oxide of iron ; wash and dry the residuum, which 
is the pure oxalate, and expose it to heat, either 
in a retort or crucible, from which the air is ex- 
cluded, when pure metallic cobalt will be ob- 
tained. 

II. Mix equal parts of oxide of cobalt and soft 
soap, and expose them to a violent heat in a cov- 
ered crucible. 

III. Roast Cornish cobalt ore, then powder it, 
and smelt it with twice its weight of soft soap. 

Remarks. ■ Cobalt is seldom employed in the 
metallic state, from the great difficulty of reducing 
its ores, but its oxide is largely used in the arts. 
It has been said to form three compounds with 
oxygen, but only one — the black or peroxide — is 
employed. It forms salts with the acids, which 
are interesting from the remarkable changes of 
color which they exhibit. The sulphate is formed 
by boiling sulphuric acid on the metal, or by dis- 
solving the oxide in the acid. It forms reddish 
crystals, soluble in 24 parts of water. The nitrate, 
made in a similar way, forms deliquescent crystals. 
The muriate may be made by dissolving the oxide 
sx muriatic acid ; the neutral solution is blue when 
concentrated, and red when diluted ; the addition 
?f a little acid turns it green. Dissolved in water, 
,t forms a sympathetic ink, the traces of which be- 
come blue when heated, but if the salt be contam- 
inated with iron, they become green. (Klaproth.) 
The addition of a little nitrate of copper to the 
above solution, forms a sympathetic ink, which by 
heat gives a rich greenish-yellow color. (Ure.) 
The addition of a very little common salt makes 
the traces disappear with greater rapidity, on the 
withdrawal of the heat. The acetate forms an 
ink which turns blue when heated. The oxalate 
and phosphate may be formed by digesting the 
oxide in a solution of the acid, or by double decom- 
position. The latter salt is an insoluble purple 
powder, which, when heated along with 8 times its 
weight of gelatinous alumina, produces a blue pig- 
ment, almost equal in beauty to ultramarine. 
With sulphur cobalt vmites, forming a sulphuret, 
and with phosphorus a phosphuret. 

Char, and Tests. The neutral salts of cobalt 
form red solutions, turning green on the addition 
of an excess of the acids, and giving a blue-colored 
precipitate with the alkalis, unless arsenic be pres- 
ent, when the color will be brown. Their solu- 
tions are unaffected by sulphureted hydrogen, but 
hydro-sulphuret of ammonia throws down a black 
powder, soluble in an excess of tlie precipitant. If 
the solution contain arsenic, a yellow powder is 
first precipitated, after which the filtered fluid will 
remain unaffected by sulphureted hydrogen gas. 
Tincture of galls gives a yellowish-white precipi- 
tate, and the solution of oxalic acid a red one. 

COBALT, OXIDE OF. Syn. Black Oxide 
OF Cobalt. Cobalt Black. Pre/?. To a solution 
of muriate of cobalt, add ^mother of carbonate of 
potassa as long as it produces a precipitate ; filter, 
wash, and dry. 

II. Boil powdered bright-white cobalt ore (from 
Cornwall) in nitric acid ; dilute with a large 
quantity of water, and add a solution of carbonate 
of potassa, very gradually, until the clear li(inor, 
after the impurities have settled, becomes of a rose 



color : then add the potash water as long as a pre 
cipitate falls ; wash and dry. 

Use. To make blue colors for painters, enamel- 
lers, and potters. In medicine it has occasionally 
been used as a remedy for rheumatism. 

C0CCULL1« INDICUS. The fruit of a shrub 
(the menispermum cocculus) which abounds on 
the sandy shores of Malabar, and other parts of the 
East Indies. It contains about 2§ of picrotoxin, a 
peculiar vegetable principle, possessing very poi- 
sonous properties. It also contains menispermine 
and paramenispermine. (Pelletier and Couerbe.) 
A small portion of this dangerous drug is used by 
poachers, and a still smaller quantity to destroy 
vermin, the remaining, and by far the greater part, 
being used to adulterate beer and wine. It forms 
a profitable article of trade to the wholesale drug- 
gist, who is enabled to sell it at a high price to 
brewers, from its being a contraband article. The 
use of cocculus indicus in brewing is no secret, as 
several writers have openly recommended its use. 
One of these conscientious gentlemen states, that 
" it is impossible with pure malt and i»^ips alone, to 
produce a strong-bodied porter ;" he therefore re- 
commends the use of " cocculus indicus, grains of 
Paradise, and nux vomica." (Childe, on Brewing.) 
Another author, with the most unblushing effront- 
ery, actually gives full directions for its use. He 
orders 3 lbs. of cocculus to be vised for every 10 
quarters of malt, and adds, " it gives an inebriating 
quality, which passes for strength of liquor ; it pre- 
vents second fermentation in bottled beer, and 
consequently, the bursting of th^ bottles in warm 
climates." (Morrice's Treatise on Brewing.) It 
is really disgusting to find that men can so degrade 
themselves, as thus publicly to recommend a whole- 
sale system of slow poisoning. The conscientious 
brewer, who understands the art which he pro- 
fesses, finds no difficulty in producing " a strong- 
bodied porter" from malt and hops alone. It is 
only persons whose cupidity induces them to reduce 
the quantity of malt and hops required for the pro- 
duction of good liquor, that encounter any difficulty 
in so doing. There is a penalty of 2G0/. upon the 
brewer for purchasing or having in his possession 
any ingredient for the adulteration of beer, and 
there is a penalty of 500Z. upon the seller of such 
ingredients. Yet, in defiance of these heavy fines, 
the trade in these articles is unabated, though car- 
ried on in a clandestine manner. The general 
way this is managed, is to pack the drug in com- 
mon soda barrels, and to place 3 or 4 inclies of 
small crystals of Scotch soda at the bottom and top 
of the cask. In this way the package readily 
passes off" as a cask of conmion soda, and even 
should it be opened, the alkali would first present 
itself to view, and thus satisfy the examiner. An- 
other way commonly adopted, is to form it into an 
extract, known by the name of B. E., or black ex- 
tract, which is ostensibly prepared for tanners, 
but its real destination is the beer cask. The store 
of a certain druggist, which came under my ex- 
amination some short time since, contained an im- 
mense number of bags of this article ; in f ict, it 
formed at least one fourth of the entire stock. 

COCIIENILLIN. Syn. Cocuineal Red. 
Cakminujm. Carminia. Pure Carmlne. The 
coloring principle of cochineal. The carmine of 
commerce consists of cochenillin, combined with a 



COD 



203 



COF 



little animal matter and an acid, from which it 
may be nearly purified by solution in liquid am- 
monia, and precipitations by acetic acid, mixed 
with alcohol. Cochenillin may also be prepared 
by evaporating a, watery infusion of cociiineal to 
the consistence of sirup, dissolving this in proof 
spirit, filtering, again evaporating, and dissolving 
the residuum in liquid ammonia as before. It is 
turned orange by acids, and violet by alkalis. It 
has been obtained under the form of reddish-purple 
crystalline grains. 

COCKLE POWDER. Cockles pulped through 
a sieve, made into a paste with flour, and a little 
salt, and then rolled out into thin pieces and dried. 
It is next reduced to powder, sifted, and packed in 
well-corked bottles. Use. To make sauce, (about 
i oz. to ^ pint.) 

COCOA. I. The roasted husks of the cacao, 
or chocolate bean, reduced to powder by grinding. 
II. The cake left after expressing the oil from 
the beans. 

COCOA, PATENT. The cacao nut roasted 
and ground, (including the husks.) 

COCOA, FLAKED. Ground cocoa strongly 
compressed, and flaked with a sharp knife or ma- 
chine. 

COCOA, SOLUBLE. Cocoa groimd to a very 
fine powder, arid mixed with sugar. It is thus 
rendered miscible with boiling water. 

Remarks. Cocoa forms a very wholesome bev- 
erage, especially for breakfast. Much of the 
cheap stuff" sold under this name is very inferior, 
being made with damaged nuts that have been 
pressed for the oil, mixed with potato flour, mutton 
suet, &c. Trash of this kind is frequently ticketed 
in the shop windows of London at Gd. to 8d. a 
pound. (See Chocolate.) The nut of the palma 
cocos is commonly confounded with that of the theo- 
broma cacao. The latter is the small chocolate 
bean, while the former is the large nut, filled with 
a refreshing milky juice. 

COD. This excellent fish is in season from the 
beginning of October to the end of April. It should 
be chosen by the redness of the gills, freshness of 
the eyes, and the whiteness and firmness of the 
flesh. The best fish are very thick about the neck. 
It is generally cooked by boiling, but is sometimes 
baked, or cut into slices and broiled or fried. Cod's 
head and shoulders, with oyster sauce, is a favorite 
dish. Shrimp and anchovy sauce are also good 
additions. The flesh of the cod is often split and 
dried, (dried cod,) or salted. The fish so largely 
imported from Newfoundland are cod, beheaded, 
split open, gutted and salted. They are caught by 
millions on the " Grand Bank." Cod-sounds are 
pickled in brine and also made into isinglass. The 
liver is boiled for its oil, and the spawn made into 
caviare. 

CODEIA. Syn. Codeine. An alkaloid dis- 
covered by Robiquet associated with morphia. 
I Prep. Dissolve commercial hydro-chlorate of 
\ morphia in water, precipitate with ammonia, evap- 
I orate and crystallize. The product is a double 
salt of morphia and codeine, and when digested 
with warm liquor of potassa gives up its morphia. 
i It may be further purified by solution in ether, and 
I by the addition of a little water and spontaneous 
' evaporation may be obtained quite pure and in a 
I crystalline state. 



Prop. Soluble in alcohol, ether, and water. Iti 
solution in the latter, by slow evaporation, yields 
large transparent octohedrons. With the acids it 
forms crystallizable salts. These possess the sin- 
gular property of producing a general and v'»)lent 
itching of the surface of the body when adminis- 
tered internally. The same symptoms frequently 
follow the exhibition of opium and muriate of mor- 
phia, and are referred to the presence of a salt of 
codeia. (Gregory.) The commercial muriate fre- 
quently contains 3 to 4£- of codeia. 

Char, and Tests. It is distinguished from mor- 
phia by not becoming blue on the addition of the 
sesquichloride of iron, nor turning red with nitric 
acid, and by not being precipitated by ammonia, 
when dissolved in muriatic acid and mixed with a 
large quantity of water. Unlike morphia, it is in- 
soluble in liquor of potassa and is soluble in ether. 
The salts of codeia may also be known by tincture 
of galls throwing down a copious precipitate from 
their solutions, but this does not occur in the salts 
of morphia. It may be distinguished from meco- 
nine by its aqueous solution showing an alkaline 
reaction with test paper. 

COFFEE. The berry of the coffbea Ara- 
bica. II. A decoction or infusion prepared there- 
from. 

Qual. Coffee promotes digestion and exhilarates 
the spirits, and when strong generally occasions 
watchfulness, but in some phlegmatic constitutions 
induces sleep. Drunk in moderation, especially if 
combined with sugar and milk, it is perhaps the 
most wholesome beverage known. Tiie various 
qualities that have been ascribed to it by some per- 
sons, such as dispelling or causing flatulpncy, re- 
moving dizziness of the head, attenuating the 
blood, causing biliousness, &c., appear to be wholly 
imaginary. In a medical point of view it has been 
regarded as diuretic, sedative, and a corrector of 
opium. It should be given as medicine in a strong 
infusion, and is best cold. In spasmodic asthma 
it has been particularly serviceable ; and it has 
been recommended in gangrene of the extremities 
arising from hard drinking. (See Caffein.) 

Pur. The most common adulteration of ground 
coffee is chicory, which is added not only to cheap- 
en the article, but to improve the flavor of dam- 
aged or inferior berries. This adulteration may be 
readily detected by shaking a spoonful of the sus- 
pected coffee with a wine-glassful of water, when, 
if it be pure, it will swim and scarcely color the 
liquid, but if chicory be present, it will sink to the 
bottom, and the water will be tinged of a deep 
red. Roasted corn is another common adultera- 
tion. This may be detected by the cold decoction 
striking a blue color with tincture of iodine. 

COFFEE CREAM. Prep. Add a teacupful 
of very clear strong coffee to 1 pint, each of clarified 
calf's feet jelly and good cream ; sweeten with 
lump sugar, give it one boil up, and poiir it into 
shapes or glasses, when nearly cool. The calf's 
feet jelly should be thick enough to render the 
whole lightly solid but not stiff". 

COFFEE DROPS. Prep. Make an infusion 
with 1 oz. of coflfee, clarify it, and moisten 1 lb. of 
sugar therewith, in the way directed for confec- 
tionary drops. 

COFFEE, ESSENCE OF. A concentrated 
infusion of coff'ee prepared by percolation, to whicn 



COF 



204 



COF 



is added about 5§ of perfectly tasteless rectified 
spirit of wine. 

COFFEE FOR ICING. Syn. Shorbet au 
Cafe. Cream for icing 1 quart ; strong infusion 
of coffee a small teacupful ; sugar 2 oz. ; yelks of 
4 eggs. Mix, and ice as wanted. 

COFFEE FOR THE TABLE. To produce 
the beverage called coffee, in perfection, it is ne- 
cessary to employ the best materials in its manu- 
facture. The finest kind of coffee is that called 
mocha, and should be used when a very fine flavor 
is desired ; but for common use, the better sorts of 
British plantation coffee may be employed. The 
berries should be carefully roasted by a gradual 
application of the heat, until the aroma be well 
developed, and the toughness destroyed. I^ too 
much heat be used, the volatile and aromatic prop- 
erties of the coffee will be injured and the flavor 
inferior ; while, on the other hand, if the berries be 
too little roasted, they will produce a beverage 
with a raw, green taste, very liable to induce sick- 
ness and vomiting. Properly roasted coffee should 
have a lively chocolate brown color, and should 
not have lost more than 18§ of its weight by the 
process. If the loss exeeds 20§ the flavor will be 
materially injured. As soon as roasted, the cof- 
fee should be placed in a very dry situation, the 
drier the better, and the sooner it is consumed the 
finer will be the flavor, as it powerfully absorbs a 
certain amount of moisture from the atmosphere by 
reason of its hygrometric power. This arises from 
the presence of a newly-discovered principle called 
assamar. (Reichenbach.) The berries should not 
be ground until a few minutes before being made 
into liquid coffee, for the same reason, and should 
more be reduced to powder at once than is wanted 
for immediate use, the surplus portion should be 
kept in a tin canister or glass bottle. 

The shape or description of the coffee-pot ap- 
pears of little consequence, though one furnished 
with a percolator or strainer, that will permit a 
moderately rapid filtration, is perhaps preferable. 
At least 1 oz. of coffee should be used to make 4 
common sized coffee-cupfuls, and if wanted strong, 
this quantity should be doubled. The prevailing 
fault of the coffee made in England, arises from 
using too little of the powdered berry. The cof- 
fee-pot should be heated previously to putting in 
the coffee, which may be done by means of a little 
boiling water. The common practice of boiling 
coffee is quite unnecessary, for all its flavor and 
aroma is readily extracted by boiling hot water. 
Should it, however, be placed upon the fire, it 
should be only just simmered for a minute, as 
long or violent boiling injures it considerably. Hot 
water is capable of removing all the soluble aro- 
matic portion of coffee, even at a temperature 
so low as 11)5° Fahr, I have often proved this by 
actual experiment with one of Beart's pneumatic 
filters, when a fluid, deliciously aromatic and spark- 
ling, has been produced, and the grounds have 
only yielded a nauseous bitter flavor and faint co- 
lor to fresh water, even when boiling hot. 

When coffee is pn'.pared in a common pot, the 
latter being first made liot, tiic boiling water should 
be poured over the powder, and not, as is com- 
monly the plan, put in first. It siiould then be 
kept stirred for 4 or 5 minutes, wlicn a cup should 
be poured out and returned again, and this opera- 



tion repeated 3 or 4 times, after which, if allowed 
to repose for a few minutes, it will usually be 
fine. 

Coffee is sometimes clarified, which is done by 
adding a shred of isinglass, a small piece of clean 
eel or sole-skin, or a spoonful of white of G.gg. An 
excellent plan, common in France, is to place the 
vessel containing the made coffee upon the hearth, 
and to sprinkle over its surface a cupful of cold 
water, which from its greater gravity descends, 
and carries the foulness with it. Another plan 
sometimes adopted is to wrap a cloth, previously 
dipped in cold water, round the coffee-pot. This 
method is commonly practised by the Arabians in 
the neighborhood of Yemen and Moka, and is said 
to rapidly clarify the liquor. 

The Parisians, who are remarkable for the su- 
perior quality of their coffee, generally allow an 
ounce to each large coffee-cupful of water, and 
they use the coffee both newly ground and roast- 
ed. A shred of saffron, or a little vanilla, is fre- 
quently added. The coffee-pot called a grecque, 
the cafetiere d la belloy, or coffee-biggin, is com- 
monly employed. This consists of a 'arge coffee- 
pot, with an upper receptacle made to fit close into 
it, the bottom of which is perforated with small 
holes, and contains in its interior two moveable 
metal strainers, over the second of which the pow- 
der is placed, and immediately under the third; 
upon this upper strainer boiling water is poured un- 
til it bubbles up through the strainer ; the cover of 
the machine is then shut close down, and it is 
placed near the fire ; so soon as the water has 
drained through the coffee the operation is repeat- 
ed, until the whole intended quantity be passed 
through. Thus the fragrance and flavor will be 
retained, with all the balsamic and stimulating 
powers, and in a few moments will be obtained — 
without the aid of hartshorn-shavings, isinglass, or 
whites of eggs — a perfectly transparent infusion of 
coffee. When the Parisian uses a common coffee- 
pot, he generally divides the water into 2 parts. 
The first portion he pours on boiling hot, and al- 
lows it to infuse for 4 or 5 minutes, he then pours 
this off as clear as possible, and boils the grounds 
for 2 or 3 minutes with the remaining half of the 
water. After the latter has deposited the sediment 
it is decanted, and mixed with the infusion. The 
object of this process is to obtain the whole of the 
strength, as well as the flavor. The infusion is 
conceived to contain the latter, and the decoction 
the former. This plan has been recommended, 
with some modifications, by Mr. Donovan, and 
more recently by Dr. Davidson, in L'Exp^rience. 

COFFEE, MILK. Boil a dessert-spoonful of 
ground coffee in about a pint of milk, a quarter 
of an hour ; then put into it a shaving or two of 
isinglass, and clear it ; let it boil a few minutes, 
and set it on the side of the fire to fine. This is a 
very fine breakfast, and should be sweetened wi*^h 
real Lisbon sugar. 

" Those of a spare habit, and disposed towards 
affections of the lungs, would do well to make this 
their breakfast." 

COFFEE, SEARLE'S PATENT. This is 
prepared by evaporating skinuned milk mixed with 
one-fortieth part of sugar, at a low temperature, 
and, when nearly solid, adding a very concentrated 
essence of coffee, and continuing the evaporation 



COI 



205 



COL 



at a very low temperature, (in vacuo if possible,) 
until the mixture acquires the consistence of a 
sirup, paste, or candy. (The latter may be pow- 
dered.) 

COFFEE, SUBSTITUTES FOR. These 
are numerous, but the principal are the following : 

I. {Rye coffee. Dilleuius's ditto. HuiiVs break- 
fast-powder.) Rye, roasted along with a little 
butter, and ground to powder. A good substitute. 

II. {German coffee. Succory ditto. Chicory 
ditto.) From succory, as above. Used either for 
or mixed with foreign cotfee. The most common 
adulteration of the latter. 

III. {Rice coff'ee.) From rice, as above. A 
good substitute. 

IV. {Currant coffee.) From the seeds washed 
out of the cake left ni making currant wine. 

V. {Gooseberry coffee.) From gooseberry seeds, 
as the last. 

VI. {Holly coffee.) From the berries. 

VII. {Egyptian coffee.) From chickpeas. 

VIII. {Rosetta coff'ee.) From fenugreek seeds 
moistened with lemon juice. 

IX. {Corsican coff'ee.) From the seeds of the 
knee-holly. 

X. {Sassafras coffee.) From the fruit or nut 
of the sassafras tree, or from the wood cut into 
chips. Very wholesome. Much recommended in 
skin diseases, &c. 

XI. {Raspings.) The raspings of the crust of 
loaves, procured at the baker's. Equal to rye 
coffee. ~~ 

XII. (Beech-mast coffee.) From beech-mast 
or nuts. Very wholesome. 

XIII. {Acorn coff'ee.) From acorns, deprived 
of their shells, husked, dried, and roasted. A good 
substitute. 

XIV. {Beet-root coffee.) From the yellow beet- 
root, sliced, dried in a" kiln or oven, and ground 
with a little foreign coffee. A good substitute. 

XV. {Bean coffee.) Horse-beans roasted along 
with a little honey or sugar. When removed from 
the fire, a small quantity of cassia-buds is fre- 
quently added, and the whole is stirred until cold. 
Said to be a good substitute. 

XVI. {Almond coffee.) Rye or wheat roasted 
along with a few almonds. A. very small quan- 
tity of cassia-buds improves it. A good substitute. 

COINS, IMPRESSIONS FROM. A very 
easy and elegant way of taking the impressions of 
medals and coins, not generally known, is as fol- 
lows : Melt a little isinglass glue with brandy, and 
pour it thinly over the medal, so as to cover its 
whole surface ; let it remain on for a day or two, 
till it has thoroughly dried and hardened, and then 
take it off, when it will be fine, clear, and as hard 
as a piece of Muscovy glass, and will have a very 
elegant impression of the coin. It will also resist 
the effects of damp air, which occasions all other 
kinds of glue to soften and bend if not prepared in 
this way. (Shaw.) If the wrong side of the isin- 
glass be breathed on, and gold-leaf applied, it will 
adhere, and be seen on the other side, producing a 
very pleasing effect. Isinglass glue, made with 
water alone, will do nearly as well as if brandy be 
used. 

Remarks. Medals may also be copied by sur- 
rounding them M ith a hoop of paper, and pouring 
on them plaster of Paris (mixed with water to the 



I consistence of cream) to the depth of about J an 
inch. Melted wax, stearine, fusible metal, or any 
similar material, may be used in the same way. 
If it bo desired to copy the metal in copper, a 
mould should be first formed in the above manner, 
and tile metal deposited on its surface by the agen- 
cy of electricity. (See Electrotype.) 

COLCHICINE. Sy}i. Colchicina. Colchia. 
A peculiar principle discovered by Gieger and Hesse 
in the seeds of the colchicum autumnale, or com- 
mon meadow saffron. It also exists in the cormi 
or bulbs. 

Prep. Macerate the crushed seeds in boiling al- 
cohol, add hydrate of magnesia to throw down the 
alkaloid, digest the precipitate in boiling alcohol, 
and filter. By cautious evaporation colchicine 
will be deposited. It may be purified by re-solu- 
tion. 

Prop., c^c. Odorless ; tastes bitter ; forms salts 
with the acids, li 3 very poisonous. One-tenth 
of a grain, dissolved in spirit, killed a cat in 12 
hours. It differs from veratrine in being soluble in 
water, crystalline, and the non-production of sneez- 
ing when applied to the nose. Strong oil of vitriol 
turns this alkaloid of a yellowish browr • nitric 
acid of a deep violet, passing into indigo blue, green, 
and yellow. 

COLCHICUM, POWDER OF. I. {Collier.) 
Seeds of colchicum 2 grs. ; rhubarb 6 grs. ; mag- 
nesia 10 grs. ; mix for 1 powder, to be taken every 
six hours in acute rheumatism, inflammatory gout, 
&LC., washing it down with a glass of Seltzer wa- 
ter, during high febrile action only. 

II. {Collier.) Seeds of colchicum 3 grs. ; mu- 
riate of ammonia 5 grs. ; for 1 powder. For check- 
ing a paroxysm of gout, but its use requires cau- 
tion. " After all that has been said respecting 
colchicum in gout, and admitting that it rarely 
fails to allay pain and check a paroxysm, I would 
record my opinion that he who would wish to ar- 
rive at a good old age, should eschew it as an or- 
dinary remedy, and consider that he is drawing on 
his constitution for a temporary relief, with a cer- 
tainty of becoming prematurely bankrupt in his 
vital energies." 

COINDET'S PILLS. Prep. Protiodide of 
mercury 1 gr. ; extract of liquorice 20 grs. ; mix, 
and divide into 8 pills. Dose. 2 to 4 twice or thrice 
daily, as an alterative in scrofulous tumors, ulcers, 
&c. 

COLD. When the body of an animal is im- 
mersed in an atmosphere at a temperature below 
the healthy standard, a sensation of coldness is 
experienced, produced by the passage of the calo- 
ric or heat of the body into the colder medium. If 
this withdrawal of caloric exceed the quantity pro- 
duced by the vital system, the temperature of the 
body decreases, until it sinks below the point at 
Avhich the functions of life can be performed. This 
declination is gradual; the extreme sensation of 
coldness changes into a disinclination for voluntary 
motion ; next comes on drowsiness, followed by 
numbness and insensibility. In this state, if tlie 
sufferer be not rescued, and remedial measures had 
recourse to, death must rapidly follow. 

Prevention of the effects of excessive cold. — 
The extremities of the body first suffer from the 
action of cold, owing to the circulation of the blood 
being less vigorous m those parts ; they should, 



COL 



206 



COL 



therefore, be properly protected from its action. 
Woollen stockings or socks, with good shoes or 
boots, should be worn on the feet, and the body 
?hould be clad in thick woollen fabrics, proportion- 
ed to the inclemency of the weather, and the habits 
of the wearer. The circulation of the blood should 
be promoted by active exercise, and any disposition 
to sleep shaken off by increased bodily exertion. 
If the situation be such that exercise cannot be 
had recourse to, drowsiness is more likely to be 
experienced, and must be warded off, if possible, 
by keeping the mind incessantly and actively en- 
gaged. The principal endeavor should be to keep 
the extremities warm, as, if this be accomplished, 
no danger need be feared. In travelling by coach 
or on horseback, recourse may be had to hay and 
straw, which may be thrown over the feet and 
legs, and will materially ward off the effects of the 
weather. 

Remedial measures for asphyxia produced by 
intense cold. — The patient should be laid in a room 
remote from the fire, and bathed with cold salt and 
water, after which the body should be wiped dry, 
and friction applied by the hands of the attendants, 
(warmed ;) as many operating at once as can con- 
veniently do so. Gentle stimulants should be ad- 
ministered by the mouth, and the bowels excited by 
some mild stimulating clyster. The lungs should 
also be inflated. (See Asphyxia.) As soon as 
symptoms of returning animation are evinced, and 
the breathing and circulation restored, the patient 
should be laid in a bed between blankets, and a 
little wine and water administered, and perspiration 
promoted by heaping an ample quantity of clothing 
on the bed. Should the patient have suffered from 
hunger as well as cold, the appetite may be ap- 
peased by the administration of a limited quantity 
of light food, taking especial care to avoid excess, 
or any thing indigestible or exciting. 

COLIC. (From kq)Xov, the colon, the supposed 
seat of the disease.) The colic or bellyache. This 
name is commonly given to all severe griping ab- 
dominal pains, whatever may be the cause. This 
disease has been distinguished by nosologists into 
several varieties, as follows : — 

I. ( The spasmodic colic.) This kind is marked 
by a fluctuating pain about the navel, which goes 
away and returns by starts, often leaving the pa- 
tient for some time. The belly is usually soft, and 
the intestines may often be felt in lumps, which 
move about under the hand, or wholly vanish for a 
time. It is unaccompanied by flatulency. The 
remedies are, warm fomentations, warm clysters, 
and carminatives, accompanied by small doses of 
camphor and opium. 

II. {The stercoraceous colic.) This is marked 
by severe griping pains and constipation of the 
bowels. The remedies are powerful cathartics, as 
full doses of calomel, aloes, colocynth, jalap, &c., 
followed by purgative salts, as sulphate of magne- 
sia or soda. 

III. [Bilious colic.) In this variety the pain 
is intermittent and transient, accompanied by con- 
■tij)ation, nausea, and vomiting. The fteces, if 
any, are bilious, dark -colored, and otlensive. The 
remedies are, a full (los(^ of blue pill, calomel, colo- 
cynth, or aloes, followed by a sufllcient quantity 
of epsom or glauber salts. Warm fomentations are 
also serviceable. 



IV. (Flatulent colic.) Marked by constipation, 
and the irregular distension of the bowels by gas, 
accompanied by a rumbling noise, &c. It is com- 
monly produced by the use of flatulent vegetables 
and slops. The remedies are, a full dose of tinc- 
ture of rhubarb combined with a few drops of es- 
sence of peppermint. If this does not afford relief, 
a pill made of 3 grs. of blue pill and 2 grs. of com- 
pound extract of colocynth, may be taken, washed 
down with a glass of any cordial water, as pepper- 
mint, cinnamon, or caraway. If the pain be ex- 
treme, warm fomentations to the belly, or a car- 
minative clyster may be adopted. 

V. {Accidental colic.) Produced by improper 
food and poisons. The treatment differs but little 
from the last variety. 

VI. {Colica pictonum. Devonshire colic. 
Plumber's do. Painter's do. Lead do.) The 
dry bellyache. This species of colic is marked by- 
obstinate costiveness, acrid bilioa" vomitings, vio- 
lent pains about the region of the nt rel, convulsive 
spasms in the intestines, and a tendency to para- 
lysis in the extremities. It is most prevalent in 
the cider counties, and among persons exposed to 
the fumes of lead. The i^medies are the same as 
for the spasmodic variety. Should these fail, after 
the bowels have been thoroughly evacuated, small 
doses of camphor and opium may be administered. 
Mr. Benson, the managing director of the British 
Whitelead Works at Birmingham, strongly recom- 
mends the use of sulphuric acid ; he says : " I met 
with a statement some time since that sulphuric 
lemonade has been successfully used at a white 
lead manufactory in France as a preventive of the 
injurious effects of white lead; and it occurred to 
me that by adding sulphuric acid to the treacle- 
beer then used by our people, its supposed efficacy 
might be tested. This idea was carried into effect 
in the summer of 1841, and the results have proved 
most gratifying, as, although during several weeks 
after the addition of the sulphuric acid to the trea- 
cle beverage, little advantage seemed to be derived, 
yet the cases of lead colic became gradually less 
frequent, and since October of that year, or during 
a period of fifteen months, not a single case of lead 
colic has occurred among the people." (Lancet.) 

The following is Mr. Benson's form for his trea- 
cle or sulphuric beer : — Take of treacle 15 lbs. ; 
bruised ginger ^ lb. ; water 12 gallons ; yeast 1 
quart; bicarbonate of soda 1^ oz. ; sulphuric acid 
(oil of vitriol) 1^- oz, by weight: boil the ginger in 
2 gallons of water ; add the treacle and the re- 
mainder of the water, hot ; when nearly cold trans- 
fer it to a cask, and add the yeast to cause fer- 
mentation ; when this has nearly ceased, add the 
sulphuric acid, previously diluted with eight times 
its quantity of water, and then add the bicarbonate 
of soda, dissolved in one quart of water. Close up 
the cask, and in three or four days the beer will be 
fit for use. As acetous fermentation speedily takes 
place, particularly in hot weather, new supplies 
should be prepared as required. 

COLOCYNTHINE. Syn. Colocynthite. 
Coi.ocYNTuiuM. The purgative bitter principle of 
the colocynth. 

Prep. Digest the aqueous extract or the pulp of 
colocynth in alcohol, filter and evaporate the tinc- 
ture. The residuum is colocynthine combined 
with acetate of potassa. By agitation with a Utile 



CON 



207 



CON 



^ater the latter is removed. It may be purified by 
e-solution in alcohol, and evaporation. 

Prop. A yellowish brown translucent resinous 
Bubstance, very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether, 
and only slightly so in water. It is inteiisely bit- 
ter, and acts as a drastic purgative. 

COLORING. Syn. Brewer's Coloring, 
Brandy do. Spirit do. Essentia Bina. Cara- 
mel. Prep. Melt brown sugar in an iron vessel 
over the fire, until it grows black and bitter, stir- 
ring it well all the time, then make it into a sirup 
with water. 

Remarks. Some use lime-water to dissolve the 
burnt sugar. Care must be taken not to overburn 
it, as a greater quantity is thereby rendered inso- 
luble. The heat should not exceed 430'^, nor be 
less than 400°. The process for nice experiments 
IS best conducted in a bath of melted tin, to which 
a little bismuth has been added to reduce its melt- 
ing point to about 435° ; a little powdered resin or 
charcoal, or a little oil being put upon the surface 
of the metal to prevent oxidizement. 

COLORS, COMPOUND. (In Dyeing.) The 
mixture of blue and yellow dyes produces green ; 
RED and BLUE, violet, purple, lilacs, <^c. ; red and 
yellow, orange, cinnamon, ^c. ; red, yellow, 
and BLUE, olives; red and blues, or green or 
BLACK, browns of all shades; black mixed with 
other dyes produces various shades of brown and 
olive, and when pale it constitutes gray, either by 
itself or the addition of a faint blue. 

COLOMBIUM. A rare metal, discovered^ by 
Mr. Hatchet in 1801, in a black mineral belonging 
to the British Museum. Supposed to have been 
brought from America, hence the name. (See 
Tantalum.) 

COLUMBIC ACID. The preceding metal ex- 
ists in its ores in the form of an acid, united to iron, 
manganese, or yttria. From these it may be ob- 
tained by fusion with 3 or 4 parts of potash, solu- 
tion in water, and precipitation with an acid. It 
falls as a white powder »r hydrate. 

CONCENTRATION. (In Chemistry.) The 
volatilization of part of a liquid in order to increase 
the strength of the remainder. The operation can 
only be performed on solutions of substances of 
greater fixity than the menstrua in which they are 
dissolved. Many of the liquid acids, solutions of 
the alkalis, &c., are concentrated by distilling off 
their water. 

(In Pharmacy.) The term " concentrated" is 
very commonly applied to any liquid preparation 
possessing more than the usual strength. Thus 
we have " concentrated" infusions, decoctions, 
liquors, solutions, tinctures, and essences, most 
of which are made of 8 times the common strength. 
This is generally effected by using 8 times the 
usual quantity of the ingredients, with a given por- 
tion of the menstruum, and operating by digestion 
or percolation ; the latter being generally adopted 
when the articles are bulky. When the men- 
struum is water, a little spirit is added to make the 
product keep. 

CONCRETE. (In Architecture.) A com- 
pact mass, composed of pebbles, Hme, and sand, 
employed in the foundations of buildings. The 
best proportions are 60 parts of coarse pebbles, 25 
of rough sand, and 15 of lime. 

CONDIMENTS. Substances taken with the 



food, to improve its flavor, or to render it more 
wholesome or digestible. The principal condi- 
ments are common salt, vinegar, lemon juice, 
spices, aromatic herbs, oil, butter, suaar, honey, 
and sauces. Most of these, in moderation, pro- 
mote the appetite and digestion, but their excessive 
use tends to injure the stomach, and vitiate the 
gastric juice. 

CONFECTIONS. (In Pharmacy.) Medi 
cines, usually pulverulent, mixed up to the consist- 
ence of a paste with powdered sugar^ sirup, or ho- 
ney. In the " London Pharmacopo-'ia," both con- 
serves and electuaries are included under this head, 
though there appears to be some little distinction 
between them. As remedial agents, the officinal 
confections possess but little value, and are chiefly 
useful as vehicles for the administration of more 
active medicines. In making confections, the su- 
gar requires the same attention as for sirups. They 
should be kept in stone jars, covered with writing 
paper, and placed in a cool and dry situation. 
Without this precaution, they are apt to mould on 
the top. All the dry ingredients employed in 
making confections should be reduced to a very 
fine powder, and passed through a sieve not coarser 
than 80 holes to the inch. 

CONFECTION OF ALMONDS. Prep. 
(Confectio AmygdalcB, P. L.) Sweet almonds 
i ^viii ; white sugar ^iv ; powdered gum arable ^j. 
Macerate the almonds in cold water, then remove 
the skins, and beat them with the other ingredients 
until reduced to a smooth confection. 

Use. To prepare milk of almonds. A little of 
this paste or powder, triturated with a sufficient 
portion of water, and strained tliiough a piece of 
calico, forms emulsion of almonds. 

CONFECTION OF ALKERMES. Prep. 
White sugar 1 lb. ; rose-water \ pint ; clarified 
juice of alkermes 3 lbs. ; oil cinnamon 10 or 12 
drops. ]Mix. It was formerly a common practice 
to add a little gold-leaf, rubbed small, so as to float 
about in it ; also musk and ambergris. 

CONFECTION OF ALUM. Prep. (Conf. 
Aluminis, St. B. H.) Alum in fine powder, 80 
grs. ; conserve of roses, enough to mix. Use. As 
an astringent. 

CONFECTION, AROMATIC. Syn. Sir 
Walter Raleigh's Cordial. Confectio Ra- 

LEIGHANA, (P. L. 1720.) DiTTO CaRDIACA, (P. L. 

1745.) Ditto Aromatica, (P. L. 1788, and since.) 
Prep. I. (P. L.) Nutmegs, cinnamon, and hay saf- 
fron, of each ^ij ; cloves §j ; cardamoms 3SS ; pre- 
pared chalk ^xvj ; white sugar lbs. ij. Reduce the 
whole to a very fine powder, and keep it in a closed 
vessel. When wanted for use, mix it with water 
to the consistence of a confection. 

Remarks. Ou the large scale the above form is 
seldom adhered to. Less saffion is .commonly used, 
cassia is substituted for cinnamon, and, generally, 
the essential oil for the pow^der of cloves. Should 
there be any deficiency of color, this is brought up 
by a little tincture or infusion of turmeric. When 
a ver)' smooth and fine powder is desired, it should 
be passed tluough a gauze sieve, not coarser than 
80 holes to the inch, and precipitated chalk should 
be employed. The saffi-on should be dried with as 
httle heat as possible, and care should be taken 
not to waste any in powdering. The following 
formula, which is employed by a large whole- 



CON 



208 



CON 



iale druggist in the city, produces an excellent 
article. 

II. Hay saffron, cassia, and turmeric, of each 4 
oz. ; cardamoms 1 oz. ; starch 8 oz. ; precipitated 
chalk 2 lbs. ; white sugar 4 lbs. ; oil of nutmegs 2 
drachms ; oil of cloves 3 drachms. Reduce the 
diy ingredients to fine powder, and pass it through 
an 80 hole sieve, then add the oils, and after well 
mixing, pass it through a coarse sieve, (about 40 
holes to the inch,) to ensure the whole being per- 
■ectly mixed. 

The following form produces a powder possess- 
ing great depth and brilliancy of color. 

III. Hay saffron 4 oz. ; turmeric 3 oz. ; pow- 
dered starch 8 oz. ; precipitated chalk 2 lbs. ; white 
sugar 4 lbs. ; oils of -cloves and cassia, of each 3 
drachms ; oil of nutmegs 2 drachms ; essence of 
cardamoms 1 oz. Proc. Boil the saffron and tur- 
meric in 1 gallon of water, placed in a bright cop- 
per pan, for 10 minutes, then, without straining, 
add the chalk, starch, and sugar ; mix well, and 
continue stirring until the mixture becomes quite 
stiff, then break it up and dry it until fit for pow- 
dering. This must be performed in a water or 
steam bath. To the powder, passed through a 
fine sieve, as before, the oils and tincture must be 
added, and after being well mixed, and passed 
through a coarse sieve, it should be placed in a jar 
or bottle, and bunged up close. 

Remarks. In the wholesale trade this article is 
kept under two forms : one in powder, as ordered 
by the College, and commonly called, for distinc- 
tion sake, "^y-Ztjis covfectionis ai-omaticcB ;" the 
other mixed up ready for use. In preparing the 
latter, it is a common plan to make a strong infu- 
sion or decoction of the saffron, and to use it to mix 
up the other ingredients. Some persons follow the 
method described in the last formula, mixing up 
the powder to a proper consistence with water be- 
fore adding the aromatics. When the price of 
precipitated chalk is an objection to its use, pre- 
pared chalk may be used instead. This confec- 
tion is cordial, stimulant, and antacid. Dose. 10 
to 60 grs. 

CONFECTION OF BLACK PEPPER. Syn. 
Ward's Paste. Prep. (Confectio Piperis Nigri, 
P. L.) Black pepper and elecampane root, of 
each lb. j ; fennel seed lb. iij ; honey and white 
sugar, of each lb. ij ; mix. 

Remarks. The common practice is to keep the 
dry ingredients ready mixed in a bottle, and only 
to add the honey as wanted. The proportions are 
2 parts of the latter to 7 of the mixture. The dose 
is 1 to 2 drachms 2 or 3 times a-day, in piles, fis- 
tula, &c. It should be persevered in for 2, 3, or 4 
months, (Sir B. Brodie ;) and as it is apt to accu- 
mulate in the bowels, its use should be accompa- 
nied by.mild aperients. (Pereira.) 

CONFECTIONS OF CASSIA. Syn. Elec- 
TUARIUM Cabsi.e, (P. L. 1788.) Prep. (Covfectio 
Cassia, P. L.) Fresh cassia pulp lb. ss. ; manna 
§ij ; tamarind pulp ^j ; sirup of roses f^viij. Bruise 
the manna and dissolve it in the sirup, then add 
the pulps and evaporate to a proi)er consistence. 

CONFECTION OF HEMLOCK. (Dr. Os- 
borne.) Prep. Fresh leaves of hemlock and moist 
sugar equal parts ; beat them to a confection in a 
mortar. 

CONFECTION OF OPIUM. Syn. Pihlo- 



NIUM RoMANUM, (P. L. 1720.) DiTTO LoNDI- 
NENSE, (P. L. 1745.) CONFECTIO OpiATA, (P. L. 

1788.) Ditto Opii, (P. L. 1809, and since.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Powdered opium 3vj ; long pepper ^j ; 
ginger ^ij ; caraways §iij ; tragacanth 3ij ; all in 
fine powder ; sirup ff xvj. Mix. 

Use and Dose. This confection is intended as a 
substitute for the mithridate and theriaca of the 
old Pharmacopceia. It is stimulant and narcotic, 
and is given in flatulent colic and diarrhoea unac- 
companied by fever. The dose is from 15 to 
50 grs. 

CONFECTION OF ORANGE PEEL. Syn. 

CONSERVA FLAVEDINIS CoRTICUM AuRANTIORUM, 

(P. L. 1720 and 1745.) Ditto Corticis exte- 
RioRis Aurantii Hispalensis, (P. L. 1788.) Ditto 
AuRANTioRUM, (P. L. 1824.) Ditto Aurantii, 
(P. L. 1809 and 1836.) Prep. (P. L.) The ex- 
ternal rind of the fresh orange, separated by rasp- 
ing, lb. j ; white sugar lb. iij. Beat the rind in a 
stone mortar with a wooden pestle, then add the 
powdered sugar, and beat the mixture until the 
two are perfectly incorporated. 

Remarks. This confection is tonic and stomachic, 
and is principally used as a vehicle for the exhibi- 
tion of tonic powders. 

CONFECTION OF PEPPERMINT. Prep. 
Green peppermint 4 oz. ; powdered white sugar 
12 oz. ; beat them together as last. 

Use. Anti-emetic and flatulent. Given in colic, 
&c., in the form of a bolus, or made into a mix- 
ture. 

CONFECTION OF THE DOG ROSE. Syn. 
Confection of Hips. Conserva Fructus cynos- 
BATi, (P. L. 1720 and 1745.) Ditto Cynossati. 
(P. L. 1788.) Ditto Ros^ Canine, (P. L. 1809, 
and since.) Prep. (P. L.) Pulp of the dog rose 
lb. j ; powdered refined sugar ^xx ; mix by a gen- 
tle heat in an earthen vessel. 

II. Pulped hips 2 cwt. ; fine white sugar 2^ cwt. ; 
incorporate them without applying heat. 

Remarks. Both this and the following confec- 
tion has a brighter color, if made without heat, or 
touching metallic vessels. On the small scale it 
is made by beating the ingredients together in a 
marble mortar, but ift large quantities by grinding 
in a mill. It is slightly laxative, and is principally 
used for forttiing pills. It candies by keeping. 

CONFECTION OF THE RED ROSE. Syn. 
Conserva Rosarum Rubrarum, (P. L. 1745.) 
Ditto Ros^, (P. L. 1788.) Ditto Ros;e Galli- 
cs, (P. L. 1809 and 1824.) Confectio Ros.e 
Gallics, (P. L. 1836.) Prep. (P. L.) Petals of 
the red rose lb. j ; refined sugar lb. iij ; beat the 
petals in a stone mortar, then add the sugar, and 
again beat until thoroughly incorporated. 

Remarks. On the large scale this is prepared 
like the confection of hips. It is astringent and 
tonic, and principally used for forming pills. If 
'.aken alone, the dose is 1 to 2 dracimis. 

CONFECTION OF RUE. Syn. Electua- 
x.uM E Boccis Lauri, (P. L. 1720, 1745.) Con- 
fectio RuTiE, (P. L. 1809, and since.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Dried rue, caraway, and laurel berries, 
of each §iss ; sagapenum (true) ^ss ; black pepper 
3ij ; honey f xvj. Reduce the dry ingredients to 
very fine j)owder, and when wanted for use, make 
thcni into a confection with the honey. 

Use, cj-r. It is antispasmodic ; in enemas 30 to 



CON ^ 



209 



CON 



60 grs., with half a pint of gruel, for flatulent 

CONFECTION OF SCAMMONY. Syn. 
Elect UARiUiM Caryocostinum, (P. L. 1720.) 
Ditto e Scammonio, (P. L. 1745.) Ditto Scam- 
MONii, (P. L. 1809 and 1788.) Confectio Scam- 
MONE.E, (P.L. 1809 and 1824.) Prep. {Confectio 
Scammonii P. L.) Scammony §iss ; cloves and 
ginger, of each, 3vj ; oil of caraway f 3ss. Re- 
duce the ingredients to a very fine powder, and 
when wanted for use, make them into a confec- 
tion with sirup of roses, and lastly add the oil. 

Use, ^-c. Cathartic in doses of 10 to 30 grs. 

CONFECTION OF SENNA. Syn. Leni- 
tive Electuary. Electuariuim Senn^e, (P. L. 
1788.) Confectio Senna, (P. L. 1809, and since.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Senna §viij ; figs lb. j ; pulp of 
tamarinds, prunes, and cassia, of each, lb. ss. ; 



coriander seeds 



liquorice §iij ; sugar lb. iiss ; 



Abater 3 pints. Proc. Rub the senna and corian 
ders in a mortar, and separate by sifting ^x of the 
mixed powders. Boil the figs and liquorice in the 
water, until reduced to one half; then press and 
strain the liquor. Evaporate the strained liquor 
until only 24 fluid ounces remain, then add the 
sugar, and when dissolved, mix in the pulps, and 
lastly the powder. 

Use, Dose, ^c. Confection of senna is a gentle 
and pleasant purgative, and well adapted for per- 
sons suffering from piles, and as a laxative during 
pregnancy. The dose is ^ to i oz. taken at bed- 
time or early in the morning. 

Remarks. Perhaps there is no one pharmaco- 
poeial preparation which it is more difficult to ob- 
tain of good quality than the above. The absolute 
cost of an article prepared according to the direc- 
tions of the College, will be- somewhere about 
Is. dd. per lb. ; but there are many wholesale 
drug houses vending confection of senna, which 
they warrant as genuine, at from dd. to Is. a 
pound. Dr. Paris (in his Pharmacologia) very 
truly remarks, that " the directions of the Phar- 
macopoeia are very rarely followed." I under- 
stand that considerable quantities are manufac- 
tured, into which unsound and spoiled apples enter 
as a principal ingredient. The following forms 
are, to my knowledge, employed by some mem- 
bers of the trade. 

II. Powdered senna, pulp of tamarinds, cassia, 
and prunes, of each, 1^ lb. ; powdered corianders 
|lb. ; Spanish juice ^Ib. ; simple sirup 12 lbs. 

III. As the above, omitting the cassia pulp, and 
adding 2 lbs. more tamarind pulp. 

Both these articles are labelled P. L., and sent 
out as genuine, and that when no competition as 
to price exists. The cheaper article is made as 
follows : 

IV. Common prunes and tamarinds, of each, 
16 lbs. ; treiole | cwt. ; species (a compound of 
senna dust and small senna, mixed with 3 lbs. of 

27 



coriander seeds, and strengthened with jalap," al 
ground to a fine powder) 184 lbs. To this is fre- 
quently added i cwt. of rotten or inferior apples^ 
which are pulped with the prunes and tamarinds. 
This article is not unfrequently labelled " Conf. 
SennjE Ver." by the conscientious tradesman. 

CONFECTION OF SULPHUR, (COM- 
POUND.) Prep. (St. B. H.) Precipitated sul- 
phur ^ss ; cream of tartar 3j ; honey §j ; mix 
As a laxative in piles, &c. Dose. "^as. 

CONFECTION OF STEEL. Syn. Con- 
FECTioN OF Carbonate of Iron. Prep. Confec- 
tion of orange-peel and sesquioxide of iron, (P. L.,) 
of each, 4 oz. ; powdered white sugar G oz. ; sim- 
ple sirup 2 oz. ; mix. Aromatic and tonic. Dose. 
A teaspoonful to ^ oz. twice or thrice daily. 

CONGELATION, (from congelo, to freeze.) 
In Chemistry. The conversion of a liquid into a 
solid state, by the action of cold. 

The production of an extreme degree of cold is 
often of the utmost importance in chemical opera- 
tions, and an easy method of doing so is con- 
sequently a desideratum. The means hitherto 
adopted for this purpose have either depended 
upon the sudden liquefaction of solids, or the ab- 
straction of heat by rapid evaporation. The loss 
of sensible heat, by the first method, is the basis 
of the various processes of producing cold by what 
are commonly called freezing mixtures, all of 
which act upon the principle of liquefying solid 
substances without supplying heat. The caloric 
of liquidity being in these cases derived ^rom that 
previously existing in the solid itself in a sensible 
state, the temperature must necessarily fall. The 
degree of cold produced, depends upon the quan- 
tity of heat which is thus diff"used through a larger 
mass, or which, as it were, disappears, and this is 
dependent on the quantity of solid matter lique- 
fied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline 
compounds are the substances most frequently' em- 
ployed, and those which have the greatest affinity 
for water, and thus liquefy the most rapidly, pro- 
duce the greatest degree of cold. Thus it is, that 
chloride of calcium and nitrate of ammonia, when 
dry and in fine powder, if suddenly mixed with 
water, produce extreme cold. .The latter, sud- 
denly mixed with an equal weight of water at 
50°, will sink the thermometer to -\-i°, or 28° 
below the freezing point. The most common and 
convenient freezing mixture, when snow can be 
procured, is formed by mixing 2 parts of that sub- 
stance with 1 part of sea-salt. This will sink the 
thermometer to — 5°, or 37° below the freezing 
point of water. Equal parts of these substances 
produce a degree of cold marked by the zero of 
Fahrenheit's thermometer, and is the standard ta- 
ken for graduating that instrument: Mr. Walker, 
a gentleman who fully investigated this subject, 
recommends the following proportions for the pro- 
duction of extreme cold. 



CON 



210 



CON 



TABLES exhibiting a collective View of all the Frigorific Mixtures contained in Mr. Walker's 

Publication, 1808. 

Table I. Consisting of Frigorific Mixtures, composed of Ice, with Chemical Salts and Acida. 



Mixtures 



^ Snow or pomided ice . ^ 

( Muriate of soda 

( Snow or pounded ice . 

•? Muriate of soda 

( Muriate of ammonia . 

Snow or pounded ice 
S Muriate of soda . 
J Muriate of ammonia 

Nitrate of potash . 

C Snow or pounded ice 
■^ Muriate of soda . 
( Nitrate of ammonia 

^ Snow 

I Diluted sulphuric acidt . 

^ Snow 

I Muriatic acid (concentrated) 

^ Snow 

\ Concentrated nitrous acid 

^ Snow 

( Muriate of lime 

^ Snow 

( Crystallized muriate of lime 

^ Snow 

) Potash .... 



Thermometer sinks. 



2 parts I 

1 " \ 
5 « } 

2 " } 

1 " ) 
24 « 
10 " 

5 « 

5 « 

12 « 

5 « 

5 « 

3 « 

2 « 

8 " 

5 « 

7 " 

4 « 

4 « 

5 " 

2 « 

3 « 

3 " 

4 « 



. 


fto —5° 


* 


2 

3 






. t 


to— 12° 


« 


1. 








to —18° 


« 


(^ 


to —25° 


* 


From +32° to —23° 


550 


From +32° to —27° 


59 


From +32° to —30° 


62 


From +32° to —40° 


72 


From +32° to —50° 


82 


From +32^ 


' to —51° 


83 



Degree of cold 
produced. 



N. B. The reason for the omissions in the last column of this table is, the thermometer sinking in 
these mixtures to the degree mentioned in the preceding column, and never lower, whatever may be 
the temperature of the materials at mixing. 



Table II. Consisting of Frigorific Mixtures, having the power of generating or creating Cold, with- 
out the aid of Ice, sufficient for all useful and philosophical purposes, in any part of the world at 
any season. 



Mixtures. 



C Muriate of ammonia 
•? Nitrate of potash 
( Water 

Muriate of ammonia 
\ Nitrate of potash . 
J Sulphate of soda 
^ Water. 

< Nitrate of ammonia 
I Water. 

S Nitrate of ammonia. 
Carbonate of soda 
Water . 
^ Sulphate of soda . 
( Diluted nitrous acidt 

Sulphate of soda . 
\ Muriate of ammonia 
J Nitrate of potash . 
Diluted nitrous acid . 



Thermometer sinks. 



5 parts 

5 « ^ From +50° to +10^ 
16 

5 « 
5 



From +50° to +4° 



:( 

" I From +50° to +4° 

« [ From +50° to —7° 

1 " I From +50° to —3° 

2 .. [ From +50° to —10° 
4 « 5 



Degree of cold 
produced. 



40° 

46 

46 
57 
53 

60 



t Strong acid 2 parts ; water or snow 1 part, by weight. 
j Fuming nitrous acid 2 parts ; watet 1 part, by weight 



CON 



211 



CON 



Table II. continued. 



Mixtures. 




Thermometer sinks. 


Degree of cold 
produced. 


C Sulphate of soda . 
^ Nitrate of ammonia. 
( Diluted nitrous acid 


. 6 parts i 
. 4 « ^ 


From +50° to —14° 


64° 


Phosphate of soda ,• 
Dilutod nitrous acid 


9 
. 4 




From +50° to —12° 


62 


C Phosphate of soda . 
< Nitrate of ammonia 
( Diluted nitrous acid. 


9 

. 6 

4 


'i\ 


From +50° to —21° 


71 


i Sulphate of soda . 
Muriatic acid . 


. 8 
5 


"1 


From +50° to 0° 


50 


< Sulphate of soda . 

( Diluted sulphuric acid* 


. 5 

4 


"1 


From +50° to +3° 


47 



N. B. If the materials are mixed at a warmer temperature than that expressed in the Table, the 
effect will be, proportionately greater ; thus, if the most powerful of these mixtures be made when the 
air is +85°, it will smk the thermometer to +2°. 



Table III. Consisting of Frigorific Mixtures selected from the foregoing Tables, and combined so as 
to increase or extend Cold to the extremest Degrees. 



Mixtures. 


- 


Thermometer sinl<s. 


Degree of cold 
produced. 


C Phosphate of soda 
} Nitrate of ammonia . 
( Diluted nitrous acid 


. 5 parts ) 

3 " [ 

. 4 " 5 


From 0° to —34° 


34° 


C Phosphate of soda . 
< Nitrate of ammonia 
f Diluted mixed acids . 


3 « J 

. 2 « [ 

4 « ) 


From —34° to —50° 


16 


J Snow .... 
( Diluted nitrous acid . 


. 3 « > 
2 « I 


From 0° to —46° 


46 


1 Snow .... 
• 1 Diluted sulphuric acid 
. Diluted nitrous acid 


. 8 " } 

3 " } 

. 3 « i 


From —10° to —56° 


46 


J Snow .... 
I Diluted sulphuric acid . 


• . 1 " 1 


From —20° to —60° 


40 


\ Snow .... 
\ Muriate of lime . 


.-.!;: 1 


From +20° to —48° 


68 


\ Snow .... 
I Muriate of lime . 


3 " > 

4 « \ 


From +10° to —54° 


64 


J Snow 

I Muriate of lime . 


2 " I 
. 3 " I 


From —15° to —68° 


53 


^ Snow . . . . 
} Crystallized muriate of lime 


1 « 
. 2 « 


From 0° to —66° 


66 


J Snow .... 
I Crystallized muriate of Ihne 
\ Snow .... 
I Diluted sulphuric acid . 


. 8 " I 
. 10 « I 


From —40° to —73° 
From —68° to —91° 


.33 
23 



Remarks. The above artificial processes for the production of cold are more effective when the 
ingredients are first cooled by immersion in other freezing mixtures. In this way Mr. Walker suc- 
ceeded in producing a cold equal to 100° below the zero of Fahrenheit, or 132° below the freezmg 
point of water. 

The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the temperature required, 
6y mixtures taken from either of the preceding tables. 



Equal weights of strong acid and water. 



CON 



212 



CON 



II. (By evaporation.) When heat passes from 
the sensible to the insensible state, as in the for- 
mation of vapor, cold is generated. This may be 
illustrated by pouring a few drops of ether, or 
highly rectified alcohol, on the palm of the hand, 
when a strong sensation of cold will be produced. 
In like manner, if the bulb of a thermometer be 
covered with lint, and the latter moistened with 
ether, the quicksilver will rapidly fall. Even in 
hot climates water is frozen by the joint operation 
of evaporation and radiation. The natives of In- 
dia procure ice when the temperature of the air 
much exceeds the freezing point. On the open 
plains, near Calcutta, this is effected by exposing 
a thin stratum of water to the atmosphere, during 
the fine clear nights of December, January, and 
February. The pans are made of porous earthen- 
ware, and water is poured in to the depth of about 
1^ inches. A large number of vessels of this kind 
are arranged in an excavation in the ground, 30 
or 40 feet square and 2 feet deep, the bottom of 
which is covered, to the depth of 10 or 12 inches, 
with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian corn. At 
sunrise the pans are visited, the ice separated 
from the water, and packed as tight as possible 
in a deep cavity or pit, well screened from the 
heat. 

It has been found that evaporation proceeds 
much more rapidly from the surface of fluids in a 
vacuum than in the atmosphere. Dr. CuUen was 
the first person to apply this practically. In 1755 
he plunged a vial of ether into a tumbler of water, 
and on' placing it under a receiver and exhausting 
the air, the ether boiled and the water was speedily 
frozen. In 1777, Mr. Nairne published his method 
of rendering the rarefied atmosphere of an exhaust- 
ed receiver free from aqueous vapor by means of 
sulphuric acid. By the application of this discov- 
ery, Professor Leslie in 1810 succeeded in freezing 
vv^ater with great ease. This he effected by intro- 
ducing a surface of sulphuric acid under the re- 
ceiver of an air-pump, over which he placed a 
watch-glass filled with water, so that the vapor 
arising from the latter was rapidly absorbed by the 
former. After a few strokes of the piston the wa- 
ter was converted into a solid cake of ice, which 
on being left in the rarefied medium continued to 
evaporate, and in about an hour totally disappear- 
ed. Professor Leslie found that when the air was 
rarefied 250 times, the surface of evaporation was 
cooled down 120° in winter, and when only 50 
times, a depression of 80° or even 100° took place. 
A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of the 
evaporative power of a vacuum, is the Cryophorus, 
or frost-bearer of Dr. Wollaston. This instrument 
consists of two small glass globes united by a tube, 
one of which is partly filled with water, but the 
apparatus is perfectly free from air. 



The part of the apparatus unoccupied by the 
water, though apparently empty, is in reality filled 
with aqueous vapor, and thus checks evaporttion 
by its pressure on the surface of the water. No 
Booner is the pressure removed, as by plunging the 
empty ball into a freezing mixture, (which con- 
denses the vapor,) tlian rapid evaporation com- 



mences, and the water in the other ball is frozec 
in two or three minutes. 

To succeed well in the production of cold in this 
way, it is necessaiy that the surfaces of the two 
fluids should be pretty near together, and that the 
acid should have the greater amount of surface of 
the two. The acid should be poured to the depth 
of i an inch into a broad shallow dish or capsule, 
and the water into another vessel of .a similar kindj 
but having only half the diameter of the former, 
and proportionally shallow. The smaller capsule 
may be supported ovei the surface of the larger one 
by means of 3 slender feet. As soon as the acid 
has acquired one-tenth of its weight of water, its 
absorbent power is diminished j^ ; when this di- 
lution reaches ^ the reduction is 2~, and when 
it reaches ^ the cooling power has diminished about 
50§. " Sulphuric acid is capable of congealing 
more than 20 times its weight of water before it 
has imbibed nearly its own bulk of that liquid, or 
has lost about g of its refrigerating power." (Ure.) 
Sulphuric acid, which has become diluted in .this 
way, may be reconcentrated by heat. 

It has been discovered that oatmeal, dried near- 
ly to brownness before a common fire, and cooled 
in close vessels, may be substituted for sulphuric 
acid. With a quantity of this substance, one foot 
diameter, and 1 inch deep. Professor Leslie froze 1 
imperial pint of water, contained in a hemispheri- 
cal porous cup. Ignited chloride of calcium, in 
porous pieces, has also been successfully used for 
the same purpose. Dr. Ure has found that a re- 
quisite vacuum may be produced by the agency 
of steam, in the following manner, without the use 
of an air-pump : " A cast-iron drum oY considera- 
ble dimensions being filled with steam by heating 
a small quantity of water in it, will sufficiently ex- 
pel the air. When it is cooled by the affusion of 
water, a transferrer plate being attached to the 
stopcock on its upper surface would easily enable 
us, without any air-pump, to effect congelation by 
means of sulphuric acid in the attenuated atmo- 
sphere. Suppose the capacity of the receiver to be 
one-sixtieth of the iron cylinder, an aeriform rare- 
faction to this degree would be effected in a mo- 
ment by a turn of the stopcock ; and, on its being 
returned, the moisture below would be cut off, and 
the acid would speedily condense the small quan- 
tity of vapor which had ascended." 

Many curious experiments may be performed 
over sulphuric acid, in the receiver of an air-pump, 
among which one of the most instructive and amu- 
sing is the congelation of quicksilver, a metal which 
requires, for this purpose, a temperature of 39° be- 
low zero, or 71° below the freezing point of water. 
This is readily effected by suspending the metal in 
a capsule of ice by means of threads, near to the 
surface of the sulphuric acid, and urging the rare- 
faction as much as possible. Mercury so frozen 
may be kept in the solid state for several hours. 

The processes of congelation above detailed ad- 
mit of being applied to several useful purposes, 
especially in domestic economy, and the arts of 
the cook and confectioner, as in the making of 
ices, «&c. 

CONGREVE MATCHES. I. (Process of 
M. Joblonouski.) Put phosphorus 40 granmiea 
into a wide-mouthed vial, with enough oil of tur- 
pentine to cover it, add flowers of sulphur 10 gr., 



CON 



213 



CUN 



and put the vial into hot water, (using great cau- 
tion,) until the phosphorus is melted. Then cork 
close and agitate until cold, when any supernatant 
spirits of turpentine must be poured oft'. Into this 
pulpy mass the extremities of the matches are 
dipped, and when they have become rather dry, 
they are again dipped into the following mixture : 
Gum arable 30 grammes, (dissolved in a little wa- 
ter ;) chlorate of potassa 20 grammes ; soot, or 
vermilion, (rubbed up with a few drops of alco- 
hol,) 10 gr. ; mix, and dip the tips of the matches 
therein as before, then dry them cautiously in a 
warm apartment. These matches inflame without 
fulmination (noise) on being rubbed against any 
rough surface. 

II. (Joblonouski.) Chlorate of potassa 2 parts ; 
phosphorus 4 parts ; gum arable 7 parts ; gelatin 
2 parts. Proc. The phosphorus is divided in the 
gum brought to the state of thick mucilage, and 
warmed ; the gelatin is melted and added to the 
phosphoreted mucilage. The chlorate of potassa 
is bruised in a mortar, and at the same time moist- 
ened with the mucilage. When it is bruised the 
whole is mixed together, and a paste is obtained, 
with which matches, tipped with sulphur, may be 
embued. They are then dried in the air. 

III. {Process of Dr. R. Boettger.) Gum ara- 
ble and vermilion, of each 16 parts ; phosphorus 
9 parts ; saltpetre 14 parts. Proc. The phospho- 
rus must be reduced to a state of fine division, by 
agitating it with fresh urine, or, still better, a solu- 
tion of pure urea, which, in consequence of the 
discovery by Liebig, of a process of preparing that 
substance artificially, may now be easily procured 
or made. Hot water must be employed to melt 
the phosphorus, and this part of the process is sim- 
ilar to that previously detailed. The minutely di- 

. vided phosphorus thus formed, is mixed with the 
other articles made into a paste, with the gum 
dissolved in the least quantity of water, and the 
matches dipped into the mingled ingredients and 
dried. They are then dipped into a dilute varnish 
of copal, or a thin solution of gum arable contain- 
ing saltpetre, and again dried. (Boettger's Beitrage.) 
These matches are very superior, and explode 
without noise. 

Remarks. The matches fomrierly made, explo- 
ded with a crackling noise, and frequently threw 
out small sparks of fire, which rendered them dan- 
gerous. This arose from their containing too large 
a quantity of chlorate of potassa. An opposite plan 
is now generally followed, and a less proportion of 
the chlorate is used, or instead tha-?of saltpetre. 
The quantity of the igniting ingredicts has also 
been greatly lessened, so as to avoid any danger 
on that account. This plan answers very well, 
when the body of the matches, whether of wood 
or pasteboard, is properly prepared ; but if this be 
not the case, frequent disappointment will occur, 
from their going out again immediately after in- 
flaming. To prevent this, the matches should be 
dipped into sulphur previously to coating them with 
the composition, unless intended for cigar fusees, 
when they should be prepared by soaking them in 
water holding some saltpetre, bichromate of potash, 
or acetate of lead in solution, preference being usu- 
ally given to the first of these articles. Different 
coloring substanc es are employed to tint the com- 
position, according to the fancy of the manufac- 



turer, as smalts, red lead, vermilion, black oxide 
of manganese, soot, &c, A very elegant method 
of reducing phosphorus to a state of minute divi- 
sion, is to melt it in rectified .spirit, and agitate 
until cold, as above. 

The manufacture and sale of matches, contain- 
ing sulphur and phosphorus, as in the first formula, 
have been forbidden in Paris, in consequence of 
the extreme facility with which they ignite, having 
led to several accidents, (See Chlorate Matches, 
and LuciFERs.) 

CONIA, Si/n. CoNEiNfi. Conioin. Cicutine, 
&.C. A poisonous alkaloid, discovered by Gieseke 
in hemlock. 

Prep. Distil the seeds of hemlock, or their al- 
coholic extract, with water and potassa. During 
this process, the conia passes over into the receiver 
and floats upon the top of the water, which also 
contains a little conia in solution. It must be pu- 
rified in the way directed for the volatile bases. 
(See Alkaloid.) If the alcoholic extract be era- 
ployed, about ^ its weight of potassa should be 
used. ^ 

Remarks. 6 lbs. of fresh and 9 lbs. of dried seeds 
yielded 1 oz. of conia. (Gieger.) 40 lbs. of the 
ripe but green seeds yielded 2^ oz. of hydrated co- 
nia. (Christison.) It is remarkably poisonous. One 
drop, placed in the eye of a rabbit, killed it in 9 
minutes. Five drops, poured into the throat of a 
dog, killed it in less than a minute. It has been 
employed in some convulsive and spasmodic dis- 
eases. " The plaintive cries, the contortions, and 
the rigidity of the limbs, which have always pre- 
ceded death, (caused by conia,) leave no doubt as 
to the cruel pains which this kind of poisoning 
brings on." (Boutron-Chalard and Henry.) 

CONSERVES. (From conservo, to keep.) In 
pharmacy, a composition of some recent vegetable 
matter and sugar, beat together to the consistence 
of a paste. The object aimed at in the prepara- 
tion of conserves, is to preserve the properties of 
the active ingredient, which would otherwise be 
liable to change. In the last edition of the London 
Pharmacopoeia, conserves, as well as elecftiaries, 
are included under the head of confections. The 
term confection appears, however, less appropriate 
to some of them, than the word conserve or elec- 
tuary, Thef word confection has a more general 
application, and implies any sweetmeat or compo- 
sition, in which sugar is the principal ingredient, 

CONSERVE OF ALMONDS. (Conserva 
Amygdalarum, p. D.) Confection of almonds. 

CONSERVE, ANTISCORBUTIC. (Con- 
serva Antiscorbutica. Selle.) Horseradish, wa- 
ter-cress, water-trefoil, radish juice, and orange 
juice, of each equal parts ; white sugar enough to 
make a confection. 

CONSERVE OF ARUM. (Wakerobin.) 
Prep. Fresh arum roots ^ lb. ; white sugar 1 J lb, ; 
beat together. Diuretic and attenuant, 

CONSERVE OF LAVENDER. Prep. Lav- 
ender flowers 1 part ; lump sugar 3 parts ; beat 
together. 

Remarks. In a similar way conserves are made 
from various other leaves and flowers ; but mostly 
with only twice their weight of sugar. The above 
is frequently used to sweeten the breath. 

CONSERVE OF LEMON-PEEL. Prep 
Rasp off the external rind of the lemon, and beat 



COP 



214 



COP 



it in a mortar with three times its weight of pow- 
dered white sugar. (See Confection of Orange- 
Peel.) Tonic and stomachic. 

CONSERVE OF ORANGE-PEEL. (Con- 
SERVA Aurantii, P. E.) The same as the confec- 
tion of orange-peel, P. L. 

CONSERVE OF RED ROSES. (Conser- 
VA Rosa, P. E. and D.) That of the Dublin 
Pharmacopoeia is the same as the confection of 
roses, P. L. ; that of the Edinburgh has only 2 lbs. 
of sugar to 1 lb. of rose petals. 

CONSERVE OF ROSEMARY. Prep. 1 
part of the leaves or tops, beaten up with 3 parts 
of sugar. 

CONSERVE OF SCURVY GRASS. Syn. 
Conserva CocHLEARiiE HoRTENSis. Prep. Beat 
1 lb. of the leaves with 3 lbs. of lump sugar. Stim- 
ulant and antiscorbutic. 

CONSERVE OF SLOES. Syn. Conserva 
Pruni Sylvestris, (P. L. 1788.) Pulp of sloes 1 
part ; sugar 3 parts ; mix. 

CONSERVE OF SQUILLS. Syn. Conser- 
va Scill^, (P. L. 1788.) Fresh squills §j ; white 
sugar ^v ; mix. Diuretic ; attenuant. 

CONSERVE OF TAMARINDS. Syn. Con- 
serva Tamarindorum. Prep. (P. Cod.) Pulp of 
tamarinds 4 oz. ; white sugar 6 oz. ; heat by a 
water-bath in an earthen vessel, until mixed and 
of a due consistence. 

CONSERVE OF WORMWOOD. Syn. Con- 
serva Absinthii Maritimi, (P. L. 1788.) Prep. 
Beat fresli-picked leaves of sea wormwood in a 
marble mortar, with a wooden pestle, first alone, 
and then with 3 times their weight of refined 
sugar. 

CONSTIPATION, (OF THE BOWELS.) 
Costiveness. When this is merely accidental or 
occasional, a dose of some cathartic is the only 
treatment necessary, but when it is habitual, it 
calls for further attention. The common causes 
of constipation are — The use of bread containing 
alum, and water containing lime ; and the want 
of sufticient exercise. The treatment should con- 
sist in adopting a diet free from astringents, and 
consisting of a large portion of green vegetables 
and ripe fruit. Brown bread is frequently eaten 
for this purpose, and acts by the laxative nature 
of the bran it contains. The occasional use of 
laxative and emollient enemata may be had re- 
course to, but their habitual administration, as 
well as that of purgative medicines, by the mouth, 
is not to be recommended. The bowels, accus- 
tomed to the continual use of stimulants, act but 
languidly, or scarcely at all, without their applica- 
tion. In females, especially of the higher classes, 
the want of proper exercise is generally the chief 
cause of constipation. With such persons, a short 
walk two or three times daily will often do won- 
ders, particularly if a little ripe fruit, a few raisins 
or tamarinds, or 2 or 3 drum figs, be occasionally 
eaten. 

COPAIBA. Syn. Capivi. Balsam of Capivi. 
The best copaiba is that imported from Maracaibo 
and St. Martha, and is packed in casks containing 
from 1 to 1^ cwt. each, in large bottles, or in cyl- 
indrical tin boxes. Considerable variation exists 
in the color, consistence, and sp. gr., as well as in 
the proportion of oil and resin yielded by different 
samples, scarcely any two of which exactly agree. 



Even the odor, taste, and transparency vary con- 
siderably. Brazilian capivi is thin, clear, and pale j 
while the "SYest Indian is thick, golden yellow, less 
transparent, and has a less agreeable and some- 
what terebinthinate smell. Some varieties are 
opaque, and continue so, unless filtered. This is a 
most troublesome operation, unless well managed, 
and without proper precautions, frequently proves 
useless. The opacity generally arises from the 
presence of water, which is frequently found mixed 
with copaiba when first imported. This it retains 
with great tenacity. The following is the plan I 
have found to answer on the large scale. Place 
the casks upon their ends in a warm situation, and 
leave them so for a fortnight, or longer, if conve- 
nient. They may then be tapped a little above 
the bottom, when some of them will generally be 
found quite transparent, and may* be drawn off 
and vatted, care being taken to avoid shaking up 
the bottom. Those that are foul must be filtered 
through one or more long Canton flannel bags, 
sunk in the bottom of a tin cistern, placed over a 
suitable receiver ; a few pounds of coarsely-pow- 
dered charcoal being mixed up with the first 5 or 
6 gallons thrown in. This will rapidly fill up the 
pores of the bag, and make the balsam flow clear 
and pale. The first runnings should be returned 
until it becomes perfectly transparent. The bot- 
toms of the casks, containing the water or impu- 
rities, may be poured into a large can or jar, and 
allowed to deposite for a few days, when the co- 
paiba may be poured off' the top, and filtered. A 
sudden change of temperature will frequently turn 
a brilliant sample of this article opaque or milky ; 
it is not, therefore, deemed fit to send out by the 
wholesale trade, unless it will " stand" this test. 
To ascertain this point, a common practice is to 
fill a small bottle with the copaiba, and to leave it 
out of doors all night in an exposed situation. (See 
also Balsam of Copaiba.) 

COPAIBA, ALKALINE TINCTURE OF. 
(Lewis Thompson.) Pi)ep. Dissolve 2 oz. of car- 
bonate (formerly subcarbonate) of potassa in 1 pint 
of water, and add to this, balsam of copaiba in a 
thin stream, constantly stirring the mixture, until 
this, at first white and milky, becomes clear like 
jelly or amber, which will generally take place 
when about a pint of balsam has been added ; set 
the mixture aside for two or three hours, then pour 
in two pints of spirit of wine, and mix the whole 
together ; the solution is then fit for use, and may 
be flavored with any of the essential oils. Sweet 
spirit of nitre may be substituted for spirit of wine ; 
but it is necessary to destroy its acidity by distilla- 
tion from lime or potassa, otherwise a decomposi- 
tion will take place. 

This solution is compatible with iodide of potas- 
sium and nitrate of potassa, but is decomposed by 
all earthy, metallic, and ammoniacal salts, such as 
sulphate of magnesia, chloride of iron, acetate of 
ammonia, &c., which must not, therefore, be ad- 
ministered in conjunction with it. (Chemist, iv 
510.) 

COPAIBA AND KALI. Prep. Carbonate 
of potassa and water, of each equal parts ; dis- 
solve, and add gradually transparent balsam of co- 
paiba until the fluid, at first milky, turns quite clear 

COPAIBA CAPSULES. Gelatinous capuulcf 
filled with balsam of copaiba. 



COP 



215 



COP 



COPAIBA AND RHATANY, CAPSULES 

OF. Ricord has recommended capsules of co- 
paiba, coated with extract of rhatany, as much 
superior to the common ones of copaiba alone, in 
the treatment of blenorrhcca. They may be easily 
prepared by either of the two following meth- 
ods: 

1. By immersing, for an instant, the common 
capsule in the following composition : or, 

2. By forming the bodies of the capsules with 
the composition, instead of with gelatin, and fol- 
lowing the same manipulations as for the manu- 
facture of the common gelatin capsules. 

The Rhatany Composition. Extract of rhatany, 
newly prepared from the root, 3 parts ; sirup of 
moist sugar 1 part ; mucilage of gum arable 1 
part. Melt the extract and reduce it in a water 
bath until sufficiently stiff, when cold ; do the same 
with tlie sirup and gum ; then mix them together 
while hot, but only in such quantity as may be 
used at one time. 

These capsules are said to sit well upon the 
stomach, the tone of which they contribute to 
improve. 

COPAIBA, MISCIBLE. Prep. Mix trans- 
parent balsam of copaiba with half its volume of 
liquor of potassa of double strength. 

Remarks. Different samples of balsam often re- 
quire slightly different quantities of the solution of 
potassa ; it is therefore best to mix them gradually 
and cautiously together. Should the mixture be 
opaque, a little more, of one or other of the ingredi- 
ents, as the case may be, will render it clear. No 
heat should be used. This article is raiscible with 
water, with which it forms a kind of milk ; and 
from containing all the volatile oil of the copaiba 
is a very valuable preparation. Its activity is con- 
sidered equal to the balsam itself, and it is given 
in similar doses. 

COPAIBA, MIXTURE OF. (Chopart.) 
Prep. Copaiba, alcohol, sirup of Tolu, peppermint 
water, orange-flower w^ater, of each ^ij ; sweet 
spirits of nitre 3ij. Proc. Rub the copaiba with the 
sirup until perfectly mixed, then add the spirits, 
and lastlv the waters. 

COPAIBA, SOLUBLE. Prep. I. Heat mis- 
cible copaiba to the boiling point, pour it while hot 
into a " separator," and place it in some situation 
where it will cool slowly. After a few days draw 
off the clear portion from a cock or hole placed 
near the bottom of the vessel, observing to stop the 
stream before any of the floating oil begins to flow 
through. A very little concentrated liquor of 
potassa added before applying the heat, will render 
it more soluble. Prod. Thick, clear, and soluble 
in pure water. Resembles copaiba in appearance. 

II. Agitate balsam of copaiba with an equal 
measure of liquor of potassa, (P. L. ;) boil for a 
few minutes in a clean tinned copper pan, then 
pour it into a separator, and proceed as before. 
Thinner than the last. 

COPAIBA, SPECIFIC SOLUTION OF. 
(Frank's.) Prep. I. Balsam of copaiba 2 parts ; 
liquor of potassa (P. L.) 3 parts ; water 7 parts ; 
boil it for 2 or 3 minutes, put it into a separator, 
and allow it to stand for 5 or 6 days, then draw 
it off from the bottom, avoidmg the upper stratum 
of oil. To the clear liquid add 1 part of sweet 
spirits of nitre, perfectly free from acid, to which a 



few drops of liquor of potassa has been added, 
until it slightly browns turmeric paper ; should it 
turn foul or milky, a very little liquor of potassa 
will usually brighten it ; if not, place it in a clean 
separator for a few days, and draw it off from the 
bottom as before, when it will be perfectly briUiant 
without filtering. 

Remarks. Some persons add the sweet spirits of 
nitre while the solution is still hot, mix it in as rap- 
idly as possible, and immediately cork or fasten up 
the vessel. This is a good way when the article 
is wanted in a hurry, but is objectionable from the 
loss of spirit thereby occasioned, and the danger, 
without care, of bursting the separator. 

A receipt for this article, upon the authority of 
Battley, has been going the round of the pharma- 
ceutical works for some years, but which produces 
a preparation not at all resembling " Frank's spe- 
cific solution.'' It is as follows: " Take 12 oz. 
of balsam of copaiba and 6 oz. of calcined mag- 
nesia ; rub together, add a pint of proof spirit, fil- 
ter, and then add ^ oz. of sweet spirits of nitre." 
(Gray's Supplement.) I have tried this formula, 
and I find the product to be a white tincture, 
scarcely flavored with copaiba, and perfectly lim- 
pid. No sooner is balsam of copaiba mixed with 
half its weight of magnesia, than the two unite, 
and produce a compound insoluble in spirit of wine. 
Such is the affinity of this earth for copaiba, (co- 
paibic acid,) that it will even take it from caustic 
potassa. Thus I find the solution of this balsam, 
(containing potassa,) if filtered through blotting- 
paper, with a little magnesia, becomes so strongly 
alkaline as to materially injure its quality, while 
a glutinous mass is deposited upon the sides and 
bottom of the paper. I have been led to a notice 
of this subject, from well knowing that many drug- 
gists have adopted this formula, and have been 
disappointed with the results, which are, however, 
only such as might be reasonably anticipated. 

COPAIBA, SALT OF. Sy7i. Sal Copaib^e. 
There are two preparations bearing this name, the 
one, copaibic acid, and the other, copaibate of an 
alkali. They are both sold at ridiculously high 
prices. The advertisement of one of these prep- 
arations is heralded in with the following pseudo- 
philosophical announcement : 

" This preparation of copaiba, in its chemical 
and medical analogies, may be compared to qui- 
nine from bark, the former being the tonic of the 
mucous membranes, and the latter that of the der- 
moid structures. 

" This salt contains all the properties of the 
balsani of copaiba in a very concentrated form, 
without its nauseating qualities, and from this cir- 
cumstance it may be administered to the most deli- 
cate constitution." 

It is the general opinion of medical men, that 
the active properties of copaiba reside in a volatile 
or essential oil, of which the above preparation is 
destitute. It is therefore difficult to conceive how, 
in this instance, the reverse should be the case. 1 
can speak from my own experience, and that of 
several high authorities to whom I have referred, 
that both the viscid and acid resins of copaiba are 
almost inert, and that all the alkaline preparations 
of these substances are nearly similar. I have 
taken the " sal copaibae" myself, and have watch- 
ed its action on others, but havo not been able to 



COP 



216 



COP 



perceive any good effects to result from its ad- 
ministration. 

COPAIBIC ACID. Syn. Capivic Acid. The 
yellow brittle resin of balsam of copaiba. It is 
prepared by digesting the resin (left after distilling 
the oil from the balsam) in alcohol, which dis- 
solves the acid resin, but leaves the viscid one. It 
may be purified by re-solution in alcohol. It forms 
about 50§ of the balsam. 

Prop. An amber-colored, brittle, semi-crystal- 
line, resinous substance, soluble in alcohol, ether, 
and oils, reddens litmus paper, and forms salts with 
the bases, called copaivates. These may gene- 
rally be made by dropping into a solution of the 
acid in alcohol, an alcoholic solution of a soluble 
salt of the base. The copaivates of potash, soda, 
and ammonia are easily prepared, by adding to an al- 
coholic solution of the acid another of the pure alkali, 
until it be neutralized, when the salts may be ob- 
tained by careful evaporation. Copaivate of silver 
is formed by neutralizing the acid with nitrate of 
silver, both being dissolved in alcohol, and then 
adding a little liquor of ammonia, when a white 
crystalline precipitate will subside. The copai- 
vates of lead, lime, and iron, as well as several 
others, may be made in a similar manner. 

Copaivate of magnesia may be made by adding 
copaivate of potassa to a solution of epsom salts. 
All these salts are easily decomposed by acids. 

COPAL. Syn. Gum Copal. A resinous sub- 
stance, which exudes spontaneously from the Rhus 
copailinum, and the Elaeocarpus copalifer. When 
of good quality, it is too hard to be scratched by the 
nail, and has a conchoidal fracture. It dissolves 
with difficulty, and this, combined with its extreme 
hardness, renders it very valuable for making var- 
nishes. 

Solvents. I. Caoutchoucine ; sparingly. II. 
Equal parts of caoutchoucine and alcohol, of -825 ; 
freely soluble in the cold. III. Absolute alcohol, 
added gradually to the copal, previously rendered 
gelatinous by water of ammonia, assisting the 
union with heat. IV. Alcohol added to the co- 
pal, previously softened with ether. V. Absolute 
alcohol 1^ parts, digested on copal 1 part for 24 
hours. (Unverdorben.) VI. Alcohol, to which a 
little camphor has been added. VII. Ether ; and 
this solution may be diluted with alcohol. VIII. 
Oils of rosemary and lavender, (spike ;) too ex- 
pensive for general use. IX. Copal, heated until 
it fuses, acquires the property of dissolving in tur- 
pentine and alcohol. X. Copal, reduced to pow- 
der and exposed for some time to the air, also be- 
comes soluble in alcohol and turpentine. XI. Dry- 
ing linseed oil, at nearly the boiling point, dis- 
solves copal, and will bear dilution with spirits of 
turpentine as soon as it has cooled sufficiently. 
This is the common way of making copal varnish. 
XII. Ammonia enables oil of turpentine to dissolve 
copal ; but it requires such nice management of 
the fire, that it seldom succeeds completely. 
(Lewis.) XIII. Powdered copal, triturated with 
a little camphor, softeiis and becomes a coherent 
mass ; and camphor, added either to alcohol or 
oil of turpentine, renders it a solvent of copal. ^ oz. 
•f cami)hor is sufficient for 1 quart of oil of turpen- 
tine, which should be of the best quality ; and the 
copal, about the size of a large walnut, should be 
broken into very small pieces, but not reduced to 



a fine powder. The mixture should be set on a 
fire so brisk as to make it boil almost immediately 
The vessel should be of tin or other metal, strong, 
shaped like a wine-bottle with a long neck, and 
capable of holding 2 quarts. The mouth should 
be stopped with a cork, in which a notch is cut to 
prevent the vessel from bursting. (Sheldrake.) 
XIV. A good varnish may be made by pouring 
upon the purest lumps of copal, reduced to a fine 
mass in a mortar, colorless spirits of turpentine, to 
about one third higher than the copal, and tritura- 
ting the mixture occasionally in the course of the 
day. Next morning it may be poured off into a 
bottle for use. Successive portions of oil of turpen- 
tine may thus be worked with the same copal 
mass. (Varley, Tilloch's Mag. 51.) 

*j^* In all the above cases the copal should be 
reduced to a coarse powder. A fine powder is apt 
to stick together and form hard lumps. The solu- 
tion of copal, even in its most ready solvents, is at- 
tended with some difficulty, and frequently mis- 
carries in the hands of the inexperienced. A mix- 
ture of caoutchoucine and alcohol (as in No. II.) is 
an exception. 

COPAL, MELTED. Obtained by holding 
the gum before a good fire, so that as soon as the 
copal melts, it may drop into a pan of water': a 
kind of oil separates from it, and the copal becomes 
soluble in spirits of wine, and still more so if the 
melting is repeated. 

COPAL, POWDERED. Copal reduced to 
powder and exposed to the air in a thin stratum, 
on sieves covered with paper, for 3 or 4 m.onths. 
Soluble in alcohol. 

COPPER. (From cuprum, a corruption of 
KiJrrpoj, from the island of Cyprus, whence it was 
formerly brought.) A red-colored metal, too well 
known to require description. 

Hist. Copper and its alloys appear to have been 
known to the most remote ages of antiquity. Brass, 
an alloy of copper, is mentioned by Moses (Job, 
xxviii.) upwards of 1600 years before the birth of 
Christ. (Hales.) This metal is found in the me- 
tallic state, and in combination with oxygen, sul- 
phur, acids, and other minerals, and in the organic 
kingdom, in the ashes of plants, and in the blood 
of animals. (Sarzeau.) The copper of commerce 
is principally prepared from copper pyrites, a mixed 
sulphuret of iron and copper, found in Cornwall, and 
other parts of the world. 

Prep. Copper is only prepared from its ores on 
the large scale. The copper pyrites is first roasted, 
and then smelted, by whicli process "• coarse metal" 
is produced ; this is again submitted to calcination 
and smelting, when ^'fiiie vietaV is obtained. It 
afterwards undergoes the process of refining and 
toughening. 

Prop. This metal is malleable and ductile. Il 
has a specific gravity of 8-8 to 8-9, fuses at about 
2000° Fahr., and volatilizes at higher tempera- 
tures. It forms numerous compounds, all of which 
are more or less poisonous. 

Char, and Tests. The solutions of copper pos- 
sess a blue or green color, and yield a blue precip- 
itate with soda or potassa. Ammonia produces a 
bluish-white precipitate, soluble in an excess of the 
precipitant, forming a deep blue solution. Prussiate 
of potash gives a reddish-brown precipitate, sul- 
phureted hydrogen and hydrosulphurets, a black 



COP 



217 



COP 



on©. A polished iron plate, immersed in an acidu- 
lous solution of copper, becomes coated with that 
metal. 

Estim. The quantity of copper present in any 
compound, may be estimated by throwing it down 
from its solution by pure potassa, after which it 
must be carefully collected, washed, dried, ignited, 
and weighed. This will give the quantity of the 
oxide from which its equivalent of metallic copper 
may be calculated ; every 5 parts of the former 
being (as near as possible) equal to 4 of the latter. 
Copper may also be precipitated at once in the 
metallic stato, by immersing a piece of polished 
steel into the solution, but this method will not give 
very accurate res-ults. Copper may be separated 
from lead by adding sulphuric acid to the nitric 
solution, and evaporating to dryness, when water 
digxvjted on the residuum will dissolve oul the sul- 
phate of copper, but leave the sulphate of lead be- 
hind. From this solution the oxide of copper may 
be thrown down as before. Copper may be sepa- 
rated from zinc by sulphureted hydrogen, which 
will throw down a sulphuret of copper, which may 
be dissolved in nitric acid, and treated as above. 

Uses. The applications of copper in the arts are 
too well known to require notice. In medicine, 3 
or 4 grains of the filings were formerly given in 
rheumatism, and to prevent hydrophobia. 

Ant. Copper in the metallic state appears to be 
inert, but most of its compounds are poisonous. 
The antidotes are, the white of egg, milk, or flour 
mi^'ed with water. Iron filings (Payen, Chevallier, 
Dumas) and the prussiate of potash have also been 
recommended. A drachm or more of the latter 
may be taken dissolved in water, and ^ oz. or more 
of the former, ad libituip. Sugar has also been 
proposed as an antidote. (Duval, Fostel.) 

COPPER, ALLOYS OF. With zinc copper 
forms brass ; with tin, . bronze, bell, and cannon 
metal. An alloy made with 100 parts of copper 
and 50 of tin, forms speculum metal. White cop- 
per is formed by the addition of metallic arsenic, 
and German silver is a mixture of nickel, zinc, and 
copper. See these articles in their alphabetical 
places. :• 

COPPER, ACETATES OF. I. {Neutral 
Acetate. Stjn. Distilled Verdigris. Binacetate 
of Copper. Crystallized Verdigris.) Prep. Dis- 
solve verdigris in vinegar, with the aid of heat, and 
crystallize. It forms dark green or blue crystals. 

II. {Diacetate. Syn. Verdigris. JEruro.) 
Formed by exposing sheets of copper to the vapor 
of acetic acid, in a warm situation. (See Verdi- 
gris.) It forms a green or bluish-green powder. 

III. {Sesquibasic Acetate.) The blue portion 
of verdigris, soluble in water. 

IV. (Trisacetate.) The green insoluble portion 
of verdigris. 

COPPER, ARSENITE OF. Syn. Scheele's 
Green. Prep. Mix a solution of 2 parts of sul- 
phate of copper in 44 of water, with a solution of 
2 parts of potash of commerce, and 1 of pulverized 
arsenious acid, also in 44 of water. Both solu- 
tions being warm, the first is to be gradually 
poured into the second. The grass-green insoluble 
precipitate is to be washed with water. 

COPPER, AMMONIURETED. Syn. Cu- 

PRO-SULPHATE OF AmMONIA. AmMONIATED CoPPER, 

(P. E.) Prep. ( Ammonio-sulphate oj Copper, 



P. L.) Sulphate of copper ^j ; scsquicarbonate of 
ammonia ^iss. Rub them together until carbonic 
acid ceases to evolve, then wrap it up in bibulous 
paper and dry it in the air. 

Prop. By heat ammonia is evolved, and oxide 
of copper remains. Its aqueous solution changes 
the color of turmeric, and a solution of arsenious 
acid renders it green. (P. L.) 

Ujies. Employed in pyrotechny. It has been 
given in doses of ^ to .5 grs. in chorea, epilepsy, 
hysteria, &c., but it is principally employed as an 
injection and as a collyrium, in opacity of the cor- 
nea. 

Remarks. Great care must be taken in drying 
this article, as it is apt not only to lose a large por- 
tion of its weight, but become of an inferior color. 
Both the ingredients should be separately reduced 
to powder before mixing. 

COPPER, BEAN-SHOT. Prep. Melt cop- 
per, and pour it in a small stream into boiling wa- 
ter. It is in small lumps like peas or beans, hence 
its name. 

COPPER, BLANCHED. Prep. Fuse cop- 
per with y*^ of its weight of neutral arsenical salt, 
under a flux of calcined borax, charcoal, and pow- 
dered glass. 

COPPER, CARBONATE OF. Syn. Di- 

CARBONATE OF CoPPER. MiNERAL GrEEN. Prep. 

Add a solution of carbonate of soda or potassa to a 
hot solution of protosulphate of copper. 

Remarks. The beautiful green mineral called 
malachite, is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper. If 
the solution of copper in the above formula be em- 
ployed cold, the precipitate has a bluish-green 
color. (See Verditer.) 

COPPER, CHLORIDES OF. Prep. I. {Sub- 
chloride. Syn. Dichloride of Copper. Resin 
of ditto. White muriate of ditto.) Disti' a mix- 
ture of 1 part of copper filinp^, with iwo parii* of 
corrosive sublimate. 

II. (Chloride. Syn. Muriate of Copper. Hy- 
drochlorate of ditto. Protochloride of ditto.) 
Dissolve protoxide of copper in muriatic acid, 
evaporate and crystallize. 

Remarks. This salt forms green needles, is de- 
liquescent, soluble in alcohol, and when heated, 
(ijuder 400°,) loses its water, and becomes anhy- 
drous chloride of copper, and assumes the form of 
a yellow powder. The first of these preparations 
is sometimes called the protochloride or muriate ; 
the second the deutochloride. 

COPPER, CHROMATE OF. Prep. Pre- 
cipitate a salt of copper, with neutral chromate 
of potash ; or dissolve hydrated peroxide or car- 
bonate of copper in chromic acid. Caustic ammo- 
nia dissolves this salt, forming a magnificent dark- 
green liquid, from which, by the admixture of 
spirit of wine, ammonio-chroinate of copper, or 
cupro-chromate of ammonia, is disengaged in the 
form of a powder of a splendid, rather dark-green 
appearance. The readiest way of preparing this 
permanent and beautiful color, is to add solution 
of chromate of potash to ammoniacal sulphate of 
copper. 

COPPER, FEATHER-SHOT. Prep. Melt- 
ed copper, poured in a small stream into cold 
water. It forms small pieces, with a feathered 
edge, hence the name. It is used to make solu- 
tion of copper. 



COP 



218 



COP 



COPPER GREEN. Syn. Oxy-chloride of 
Copper. Bremen Green. Brunswick ditto. 
Friezland ditto.. Prep Pour a saturated so- 
lution of muriate of ammonia over copper filings 
or shreds in a close vessel, keeping the mixture in 
a warm place, and adding more of the solution 
from time to time, till 3 parts of muriate and 2 of 
copper have been used. After standing a few 
weeks, the pigment is to be separated from the 
unoxidized copper, by washing through a sieve ; 
and then it is to be well washed, and dried slowly 
in the shade. This green is almost always adul- 
terated with ceruse, which improves the color. 

Remarks. A mixture o-f cream -tartrate, or car- 
bonate of copper, with carbonate of lime and mag- 
nesia, is also sold under the name of Brunswick 

COPPER, IN FINE POWDER. Prep. A 
solution of sulphate of copper is heated to the 
boiling-point, and precipitated with distilled zinc. 
The precipitated copper is then separated from the 
adherent zinc by diluted sulphuric acid, and dried 
by exposure to a moderate temperature. From 
recently precipitated chloride of silver, an exceed- 
ingly fine silver-dust may also be obtained by boil- 
ing it with water, acidulated with sulphuric acid 
and zinc. (Boettger's Beitrage.) 

COPPER, IODIDE OF. I. {Iodide.) When 
iodide of potassium is added to a solution of a salt 
of copper, a diniodide of copper falls down, and an 
iodide remains in solution. It is but little known. 

II. {Diniodide.) To a solution of 4 parts of 
protosulphate of copper, and 5 parts of protosul- 
phate of iron, add a solution of iodide of potassium, 
wash and dry the precipitate. 

Rtmirks. The last preparation is that common- 
ly known in trade by the name of iodide of copper. 

COPPER, OXIDES OF. I. {Black Oxide. 
Syn. Protoj ide of Copper.) Prep. This may 
be formed by calcining metallic copper, nitrate of 
copper, or the hydrate, thrown down from solu- 
tions of the salts of copper by means of pure po- 
tassa. This preparation was formerly called the 
deutoxide of copper. It is not changed by heat, 
but readily gives out its oxygen when heated with 
combustible matter ; hence its general use in or- 
ganic analysis for supplying oxygen. 

II. {Red Oxide. Syn. Dioxide of Copper.) 
Prep. a. Mix .31-6 parts of copper filings with 39-6 
parts of black oxide of copper, and heat them to- 
gether in a covered crucible. 

b. Boil a solution of the acetate of protoxide of 
copper with sugar ; collect the red powder, wash it 
with water, and dry it. 

c. Mix dichloride of copper with an equal weight 
of carbonate of soda, and fuse it at a low red 
heat, then well wash the mass with water, and 
dry the red powder. 

d. Mix 100 parts of sulphate of copper with 57 
parts of carbonate of soda, (both in crystals,) and 
fuse them at a gentle heat ; cool, pulverize, add 
25 parts of fine copper filings, ram the mixture 
into a crucible, cover it over, and expose it for 20 
minutes to a white heat. 

e. A saturated solution of sugar of milk, con- 
taining some carbonate of soda, is poured over re- 
cently prepared moist hydruted oxide of copper, 
aud heated to boiling. A dark orange-colored 
p ecipitate of hydrate of protoxide of copper soon 



appears, from which saccharine matter is removed 
by washing in distilled water, and then dried. 

/. {Magnificently red anhydrous protoxide of 
copper.) A solution of 27 parts of cane-sugar, in 
60 parts of water, is poured over 9 parts of hy- 
drate of oxide of copper, (weighed in the com- 
pressed and still moist state ;) a solution of 18 
parts of caustic potassa, in 60 parts of water, is 
added ; the whole mass well agitated together at 
the ordinary temperatures, and strained through 
linen. If the dark-blue liquid, after being passed 
through the strainer, is heated, continually stirring 
over the water-bath, anhydrous protoxide of cop- 
per is disengaged, and the liquid becomes colorless. 
(Boettger's Beitrage.) 

Remarks. Red oxide of copper resembles me- 
tallic copper in appearance. It is used as a pig- 
ment and a bronze. By heat it is converted into 
the black oxide. With ammonia it forms a color- 
less solution, but rapidly becomes blue from the 
action of the air. This preparation was formerly 
called protoxide of copper. 

III. (Peroxide.) Formed by the action of per- 
oxide of hydrogen water, on the hydrated black 
oxide. (Thernard.) It is very liable to spontane- 
ous decomposition. 

Remarks. According to the opinions of Berze- 
lius, Thompson, Liebig, Gregory, and others, the 
eq of copper is 31-6, and consequently the red 
oxide is a sub- or di-oxide, and the black the oxide 
01 protoxide. The former containing 63*2 parts 
of copper and 8 of oxygen, and the latter 31-6 of 
copper and 8 of oxygen. But if the eq. of copper 
be taken at 63*2, as is done by some persons, the 
first of these preparations must be regarded as the 
protoxide, and the second as the deuto- or bin- 
oxide. The latter terms were generally applied 
to them in chemical works, until within the last 
few years. The black oxide has also been called 
the peroxide. This explanation is called for, to 
prevent the tyro in chemistry mistaking the one 
preparation for the other. 

COPPER, SALTS OF. These are more or 
less poisonous, and may be recognised in the man- 
ner as described under the article Copper. 

COPPER VESSELS. Culinary and pharma- 
ceutical vessels are very commonly made of cop- 
per, but too much caution cannot be exercised in 
their employment. Acid sirups, vegetable juices, 
aqueous extracts, soups, stews, &:c., prepared in 
copper saucepans, or boilers, receive a metal- 
lic contamination proportional to the length of 
time they are exposed to the action of the metal. 
Such vessels are frequently tinned, for the purpose 
of protecting the copper from contact wjth their 
contents, but this film of tin is necessarily very 
thin, and rubs off by constant use. When aci(b 
or acidulous fluids are boiled in vessels of imper- 
fectly tinned copper, a portion of the tin is taken 
up by the liquid, and deposited upon the abraded 
or exposed part, thus protecting the copper from 
the farther action of the menstruum ; but the pro- 
tective power of such a depositee is limited, and it 
has been proved that when a coating of metal is 
extremely thin, though appearing quite perfect to 
the eye, it has a certain porosity, that permits the 
action of acids on the metal beneath. This has 
been proved to be the case, even when the deposit© 
is of silver. (Warrington.) When copper vessels 



COR 



219 



COR 



are allowed to remain wet or dirty, and especially 
greasy, a poisonous green matter forms upon their 
surface, somewhat similar to verdigris, and if ar- 
ticles prepared in them without their being first 
properly cleaned, be taken as food, serious conse- 
quences may ensue. Cases of poisoning from this 
cause are frequently met with, and instances of 
vomiting following the use of such articles are still 
more common. I have known extracts prepared 
in copper pans deposite a coating of that metal 
upon the knives used to stir them, and the ashes 
of the inspissated juices of fresh vegetables, and 
especially the pulps of fruit, prepared in vessels of 
the same metal, have exhibited the presence of 
copper on the application of chemical tests. The 
most wholesome material for culinary utensils is 
thin sheet iron or tin plate, which is very durable 
if kept clean and dry when not in use. Copper 
vessels of every kind should be cleaned out, im- 
mediately before use, even though they may 
not appear to want it, and on no account should 
they be employed for any fluids that are the least 
acidulous, or that are required to remain long in 
them. 

COPPERAS. Syn. Green Copperas. Green 
Vitriol. Vitriol of Iron. Commercial Sul- 
phate OF Iron. Crude sulphate of iron, made by 
allowing iron pyrites to effloresce in the air, wash- 
ing out the- salt, boiling along with scraps of old 
iron, evaporating and crystallizing. 

COPPERAS, CALCINED. Syn. Dried 
Sulphate of Iron. Calcined ditto. Prep. Heat 
green vitriol in an unglazed earthen pot, or spread 
it out in a warm situation, until it becomes white 
and dry. Use. It is astringent and drying, and is 
Bometimes used in making ink, and in dyeing. 

CORAL, FACTITIOUS. Prepared chalk 
dried, colored with a little sesquioxide of iron, or 
rose pink, and passed through a sieve. This is al- 
most universally sold by the druggists for powdered 
coral. It possesses similar properties. 

CORDIAL, (in Medicine.) Any warm stim- 
ulant that tends to raise the spirits and promote 
the circulation. The principal cordial medicines 
are the aromatized tinctures. 

CORDIAL, (in the art of the Rectifier.) 
Aromatized and sweetened spirit, employed as a 
beverage. 

Cordials are prepared by either infusing the aro- 
matics in the spirit, and drawing off the essence 
by distillation, which is then sweetened, or without 
distillation, by flavoring the spirit with essential 
oils, or simple digestion on the ingredients, adding 
sugar or sirup, as before. Malt or molasses spirit 
is the kind usually employed, and for this purpose 
ahould he perfectly flavoj-less; as, if this be not 
the case, the quality of the cordial will be inferior. 
Rectified spirit of wine is generally the most free 
from flavor, and when reduced to a proper strength 
with water, fonns the best and purest spirit for 
cordial liquors. Spirit which has been freed from 
its own essential oil, by careful rectification, is 
commonly called 'pure,' 'flavorless,' ' plain,' or 
' silent spirit.' The solid ingredients should be 
coarsely pounded or bruised, before digestion in the 
spirit, and this should be done immediately before 
putting them into the cask or vat ; as, after they 
are bruised, they rapidly lose their aromatic prop- 
trties by exposure to the air. The practice of 



drying the ingredients before pounding them, 
adopted by some workmen for the mere sake of 
lessening the labor, cannot be too much avoided, 
as the least exposure to heat tends to lessen their 
aromatic properties, which are very volatile. The 
length of time the ingredients should be digested 
in the spirit, should never be less than 3 or 4 
days, but a longer period is preferable when distil- 
lation is not employed. In either case, the time 
allowed for digestion may be advantageously ex- 
tended to 10 days or a fortnight, and frequent agi- 
tation should be had recourse to. When essential 
oils are employed to give the flavor, they should 
be first dissolved in a little strong alcohol, or recti- 
fied spirit of wine, so as to make a perfectly trans- 
parent solution ; and when added to the spirit, 
they should be mixed up with the whole mass as 
rapidly and as perfectly as possible, by lab6riou3 
and long-continued agitation. In managing the 
still, the fire should be proportioned to the ponder- 
osity of the oil or flavoring, and the receiver should 
be changed before the faints come over, as the 
latter are unfit to be mixed with the cordial. The 
stronger spirit may be reduced to the desired 
strength by means of clear soft water, or the clar- 
ified sirup used for sweetening. The sugar era- 
ployed should be of the finest quality, and is pref- 
erably made into capillaire or sirup before adding 
it to the aromatized spirit ; and this should not be 
added until the latter has been rendered perfectly 
fine by filtering or fining. Some spirits, as aniseed, 
&,c., frequently require this treatment, which is 
best performed by running them through a fine 
and clean wine-bag, having previously mixed them 
with a spoonful or two of magnesia. By good 
management, cordials thus made will be perfectly 
" clear" and transparent ; but should this not be 
the case, they may be fined with the whites of 
about 12 or 20 eggs to the hogshead, or by adding 
a little alum, either alone, or followed by a little 
carbonate of soda or potassa, both dissolved in wa- 
ter. In a week or a fortnight the liquor will be 
clear. (See Clarification.) 

A most convenient and easy way of manu%c- 
turing cordials, especially where it is wished to 
avoid keeping a large stock, is always to keep two 
casks of sweetened spirit ready prepared, at the 
strength of 60 or 64 u. p. Tlie one should contain 
1 lb. of sugar to the gallon, the other 3 lbs. per 
gallon. From these may be made spirit of any 
intermediate s\\'eetness, which may be flavored 
with any essential oil dissolved in alcohol, or any 
aromatic spirit, prepared either by digestion or dis- 
tillation. As a general rule, the concentrated es- 
sences may be made by dissolving 1 oz. of the es- 
sential oil in 1 pint of the strongest rectified spirit 
of wine. This solution should be kept in well- 
corked bottles, and used by dropping it cautiously 
into the sweetened spirit, until the" desired flavor is 
produced. During this operation, the cordial should 
be frequently and violently c-haken, to produce a 
perfect admixture. Should siifliicient essence to 
foul the liquor be added by accident, the transpa- 
rency may be restored by the addition of a little 
more spirit, or by clarification. 

The most frequent cause of failure in the manu- 
facture of cordials, is the addition of tt'o much fla- 
voring. Persons unaccustomed to the u.se of strong 
aromatics and essential oils, seldom sufficiently ea- 



COR 



220 



COR 



timate their power, and consequently, generally 
add too much of them, and thus not only is the 
liquor rendered disagreeably high flavored, but the 
quantity of oil present turns it ' milky,' or 'foul,' 
on the addition of the water. This again is an- 
other source of annoyance, as from the consist- 
ence or viscidity of the fluid, it is less readily 
'fined down' than unsweetened liquor, and often 
gives much trouble to clumsy and inexperienced 
Operators. The most certain way to prevent this 
fs to use too little, rather than too much flavoring ; 
for if the quantity prove insufficient, it may 
readily be ' brought up,' even after the cordial is 
made. 

A careful attention to the previous remarks will 
render this branch of the rectifier's art far more 
perfect and easy of performance than it is at pres- 
ent, and will, in most cases, produce at once a sat- 
isfactory article, 'fine, sweet, and pleasant.' 

It may be observed, before concluding this short 
notice, that the majority of cordials may be made 
with the pure essential oils, of nearly equal flavor 
to those prepared by distillation ; and for such as 
are colored, simple digestion of the ingredients is 
almost universally employed. Inferior lump, or 
even good brown sugar is used for some dark and 
strong-flavored articles. Ingredients that are not 
volatile, are, of course, always added after distil- 
lation. Though I have said that very excellent 
cordials may be made without distillation, yet the 
still should be always employed to impart the 
flavor and aroma of volatile aromatics to spirits, 
when the expense, labor, and time are of no im- 
portance compared to the production of a superior 
article. The strength at which cordials are usu- 
ally sent out by permits is 60 or 64 u. p. 

CORDIAL, ANISEED. Prep. I. Aniseed 
(bruised) 1 lb. ; proof spirit 6 g^illons ; macerate 
for a week ; then distil 5 gallons ; add 12 gallons 
of clear soft water, and 1 gallon of clarified sirup. 
This will make 8 gallons of cordial 24 u. p., which 
is as weak as " aniseed" should ever^DC made. It 
may be reduced by sweetened water. 
» II. Instead of distilling off the spirit, merely pass 
it through a wine-bag, to take off" the seed, lower 
it with clear soft water, and sweeten as before. 

III. Instead of 1 lb. of aniseed, add enough of 
the essential oil, dissolved in spirit of wine, to pro- 
duce the desired flavor ; 2 drachms of the oil is 
fully equal to 1 lb. of the seeds. 

CORDIAL, BILIOUS, (CHAMBER- 
LAIN'S.) An American medicine, prepared from 
the inner bark of the juglans cinerea, mixed with 
spices. 

CORDIAL FOR CALVES. Prep. I. Car- 
aways, powdered, | oz. ; ginger and carbonate of 
soda, of each a spoonful ; gin or brandy, | of a 
wineglassful ; water 6 oz. 

II. Brandy ^ oz. ; cow's urine 4 oz. ; mix. 
(Gray.) 

Use. As a stimulant for looseness, &c., in 

f* 3.1 VPS 

CORDIAL, CARAWAY. Prep. Bruised 
caraway seeds 3 Iba., or, essential oil of caraway 
li oz. ; sugar 56 lbs. ; clean spirit, at proof, 40 
gallons ; water q. s. 

Remarks. Tho addition of 30 drops of oil of cas- 
sia, and 20 drops each of essence of lemon and 
oranp"e-peel , to the above quantity, improves the 



flavor ; also a larger quantity of sugar must b© 
used, if the cordial is to be much lowered. 

II. Seeds \ lb., or oil 1 drachm ; proof spirit 1 
gallon ; sugar 3 lbs. ; water q. s. As last. 

CORDIAL, CEDRAT. Prep. I. Essence of 
cedrat ^ oz. ; dissolve in pure proof spirit 1 gallon ; 
add water 3 pints, agitate well ; draw oflT 3 quarts, 
and add an equal measure of clarified sirup. 

Remarks. This is a most delicious cordial. 

II. Cut 12 lemons in pieces, and digest in spirit 
of wine 1 gallon ; add water 1 quart ; draw off 1 
gallon, and add an equal weight of capillaire. In- 
ferior to the last. 

CORDIAL, CINNAMON. This is seldom 
made with cinnamon, but with either the essential 
oil, or bark of cassia. It is preferred colored, and 
therefore may be very well prepared by simple di- 
gestion. If the oil be used, 1 dr. will be found to 
be enough for 2 or 3 gallons of spirit. The addi- 
tion of 2 or 3 drops each of essence of lemon and 
orange peel, with about a spoonful of essence of 
cardamoms to each gallon, will improve it. Some 
persons add to the above quantity 1 drachm of 
cardamom seeds and 1 oz. each of dried orange 
and lemon peel. 1 oz. of oil of cassia is considered 
to be equal to 8 lbs. of the buds, or bark. If 
wanted dark it may be colored with burnt sugar. 
The quantity of sugar is 1^ lb. to the gallon. 

CORDIAL, CITRON. Prep. Yellow rind of 
citrons 3 lbs. : orange peel 1 lb. ; nutmegs bruised 
2 oz. ; proof, spirit 13 gallons; distiKi nacerate, 
add water sufficient, and 2 lbs. of fine lump sugar, 
for every gallon of the cordial. 

CORDIAL, CLOVE. Prep. Bruised cloves 
1 oz., or essential oil, 1 dr. to every 4 gallons of 
proof spirit. If distilled it should be drawn over 
with a pretty quick fire. It is preferred of a very 
deep color, and is therefore strongly colored with 
poppy-flowers or cochineal, or more commonly 
with brandy coloring, or red sanders wood. It 
should have 3 lbs. of sugar to the gallon, and this 
need not be very fine. The addition of 1 drachm 
of bruised pimento, or 5 drops of the oil for every 
ounce of cloves, improves this cordial. 

CORDIAL, CORIANDER. Prep. 1 lb. of 
coriander seeds ; 1 oz. of caraways, and the peel 
and juice of 1 orange to every 3 gallons of proof 
spirit. 

CORDIAL, GOLD. Prep. Angelica root, 
sliced, 1 lb. : raisins ^ lb. ; coriander seeds 2 oz. ; 
caraway seeds and cassia, of each 1^ oz. ; cloves 
i oz. ; figs and sliced liquorice root, of each 4 oz. ; 
proof spirit 3 gallons ; water 1 gallon. Digest 2 
days, and draw off" 3 gallons by a gentle heat ; to 
this add 8 lbs. of sugar dissolved in 1 quart each 
of rose-water and clear soft water, and stee^^^ l-J 
oz. of hay saffron in the liquid until it acquires a 
proper color. 

Refnarks. The above is the form for a cordial 
once in much esteem, and which derived its name 
from a small quantity of gold leaf being added to it 
It is now but little drunk, and this addition seldom 
made. 

CORDIAL, G0DFRE;^'S. Prep. I. Mo- 
lasses 15 lbs. ; distilled water 2| gallons: dissolve; 
add oil of sassafras 1 oz. dissolved in rectified spirit 
of wine ^ gallon, bruised ginger | oz. ; cloves J^ oz. ; 
laudanum 8 oz. ; macerate for 14 days, and strain 
through fllanuel. 



COR 



221 



COR 



II. Sassafras chips 1 lb. ; ginger bruised 4 oz. ; 
water 3 gallons ; simmer until reduced to 2 gal- 
lons ; then add treacle 16 lbs., rectified spirits 7 
pints, and laudanum 1 pint. 

III. Opium i oz. ; treacle 5 lbs. ; boiling water 
1 gallon ; dissolve, and add rectified spirit ^ pint ; 
oil of sassafras ^ dr. ; cloves, mustard seed, of each 
^ oz. ; corianders and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr. ; 
digest for a week. 

IV. Caraway, corianders, and aniseed, of each 
1 lb. ; water 6 gallons ; distil 5 gallons, and add 
treacle 28 lbs. ; mix, then add laudanum 1 quart, 
and oil of sassafras 1 oz. previously dissolved in 
rectified spirit 1 gallon. 

Remarks. The above forms are those commonly 
current in the drug trade. This cordial is anodyne 
and narcotic, and is commonly given to children 
troubled with wind or colic. Its frequent and ex- 
cessive use has sent many infants prematurely to 
the grave. Gray says, " It is chiefly used to pre- 
vent the crying of children in pain or starving." 
The dose is J of a teaspoonful and upwards, ac- 
cording to the age of the child. 

COkDIAL, GOUT. Prep. Rhubarb, senna, 
coriander seed, sweet fennel seed, and cochineal, 
of each 2 oz. ; liquorice root and saffron, of each 1 
oz. ; raisins 2^ lbs. ; rectified spirit of wine 2 gal- 
lons ; digest for 14 days. Used in gout and rheu- 
matism. Dose. 1 tablespoonful to ^ oz. It is 
aromatic and slightly laxative. 

CORDIAL, HORSE. Prep. Compound Jinc- 
ture of benzoin 1 pint ; compound spirit of ammo- 
nia, and sweet spirits of nitre, of each 8 oz. ; mix ; 
put it up in Bateman's bottles, and seal them. 

CORDIAL LEMON. Prep. Digest 2 oz. 
each of fresh and dried lemon peel, and 1 oz. of 
fresh orange peel in 1 gallon of proof spirit for a 
week ; strain with expression, add clear soft water 
to reduce it to the desired strength, and lump su- 
gar, in the proportion of 2^ lbs. to 3 lbs. to the gal- 
lon. The addition of a httle orange-flower or rose- 
water improves it. 

CORDIAL, LOVAGE. Prep. Fresh roots of 
lovage 2 oz. ; fresh roots of celery, and sweet fen- 
nel, of each 1 oz. ; essential oil of caraway \ oz. ; 
proof spirit 3 gallons ; digest for 7 days, add wa- 
ter 1 gallon ; distil off" 2^ gallons ; add water to 
make it of the desired strength, and sweeten with 
loaf sugar. To the above ingredients some per- 
sons add, before distillation, | oz. of fresh valerian 
root, and 1 drachm of oil of savine. 

CORDIAL, NERVOUS. (Brodum's.) Prep. 
Tinctures of gentian, calumba, cardamoms, and 
cinchona, compound spirits of lavender, and steel 
wine, of each equal parts. Tonic *and stomachic. 

CORDIAL, ORANGE. Like lemon cordial. 
^ lb. fresh orange peel to the gallon. 

CORDIAL, PEPPERMINT. Syn. Sports- 
man's Cordial. Eau de Chasseurs. Prep. Add 
English oil of peppermint 2 oz. to rectified spirit of 
tvine 1 quart, agitate well in a corked bottle, ca- 
pable of holding 3 pints or more, then pour it into 
a cask having a capacity of upwards of 100 gal- 
lons ; add 36 gallons of perfectly white and fla- 
vorless proof spirit, agitate well for 10 minutes, 
then add 2 cwt. of the best refined lump sugar, 
previously dissolved in twice its weight of pure 
filtered rain water; rummage well, and further 
add sufficient clear rain water t© make up the 



whole quantity to exactly 100 gallons ; again rum- 
mage well ; add 2 oz. alum, dissolved in 1 quart of 
rain water, and a third time agitate for 15 min- 
utes, after which put in the bung and let it stand 
for a fortnight, when it will be, fit for sale. 

Remarks. The above produces a beautiful arti- 
cle, provided the oil of peppermint be of good 
quality, the sugar double refined and stove-dried, 
and the cask one that will not give color. To 
ensure the first, the oil should be purchased of 
some known respectable dealer. That prepared 
at Mitcham, Surrey, and hence called " Mitcham 
oil of peppermint," is not only the strongest but 
best flavored, and though more than double the 
price of the foreign oil, is, in the long run, much 
the cheapest. The sugar should be sufficiently 
pure to dissolve in a wine glassful of clear soft 
water, without injuring its transparency, and the 
cask should be a fresh-emptied gin pipe, or one 
properly prepared for gin, as if it give color it will 
spoil the cordial. If these particulars be attended 
to, tiie product will be a clear transparent liquor 
as soon as made, and will not require fining ; but 
should there be the slightest opacity, some alum 
may be added as above, which will clear it down. 
Some persons add more oil of peppermint, others 
less, than the quantity I have ordered, but this, as 
well as the weight of sugar, must depend upon the 
taste of the purchasers, and the price the liquor is 
to be sold at. The product is 100 gallons of cor- 
dial at 64 u. p., which is the strongest usually sent 
out. A similar plan may be followed for the manu- 
facture of any other cordial liquor, the same prin- 
ciples and operations being common to all. 

CORDIAL, Sir WALTER RALEIGH'S. 
Syn. Sir W. Raleigh's Confection. Aromatic 
DO. Prep. Fresh summits of rosemary and juni- 
per berries, of each 1 lb. ; cardamom seeds, zedoa- 
ry, and salFron, of each \ lb. ; proof spirit IJ^ gal- 
lons ; digest for a fortnight, express and strain ; 
evaporate to 2^ lbs. and add Gascoigne's powder 
1 lb. ; cinnamon and nutmegs, of each 2 oz. ; cloves 
1 oz., white sugar 2 lbs., mix well together. 

Remarks. The above formula is that for the 
original aromatic confection. Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh's own receipt was far more complicated. 

CORDIAL, SPORTSMAN'S. Syn. Eau de 
Chasseurs. Prep. Peppermint water and recti- 
fied spirits of wine, of each 1 pint ; lump sugar ^ 
lb. Dissolve the sugar in the water and add it to 
the spirit. 

CORDIAL, WARNER'S. Prep. Rhubarb 
5j ; senna §iss ; saffron 3j ; liquorice root 3iv ; rai- 
sins lb. j ; rectified spirit lb. iij : digest for a fort- 
night. Laxative. 

CORK. Syn. Corker. The lichen omphalodes 
made into balls. Used to dye wool. 

CORKS. The common practice of employing 
inferior corks for the purpose of stopping the 
mouths of bottles, is often productive of considera- 
ble loss, from the air being only partially excluded, 
and the contents suffering in consequence. I once 
saw a large " Jm" of valuable wine become, in 
less than a year, little better than sour Cape, frora 
the parsimony of its owner on this point, and I have 
frequently had to regret the loss of valuable chem- 
ical preparations from a similar cause. The best 
corks are those called " velvet corks," and of these 
the finest qualities are imported from France. 



COR 



222 



COR 



CORNS. Round, horny, cutaneous extuber- 
ances, with central nuclei, very sensitive at the 
base, arising from continued pressure over the pro- 
jection of the bones, from tight or stiff shoes or 
boots. Corns are of two kinds, hard and soft. The 
former grow on the exposed portions of the joints, 
the latter between the toes. 

Treat. First soak the feet in warm water for a 
few minutes, then pare the corns as close as possi- 
ble with a sharp knife, taking care not to make 
them bleed. They may now be touched over 
with a little lunar caustic, or nitric acid. The for- 
mer is used by merely rubbing it on the corns, 
previously slightly moistened with water ; the lat- 
ter by moistening them with it, by means of a strip 
of wood, or preferably a rod of glass. This treat- 
ment adopted every other day for 10 or 12 days, 
accompanied by the use of soft, loose shoes, will 
generally effect a cure. Concentrated acetic acid 
may be used instead of nitric acid, and is preferred 
by some persons from not staining the skin, but it 
is less active, and requires to be more frequently 
applied. It has been recommended to remove 
large corns by ligatures of silk, applied as close 
to the base as possible, and tightened daily un- 
til they drop off; but this plan is tedious, and is 
not always successful. Another mode of extirpa- 
tion is the application of a small blister, which will 
frequently raise them with the skin out of their 
beds. In this case the exposed surface must be 
dressed with a little simple ointment. Soft corns 
may also be easily removed by applying ivy leaf 
previously soaked in strong vinegar, changing the 
piece every morning ; or by placing a dressing of 
Boap cerate, spread on a bit of lint or old rag, be- 
tween the toes. One of the simplest and best rem- 
edies for hard corns, and which has lately received 
the sanction of high medical authority, is to wear 



upon the toe or part affected a small circular piece 
of soft leather, or still better, a piece of amadou, 
spread with diachylon or other emollient plaster, 
and having a hole cut in its centre the size of the 
com. (Sir B. Brodie.) By this means the pressure 
of the boot or shoe is equalized, and the com pro- 
tected. 

Prevention. This consists in keeping the feet 
clean, by frequent ablutions with warm water, and 
the use of easy, soft shoes or boots. Without the 
latter precaution, corns will generally return, even 
after they appear to have been perfectly removed. 

CORNS, POPULAR REMEDIES FOR. I. 
(Lotion.) Sal ammoniac 1 oz., spirit 4 oz. ; dissolve. 
Moisten the com with this lotion every morning 
and evening. 

II. (Powder.) Savine leaves 2 oz. ; verdigris 1 
oz. ; red precipitate ^ oz. ; all in powder. Mix. Ap- 
plied by means of a piece of rag to the corn nightly. 

III. (Plaster.) White diachylon and yellow 
rosin, of each 2 oz. ; melt and add finely-powdered 
verdigris 1 oz. For use, spread it on paper, linen, 
or leather, and apply a small piece to the corn. 

CORN SOLVENT, SIR H. DAVY'S. Prep. 
Potash 2 parts, salt sorrel 1 part ; each in fine 
powder. Mix and lay a small quantity on the 
corn for four or five successive nights, bindmg it on 
with a rag. 

CORRECTING PROOFS. (In Typography.) 
The operation of marking on the proof sheets of a 
work any errors of orthography, punctuation, ar- 
rangement, or language, they may contain, and 
also any alterations that may appear necessary. 
The following specimen will explain the method 
generally adopted for this purpose, and with a little 
attention will enable any person to superintend a 
work through the press, as far, at least, as de- 
pends upon the correction of the proofs : 



COR 



223 



COR 



[Proof.] 

K^^ As the vine, which has long 

^ twined its graceful fohage 

^/ about the oak/ and been 

hfted by it into sunshine, will 

f/J when the hardy plant is rift 

\-:y ed by the thunderO^o^^j 
o cling round/ it with its 
go caressing tendrils, and bind 
8 ^ Aits shattered boughs up) 
sQ.is it ^ordered ( ^beautifully ^ 



"'1 by Improvidence, that woman, 



14 


^/ 


15 


^7im/ 


16 


•■1 


17 


1 


18 


liKfi 



12 071// ^^^ ^^ ^^ mere depend ^t 

13 /^/ and ornament of man in :&«. 

happier hours, should ^ his 
stay and solace. J 

(^When smitten by 
sudden calamity/ winding 

herself 11 into the rugged 

recesses of his ^ature, ten- 
derly supporting the droop- 

19 /Hr ^^^ .j^C t Ld , and binding up 

20 ?iafi/Mr ^^ broken heart. [ It also 
is ^interesting to notice how 
some MINDS seem almost to 
create themselves, springing 

up un(lei^A » and working their 
solitary but/irresistible way, /s^ 
^through /a thousand obsta- 
cles / / Nature seems, (fee. 

IRWING. 




29 




e4/e7^ c/u/a^ifvem^^ 



The same corrected : 

As the vine, which has long twined its graceful 
fohage about the oak, and been Hfted by it into 
sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is rifted by 
the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caressing 
tendrils, and bind up its shattered boughs, so is it 
beautifully ordered by Providence, that WOMAN, 
who is the mere dependant and ornament of 
man in his happier hours, should be his stay and 
solace when smitten by sudden calamity; winding 
herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, ten- 
derly supporting the drooping head, and binding 
up the broken heart. 

It also is interesting to notice how some minds 
seem almost to create themselves, springing up 
under every disadvantage, and working their " sol- 
itary but irresistible way," through a thousand ob- 
stacles. Nature seems, &c 

Irving. 

Explanation of the marks . 

1. When a letter or word is to be in italics. 

2. When a letter is turned upside down. 

3. The substitution of a comma for another point 
or letter. 

4. The insertion of a hyphen ; also marked -/ 

5. When letters should be close together. 

6. When a letter or word is to be omitted. 

7. When a word is to be changed to Roman. 

8. 9. Two methods of marking a transposition ; 
when there are several words to be transposed, 
and they are much intermixed, it is a common 
plan to number them, and to put the usual mark 
in the margin. 

10. Substitution of a capital for a small letter. 

11. When a word is to be changed from small 
letters to capitals. 

12. The transposition of letters in a word. 

13. The substitution of one word for another. 

14. When a word or letter is to be mserted. 

15. When a paragraph occurs hnproperly. 

16. The insertion of a semicolon. 

17. When a space or quadrat stands up, and is 
seen along with the type. 

18. When letters of a wrong fount are used. 

19. When words crossed off are to remain. 

20. The mark for a paragraph, when its com- 
mencement heis been neglected. Sometimes the 
sign [, or IT, or the word " break," is used, instead 
of the syllables " New Par" 

21. For the insertion of a space when omitted. 

22. To change capitals to small letters. 

23. To change small letters to small capitals. 

24. When lines or words are not straight. 

25. 26. The insertion of inverted commas. The 
apostrophe is similarly marked. 

27. The insertion of a period when omitted, or 
in place of another point or letter. 

28. Substitution of one letter for another. 

29. The method of marking an omission or in- 
sertion when too long for the side margin. 



COS 



224 



COU 



CORROSION, PREVENTION OF. The 

best means of preventing the corrosion of metals is 
first to dip the articles into very dilute nitric acid, 
and afterwards to immerse them in linseed oil, al- 
lowing the superfluity of oil" to drain off; they are 
by this means very effectively preserved from rust 
or oxidation. (W. J. Lander.) 

COSMETICS. {Cosmetica, from Ko(7/i/u,, / 
adorn.) Any external application used for the 
purpose of j)reserving or restoring the beauty. 
The term is generally understood to refer to sub- 
stances applied to the cuticle, to improve the color 
and clearness of the complexion ; but some wri- 
ters have included under this head, every topical 
application to promote the personal appearance. 
Hence cosmetics may be divided into three kinds, 
viz. : — Cutaneous cosmetics, or those applied to 
the skin ; hair cosmetics, or such as are employed 
to promote the growth and beauty of the hair ; 
and teeth cosmetics, or such as are used to cleanse 
and beautify the teeth. The present article will 
be confined to a short notice of the first of these 
divisions, referring the reader to the separate heads 
— hair dyes, pomatums, pommades, depilatories, 
dentifrices, tooth powders, ^c, for information 
respecting the remainder. 

Cutaneous Cosmetics. The most simple and 
universally employed cosmetics are soap and wa- 
ter, which at once cleanse and soften the skin. 
Soap containing a full proportion of alkali, exer- 
cises a solvent power upon the cuticle, a minute 
portion of which it dissolves ; but when it contains 
a small preponderance of oily matter, as the prin- 
cipal part of the milder toilet soaps now do, it 
mechanically softens the skin and promotes its 
smoothness. Almond, Naples, and Castile soaps 
are esteemed for these properties, and milk of 
roses, cold cream, and almond powder, (paste,) 
are used for a similar purpose. To produce an 
opposite effect, and to harden the cuticle, spirits, 
astringents, acids, and astringent salts are com- 
monly employed. The frequent use of hard wa- 
ter has a similar effect. The application of these 
articles is generally for the purpose of strengthen- 
ing or preserving any given part against the action 
of cold, moisture, &c. ; as the lips, or mammae, 
from chapping, or the hands from contracting chil- 
blains; but in this Respect, oils, pommades, and 
other oleaginous bodies, are preferable. 

Another class of cutaneous cosmetics are em- 
ployed to remove freckles and eruptions. Among 
the most innocent and valuable of these, is Got- 
land's lotion, which has long been a popular arti- 
cle, and deservedly so, for it not only tends to im- 
part a delightful softness to the skin, but is a most 
valuable remedy for many obstinate eruptive dis- 
eases, which frequently resist the usual methods 
of treatment. Bitter almonds have been recom- 
mended to remove freckles, (Celsus,) but moisten- 
ing them with a lotion made by mixing I oz. of 
rectified spirit of wine, and a teaspoonftc of mu- 
riatic acid, with 7 or 8 oz. of water, is said to do 
this more effectually. A safe and excellent cos- 
metic is, an infusion of horseradish in cold milk. 
(Withering.) 

Skin paints and stains are employed to give 
an artificial bloom, or delicacy to the skin. Rouge 
and carmine are the articles most generally used 
to communicate a red color. The former is the 



only cosmetic that can be employed, without in 
jury, to brighten a lady's complexion. The latter* 
though possessing unrivalled beauty, is apt to im- 
part a sallowness to the skin by frequent use 
Starch powder is employed to impart a white tmt, 
and is perfectly harmless. The American ladies 
who are very fond of painting their necks white, 
use finely-powdered magnesia, which is another 
very innocent substance. Several metallic com- 
pounds, as trisnitrate, subchloride, and oxide of 
bismuth, (pearl white, Fard's white, &c.,) carbo- 
nate of lead, (flake white,) white precipitate, &c., 
are frequently used to revive faded complexions ; 
but they are not only injurious to the skin, but act 
as poisons, if taken up by the absorbents. Tris- 
nitrate of bismuth, (pearl white,) probably the 
least injurious of these articles, has caused spas- 
modic tremblings of the muscles of the face, end- 
ing in paralysis. (Vogt. Pharm.) The employment 
of liquid preparations, containing sugar of lead, 
which are commonly sold under the name of milk 
of roses, cream of roses, &c., is equally injurious. 
Another disadvantage of these white metallic 
preparations is, that they readily turn black, when 
exposed to the action of sulphureted hydrogen 
gas, or the vapors of sulphur, which frequently 
escape into the apartment from coal fires. There 
are many instances recorded, of a whole company 
being suddenly alarmed, by the pearly complexion 
of one of its belles being suddenly transformed 
into a sickly gray or black. A friend of the wri- 
ter's was once startled at a Christmas party by 
observing the one side of a lady's face and neck, 
which was exposed to the fire, become discolored 
in this way, and was so amused on learning the 
cause, that he has since played two or three jokes 
of the kind on some petulant old ladies, remark- 
able for the great attention they pay to their toi- 
let. In conclusion it may be remarked, that the 
best purifiers of the skin are soap and water, 
followed by the use of a coarse cloth, in opposi- 
tion to the costly and soft diapers that are com- 
monly employed ; and the best beautifiers, are 
HEALTH, EXERCISE, and GOOD TEMPER. 

COSMETIC, SIMPLE. Prep. Soft soap i 
lb. ; melt over a slow fire with a gill of sweet oil, 
add half a te^cupful of fine sand, and stir the 
mixture together until cold. The shelly sea-sand, 
sifted from the shells, has been found better than 
that which has no shells. 

Remarks. This simple cosmetic has, for several 
years past, been used by many ladies who are re- 
markable for the delicate softness and whiteness 
of their hands, which they, in a great measure, 
attribute to the use of it. Its cheapness is a strong 
recommendation. 

COUGH. The sudden and violent expulsion 
of air from the lungs. It is generally sympto- 
matic of other affections, but is sometimes idiopa- 
thic. Many cases of cough depend upon the ex- 
tension of catarrh to the trachea and bronchiw, 
which thus become loaded with mucus or phlegm, 
which they endeavor to throw ofl' by the convul- 
sive effort called coughing. In some cases it is 
caused by a vitiation and inspissation of the secre- 
tions, arising from the imperfect action of the ab- 
sorbents ; this is the connnon cause of the dry 
cough of old people. Idiopathic cough is not con- 
sidered dangerous in itself, or while running itf 



cow 



225 



COW 



regular course, but it is often productive of most 
serious consequences, by superinducing the inflam- 
mation of some organ, or laying the foundation of 

phthisis. 

Cough is sometimes attended by copious expec- 
toration, and at otlier times exists without any ; it 
has hence been distinguished into tnoist or mucous 
cough, and dry cougli. 

Treat. Tlie treatment of common catarrhal 
cough consists in allaying the irritation as much 
as possible, by demulcents and expectorants, as 
mucilaginous drinks and lozenges, which act upon 
the glottis, and sympathetically upon the trachea 
and bronchice. Among the first may be men- 
tioned, almond milk, barley water, refined Spanish 
juice, gum arabic, and a mixture of the last two 
made into lozenges; among the second, the most 
innocent and convenient is ipecacuanha, in the 
shape of lozenges, 2 or 3 of which may be sucked 
whenever the cough is troublesome. A light diet 
should be adopted, the bowels kept sligkthj re- 
laxed by mild aperients, and a mild and equable 
temperature sought as much as possible. When 
this plan does not succeed, recourse may be had 
to an emetic, followed by small doses of Dover's 
powders, and extract or tincture of henbane, or 
squill pill. When a cough is troublesome at night, 
and unattended with fever, a small dose of lauda- 
num, or tincture of henbane, taken on going to 
rest, will generally procure sleep. In the treat- 
ment of dry cough the more stimulating expecto- 
rants are useful, as garlic, ammoniacum, styrac, 
and benzoin, combined with narcotics and seda- 
tives, as henbane, hemlock, and opium. A dia- 
phoretic opiate is also very useful, especially in 
the cough of old people. 

COUGH, POPULAR REMEDIES FOR. 
I. (Draughts.) a. Sirup of poppies 1 dessert- 
spoonful ; antimonial wine 20 drops ; mix for a 
dose, to be taken in a little warm tea on going to 
bed. b. Laudanum 30 drops ; vinegar and honey, 
of each, a dessert -spoonful ; ipecacuanha wine 25 
drops ; mix for one dose, as last. 

II. (Etnulsion.) Milk of almonds 4 oz. ; sirup 
of squills and tolu, of each, 1 oz. ; mix. Dose. A 
tablespoonful every 2 hours. 

III. (Mixtures.) a. Tincture of tolu ^ oz. ; 
Daregoric elixir and tincture of squills, of each, 
i oz. ; sirup of white poppies 1 oz. ; mix. Dose. 
1 teaspoonfiil in barley water, whenever the cough 
is troublesome, b. Milk of ammoniacum 4 oz. ; 
sirup of squills 2 oz. ; mix. A tablespoonful 3 or 
4 times daily, for the cough of old persons, c. 
{Ih. Munro's.) Paregoric ^ oz. ; sulphuric ether 
and tincture of tolu, of each, ^ oz. ; mix. Dose. 
A teaspoonful night and morning, or when the 
cough is troublesome, in a little warm water, d. 
(Dr. Radcliff's.) Sirup of poppies, sirup of squills, 
and paregoric, of each, ^ oz. ; mix. Dose. As 
last. 

COUMARINE. The fragrant volatile princi- 
ple of the tonka bean, the diptera odorata of Wil- 
denow. It is dissolved out by ether, and purified 
by alcohol. It crystal. i'/es in small prisms. 

COWHAGE. Syn. Cowitcu. Dolichis pubes. 
The down which grows upon the pods of the mu- 
cuna pruriens. (Doiichos pruriens.) It occasions 
violent itching, when it comes in contact with the 
ekin, which can only be allayed by a solution of 
29 



given vitriol or oil. It is frequently adnunistered 
as a vermifuge, made into a confection, by scraping 
the hair off a pod into treacle, sirup, or honey, for 
a morning dose, which is repeated for 3 or 4 suc- 
cessive days, followed by a brisk purge. 

COWS, MILCH, (CHOICE OF.) As to a 
choice of breeds for a private family, none in Eng- 
land, (says Mr. Lawrence,) probably combine so 
many advantages as the .Suffolk dun-cows. They 
excel both in quantity and quality of milk ; they 
feed well after they become barren ; they are small- 
sized, and polled or hornless ; the last a great con- 
venience. The horns of cows which butt and gore 
others, should be immediately broad tipped. There 
is a breed of polled Yorkshire, or Holderness cows, 
some of them of middling size, great milkers, and 
well adapted to the use of families, where a great 
quantity of milk is required, and where price is no 
object, and food in plenty. If richer milk and a 
comparison of the two famous breeds be desired, 
one of each may be selected, namely, the last men- 
tioned, and the other of the midland county, or 
long-horned species. Color is so far no object, 
that neither a good cow nor a good horse can be 
of a bad color ; nevertheless, in an ornamental 
view, the sheeted and pied stock of the Yorkshire 
shorthorns make a picturesque figure in the 
grounds. 

The Alderney cows yield rich milk upon less 
food than larger stock, but are seldom large milk- 
ers, and are particularly scanty of produce in the 
winter season. They are, besides, worth little or 
nothing as barreuers, not only on accouiit of their 
small size,, but their inaptitude to take on fat, and 
the ordinary quality of their beef. 

Feeding. There is nothing equal to rich pastu- 
rage for milch cows, but at such seasons, and du- 
ring such weather that this cannot be procured, 
good hay, with turnips, carrots, potatoes, or man- 
gel-wurzel, must be given instead, along with a 
sufficient quantity of clean water. The principal 
cowkeepers of the metropolis have dairy-farms in 
the suburbs, where the animals are turned out a 
portion of every day in the year, except during 
heavy rains, or when the ground is covered with 
snow. They are also well supplied with brewers' 
grains, tares, beet-root, &c., and great care is 
taken that they get fresh air, and exercise suffi- 
cient for their health. Such cows yield a large 
quantity of wholesome milk, very different to much 
that is sold in London, obtained from cows kept 
in stables, cellars, and other confined situations, 
and which are seldom supplied with green food. It 
has lately been shown by Boussingault, that man- 
gel-wurzel, so commonly used for feeding cattle, 
is insufficient as an article of food. He found that 
a cow fed on this substance ceases to give her usual 
quantity of milk, and that eveai when other food 
was given along with it, the animal yielded less 
than her ordinary quantity. Before giving turnips 
to cows, the rotten or bad ones should be picked 
out, as it is said that even the presence of a sin- 
gle damaged one will flavor the milk, and perhaps 
spoil a whole dairy of cheese or butter. 

Economy of a coio. The annual consumption 
of food per cow, if turned to grass, is from an 
acre to an acre and a half in the summer, and 
from a ton to a ton and a half of hay in the win- 
ter. A cow may be allowed 2 pecks of carrot* 



CRA 



226 



CRA 



per day. The grass being cut and carried, will 
economize it full -|. The annual product of a good 
fair dairy cow, during seven months after calving, 
and either in summer or winter, if duly fed and 
kept in during the latter season, will be an average 
of 7 lbs. of butter per week, from 3 to 5 gallons of 
milk per day. Afterwards, a weekly average of 
3 or 4 lbs. of butter from barely half the quantity 
of milk. It depends on the constitution of the 
cow, and how nearly she may be milked to the 
time of her calving, some giving good milk until 
within a week or two of that period, others re- 
quiring to be dried 8 or 9 weeks previously. I have 
heard (says Mr. Lawrence) of 20 lbs. of butter, 
and even 22 lbs., made from the milk of 1 long- 
horned cow in 7 days ; but I have never been for- 
tunate enough to obtain one that would produce 
more than 12 lbs. per week, although I have had 
a Yorkshire cow which milked 7 gallons per day, 
yet never made 5 lbs. of butter in one week. On 
the average, 3 gallons of good milk will make 1 lb. 
of butter. 

CRACKNELS. Prep. Mix a pint of flour 
with a little grated nutmeg, the yelks of 2 eggs, 2 
or 3 spoonfuls of rose-water, and cold water suffi- 
cient to make a paste ; then roll in ^ lb. of butter, 
and make it into shapes. In 1 hour put them into 
a kettle of boiling water, and boil them until they 
swim, then throw them into cold water ; take them 
out, and when dry bake them on tins. 

CRACKNUTS. Prep. Flour 1 lb. ; sugar | 
lb. ; melted butter ^ lb. ; 6 or 7 eggs, well beaten ; 
make a paste with a glassful of raisin wine and a 
little water ; add caraways, roll it out as thin as 
paper, cut it into shapes with a tumbler, wash the 
pieces with the white of egg, and dust them over 
with powdered sugar. 

CRAMP. Spasmodic or involuntary contrac- 
tions of the muscles, generally of the extremities, 
accompanied with great pain. The muscles of the 
legs and feet are those most commonly affected 
with cramp, especially after great exertion. The 
best treatment is immediately to stand upright, 
and to well rub the part with the hand. The ap- 
plication of strong stimulants, as spirits of ammo- 
nia, or of anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been 
recommended. When cramp occurs in the stom- 
ach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water, or a 
dram glassful of good brandy, should be swallowed 
immediately. When cramp comes on during cold 
bathing, the limb should be thrown out as sudden- 
ly and violently as possible, which will generally 
remove it, care being also taken not to become 
flurried nor frightened ; as presence of mind is very 
essential to personal safety on such an occasion. 
A common cause of cramp is indigestion, and the 
use of acescent liquors ; these should be avoided, 
and bitters and absorbents had recourse to. 

CRAYONS. Small cylinders or pencils of 
coloring substances, used for drawing upon paper, 
&c. 

Prep. Crayons are commonly prepared by mix- 
ing up the color with some substance that will 
dilute it to a proper shade, and give it the necos- 
Bary softness and tenacity to adiicro readily to ])a- 
per, when rubbed against it. The cylindrical form 
is general iy given to them by means of a cylinder 
of 2 or 3 inches diameter, having one end open, 
and the other firmly secured to a perforated plate, 



having holes of the same size as the intended cray- 
ons. The crayon-composition, in the state of a' 
stiff" paste, is introduced into the open end, and is 
driven down and through the holes, by means of a 
small plug or piston, that exactly fits the inside of 
the cylinder. To impart an equable motion, whicib 
is essential to the formation of well-shaped crayonSj 
a small screw is employed. The pieces that pass 
through the holes are cut into lengths and dried. 
All the materials employed in making crayons are 
previously reduced to the state of an impalpable 
powder, and those that are gritty are elutriated or 
washed over. The following are among the best 
formulae for making crayons : 

I. Spermaceti 3 oz. ; boiling water 1 pint ; agi- 
tate together till they form a species of emulsion, 
with which mix up bone ashes 1 lb., (previously 
reduced to an impalpable pow.^r) and coloring 
matter as much as is required to give the proper 
tint. When half dry form the mass into crayons. 

II. Pipeclay, and the finest prepared chalk, 
equal parts ; or pipeclay alone, q. s. ; coloring a 
sufficient quantity. Make them into a paste with 
pale mild ale. 

III. (Process of the brothers Joel, of Paris.) 
Shellac 3 parts ; spirits of wine 2 parts ; oil of 
turpentine 1 part ; coloring matter and blue clay, 
of each 6 parts. The shellac is dissolved in the 
spirit, and well mixed by trituration with the clay, 
(previously elutriated and dried,) the colored pow- 
der, and the turpentine ; the mass is then made 
into crayons, which are dried by a stove heat. 

IV. White curd or Castile soap, cut into thin 
shavings, 1 oz. ; boiling water 1 pint ; dissolve, and 
when cold add gradually as much rectified spirit 
of wine as will barely render the liquid transparent. 
With this fluid make the coloring matter into a 
paste, along with ^ its weight each of the finest 
elutriated clay and chalk. 

V. Shellac 5 parts; wood naphtha 10- parts ; 
dissolve, and with this fluid mix up the coloring 
powder, previously stirred up with an equal weight 
of fine blue clay. Dry the crayons by a stove 
heat. If this process be well managed, it will 
produce crayons equal to those of the best Parisian 
houses. 

VI. {Colored crayons.) Crayons may be made 
of any color or shade, by employing suitable pig- 
ments, and diluting them with a proper quantity 
of elutriated or prepared chalk. White crayons 
are made of this substance, by simply combining 
it with a suitable quantity of pure clay, or by mix- 
ing it up in either of the ways just described. 
Black crayons are made of prepared blacklead, 
ivory-black, lamp-black, «fcc. Black chalk is fre- 
quently made into crayons by simply sawing it 
into suitably-sized pieces. Red crayons have, as 
their coloring ingredients, carmine, carminated 
lakes, vermilion, and any of the earthy or mineral 
colors commonly used as pigments. General Lo- 
met has proposed, as a superior red crayon, the 
softest hematite, elutriated, dried, and made into a 
paste with water holding in solution a little gum 
and soap. Blue crayons are made of indigo, smalts, 
Prussian blue, vcrditcr, &c. Green crayons of a 
mixture of king's yellow, or yellow ochre, with 
blues. Yellow crayons of king's yellow, Naples 
ditto, yellow ochre, &.c. Brown crayons of um- 
ber, (raw and burnt,) terra di sienna, (raw and 



CRE 



227 



CRE 



burnt,) Cullen's earth, brown ochre, &c. ; and 
Bome peculiar shades, of a mixture of black, car- 
mine, and either of the above colors. Purple cray- 
ons are made with any of the more brilliant blues, 
mixed with carmine, lake, or vermilion. 

Remarks. As crayon colors do not admit of be- 
ing mixed together at the time of using them, like 
liquid colors, it is usual to make 3 to 6 different 
shades of each color, so as to enable the artist at 
once to produce any etfect he chooses. 

CRAYONS, LITHOGRAPHIC. Prep. I. 
Tallow soap 7 parts ; white wax 6 parts ; melt by 
a gentle heat, add lamp-black 1 part, and cast it 
into moulds. 

II. White wax 4 parts ; shellac and hard tal- 
low soap, of each 2 parts ; lamp-black 1 part ; as 
last. 

III. Spermaceti, white wax, and hard tallow 
soap, of each equal parts ; lamp-black to color ; 
as last. 

Use. To draw designs on lithographic stones. 

CREAM. The oleaginous portion of milk, 
which collects in a thin stratum upon the surface, 
when that fluid is left undisturbed for some time. 
By the process of churning, it is converted into 
butter. When kept for some days, it becomes 
thicker, and partially coagulated, in consequence 
of the formation of some lactic acid, which precip- 
itates the caseous matter contained in the small 
portion of the milk with which the cream is mixed. 
If cream in this state be violently shaken, as in 
the operation of churning, the oily portion, or but- 
ter, quickly separates, and leaves a liquid behind, 
called buttermilk. If instead of churning it, we 
suspend it in a linen bag, and allow it to drain, it 
will gradually become drier and harder by the sep- 
aration of the liquid portion, and will then form 
what is known by the name of cream cheese. By 
the application of slight pressure, the separation 
of the whey is more completely effected, and the 
product is not only better, but will keep longer. 
When cream is intended for churning, it should be 
kept until it turns slightly sour, as then the butter 
will readily " come ,•" for if churned while quite 
sweet, the operation will be tedious, and frequently 
fail. When this happens, the dairy maids declare 
the milk is " charmed,''^ or " bewitched," and re- 
luctantly proceed with the operation. The cause 
of this is the want of acidity, which is not the case 
when the cream has been kept for a certain time 
before churning, for then a portion of th«^ sugar 
contained in the serum is converted into lactic 
acid. The addition of a little rennet, or vinegar, 
is the proper remedy in this case, and will cause 
the almost immediate appearance of the butter. 

The term " Cream" is also frequently applied to 
some compound spirits and cordial liquors, because 
of their cream-like smoothness and flavor. 

Qual. The cream of milk may be regarded as 
an article of food in the same light as butter, as it 
is converted into the latter by the process of diges- 
tion, especially when violent exercise follows after 
eating it. On this account much cream should 
never be taken at once by persons of delicate 
stomachs. In eating cream with fruit, persons are 
hardly aware of the large quantity they consume, 
until they find it disagree with their stomachs, 
when the condiment is blamed for the indiscretion 
of those who take it 



CREAM, ALMOND. Prep. Sweet almonds 
2 oz. ; bitter almonds 4 in number ; blanch and beat 
them in a mortar to a smooth paste, adding a tea- 
spoonful of water to prevent oiling. Mix this with 
a pint of cream, the juice of a lemon, and enough 
powdered lump sugar to sweeten ; whisk up a 
froth, take it off and lay it on a clean sieve ; then 
fill glasses with the liquor, and place some of the 
froth on the top of each. 

CREAM, BRANDY. Prep. Mix a teacup- 
ful of almond cream with J a pint of milk ; boil for 
2 minutes, and when cold, add the yelks of 6 eggs 
and a quart of cream ; heat it gently over the fire 
until it thickens, keeping it well stirred ; then add 
2 or 3 glasses of brandy, and pour it into small 
c *ps or shallow glasses. 

CREAM, BURNT. Prep. Cream 1 quart; 
cassia a small stick ; the peel of half a lemon ; 
boil for 5 minutes ; let it cool a little and take out 
the spice ; then add the yelks of 9 eggs, and sugar 
to sweeten ; stir until cold, put it into a dish, strew 
powdered sugar over it, and bake it until brown. 

CREAM, COLD. Syn. Galen's Cerate. 
Ceratum Galeni. Prep. I. Oil of almonds 1 lb. ; 
white wax \ lb. ; melt together in a water-bath, 
strain, if necessary, and add by degrees rose 
water (made warm) | pint ; stir assiduously until 
cold. 

II. Olive oil and rose water, of each 1 pint ; 
spermaceti and white wax, of each 4 oz. ; as 
last. 

III. White lard 1 lb. ; spennaceti \ lb. ; orange 
flower water \ pint ; as last. 

Remarks. The above may be further scented by 
the addition of any fragrant essence or oil, if de- 
sired. It is used as a mild unguent to soften the 
skin, prevent chaps, &.c. 

CREAM, COLD, (HUDSON'S.) Prep. Oil 
of almonds 4 oz. ; white wax and spermaceti, of 
each \ oz. ; rose water 4 oz. ; orange flower water 
1 oz. ; as last. 

CREAM, COSTOPHIN. Named after a vil- 
lage near Edinburgh, where it is commonly made. 
Prep. Put the milk of 3 or 4 consecutive days, to- 
gether with the cream, into a vessel, and allow it 
to remain until sour and coagulated. The whey 
must be nov/ drawn off, and fresh cream added. 
It is eaten with sugar and fruit, especially straw- 
berries and raspberries. 

CREAM, DEVONSHIRE RAW. Sour cream 
mixed with an equal quantity of fresh cream, and 
sweetened with sugar. Eaten with fruit. 

CREAM, DEVONSHIRE SCALDED. Sy7i. 
Clouted Cream. Prep. Set the milk of yester- 
day in a polished shallow brass pan, over a char- 
coal or other clear fire, free from smoke, and grad- 
ually heat it very hot, but be careful not to let it 
boil. It is readily known to be done enough when 
the undulations on the surface look thick, and form 
a ring round the top of the fluid, the size of the 
bottom of the pan. Let it cool, and the next day 
skim off the cream. It is eaten with sugar and 
fruit, and is made into butter. 

CREAM, D'lLLOTTE'S VEGETABLE. 
Syn. Crystallized Cream. Prep. Oil of al- 
monds 2 oz. ; spermaceti i oz. ; melt and add ber- 
gamotte, neroli, and verbena, of each 5 drops ; 
huile an jasmin 10 drops. Stir well together, and 
pour it into small wide-mouthed bottles to crystal- 



CRE 



228 



CRE 



lize. If preferred harder, 1 drachm more sperma- 
ceti may be used. 

CREAM, FOR ICING. Prep. I. New milk 
2 pints ; yelks of 6 eggs ; white sugar 4 oz. ; mix, 
strain heat gently, and cool gxadually. Ice as 
wantbj. Used to make ice creams. 

II. Cream 1 pint ; sugar 4 oz. Mix. As 
above. 

CREAM, FRUIT. Prep. Pulped or preserved 
fruit 1 lb. ; cream, or good raw milk, 1 quart ; 
sugar sufficient ; boil for 1 minute ; cool, and add 
a glass of brandy. 

CREAM, FURNITURE. Prep. Pearlash 
2 oz. ; water half a gallon. Dissolve and filter, 
add white wax 4 oz., and boil until dissolved. 

II. Soft water 1 gallon ; beeswax 1 lb. ; soap 
\ lb. ; pearlash 2 oz. Boil until dissolved. 

Use. To polish furniture, varnish wood-work, 
statues, &c. It is diluted with water, and spread 
upon the surface with a painter's brush, then pol- 
ished off with a hard brush, cloth, or leather. 

CREAM, ICE. Proc. About half fill the icing 
pot with the mixture which it is desired to freeze, 
place it in a pail or any suitable wooden vessel, 
with ice beat small, and mixed with about half its 
weight of common salt; turn it backwards and 
forwards as quickly as possible, and as the ice 
cream sticks to the sides, break it down with an 
ice spoon, so that the whole may be equally ex- 
posed to the cold. As the salt and ice in the tub 
melt, add more, until the process is finished, then 
put the cream into glasses, and place them in a 
mixture of salt and ice until wanted for use. Be- 
fore sending them to table, dip the outside of the 
glass into lukewarm water, and wipe it dry. 

Remarks. Flavored ice-creams are made by 
mixing " cream for icing" with half its weight 
of mashed or preserved fruit, previously rubbed 
through a cleaii hair sieve ; or, when the flavor 
depends on the juice of fruit or on essential oil, by 
adding a sufficient quantity of such substances. 
Thus raspberry and strawberry ice-creams are 
made according to the former method; lemon, 
orange, noyeau, and almond ice-creams, by the 
latter method. In the same way any other article 
besides cream may be frozen. 

CREAM, IMITATION Syn. Mock Cream. 
Substitute for ditto, &lc. Prep. I. Beat 2 eggs, 
1 oz. of sugar, and a small piece of butter, with a 
pint of warm milk, then put.it into hot water and 
stir it one way, until it acquires the consistence 
of cream. 

II. Instead of eggs, as above, use a spoonful 
of arrow-root, first well beaten with a httle cold 
milk. 

CREAM, LEMON. Prep. Cream 1 pint; 
yelks of 3 eggs ; powdered sugar 6 oz. ; the yellow 
rind of 1 lemon, (grated,) with the juice; mix, ap- 
ply heat, and stir until cold. If wanted white, the 
whites of the eggs sliould be used instead of the 
yelks. 

CREAM, ORANGE. Prep. Similar to lemon 
cream. 

CREAM, PAINTER'S. Prep. Pale nut oil 
6 oz. ; mastich 1 oz. ; dissolve, add sugar of load \ 
oz., previously ground in the least |)()ssiblo quantity 
of oil ; then add water gradually until it accpiires 
the consistence of creauj, working it well all the 
.ime. Used by painters to cover llioir woi*k, when 



they are obliged to leave it for some time. It 
may be washed off with a sponge and water. 

CREAM, PISTACHIO. Prep. Beat i lb. of 
pistachio nut kernels in a mortar with a spoonful 
of brandy. Put them into a pan with a pint of 
good cream and the yelks of 2 eggs, beaten fine. 
Stir it gently over the fire till it grows thick, and 
then put it into glasses or a China soup plate. 
When it is cold, stick it over with small pieces of 
the nuts, and send it to table. 

CREAM, RASPBERRY. Prep. Rub a quart 
of the fruit through a hair sieve to extract the 
seeds, then mix it with the cream, sweeten with 
sugar, and raise a froth thereon with a chocolate 
mill. Take this off, and place it on a hair sieve, 
then fill your glasses with the cream, and place 
some of the froth upon th ■'op of each. The ex- 
pressed juice of raspberriu also makes a delicious 
cream. In winter, raspbe ry jelly, jam, or sirup, 
may be used. A glass of good brandy improves 
this cream. 

CREAM, STONE. Syn. Cream Blanc- 
mange. Prep. Dissolve isinglass ^ an oz. in water 
a teacupful ; add cream 1 pint, and sugar 4 oz. ; 
heat it boiling hot and stir until nearly cold, then 
pour it over some fruit or preserves, placed on the 
bottom of glass dishes. 

CREAM SIRUP. Finely powdered lump 
sugar mixed with an equal weight of cream. It 
will keep for a long time if put into bottles and 
closely corked and sealed over. It is commonly 
placed in 2 oz. wide-mouthed vials, and taken on 
long voyages, a fresh vial being opened at every 
meal. 

CREAM, SCOTCH SOUR. Prep. Put 
skimmed milk over night in a wooden tub with a 
spigot at bottom, and put this tub into another fill- 
ed with hot water ; in the morning take out the 
small tub and draw off the thin part of the milk 
(wigg) until the thick sour cream begins to come. 
This process requires practice as to the heat of the 
water ; when it succeeds, skimmed milk yields 
nearly one half of this cream, which is eaten with 
sugar as a delicacy ; it is only distinguishable 
from cream by its taste, and sells for double the 
price of fresh milk. (Gray.) 

CREAM, VANILLA. Prep. I. Boil a stick 
of vanilla, (grated,) and half an oz. of isinglass, in 
a pint of milk, until the latter is dissolved ; strain 
and add sugar 6 oz., and cream 1 pint ; stir till 
nearly cold, then pour it into moulds like blanc- 
mange. 

II. Cream- and isinglass jelly, of each 1 pint ; 
sugar 6 oz. ; essence of vanilla \ oz. ; mix as be • 
fore. 

CREAM, VELVET. As the last, but, insteac 
of vanilla, flavor with the rind and juice of 1 lemon, 
and about a teacupful of white wine. Mould Uke 
blancmange. 

CREAM, WHIPT. Prep. Whites of 12 eggs ; 
cream 1 quart ; pale sherry ^ a pint ; essence of 
musk and ambergris, of each 10 drops ; essence 
of lemon and orange peel, of each 3 or 4 drops; 
whisk to a froth, remove the latter on to a sieve, 
fill the glasses with the cream, and then pile the 
froth on the top of them. Very fine. 

(vREME. {Fr.) Cream. This name is appliea 
to several compound spirits and cordial liijuoi-s, 
especially by the French liqueuristes, who prido 



CRE 



229 



CRE 



themselves on the superior quality and cream-like 
Bmoothness of their manufactures. Like the cor- 
dials of the English, they are mostly dilute spirit, 
aromatized and sweetened. 

CREME D'ANISE. The same as aniseed 
cordial. 

CREME DES BARBADES. Prep. I Lem- 
ons sliced 2 dozens ; citrons sliced ^ dozen ; fresh 
balm leaves 8 oz. ; proof spirit 4 gallons ; digest 
for a fortnight, then express the liquor, strain, and 
add 2 gallons each of clarified sirup and pure 
water. 

II. The fresh peels of three oranges and 3 lem- 
ons ; cassia bruised 4 oz. ; mace, pimento, and 
cloves, of each 1 dr. ; rum, at proof, 2^ gallons ; 
digest as before, distil over 2 gallons, and add 
clarified sirup 1 gallon. If wanted weaker, lower 
with clear soft water. 

CREME DE CACAO. Prep. Infuse roasted 
caracca cacao nuts (cut small) 1 lb., and vanilla 
^ oz., in brandy 1 gallon, for 8 days ; strain, and 
add 3 quarts of thick sirup. 

CREME D'ORANGE. Prep. Oranges, sliced, 
3 dozen : rectified spirit 2 gallons ; digest for 14 
days ; add lump sugar 21 lbs. (previously dissolv- 
ed in water 4^ gallons ;) tincture of saffron 1^ oz. ; 
and orange -flower water 2 quarts ; mix well, and 
strain. 

CREME DE PORTUGAL. Prep. Proof 
spirit 1 quart ; essence of lemon 30 drops ; essen- 
tial oil of almonds 5 drops ; mix ; then add clari- 
fied sirup 1^ pint ; and water ^ pint. 

CRENIC ACID. A brown acid, discovered 
by Berzelius, in certain mineral waters. It is a 
modification of humus, produced by the decay of 
vegetable matter. Apocrenic acid is nearly sim- 
ilar. 

CREOSOTE. Syn. Creasote. Kreasote. 
Kreosote. Creasoton, (P. L.) Creazotum, (P. E.) 
This substance is a product of the dry distillation 
of organic bodies, and the peculiar preservative 
principle of smoke and pyroligneous acid. It pre- 
vents the decomposition of meat, and thence its 
name from Kpias, flesh, and crw^ftv, to preserve. It 
was discovered by Reichenbach. It is manufac- 
tured from wood-tar, in which it is sometimes con- 
t<iined to the amount of 20 per cent., and from 
crude pyroligneous acid and pyroxilic oil. Its 
components are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in 
a proportion not yet precisely ascertained. 

Prep. (Process of M. Simon.) A copper still, 
capable of containing 80 Berlin quarts, is filled to 
one third with the oil of wood-tar, and distilled. 
First, the more volatile matters pass over. These 
do not contain creosote, and are, therefore, to be 
rejected ; but when, by the gradually increased 
temperature, there passes over a very acid fluid, 
which becomes turbid, and at khe same time an 
Gil separates therefrom when mixed with water, 
the product must be collected, and the distillation 
continued until the operator notices a squirting in 
the still, when the process is interrupted. The 
distilled product is then nearly saturated with po- ^ 
tassa, returned to the still, which must have been 
previously cleansed, and should be now half filled 
with water, when distillation must be recommenc- 
ed. At first an oil comes over, which floats on 
water, and which consists chiefly of eupione, for 
which reason it is useless for preparing creosote. ; 



As soon, however, as the oil begins to sink in the 
water which comes over with it, it is charged with 
creosote, and should be carefully collected. The 
distilling aqueous fluid should be reiutroductd, from 
time to time, into the still, and the distillation con- 
tinued so long as any oil continues to come over 
with it. The distilled oily fluid is now dissolved 
in liquor potassag, sp. gr. 1-120. That which re- 
mains undissolved is eupione, and must be skim- 
med off. The solution of creosote in potassa con- 
tains, however, a considerable portion of eupione, 
which dissolves therein. The grtaterportioji of this 
may be separated by dilution, and distilling with an 
equal quantity or five-fourths of its volume of water, 
pure water being added from time to time, so long 
as any eup i -ne comes over with the distilled liquor. 
When eupione has ceased to paas over, sulphuric 
acid is poured into the still in quantity exactly 
sufficient to saturate ^ of the potassa employed, 
and the distillation is then renewed. Creosote 
then distils, the first portions of which, however, 
still contain eupione, after which pure creosote 
follows ; that is to say, " a creosote which, when 
mixed with 6 or 8 times its quantity of a .solution 
of pure potassa, furnishes a mixt...« which, by the 
addition of any further quantity wnatever of water, 
does not become turbid." The combination of 
creosote remaining in the still is now mixed with 
sulphuric acid in slight excess, and the distillation 
renewed, the water coming over at the same time 
is from time to time returned into the still ; and 
when no further oil passes over with the water, the 
process is complete. The creosote thus obtained 
is redistilled with the water which has passed over 
with it, while the distilled water is meanwhile, 
from time to time, poured back into the still. The 
creosote thus obtained is then colorless ; but it con- 
tains a considerable quantity of water in solution, 
which is separated by distillation in a glass retort. 
The water distils first, and then creosote, which, 
after cleaning the neck of the retort from the wa- 
ter, must be received in another dry receiver. If 
the creosote assumes a red color after being ex- 
posed for some time to the air, it mustibe redistilled, 
and then it keeps very well. Korne found that 
tar, prepared from turf, furnishes much more 
creosote than that from fir-wood, &lc. &lc. (Berze- 
lius' Lehr. and Ann. Chym.) 

Pur. The fluid commonly sold in the shops for 
creosote, is a mixture of creosote, picamar, and 
light oil of tar. Pure creosote has a specific gravity 
of 1-037, and boils at 397° F. It is perfectly solu- 
ble in both acetic acid and liquor of potassa. If 
shaken with an equal volume of water in a nar- 
row test tube, not more than the 80th part disap- 
pears ; otherwise it contains water, of which creoi 
sote is able to assume -^, without becoming turbid. 
If it can be dissolved completely in 80 parts by 
weight of water, at a medium temperature, it then 
forms a perfectly neutral liquid. An oily residue 
floating on the surface betrays the presence of 
other foreign products, (eupione, capnomore, pi- 
camar,) which are obtained at the same time with 
the creosote during the dry distillation of organic 
substances. 

The specific gravity of picamar is 1-095, of par- 
afline 0-87, of capnomore 0-977, and of eupione 
0-655. The first of these is readily detected by 
agitating the sample with strong liquor of potassa. 



CRO 



230 



CRU 



when, if it be present in any qviantity, the mixture 
will solidify into a mass of crystals in 24 hours. 
Eupione may be discovered by its partial solubility 
in liquor of potassa. 

Prop. Creosote is a colorless and transparent 
liquor, but little heavier than water, of a peculiar, 
impleasant, penetrating odor, and a very pungent 
and caustic taste ; acts in a state of concentration 
like a poison, makes the eyes feel painful, boils at 
390° r., does not consolidate even at — 5° F. ; 
produces on paper greasy spots, which afterwards 
disappear ; dissolves in 80 parts of water, and mixes 
in any proportion with spirit of wine, ether, essen- 
tial and fat oils, acetic acid, ammonia, and potassa. 
It dissolves iodine, phosphorus, sulphur, resins, and 
the alkaloids. The aqueous solution is neutral, and 
precipitates solutions of gum and the whites of 
eggs. 

Uses. Creosote is recommended for internal use 
against several diseases of the channels of digestion 
and the organs of respiration, against rheumatism 
and gout, torpid nervous fever, spasms, diabetes, 
tapeworm ; in the form of pills ; with the juice of 
Spanish liquorice as an emulsion ; as an ethereal 
or spirituous solution ; externally, against chronic 
diseases of the skin, sores of different kinds, morti- 
fication, scalding ; wounds, as a styptic ; caries of 
the teeth, and toothache thereby produced, mostly 
in the form of an aqueous solution, (1 to 80 ;) for 
poultices, lotions, and injections ; and likewise, mix- 
ed with lard (5 drops to 1 dr.) as an ointment ; 
and, dissolved in spirits of wine, as a popular reme- 
dy for toothache. The opinions as to the effects 
of creosote, as an internal remedy, are divided, 
obviously because, as is generally the case with 
new remedies, too much was expected from it, and 
it has therefore been employed in the most oppo- 
site diseases. It is doubtless most effective in the 
cases named as an external remedy. (Duflos's 
Pharm. Chym.) Creosote is also employed to 
preserve animal substances, either by washing it 
over them, or by immersing them in its aqueous 
solution. A few drops in a saucer, or on a piece 
of spongy paper, if placed in a larder, will effectu- 
ally drive away insects, and make the meat keep 
several days longer than otherwise. A small quan- 
tity added to brine or vinegar is commonly em- 
ployed to impart a smoky flavor to meat and fish, 
and its solution in acetic acid is used to give the 
flavor of tohiskey to plain spirit. 

CRICKETS. These insects may be destroyed 
by putting Scotch snuff into their holes, or, by 
placing some pieces of beetle wafers for them to 
eat. 

CROUP. An inflammatory disease affecting 
the larynx and trachea. 

Symp. A permanently laborious and suffo- 
cative breathing, accompanied by wheezing, cough, 
a peculiar shnlhiess of the voice, more or less ex- 
pectoration of purulent matter, which continually 
threatens suffocation. This disease has been di- 
vided by nosologists into acute and chronic croup. 
Tlu) latter is very rare. 

Treat. Hlecding by leeches, or cupping over the 
region of the trachea, should bo innnediately had 
recourse to, when the symptoms are urgent ; or 
violent local irritants, as pieces of lint dipped in 
strong acetic acid, or blisters may bo applied to the 
same part. In weakly subjects of irritable con- 



stitution, bleeding should be avoided. Dr. Lar. 
roque recommended repeated vomiting, in the 
croup of children, and M. Marotte and M. Bou- 
det adopted this plan with great success. This 
treatment consists in making the children attack- 
ed with croup, vomit a great number of times 
within twenty-four hours, so as to detach the 
pseudo-membrane from the larynx as fast as it is 
formed. For this purpose, M. Marotte employed 
one or other of the following formulae : 

I. Tartar emetic 00-10 gram. ; sirup of ipeca- 
cuanha 30-00 gram. ; water 60-00 gram. 

II. Impure emetine 00-20 gram. ; sirup of ipe- 
cacuanha 60-00 gram. ; water 30-00 gram. 

He administered these draughts by spoonfuls 
every ten minutes, until there had been a sufficient 
number of vomitings ; in this manner, he was al- 
ways able to make them expectorate a certain 
quantity of false membrane. This treatment was 
adopted conjointly with the use of fractional doses 
of calomel, leeches to the neck, and blisters to the 
nape of the neck ; but it is the opinion of M. Ma- 
rotte that the vomitings produced the curative 
effects. M. Boudet observes, that out of 25 
cases that occurred at the Hopital des Enfans, the 
only authenticated case of cure, among all these, 
was effected by vomitives. (Gaz. Med. de Paris, 
1842.) 

Remarks. The croup is a very dangerous dis- 
ease, and medical aid should be immediately 
sought wherever it can be procured. It is princi- 
pally confined to infancy, or to children under 9 
years old, but occasionally attacks adults. 

CRUCIBLES. Syn. Schmelztiegel, {Ger.) 
Creusets, {Fr.) Conical-shaped vessels made 
of clay, and employed to hold substances submit- 
ted to a strong heat. Some crucibles will bear the 
most intense heat of the blast furnace. 



a a, External steel mould. 

b b, Clay or composition for 
forming the crucible. 

c, Internal steel mould. 

d d, Wooden stand. 

e, Cord or chain to withdraw 
the internal mould or plug. 



Manuf. There are two ways of making cruci- 
bles : one by forcibly shaping the ingredients in a 
double mould, (see engraving :) the other, by pour- 
ing the "sZ?"/)," of the consistence of cream, into 
porous moulds, made of a species of stucco. In 
the latter case, a series of tlie moulds are placed 
upon a table and filed with the semifluid compo- 
sition.. By the time this operation is finished on 50 
or 60 moulds, the workman returns to the first 
one filled, and alternately pours the slip out of 
them, leaving only a very snuill quantity behind 
to give the requisite thickness to the bottom. In 
eaeli of the moulds so filled, a perfect crucible is 
formed, by the abstraction of tlio water of that 
portion of the " slip" in immediate contact wilh 
the stucco, and the crucible will be cither thickei 
or tliinncr, in proportion to the time this absorbent 
action has been allowed to go on. 70 or 60 cruci- 



d 


1 ^ 

u 


d 



CRY 



231 



CUB 



bles may thus be made in less than 15 minutes. 
The moulds and their contents are next placed in 
a stove or slow oven. In a short time from the , 
contraction of the clay in drying, the crucibles 
may be readily removed, and tiie moulds, as soon 
as they have become dry, may be again filled, and 
by care will last for years. As soon as the cruci- , 
bles, formed by either of the above methods, have , 
become perfectly dry, they are ready for baking, 
which is performed by exposing them to heat in a 
potter's kiln. 

The compositions, of which crucibles are made, 
differ according to the uses for which they are in- 
tended. The following may be taken as good 
specimens. 

I. {Berlin.) Stourbridge clay 8 parts ; cement 
(old crucibles ground to a fine powder) 3 parts ; 
coak 5 parts : graphite 4 parts. Will resist the 
greatest heat, and bear being repeatedly heated 
and cooled without cracking. 

II. Stourbridge clay 4 parts ; cement 2 parts ; 
coak powder and pipeclay, of each 1 part. Suita- 
ble for the crucibles used by brassfounders. 

III. (Hessian.) Clay, (containing 10§ of silica 
and a little of the oxides of iron and manganese ;) 
sand, (containing 2§ of alumina, and l-5§ of the 
above metallic oxides, and nearly 1§ of hme.) 
(Wurzer.) • 

IV. (Blacklead.) Fine clay 1 part ; graphite 2 
parts ; mix well'. This composition bears a great 
heat and sudden changes of temperature, and_ the 
vessels made with it have the advantage of smooth- 
ness of surface. It is excellent for forming porta- 
ble furnaces, «fec. 

V. (Anstey's patent.) Raw Stourbridge clay 2 
parts ; hard gas coak (previously ground and sifted 
through a sieve, of | inch mesh) 1 part. The cru- 
cibles formed with this composition are only dried, 
and not baked. When wanted for use they are 
warmed, placed on the furnace, bottom upwards, 
the burning coak gradually heaped round them, 
and the firing continued until they acquire a full 
red heat. They are now turned and charged with 
cold iron. These pots will stand 15 or 16 meltings, 
but are liable to crack by cooling. 

CRUMPETS. Prep. Make 2 lbs. of flour into 
a dough with some warm milk and water, adding 
a little salt, 3 eggs, well beaten, and 3 spoonfuls 
of yeast ; mix well, and reduce it with warm milk 
and water to the consistence of thick batter ; place 
it before the fire to rise, tlien pour it into buttered 
tins, and bake it slowly to a fine yellow. 

CRUST, (in Cookery.) The paste with which 
pies, tarts, &c., are covered, or made. 

I. (Fine.) Flour 1 lb. ; sugar ^ lb. ; melted but- 
ter i lb. ; 3 eggs. Requires but little baking. 

II. (Raised crust for meat pies, <^c.) As the 
last, except using 6 oz. of lard for the butter, and 2 
instead of 3 eggs. 

III. (Short.) Flour 1 lb. ; butter and sugar, of 
each 2 oz. ; e^gs 2 in number. Make a stiff paste. 

CRYSTALLIZATION. (From KpvcraXXos, a 
crystal.) The formation of crystals. When fluid 
substances are suffered to pass with adequate slow- 
ness to the solid state, or when solutions of solids 
are slowly concentrated by evaporation, or the 
solvent powers of the menstruum, gradually les- 
sened by cooling, the ultimate particles of matte; 
frequently so arrange themselves as to form regu • 



lar geometrical bodies, familiarly known by the 
name of crystals. This wonderful pro|V>rty, which 
is possessed by a great variety of substances in the 
mineral kingdom, and by most saline bodies, is re- 
sorted to for many useful and important purposes 
in the chemical arts. It is by means of crystalli- 
zation that the majority of salts are obtained in a 
state of purity ; for in the act of passing into the 
crystalline stale, the foreign substances, with which 
they are united, are left behind in the " mother 
water." By repeating the process 2 or 3 times, 
they are usually rendered quite pure. 

Solids are obtained in a crystalline state by 
melting them, and placing them in a situation 
where they will cool very slowly. Thus iodide of 
sulphur is crystallized by melting it in a flask 
placed in a salt water bath, and allowing it to 
remain in the water until the latter becomes cold. 
Sulphur and many metals are crystallized by 
pouring them in a state of fusion into a hot vessel, 
having a plug in the bottom, which is withdrawn 
as soon as the surface becomes cool, when the 
liquid portion runs out and lea- rs the under sur- 
face in the form of a mass of agglomerated crys- 
tals. Perfectly pure wax, stearine, and sperma- 
ceti, have a very pleasing appearance when treated 
in this way. 

Salts are crystallized, either by allowing their 
hot and saturated solutions to cool slowly, or by 
simply evaporating the menstrua until crystals are 
obtained. In the first case, the liquid is commonly 
evaporated until a pellicle forms upon the siirface, 
when it is set aside in some sheltered situation 
until cold : in the second case, the solution is con- 
centrated until it ceases to yieid crystals, and these 
are usually removed from the liquid as soon as they 
are deposited. The former method is adopted for 
those salts that are considerably more soluble in 
hot than in cold water, as carbonate of soda, Ep- 
som salts, &c. ; the latter method for those that 
possess nearly equal solubility in both cases, and 
also for many salts which are not required in hand- 
some crj^stals ; thus, common salt and chromate of 
potash are crystallized in this way. Many of the 
alkaloids, and their salts, are obtained in crystals, 
by allowing their solutions (generally alcoholic or 
ethereal) to evaporate spontaneously. 

CUBEBIN. A peculiar substance, obtained 
from cubebs, (piper cubeba.) 

Prep. Submit the cubebs to distillation to expel 
the oil, dry, make a strong alcoholic tincture, and 
evaporate the latter to one fourth, filter, and again 
evaporate nearly to dryness. Leave the residuum 
in a cold place, until it assumes a semi-crystalline 
appearance, then place it on a linen strainer, and 
allow the fluid portion (the cubebin of M. Cassola) 
to drain off! In 24 hours, dissolve the substance 
left upon the filter in 4 times its weight of boiling 
alcohol of 0-90, allow the solution to deposite its un- 
dissolved resin, (still maintaining nearly the boiling 
temperature,) and decant the clear portion. Crys- 
tals will be deposited on cooling, which is the 
cubebin of Soubeiran, Capitaine, and Steer. It 
may be purified by re-solution in boiling concen- 
trated alcohol, the addition of a little boiling water, 
and animal charcoal, and filtering, when long 
white needles will be deposited, if the solution be 
allowed to cool very slowly. 

Re?}iarks. M. Monheun has described, under 



cus 



232 



CYA 



the name of cubebine, a volatile substance, but 
the above is the article to which this term is now 
universally applied. It is insolublci in water, and 
nearly so in cold alcohol, but very soluble in boil- 
ing alcohol. Its physiological action has been but 
httle studied. 

CURRY. A noted dish in Indian cookery, 
prepared in great variety, of which our space will 
only allow two or three examples. 

I. {The King of Oude's.) Take ^ lb. of fresh 
butter, 2 large onions, 1 gill of good gravy, (veal 
is the -best,) 1 large, piled tablespoonful of curry- 
powder ; add to these ingredients any kind of meat 
cut into pieces. Put the whole into a stewpan, 
cover it close, and gently simmer for 2 hours. 
When ready to serve up, squeeze as much lemon- 
juice as will give it an acid flavor. (New System 
of Cookery. Murray.) 

II. (Dopeeaza Curry.) Skin a fowl, and dis- 
joint it, take 2 oz. of coriander-seed freed from the 
husks, and rub it perfectly smooth in a mortar, 
with 1 drachm of red pepper, and half a dozen 
onions. Set ^ lb. of butter on the hre, and slice in 
an onion ; when the onion is well browned, take 
it out, and put in the fowl ; let it fry until it is 
brown, then mix 1 pint of curds with the onions 
and coriander-seed, and add it to the stew ; slice 
in a sour apple, and keep stirring to prevent the 
stewpan burning, adding a little water occasionally 
should the curry become too dry. When the apple 
is tender, the curry is sufficiently done, and may 
be served up. 

III. {Lord dive's.) Slice 6 onions, 1 green 
apple, and 1 clove of garlic ; stew them in a little 
good stock until they will pulp, then add 1 tea- 
spoonful of curry -powder, a few tablespoonfuls of 
stock, a little salt, and a little cayenne pepper, 
half a saltspoonful of each ; stew in this gravy any 
kind of meat cut into small pieces, adding a piece 
of butter, the size of a walnut, rolled in flour. 

CUSTARDS. (In the art of the Cook and 
Confectioner.) A species of sweetmeat, con- 
sisting principally of milk or cream, thickened with 
eggs, and flavored. 

I. {Almond.) Blanched sweet almonds 4 oz. ; 
beat them to a smooth paste in a mortar, and add 
it to 1 pint of thick cream, with the yelks of 4 
eggs, 2 or 3 spoonfuls of rose water, and 2 drops 
each of essential oil of almonds and essence of 
lemon. Stir the whole over a slow fire, until of 
a proper consistence, then pour it into cups. Some 
use milk instead of cream, and 2 eggs in addition 
to the above. 

II. {Baked.) Mix cream 1 pint with 4 eggs, 
flavor with mace, nutmeg, and cinnamon, and add 
a little while wine, rose water, and sugar ; bake. 

III. {Lemon.) Boil ^ pint of new milk, with a 
piece of lemon-peel, 1 bitter almond, and 8 lumps 
of white sugar. Should cream be employed in- 
stead of milk, there will bo no occasion to skim it. 
Beat the yelks and whites of 3 eggs, strain the 
milk through coarse muslin, or a hair-sieve ; then 
mix the eggs and milk very gradually together, 
and simmer it gently on the lire, btirring it until 
it thickens. 

IV. {Orar)(re.) Boil very tender tlig rind of 
half a Seville orange, and beat it in i mortar un- 
til it is very fine ; put to it a spoonful of brandy, 
the juice of a Seville orange, 4 oz. of loaf sugar. 



and the yelks of 4 eggs. Beat them all togethei 
for 10 minutes, and then pour in by degrees 1 pint 
of hot cream ; beat them until cold, and put them 
in custard cups, in a dish of hot water ; let them 
stand till they are set, then take them out and 
stick preserved orange-peel on the top ; this forms 
a fine flavored dish, and may be served up hot or 
cold. 

V. (Rice.) Boil ^ a cupful of the best ground 
rice in a pint of milk until dissolved, then mix it 
with a quart of cream, flavor with nutmeg, mace, 
and a little brandy, and put it into cups or a 
dish. 

CUTS. Treat. The divided parts should be 
drawn close togetl "^r, and held so with small 
pieces of strapping ct adhesive plaster stretched 
across the wound. If the part be covered with 
blood, it should be ilrst wiped off with a sponge. 
When the wound is large, and the parts much 
exposed, a good method is to sew it up. The ap- 
plication of a little creosote will g.enerally stop 
local bleeding, provided it be applied to the clean 
extremities of the wounded vessels. A good way 
is to place a piece of lint, moistened with creosote, 
on the wounc" oreviously wiped clean, or to pour a 
drop or two of t;.iat liquid upon it. Friar's balsam, 
quick drying copal varnish, tincture of galls, cop- 
peras water, black ink, &c., are popular remedies 
applied in the same way. A bit of the fur plucked 
from a black heaver hat, is an excellent remedy 
to stop the bleeding from a cut produced by the 
razor in shaving. 

CUTTINGS. (In Horticulture.) The choice 
of cuttings should be made frona the side shoots of 
trees and plants, and, when possible, from such as 
recline towards the ground, observing to leave a 
little wood of a former year or season's growth 
attached to them, as such are found to take root 
more readily than when they are wholly composed 
of new wood. The time to take cuttings is as 
soon as the sap gets into full motion. Before set- 
ting them they should be cut across, just below an 
eye or joint, with as smooth a section as possible, 
olDserving not to injure the bud. The superfluous 
leaves may be removed, but a suflnicient number 
should be left on for the purposes of vegetation. 
The common practice of removing all or nearly 
all the leaves of cuttings is injudicious. In some 
cases leaves alone will strike root. When cuttings 
are set in pots, they should be so placed as to reach 
to the bottom and touch the sides throughout their 
whole length, when they will seldom fail to be- 
come rooted plants. In the case of tubular stalked 
plants, it is said to be advantageous to insert both 
ends into the soil, each of wliich will take root, 
and may then be divided, when two plants will be 
produced instead of one. An equable tempera- 
ture, a moist atmosphere, a shady situation, and 
a moderate supply of \vater, arc the principal 
requisites to induce speedy rooting. Excess of 
any of these is prejudicial. When the size of the 
cuttings admits, it is better to place them under a 
hand or bell glass, which will preserve a constant 
degree of heat, and prevent evaporation from the 
surface of the leaves, which is the most common 
cause of their dying, especially in liot, dry wea- 
ther. 

CYANATES. Compounds formed by the 
imion of the cyanic acid with the bases. They 



CYA 



233 



CYA 



are distint^uished by evolving the odor of cyanic 
acid, accompanied by effervescence, when treated 
with dihite miner?.l acids, and by this solution, 
mixed with hydrate of hme, evolving ammonia. 
Ti»e alkaline cyanates are soluble, the others in- 
soluble. 

The basic cyanate of ammonia is formed by 
mixing dry ammoniacal gas with the vapors of 
hydrated cyanic acid. It forms a white, woolly, 
semi-crystalline mass. By heat, or exposure to 
the air, it is converted inft) urea. Cyanate of po- 
tassa may be formed by roasting, at a red heat, 
dry ferrocyanide of potassium, in fine powder, 
upon an iron plate, constantly stirring, until it be- 
comes fused into one mass, when it must be re- 
duced to fine powder, and digested in boiling alco- 
hol, from which crystals of the cyanate will be 
deposited as the solution cools. A mixture of the 
ferrocyanide of potassium, with half its weight of 
peroxide of manganese, may also be used to pro- 
duce this salt. The compound should be kindled 
by a red-hot body, and allowed to smoulder away, 
after which it may be treated with alcohol as be- 
fore. (See Urea.) The cyanates of silver lead, 
and many other metals, may be made by adding 
a solution of cyanate of potassa to another of a 
neutral salt of the base. 

CYANIC ACID. A compound of cyanogen 
and oxygen, discovered by Wohler. It is only 
known in the hydrated state, or united to 1 atom 
of water. 

Prep. I. Distil dry cyanuric acid, or cyameTide, 
in a retort, and collect the product in a weli-cooled 
receiver. It is also formed when cyanogen is 
transmitted over carbonate of potassa heated to 
redness ; a cyanate of potassa results. 

II. Pass a current of sulphureted hydrogen gas 
through water in which cyanate of silver is dif- 
fused. (Liebig.) This acid reddens litmus strong- 
ly ; is sour to the taste ; it possesses the smell 
which is always perceived when any of its salts 
are decomposed by an acid ; it neutralizes bases 
perfectly, forming salts called cyanates, but when 
in contact with water it suffers decomposition in a 
few hours, and is converted into carbonic acid gas 
and ammonia. The sulphureted hydrogen must 
not be passed so long as to decompose all the cya- 
nate of silver ; for then the cyanic acid is con- 
verted into other products by the excess of the 
sulphureted hydrogen. 

CYANIDE. Syn. Cyanuret. A compound 
of cyanogen and a metal. (See Cyanogen and 
Hydrocyanic Acid.) 

CYANIDE OF GOLD. Syn. Tercyanide 
OF Gold. Percyanide of ditto. Prep. I. Add 
pure cyanide of potassium to a solution of gold in 
aqua regia, carefully deprived of all excess of 
acid by evaporation; collect the yellow precipi- 
tate. 

II. Add a boiling solution of 24 parts of bicya- 
nide of mercury to another of 16 parts of gold, 
dissolved in aqua regia, evaporate to dryness, and 
wash with pure water. 

Remarks. This salt has been introduced into 
the French Codex, and has been used, both ex- 
ternally and internally, in scrofulous and similar 
affections. Dose, j-g to y*o of a grain, made into 
a pill 

CYANIDE OF MERCURY. Syn. Bicya- 



nide of Mercury. Hydrargyri BicyanidUjI; 
(P. L.) Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, (P. D.) Prlb- 
siAN Mercury. Peussiate of Mercury. Hy- 
drocyanate of ditto. Cyanuret of ditto. Cy- 

ANODIDE OF DITTO. CyANURE DE MerCURE, (Ft.) 

Prep. {Proc. of the L. Ph.) Percyanide of iron 
^viij ; binoxide of mercury ^x ; 'distilled water 4 
pints. Boil for half an hour, strain, and evaporate 
that crj-stals may form. 

II. (Winckle's process.) Saturate dilute hydro- 
cyanic acid with binoxide of mercury ; evaporate 
and crystallize. 

Pur., cj-c. It should be "transparent and to^ 
tally soluble in water. This solution, on the ad- 
dition of muriatic acid, evolves hydrocyanic acid, 
known by its smell, and a glass moistened with a 
solution of nitrate of silver, and held over it, gives 
a deposite soluble in nitric acid. When heated it 
evolves cyanogen, and runs into globules of me- 
tallic mercury." (P. L.) The cyimogen may be 
recognised by burning with a violet-colored flame. 
A solution of bicyanide of mercury, gives a black 
precipitate with sulphureted hydrogen, and white 
pearly crj'stalline plates, with iodide of pota.ssium. 

Uses, <|-c. It has been administered in some 
hepatic and skin diseases, and has been proposed 
as a substitute for corrosive sublimate. (Parent.) 
It is principally used as a source of prussic acid. 
Dose. Jg- to ^ gr., in pills or alcoholic solution ; as 
a gargle or lotion, 10 grs. to water 1 pint ; as an 
ointment, 10 or 12 grs. to lard 1 oz. 

CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. Prep. I. 
Treat a saturated alcoholic solution of pure potas- 
sa, with the vapors of hydrocyanic acid, as long 
as it throws down a white ciystalline precipitate, 
which must be collected and washed with alco- 
hol. 

II. Add hydrocyanic acid in excess to a con- 
centrated solution of pure potassa ; evaporate until 
crystallization commences, then pour it into a 
porcelain vessel and fuse at a red heat. 

III. Expose Avell-dried and powdered ferrocya- 
nide of potassium to a strong red heat in a close 
vessel. When cold, powder, place it in a funnel, 
moisten with a little alcohol, and wash with cold 
water. Evaporate the solution thus formed to 
dryness, expose it to a red heat in a porcelain dish, 
cool, powder, and boil in alcohol of 60§. As the 
spirit cools, crystals of cyanide of potassium will 
be deposited. 

Remarks. When pure, this salt is colorless and 
odorless ; when exposed to the atmosphere, mois- 
ture is absorbed, and it acquires the smell of hy- 
drocyanic acid. If it efferv^esces with acids, it 
contains carbonate of potassa, and if it be yellow, 
it contains iron. It is employed in chemical anal- 
yses, and for the preparation of hydrocyanic acid ; 
cyanide of soda mav be made in t>he same way. 

CYANIDE OF SILVER. Syn. Argenti 
Cyanidum, (P. L.) Prep. Add dilute hydrocyanic 
acid to a solution of nitrate of silver, as long as a 
precipitate falls down ; wash and dry. The pro- 
portions ordered by the London College, are nitrate 
of silver ^ij and 5ij, dissolved in water 1 pint ; di- 
lute hydrocyanic acid, q. s. 

Remarks. Cyanide of silver is white, soluble fa 
ammonia, and decomposed by contact with neutral 
vegetable substances. By exposure to light it turnfi 
violet-colored. It has been given iu some com- 



DAI 



234 



DAI 



plaints, in doses of one-tenth to one-eighth of a 
grain, (Serre,) and has been proposed as a source 
of hydrocvanic acid. (Everitt.) 

CYANIDE OF ZINC. Prep. Dissolve me- 
tallic zinc in hot ircetic acid, and add hydrocyanic 
acid as long as a precipitate falls. 

CYANOGEN. Syn. Prussine. Cyanogenium. 
BiCARBURET OF NiTROGEN. (From Kvavog, blue, 
and ytvi'aisi, to generate.) A compound of carbon 
and nitrogen, discovered by M. Gay Lussac, in 1815. 

Prep. Expose carefully-dried bicyanide of mer- 
cury in a small retort, to the heat of a spirit-lamp, 
and collect the gas in the mercurial pneumatic 
trough. 

Prop. A colorless gas, possessing a pungent and 
peculiar odor. Under a pressure of 3 or 4 atmo- 
spheres, it becomes liquid at a temperature of 45°, 
(Faraday,) and this fluid again becomes gaseous 
on withdrawal of the pressure. Water absorbs 
nearly 5 times its bulk of cyanogen at 60°, and 
alcohol about 23 times. With hydrogen it forms 
hydrocyanic acid, and with the metals, cyanides, 
or cyanurets. (See CyanidE' and Hydrocyanic 
Acid.) 

CYANURIC ACID. Syn. Pyro-uric Acid. 
A peculiar acid, discovered by Scheele. It is a 
product of the decomposition of the soluble cyanates 
by dilute acid, of urea by heat, &-c. 

Prep. Heat urea until it fuses, and is converted 
into a white or grayish-white mass ; dissolve in 
strong oil of vitriol, and add nitric acid, drop by 
drop, to the solution until it becomes colorless ; 
then mix the liquid with an equal volume of water. 
On cooling, crystals of cyanuric acid will be de- 
posited, which must be washed with a little cold 
water, and then dissolved in 24 parts of boiling 
water, when crystals of the hydrated acid will 
form as the solution cools. By exposure to the 
atmosphere, or a gentle heat, they lose their water 
and fall into powder. 

Prop., <^c. It forms salts with the bases called 
cyanurates. The alkaline cyanurates may be 
formed by neutralizing a boiling solution of the 
acid with the base, und the cyanurate of silver by 
adding a solution of nitrate of silver to another of 
cyanurate of potassa. 

DAHLINE. A substance analogous to starch 
and inulin, discovered by M. Payen in the bulbs or 
tubers of the dahlia. 

Prep. Diffuse the pulp of dahlia bulbs in its own 
weight of water, filter through cloth, add -^^ part 
of common chalk, boil for half an hour, and filter. 
Then press the residuum of the bulbs, mix the 
liquors, evaporate to |ths, add 4§ of animal char- 
coal, clarify with the white of an egg, filter, and 
evaporate until a film forms upon the surface ; as 
the liquid cools, dahline will be deposited. 

Remarks. The bulbs of dahlias yield about 4§ 
of dahline. It differs from starch and inulin by 
forming a granulated mass, when its aqueous ftolu- 
tion is evaporated ; as also in its specific gravity, 
which is l-35(i, whereas that of starch is 1-53. 

DAIRY. An apartment either in a house, or 
adjoining it, for the purpose of keeping milk, and 
making l)Ulter, cheese, 6lc. 

'I'he best situation for a dairy is on the north 
Bide of the dwelling-house, because it will thereby 
br HJielteieil from the sun during the liout of the 



day. Ample means should be provided to ensure 
thorough ventilation by means of Venetian shut- 
ters, or suitable windows, so arranged as to admit 
the air, but to exclude flies and other insects ; and 
also to permit a due regulation of the temperature, 
which should be preserved as much as possible in 
an equable state, ranging from 45° to 55° F. To 
lessen the influence of external variations of tem- 
perature, the walls should be double, or of consid- 
erable thickness, and the windows provided with 
shutters or doors. In summer the heat may be 
lessened by sprinkling water upon the floor, which 
will produce a considerable degree of cold by its 
evaporation. Dairies N-iilt of mud or " cob," are 
preferred in the west of England, and this prefer- 
ence arises from the uniform temperature they 
maintain, on account of the great thickness of the 
walls, and their being very bad conductors of heat. 
In large dairy-farms, where butter and cheese are 
made, the dairy is generally a separate building, 
and divided into 3 or 4 apartments, one of which 
is called the milk-room, a second the churning- 
rooyn, a third the cheese-room, containing the 
cheese-press, &lq,., and a fourth the drying-room, 
where the cheeses are placed to dry and harden. 
To these may be added a scullery, furnished with 
copper, water, &c., for scalding and cleaning the 
dairy utensils. 

Besides the preservation of the milk, after it has 
been brought into the dairy, and the manufacture, 
ripening, and preservation of the cheese and but- 
ter, the management of a dairy includes an atten- 
tion to the health and feeding of the cows. These 
animals require regular and careful treatment. 
The cow-stall should be visited at an early hour 
every morning, and the udder of each cow washed 
clean with cold water and a sponge, after which 
they should be milked. If aii^ of the cows have 
sore teats, warm water should be used, and a little 
dressing of simple ointment, or a lotion of spirit 
and water applied. When the former is used, 
great cleanliness is necessary, and the milk should 
be given to the pigs. 

The operation of milking the cows should be 
performed at regular and early hours, and each 
cow should be milked as dry as possible, both 
morning and evening, as, unless this point be at- 
tended to, the quantity of milk will decrease. Af- 
ter each cow has been milked as dry as possible, 
the dairy-maid should begin again with the one 
first milked, and proceed to "drip" each of them, 
by which means not only will the " strippings," 
which are very rich in cream, be obtained, but the 
health and productiveness of the animals will be 
promoted. Cleanliness is very essential in all the 
operations of the dairy, and in none more so than 
in the milking of the cows. The hands and arms 
of the milk-maid should be kept scrupulouslj. 
clean, and should be well washed with soap and 
water, after touching the udder of a sick cow, as 
without this precaution, the sores may be conveyed 
to the healthy ones. The milk-cans should be 
scalded out daily, and, as well as all the other 
dairy utensils, should bo kept clean and dry. Be- 
fore placing the milk on the shelves of the dairy, 
it should bo strained tlnough a hair-sievt? or a 
searce, covered with clean cheesecloth, as by this 
precaution, any stray hairs that may have fallen 
into the milk-pail will bo taken out. 



DAP 



235 



DEA 



It is of importance in the management of cows, 
that the majority of them should calve from Lady- 
day to May, tiiat the large quantity of milk that 
follows, may be supported by the luxuriance of 
vegetation. The other portion should calve in 
August or September, to ensure a supply during 
the winter. The calves should be taken from the 
cows when 7 or 8 days old, and fed with skimmed- 
milk, made oatmeal, &c., allowing them to be out 
m the pasture during some portion of every day, 
unless it should be wet and cold. 

The average produce of a milch cow, supplied 
with good pasturage, is about 3 gallons daily, from 
Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from that time to 
February, about 1 gallon daily. Cows of good 
breed will bo profitable milkers to 14 or 15 years 
of age, if well fed. (See Butter, Cows, Cream, 
and Chkese.) 

DAMP LINEN is very injurious to health, 
and should be especially avoided. In travelling, 
when it is expected that the bed has not been 
properly aired, the best way is to sleep between 
the blankets. A good plan to ascertain this point, 
is to have the bed warmed, and immediately after 
to introduce a clean, dry glass tumbler between 
the sheets, in an inverted position ; after it has re- 
mained a few minutes it should be examined, when 
if found dry, and untarnished with steam, it may 
be fairly presumed that the bed is perfectly safe ; 
but if the reverse should be the case, it should be 
avoided. When it is impossible to prevent the^use 
of damp linen, as articles of dress, the best way to 
obviate any ill effects, is to keep constantly in mo- 
tion, and avoid remaining near the fire, or in a 
warm apartment, or a draught of cold air, until 
sufficient time has elapsed to allow the escape of 
the moisture. 

DAMSONS. A species of small black plum, 
much used in the preparations of tarts, &c. They 
are rather apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, 
and also to affect the bowels. 

DAMSON CHEESE. Prep. Boil the fruit in 
a sufficient quantity of water to cover it ; straiii 
the pulp through a very coarse sieve ; to each lb. 
add 4 oz. of sugar. Boil till it begins to candy on 
the sides, then pour it into tin moulds. Other 
kinds of plums may be treated in the same way, 
as also cherries, and several other kinds of fruit. 

DANDELION. Syn. Leontodon. Leonto- 
DON Taraxacum. The root of this plant is diuretic 
and tonic. It is roasted and used as coffee, and 
when mixed with an equal w^eight of foreign coffee, 
constitutes the article once so much puffed under- 
the name of " Dandelion coffee." The blanched 
leaves are used in salads, and the inspissated juice, 
extract, and decoction are employed in medicine, 
and are considered as detergent, aperitive, and de- 
obstruent. 

DAPHNIN. A peculiar bitter principle, dis- 
covered by Vauquelin in the daphne alpina. It is 
procured by separating the resin from the alcoholic 
tincture of the bark by evaporation : afterwards 
diluting with water, filtering, and adding acetate 
of lead. A yellow substance, which has been 
called daphnate of lead, falls down, which, when 
decomposed by sulphureted hydrogen, forms small 
transparent crystals of daphnin. This substance 
is bitter, gray-colored, volatile, and sparingly solu- 
ble in cold water. 



DATURA. Syn. Daturia. Daturina. Da- 
TURiUM. An organic alkali, discovered by Geigel 
and Hesse in datura stramonium. It is best ob- 
tained from the seeds. It is sparingly soluble in 
cold water ; but more so in hot water, alcohol, and 
ether. It tastes bitter, dilates the pupil strongly, 
and is very poisonous. It may be sublimed unal- 
tered, and may be obtained in prismatic crystals, 
by the addition of water to its alcoholic solution. 
With the acids it forms salts, whidi are mostly 
crystallizable. (See Alkaloid.) 

DEAFNESS. Syn. Dysec^a, (from 5us, with 
difficulty, and uKoif, hearing,) an imperfect state, 
or deficiency of the faculty of hearing. Deafness 
has been divided into two species : — 1. Organic, 
arising from wax in the meatus, injuries of the 
membrane, or inflammation and obstruction of the 
tube. 2. Atonic, when without any discernible 
injury of the organ. (Cullen.) When deafness is 
present in infancy and childhood, it is accompanied 
with dumbness, or imperfect articulation, in conse- 
quence of the impossibility of conveying a know- 
ledge of the sounds necessary for the exercise of 
the imitative faculty of speech. A common cause 
of deafness is some imperfection or obstruction of 
the passage leading to the membrane of the tym- 
panum or drum of the ear. In some cases this 
passage is totally occluded by a membrane, or 
some malformation of the tube, which may fre- 
quently be removed by a surgical operation. Even 
instances of partial obliteration of this passage have 
occurred, which have been effectually cured. A 
more frequent cause of deafness is, however, the 
presence of foreign bodies in the aural passages, or 
the accumulation of hardened wax. In these cases 
the best treatment is to inject warm water into the 
ear by means of a proper syringe, the head being 
placed with that side upwards during the operation. 
Insects may be destroyed by pouring a spoonful of 
warm olive oil, or camphorated oil, into the ear 
over night, retaining it there until the next morn- 
ing by means of a piece of cotton wool, when it 
may be washed out with a little mild soap and 
v/arm water. When there is a deficient secretion 
of wax, or a dryness of the aural passage, mild 
oleaginous stimulants should be employed. For 
this purpose a little olive or almond oil, to which a 
few drops of oil of turpentine, oil of juniper, or 
camphor liniment, have been added, may be used 
with advantage. When deafness is accompanied 
with continued acute pain, or a discharge of a pu- 
rulent matter, inflammation of the tympanum, or 
some other portion of the internal ear, probably 
exists, and medical advice should te sought as soon 
as possible. The deafness that frequently accom- 
panies a violent cold, is generally caused by ob- 
structions in the Eustachian tube, and goes off as 
soon as the secretions return to- a healthy state. 
When imperfect hearing depends upon obtundity 
of the auditory nerve, or an extensive obliteration 
or malformation of the internal ear, it scarcely ad- 
mits of cure. 

DEAFNESS, TAYLOR'S REMEDY FOR. 
Prep. Oil of almonds ih. j ; garlic, bruised, 5ij ; 
alkanet root §ss ; infuse and strain. A little is 
poured into the ear in deafness. 

DEATH. In cas^s of sudden death, interment 
should be deferred till signs of putrefaction begin 
to appear, especially when no gradation of disease 



DEC 



236 



DEC 



has preceded, as in cases of apoplexy, hysterics, 
external injuries, drowning, suffocation, &c. 

In cases of malignant fevers, putrescency ad- 
vances speedily, and, under such circumstances, 
the time of the funeral ought not to be unnecessa- 
rily protracted ; but this ought never to be the 
case in northern climates, and in temperate or even 
cool weather. Young persons, in the bloom of 
health and vigor, may be struck down by an ill- 
ness of only a few days, or even hours, but they 
ought not to be consigned to the same summary 
sentence, merely because custom has ordained it. 
No sooner has breathing apparently ceased, and 
the visage assumed a ghastly or death-like hue, 
than the patient, after his eyes are closed, is too 
often hurried into a coffin, and the body, scarcely 
yet cold, is precipitated into the grave. So ex- 
tremely fallacious are the signs of death, that too 
often has the semblance been mistaken for the 
reality ; especially after sudden accidents, or short 
illness. Many of these, however, by prompt 
means and judicious treatment, have been happily 
restored. 

Unequivocal proofs of death should always be 
waited for, and every possible means of resuscita- 
tion persevered in when these do not appear, espe- 
cially when we consider how appearances may be 
deceitful, and how unexpectedly the latent sparks 
of life may be rekindled. The effects of sound 
upon animal life are astonishing. The beat of a 
drum, for instance, has had a very beneficial effect 
upon persons in a state of suspended animation. 
At one time, a scream, extorted by grief, proved 
the means of resuscitating a person who was sup- 
posed to be dead, and who had exhibited the usual 
recent marks of the extinction of life. In cases 
of catalepsy, or trance, having the semblance of 
death, the action of the lungs and heart continues, 
though in a nearly imperceptible degree. By pla- 
cing a cold mirror, or piece of highly polished met- 
al, immediately over the mouth of the patient, 
symptoms of moisture will appear upon the sur- 
face, if the most feeble respiration takes place. 

DEBILITY. Weakness. Feebleness. When 
this arises from a diseased action of the stomach, 
the occasional use of mild aperients, followed by 
bitters and tonics, is the best treatment. When 
from a general laxity of the solids, and there are 
no symptoms of fever, nor a tendency of blood to 
the head, a course of chalybeates will prove advan- 
tageous. Either of the following may be adopted 
for this purpose. I. Pure sulphate of iron 1 dr. ; 
extract of gentian and powdered ginger, of each 
1^ dr., beat together into a mass, and divide into 
120 pills, one to be taken morning, noon, and night. 
II. Sulphate of iron and powdered myrrli, of each 
1 dr. ; sulphate of quinine ^dr. ; conserve of roses, 
sufficient to form a pill mass. Divide into 120 pills. 
Dose, as before. 

DECANTATION. The operation of pouring 
or drawing off the clear portion of a liquid, from 
the impurities or grosser matter, tbat ])as subsided. 
It is commonly performed, citlicr by gently incli- 
ning the vessel, or by tlic use of a syphon or pump. 
In the laboratory it s much resorted to in the pu- 
rification of precipitates, or other siniihir operations, 
where repeated cdnlcoration or washing is required, 
for whicli purpose it is preferable to filtration, from 
being less troublesome and more economical. In 



these cases, after a sufficient time having been al- 
lowed for the subsidence of the precipitate or pow- 
der, or for the clearing of the supernatant fluid, it 
is decanted, and its place supplied by a fresh por- 
tion of water, which, after sufficient agitation, is 
similarly treated, and the whole operation repeated 
as often as necessary. 

DECANTERS. There is often much difficulty 
experienced in cleaning decanters, especially after 
port wine has stood in them for some time. The 
best way is to wash them out with a little pearlash 
and warm water, adding a spoonful or two of fresh 
slaked lime if necessary. To facilitate the action 
of the fluid against the sides of the glass, a few 
small cinders may be used. A spoonful of strong 
oil of vitriol will also rapidly remove any kind of 
dirt from glass bottles, but care must be taken not 
to pour it into them while wet, nor to wash them 
out until they have been thoroughly drained ; for 
when the above strong acid comes into contact with 
water, sufficient heat is generated to crack the 
glass. 

Another cause of annoyance which frequently 
occurs, is, that the stoppers of glass bottles and 
decanters become fixed in their places so firmly, 
that the exertion of sufficient force to remove them 
would endanger the vessels. In such cases, 
knocking them gently with a piece of wood, first 
on one side, and then on the other, will generally 
loosen them. If this method does not succeed, a 
cloth wetted with hot water, and applied to the 
neck, will generally expand the glass sufficiently 
to allow them to be easily withdrawn. Should 
neither of these methods succeed, the decanter or 
bottle may be placed in a kettle or boiler of cold 
water, which must then be heated to the boiling 
point, by which time the stopper will in most cases 
be loosened by the pressure of the air confined 
within the vessel, which will be greatly expanded 
by the heat. This plan should, however, never 
be adopted but as a last resource, as if the vessel 
be not sufficiently strong to resist the internal pres- 
sure, it must of course be broken. A piece of 
cloth should be tied over the stopper, in such a 
way as to permit it to become well loosened, but 
to prevent it being blown out, because in the lat- 
ter case it would most likely be broken on falling 
to the ground. 

DECARBONIZATION. This operation is 
performed on cast iron, to convert it into steel or 
soft iron. The articles to be decarbonized are 
packed in finely-powdered haematite, or native 
oxide of iron, to which iron filings are often added, 
and exposed for some time to a strong red heat, 
by which the excess of carbon is abstracted or 
burnt out. The process somewhat resembles an- 
nealing or cementation. 

DECOCTION. Syn. Decoction, {Fr.) Ab- 
KOCHUNG, (Ger.) Decoctum, (Lot.) From dccoquo, 
to boil. (In PuARMAcy.) An aqueous solution of 
the active principles of vegetables, obtained by 
boiling. (In Cuemistry.) A continued ebullition 
with water, to separate such parts of bodies as are 
only soluble at the boiling temperature. 

The effi^ct of boiling water differs greally from 
that of infusion. At the heat of 212°, the essen- 
tial ails and aromatic princii)los of vegetables are 
dissipated or decomposed ; while by infusion in hot 
water, in covered vessels, tliey remain for the 



DEC 



237 



DEC 



most part uninjured. The solvent powers of boil- 
ing water are, however, much greater than those 
of hot water ; and many vetretable principles 
scarcely acted on by the latter, are freely soluble 
in the former. This is the case with many of the 
alkaloids, on which the medicinal virtues of several 
vegetables depend. On the other hand, it must 
be recollected that the solutions of many sub- 
stances, though more readily made by boiling, are 
speedily weakened or rendered inert by ebullition, 
in consequence of the active principles being either 
volatilized along with the steam, or oxidized, or 
decomposed by exposure to the atmosphere. This 
is particularly the case with substances abounding 
in extractive or astringent matter. When the 
medicinal properties of vegetables are volatile, or 
are injured by a strong heat, infusion should be 
had recourse to, in preference to boiling ; but 
when a sohition of the fixed constituents is alone 
sought, decoction is preferable. In preparing com- 
pound decoctions, those ingredients should be boil- 
ed first which least readily impart their active 
prniciples, and those which most readily impart 
them should be added afterwards. In many cases 
it will be proper simply to infuse the more aromatic 
subs;ijrces in the hot decoction of the other in- 
gredients, by which means their volatile principles 
will be preserved. Some of the preparations in the 
pharmacopoeias are injudiciously ordered to be 
boiled, while others that would not suffer by ebul- 
lition i.'jjng with water, are directed to be infused. 
As examples of the former, may be mentioned the 
compound decoctions of aloes, chamomile, and 
sarsaparilla, and the simple decoctions of mezereon, 
cinchona bark, &c. ; as examples of the latter, 
the infusions of quassia and rhatad^ may be no- 
ticed. 

For making decoctions, the substances should 
be well bruised, or reduced to a very coarse pow- 
der, or, if fresh and soft, they should be sliced 
small. In the former case, any very fine powder 
or adhering dust should be removed with a sieve, 
as its presence would tend to make the product 
thick and disagreeable, and also more troublesome 
to strain. The vessel in which the ebullition is 
conducted should be furnished with an accurately 
fitting cover, the better to exclude the air ; and 
the application of the heat should be so conducted 
that the fluid may be kept " siynmering" or only 
gently boiling, as violent boiling is not only quite 
unnecessary, but absolutely injurious. In every 
case the liquor should be strained while hot, but 
not boiling, and the best method of doing this is 
to employ a fine hair sieve, or a coarse flannel 
bag. In general it is found, that as decoctions 
cool, a sediment is formed, in consequence of the 
boiling water dissolving a larger portion of vege- 
table matter than it can retain in solution when 
cold. This deposite for the most part consists of the 
active principles of the solution, and should be 
mingled with the clear liquid by agitation, when 
the decoction enters into extemporaneous compo- 
sitions, or when the dose is taken. It will thus 
be seen that the common practice of leaving the 
filtration until the liquid has become cold, and also 
of rejecting the sediment, is injudicious, and should 
be scrupulously avoided ; as, however, much decoc- 
tions so prepared may please the eye, they are 
not only inferior in strength, but, m many cases, 



nearly inert. It may be further remarked, that 
LONG boiling is in no case necessary, and should 
be avoided, especially in decoctions prepared from 
aromatic vegetables, or those abounding in extrac- 
tive. The colleges, in such cases, direct the in- 
gredients " to be boiled for a short time," (P. D 
Art. Dec. Chamomeli Co. ;) or "for 10 minutes,** 
(P. L. Art. Dec. Cinchona^ ;) or they limit the 
period of the ebullition by stating the quantity that 
must be volatilized, as — " Iwil to a pint, and strain," 
(P. L. Art. Lee. Cetrariae ;) the latter method 
being generally employed for those substances that 
do not suffer by lengthened boiling. 

Distilled water, or perfectly clean rain water, 
should alone be used for decoctions. Spring and 
river water, from containing lime, have less solvent 
powers. 

The aqueous solutions of organic matter, from 
the nature of their constituents, rapidly ferment, 
or putrefy. Vegetable substaiices, from abounding 
in sugar and starch, mostly undergo the former 
change, and this takes place, under common cir- 
cumstances, after the lapse of only a few hours. 
At the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, 
neither decoctions nor infusions are fit to be used 
in dispensing, unless made the same day; they 
should, consequently, be only prepared in small 
quantities at a time, and any unconsumed portion 
should be rejected. Some of these preparations 
will keep for 48 hours, in temperate weather, but 
as the ingredients are mostly of little value, and 
the menstruum (water) valueless, it would be im- 
prudent for the dispenser to risk his own reputation, 
and the welfare of the patient, by employing an 
article of dubious quality. 

It has of late years become a general practice 
for the wholesale houses to vend preparations un- 
der the name of " coNCENXRATrn decoctions," 
which, with the exception of the compound decoc- 
tion of aloes, are stated to be. of 8 times the phar- 
macopoeial strength ; so that one drachm of these 
liquidii, added to seivn drachms of water, form ex- 
temporaneous decoctions, professedly resembling 
those of the pharmacopoeia. The decoction of 
aloes is made of only four times the usual strength, 
as the nature of its composition would not permit 
further concentration. I feel it to be, however, a 
bounden duty to the sick, to state, that such prep- 
arations nre but very imperfect substitutes for the 
decoctions of the Colleges, and in the usual man- 
ner. The extreme difficulty of forming concen- 
trated solutions of vegetable matter with bulky 
ingredients, too often leads to the omission of a 
portion of the materials, or to the practice of con- 
centrating the liquid by evaporation ; in the first 
case, the strength is of course less than it should 
be, and in the second, the quality is injured, and 
perhaps the preparation is rendered nearly inert by 
the lengthened exposure to heat, and the con- 
sequent volatilization or decomposition of its activo 
constituents. The common practice of adding a 
considerable portion of spirit to these preparations, 
which is absolutely necessary to make them keep, 
is also objectionable, as, in many cases in which 
decoctions are prescribed, this article, even in small 
quantities, would have a prejudicial effect. Be- 
sides, the object in employing aqueous decoctioutj 
or infusions is to avoid the use of spirituous prepa- 
rations. Some concentrated dec'octions have been 



DEC 



238 



DEC 



recently offered for sale which do not contain a 
particle of alcohol, being preserved by the addition 
of sulphurous acid, or the sulphite of lime ; but on 
lately examining a sample of one of these, I found 
it perfectly worthless ; it possessed a strong odor 
of bark, but it contained barely a trace of cincho- 
nine. (See Concentration, Infusion, Essence, 
Extracts, Liquor.) 

DECOCTION, COOLING. Prep. Barley 
water 1 pint ; muriatic acid 1 drachm ; sirup or 
lump sugar to sweeten. Use. A common drink 
in putrid fevers, taken ad libitum. 

DECOCTION, DIAPHORETIC. Prep. De- 
coction of bark 1 pint ; liquor of acetate of ammo- 
nia 4 oz. ; aromatic confection 1 oz. Dose. 2 or 

3 tablespoonfuls every 3 hours. 
DECOCTION FOR FOMENTATION. Syn. 

Decoctum pro Fomento, (P. L. 1788.) Prep. 
Leaves of southernwood, sea wormwood, and 
chamomile flowers, of each 1 oz. ; laurel leaves ^ 
oz. ; water 5 pints ; boil, and strain. 

DECOCTION, MERCURIAL. Prep. Cor- 
rosive sublimate gr. j ; (dissolved in) spirits of wine 
30 drops ; extract of sarsaparilla 3iij ; decoction of 
earsaparilla f §viij ; mix. Dose. One large table- 
spoonful 3 times a day. 

DECOCTION OF ALOES. (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Decoctum Aloejs compositum, (P. L. & E.) 
Balsam of Life. Bauime de Vie. Prep. I. Ex- 
tract of liquorice 3vij ; carbonate of potassa 3j ; 
aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each Siss ; compound 
tincture of cardamoms f §vij ; water 1^ pints. Boil 
the first five ingredients in the water, until the 
fluid be reduced to a pint, strain, cool, and add the 
tincture. (P. L.) 

Remarks. The })receding instructions, which are 
those of our Pliunuacopoeia, appear to be objec- 
tionable, as theiTi cannot possibly be any advan- 
tage in boiliug the sauVon, while by such an opera- 
tion the whole of its fnijjnince is dissipated. A 
better plan is to macerate the saffron in the tinc- 
ture for a few days, previously to adding the latter 
to the decoction of the other ingredients. After 
the tincture has boon strained off from the saffron, 
Ihe latter may be washed with a little water, to 
remove any adhering color and odor, and this may 
be added to the decoction. The addition of the 
tincture produces a deposite of mucilaginous and 
feculent matter, which has been dissolved out of 
the liquorice, for which reason some houses omit 
the latter altogether, and supply its place with an 
equal quantity of lump sugar, and a little coloring. 
By this method the liquid, after being once ren- 
dered fine by decanting or filtering, will continue 
so for any length of lime. The full quantity of 
saffron ordered by Ihe ('oUege, is seldom used in 
making this preparation, a small fraction of it only 
being employed. The following formula is used 
by a wholesale London drug house, that does very 
largely in this article. 

II. Solazzi juice 1^ lb.; kali (carbonate of pot- 
assa) 3 oz. ; aloes (hei)atic) 4^ oz. ; myrrh (small) 

4 oz. ; water 4^ gallons; boil lo .'} gallons, strain 
thro\igh flannel, cool, and add 10 i)intK of com- 
pound tincture of cardamoms, that has been di- 
gested for 10 days on saflron, 1 ^ oz. ; mix well, and 
add essential oil of nutmeg 15 drops, oils of cassia 
and caraway, of er.ch 10 drops, and oils of cloves 
and pimento, of each 5 drops. Agitate well to- 



gether, and allow it to repose for a week, then de- 
cant the clear portion from the sediment, and pre- 
serve it in a cool place. 

DECOCTION OF ALOES, (CONCEN- 
TRATED COMPOUND.) In preparing thip 
article, there is considerable advantage in substi 
tuting sugar for the liquorice, as, if the Litter be 
used, there is a large deposite from which the last 
portion of the liquid is separated with difficulty 
The following form may be used with advantage. 

I. Lump sugar 8 oz. ; burnt sugar cotoring \ 
pint ; carbonate of potash 2 oz. ; aloes, myrrh, and 
saffron, of each 3 oz. ; compound tincture of car- 
damoms i a gallon ; water 3 pints ; boil the first 
five in the water, until the liquid be nearly re- 
duced to one half ; cool and add the tincture, pre- 
viously digested for a week, on the saffron ; then 
proceed as directed in the last article. 

Remarks. The proportion of saffron usually 
employed in the drug trade for the above quantity, 
is ^ oz. ; and some fragrant oils are frequently ad- 
ded to bring up the smell, as before described. The 
high i:)rice of saffron, for some time past, has led 
many unprincipled persons to omit it altogether. 
Should it be preferred to use extract of liquorice, 
14 oz. of solazzi juice must be added to the above, 
and the sugar and coloring omitted. The price at 
which many houses offer this preparation, is abso- 
lutely less than the bare cost of the ingredients or- 
dered by the College. I am in the habit of prepa- 
ring this article by digesting the aloes, myrrh, li- 
quorice, and potassa, all reduced to powder, along 
with the saffron, in the tincture, for a fortnight, 
employing frequent agitation. In this case the 
proportion of the tincture in the above fonnula 
should be 5| pints, and the water should be omit- 
ted. In this way a very odorous and beautiful 
preparation is produced, which has been much 
admired. 

DECOCTION OF APOCYNUM. Syn. De- 
coctum Apocyni. Prep. (Dr. Griscom.) Root 
of apocynum cannabinum and juniper berries, of 
each 3J ; water 3 pints ; boil to 1 quart and strain. 

DECOCTION OF ASPARAGUS. Syn. 
Dec Asparagi. Prep, asparagus root ^j ; water 
lb. ij ; boil for 5 minutes and strain. 

DECOCTION OF AVENS. Syn. Dec Gei 
Urbani. Prep. (Thompson.) Avens root (herb 
bennet) fj ; water 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes. 

DECOCTION OF BALLOTA LANATA. 



Prep. Leaves and flowers 



water 2 lbs. ; 



boil to 1 lb. and strain. Dose. 1 or 2 oz., 3 or 4 
times a day ; as a diuretic in dropsy. 

DECOCTION OF BARK. Syn. Dec of 
Cinchona. I. (Dec. of Lanced -leaved Cinchona 
or Pale Bark. Decoctum Cinchonas, P. L. 1788, 
1809, and 1824. Dec. Cinchomc. Lancifolia', P. 
L. 1836.) Prep. Lance-leaved cinchona bark, 
well bruised, ^j ; water, sufficient to leave 1 pint 
when strained ; boil for 10 minutes, (P. L.) Be- 
fore dispensing or pouring out the dose, the sedi- 
ment should ho shaken up with the liquid, as it 
consists of the most active portion of the bark. 

IT. {Decoction of Heart -Icai-cd Cinchona oi 
Yellow Bark. Syn. Dec. Cinchoncv Cordifulidi, 
P. L.) Prep. Ileart-leaved cinchona, or yellow 
bark, bruised, 3x ; distilled water 1 pint ; boil foi 
10 minutes, and strain while hot. 

III. {Decoction of Oblong-leaved Cinchona or 



DEC 



239 



DEC 



Red Bark. Syn. Dec. Cmchonce Ohlongifolice, 
P. L.) As the decoction of yellow bark. 

Dose, <^c. Either of the above is given in doses 
of ] to 2 oz., 3 or 4 times daily, as a tonic, stomachic, 
and febrifuge, where the stomach will not bear the 
administration of bark in powder, in cases of dys- 
pepsia, convalescences, &c. 

DECOCTION OF BARLEY. Syn. Barley 
Water. Plain ditto. Aqua Hordeata. Dec. 
HoRDEi, (P. L.) Prep. Pearl barley §iiss ; water 
4i pints. First wash the barley with some water, 
then boil in ^ pint of the water for a little time, 
throw this away, pour on the remaining 4 pints, 
boiling hot, boil down to 1 quart, and strain. 

DECOCTION OF BARLEY, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Barley Water. Pectoral Decoction. 
PrisANA co.MMUNis. Dec. Hordei compositum, 
(P. L.) Prep. Barley water 1 quart ; sliced figs 
and stoned raisins, of each ^iiss ; liquorice root, 
sliced and bruised, 3v ; water 1 pmt ; boil down 
to 1 quart, and strain. 

Remarks. Both the above are used as demul- 
cents in fever's, phthisis, strangury, «Scc., taken ad 
libitum. They are slightly laxative, and where 
tliis would be an objection to their use, a few drops 
of laudanum may be added. Mixed with an equal 
quantity of decoction of bark, barley water forms 
an excellent gargle in cynanche maligna, (ulcer- 
ated sore throat,) and, with a like quantity of milk 
and a little sugar, a good substitute for the breast 
in dry-nursing infants. 

DECOCTION OF THE BLUE CARDI- 
NAL FLOWER. Syn. Dec. Lobelia Syphili- 
TiCiE. Dec. Lobelia. Prep. (P. C.) Root of 
the lobelia syphilitica 1 handful ; water 12 lbs. ; 
boil to 7 lbs., and strain. ^ 

Remarks. This decoction is purgative, and was 
once thought to possess alterative virtues. It was 
strongly recommended by Sv/ediaur, in certain com- 
plaints ; he gave half a pint at first twice daily, 
and afterwards 4 times a day, unless it acted too 
strongly on the bowels, when the frequency of the 
dose was diminished, or it was discontinued for 3 
or 4 days, and then had recourse to again, until 
the cure was effected. It is now seldom employed. 

DECOCTION OF BROOM TOPS. Syn. 
Dec Spartii Cacumnium. Dec. Scoparii. Prep. 
Tops of broom (cut small) 1 oz. ; water 1 pint ; 
boil to one half, and strain. As a diuretic in 
dropsy. 

DECOCTION OF BROOM, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Dec Spartii Cacumnium go. Dec. Sco- 
parii co.MPosiTUM, (P. L.) Prep. Broom tops, 
juniper berries, and dandelion root, of each §ss ; 
water 1^ pint ; boil to 1 pint, and strain. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh preparation, in addi- 
tion to the above, contains 2^ drs. of cream of tar- 
tar, and is hence said to be preferable to that of 
the London Pharmacopoeia. Both the above are 
diuretic, and are chiefly administered in dropsy, 
especially ascites, (dropsv of the belly.) 

DECOCTION OF BURDOCK. Syn. Dec 
BARDANiE. Prep. (P. C.) Bardana root §vj ; wa- 
ter 5 pints ; boil to 3 pints, and strain. 

Use. As an alterative, a pint to a quart daily, or 
ad libitum, in all those cases in which sarsaparilla 
is recommended. 

DECOCTION OF BURNT SPONGE. Syn. 
Dec. Spongi^. Dec. Spongi^ Ust^. Prep. 



(Hufeland.) Burnt sponge (ppwdered) ^j j water 
1 pint; boil a little, digest 12 hours, strain, and 
add of cinnamon water ^ij. 

Remarks. Burnt sponge was once much recom- 
mended in scrofula, but has fallen into disuse. If 
it poetesses any virtue, it must depend upon the 
very small quantity of iodine it generally con- 
tains. 

DECOCTION OF CABBAGE TREE 
BARK. Syn. Dec Geoffroy^, (P. D.) Bark of 
the cabbage tree bruised ^j ; water 1 quart ; boi' t- 
one half, strain, and add §ij of sirup of orange pee. 

Uses, ^c. Cathartic, narcotic, and anthelmit 
tic. Dose. 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls for an adult. 

DECOCTION OFCALUMBA. Syn. Dec 
Calumb^. Prep. Calumba root, sliced, ^j ; wa 
ter 1^ pint; boil to 1 pint and strain. Dose. A 
tablespoonful 2 or 3 times daily. Bitter, tonic 
stomachic. 

DECOCTION OF CALUMBA, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Dec Calumba comp. (P. U. S.) 
Prep. Calumba root and quassia sliced, of each 
3ij ; orange peel 3j ; rhubarb 3} ; carbonate of po- 
tassa 3ss ; water 1 pint. Boil to f3xvj; strain, 
and add compound tincture of lavender, f^ss. 
Dose, ^c, as above. 

DECOCTION OF CEYLON MOSS. Syn. 
Dec Fuci Amylacei. Prep. Ceylon mow* 1 
oz. ; water 3 pints ; boil for 20 minutes. 

DECOCTION OF CHAMOMILE. Syn. 
Dec Anthemidis. Dec Cham.emeli. Prep. 
Chamomile flowers 5J ; water 1 pint ; gently sim- 
mer for 5 minutes in a closely covered veKS«l. 

DECOCTION OF CHAMOMILE, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Dec Cham.«meli compositum, 
(P. D.) Prep. Chamomile flowers dried ^ss ; fen- 
nel seeds 3ij ; water 1 pint ; as above. 

Uses, <^c. Both the above are bitter, stomachic, 
and tonic, and are commonly used as fomentations 
and clysters. 

DECOCTION OF CHYRATA. Syn. Dec. 
CiiYRATiE. Prep. Chyrata f j ; water 1 quart ; 
boil for 10 minutes, and strain. 

DECOCTION OF CINCHONA AND 
SNAKEROOT. Syn. Decoction Cinchona 
cum Serpentaria. Prep. (Sir J. Pringle.) Cin- 
chona bark 3iij ; water 1 pint ; boil to one half, 
and infuse therein Virginian snakeroot 3iij. 

DECOCTION OF COLTSFOOT. Syn 
Dec Tussilaginis. Prep. (Pereira.) Fresh leaves 
of coltsfoot §ij ; water 1 quart ; boil to a pint. 

Remarks. This decoction is a popular remedy 
in chronic coughs, consumption, &c. It is emol- 
lient and demulcent. Dose. ^ a teacupful, ad 
libitum. 

DECOCTION OF CORSICAN MOSS. Syn. 
Dec Helmixthocorti. Prej?. Corsican moss 3v; 
water 1^ pint ; boil to a pint. 

DECOCTION OF DANDELION. Syn. 
Dec Taraxaci, (P. D.) Prep. Fresh herb and 
root fiv; (fvii P. E. ;) water lb. ij ; (2 pints P. 
E. ;) boil to one half, and strain. 

Remarks. This decoction is aperient, tonic, and 
stomachic. The dose is 2 to 3 oz. 2 or 3 times 
daily. Its virtue is increased by combination with 
saline medicines, as bitartrate of potassa, &c. 
The root has considerably the most virtue when 
dug up in autumn, as it is then full of milky juice 

DECOCTION OF DEADLY NIGHT- 



DEC 



240 



DEC 



SHADE. Syn. Dec. Digitalis. Prep. Dried 
. eaves of deadly nightshade 3ij ; boiling water 1 
pint ; macerate for half an hour, then gently boil 
for two minutes and strain. 

DECOCTION OF ELDER BARK. Syn. 
Dec. Sambuci. Prep. I. (Sydenham.) Elder 
bark f j ; water and milk, of each 1 pint ; boil to 
a pint and strain. 

II. (Collier.) Elder bark ^j ; water f f xvj ; boil 
to ^ a pint and strain. 

Dose, f §ij three times a day in dropsy and some 
cutaneous affections. 

DECOCTION OF ELECAMPANE, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Dec. Inul^ comp. Prep. (Ra- 
tier.) Elecampane root ^j ; hyssop and ground- 
ivy, of each 3ij ; water 1 pint ; boil \ of an hour, 
strain, and add of honey §ij. 

DECOCTION OF ERGOT OF RYE. Syn. 
Dec. Ergots. Dec. Secale Cornuti. Prep. 
(Pereira.) Ergot of rye oj ; water f §vj ; boil for 
10 minutes and strain. Dose. \ of the above re- 
peated every half hour, until the whole be taken. 

DECOCTION OF ELM BARK. Syn. Dec. 
Ulmi, (P. L.) Fresh elm bark bruised, ^iiss ; dis- 
tilled water 1 quart ; boil to a pint and strain. 

Uses, ^c. Bitter, mucilaginous, and diuretic. 
It is given with advantage in herpetic eruptions. 
Dr. Lettsom states that he cured a case of lepra 
ichthyosis by means of elm bark. — ? Dose. 4 to 6 
oz. twice a day. 

DEC0CTI6n of ELM BARK, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Dec. Ulmi comp. Prep. (Jef- 
frey.) Simple decoction of elm bark 8 pints ; 
liquorice root, sassafras, and guaiacum chips, of 
each §j ; mezereon root 3iij ; boil for 1 hour and 
strain. 

DECOCTION OF GALLS. Syn. Dec. Gal- 
LiE. Prep. I. Aleppo galls, bruised, ^ oz. ; water 
1^ pint ; boil to a pint and strain. 

II. Galls, bruised, ^ oz. ; water 2J pints ; boil 
to a quart, strain, cool, and add of tincture of gall 
1 oz. 

Use, ^c. As a fomentation, enema, or injec- 
tion, in prolapsus ani, piles, and leucorrhcea. 

DECOCTION OF WATERDOCK. Syn. 
Dec. Rumicis. Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Root 
of the common waterdock (Rumex Obtusifolius) 
f j ; water 1 pint ; boil for 10 minutes and strain. 

Uses, ^c. This decoction is astringent, and was 
once much celebrated as a remedy for scurvy and 
some other cutaneous diseases. " It is the only 
remedy which proves efficacious in that disease, 
ivhen the ulcers are healed, and the patient is 
attacked with asthma." (Linnceus, on the scui-vy 
of the Laplanders.) 

DECOCTION OF GUAIACUM. Syn. De- 
coction OF THE Woods. Dec. Guaiaci, (P. E.) 
Prep. Guaiacum turnings §iij ; sassafras, rasped, 
(chips,) and liquorice root, bruised, of each §j ; 
raisins §ij ; water 1 gallon ; boil the guaiacum and 
raisins with the water down to 5 pints, adding the 
liquorice and sassafras towards the close ; then 
strain. 

DECOCTION OF GUAIACUM, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Dec. of the Woods. Dec. 
Guaiaci comtositum, (P. D.) Prep. Guaiacum 
wood (rasped) ^'ij ; sassafras shavings 3x ; liquor- 
■ ce root, bruised, ^iss ; water 10 old wino pints. 
Boil the guaiacum in the water until tho liquid bo 



reduced to ^, then add the liquorice and sassafras : 
boil a little longer and strain. 

Dose. A teacupful 3 or 4 times daily, or oftener, 
in chronic rheumatism, some cutaneous diseases, 
after a course of mercury, &c. Its virtues are of 
a very dubious kind. 

DECOCTION OF HELLEBORE. Syn 
Dec. Helebori Albi, (P. L. 1788.) Dec. Vera 
tri, (P. L. 1836.) Root of white hellebore, bruised, 
3x ; water 1 quart ; boil to one half, strain, and 
add rectified spirit of wine f f iij. 

Use, <^c. As a wash, in itch, ringworm, leprosy, 
psoriasis, &c., either alone, or mixed with watoj , 
also to destroy vermin in the hair, &c. 

DECOCTION OF HEMEDESMUS INDl 
CUS. Syn. Dec. Hemedesmi Indici. Pn:p 
(Pereira.) Hemedesmus root |ij ; water IJ pait 
boii to 1 pint. 

Used in similar cases to sarsaparilla. It is d' 
uretic and tonic. 

DECOCTION OF IRISH MOSS. -Syn 
Dec. Condri. Prep. (Pereira.) Carrageen mwis 
1 oz. ; macerate in lukewarm water for 10 mm- 
utes, then boil in water 3 pints for 15 minutes, ai^d 
strain through linen. 

Remarks. Milk may be used instead of wate':., 
and if twice the above weight of moss be employed, 
a mucilage will be produced, which may be fla- 
vored with lemon juice, spices, &c., and forms a 
most nutritious article of spoon-diet. It is com- 
monly taken in pulmonary complaints, scrofula, 
chronic diarrhcea, cough, &c., and is frequently 
employed in cookery, as a substitute for animal 
jelly, in the preparation of blancmanges, jellies, 
soups, &c. 

DECOCTION OF JAMAICA DOGWOOD. 
Syn. Dec. Corni Florid^e. Prep. (Dr. Coxa.) 
Jamaica dogwood §j ; water f fxvj ; boil for 20 
minutes. 

DECOCTION OF JUNIPER BERRIES, 
(COMP.) Syn. Dec. Juniperi comp. Prep. 
(St. B. H.) Juniper berries §ij ; cream of t<irtar 
3iij ; water 4 pints ; boil to a quart, strain, and 
add compound spirit of juniper f^ij. Diuretic. 

DECOCTION OF LIQUORICE. Syn. Dec. 
Glycyrrhiz^, (P. D.) Prep. Bruised liquorice 
root §iss ; water 1 pint ; boil 10 minutes and strain. 
A mild demulcent ; it is taken either alone, or is 
used as a vehicle for more active remedies. 

DECOCTION OF LIVERWORT. Syn. 
Dec. of Iceland Moss. Dec. Lichems, (P. L. 
1809 and 1824.) Dec. Cetrarle, (P. L. 1836.) 
Prep. Liverwort 3v ; water 1^ pints; boil down 
to a pint, and strain. 

Remarks. This is given in doses of 1 to 4 oz., 
three or four times a day, in pulmonary com- 
plaints, &c. The addition of vinegar, lemon juice, 
or sulphuric acid, barely enough to acidulate it, 
with a little sugar or sirup, has been highly rec- 
ommended. This preparation is intensely bitter 
and nauseous, when made according to the above 
formula, but if the moss be soaked for a few liours 
in cold water before making the decoction, most 
of the bitterness will be extracted, while tlie other 
properties will remain uninjured. 

DECOCTION OF LOGWOOD. Syn. Dec. 
II^.matoxyli, (P. E. and D.) Prep. Logwood 
chii)s 5J, (^iss P. D. ;) powdered cinnamon 3j ; 
water 1 pint, (2 old wine pints', P. D. ;) boil to one- 



DEC 



241 



DEC 



half, adding the cinnamon towards the close of the 
operation, and strain. 

Use. Astringent and tonic. Dose. 1 to 4 or 5 
tablespoonfuls, in diarrhoea. 

DECOCTION OF MALLOWS, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Common Decoction. Dec. vko 
Enemate, (P. L. 1787.) Dec. commune. Dec. 
Malv^ coMPOsiTUM, (P. L. 1836.) Prep. Mal- 
lows, dried, §j ; chamomile flowers, dried, "^ss ; 
water 1 pint ; boil for 15 minutes, and strain. 

Use. For fomentations and enemas. 

DECOCTION OF MALT. Syn. Sweet- 
wort. Dec. Malti. Prep. (Ft. H.) IJarley 
malt 4 oz. ; water 3 pints ; boil for 10 minutes, 
add liquorice root 3j ; boil down to a quart, and 
strain. Demulcent ; laxative. 

DECOCTION OF MARSHMALLOWS. 
Syn. Dec. Altii.e.^, (P. D.) Prep. Dried root 
and herb of marshmallow ^iv ; raisins, stoned, §ij ; 
water 7 pints, (wiue measure ;) boil down to 5 
pints, strain, allow it to deposite the sediment, and 
decant the clear liquid. 

Use, ^'C. It is demulcent. Dose. A cupful ad 
libitum, in coughs, colds, calculous affections, and 
other diseases of the urinary organs. 

DECOCTION OF MEZEREON. Syn. 
Dec. Mezkrei, (P. D. and E.) Prep. Mezereon 
root, in chips, 3ij ; liquorice root, bruised, fss ; 
water 1 quart, (3 old wine pints, P. D. ;) gently 
boil to 1^ pint, (2 old wine pints, P. D.,) and 
strain. 

Dose, f §iij to a teacupful, two or three times a 
day, in chronic rheumatism, scrofula, lepra, and 
some other cutaneous affections. Much boiling in- 
jures jthe virtues of mezereon. 

DECOCTION OF OAK BARK. Syn. Dec 
Quercus. Prep. Oak bark 3x ; water 1 quart ; 
boil to one-half, and strain. 

Uses, ^c. Astringent. It is used as a gargle in 
ulcerated sore throat, relaxation of the uvula, &lc., 
and as a wash and injection in piles, leucorrhoea, 
hemorrhages, prolapsus ani, &c. 

DECOCTION OF PAREIRA BRAVA. Syn. 
Dec. Pareir^. Prep. (Brodie.) Pareira root 3v ; 
water 3 pints ; boil to one-third. 

DECOCTION OF POMEGRANATE. Syn. 
Dec. Granati. Prep. I. (P. L.) Pomegranate 
peel ^ij ; water IJ pint ; boil to a pint, and strain. 

II. (P. Cod.) Bark of the pomegranate root §ij ; 
water 1:^ pint ; boil gently to f §xvj. 

III. (Collier.) Bark of the root f ij *, water 1 
pint ; boil to one -half. This is the common form 
used in India. 

Remarks. These decoctions are astringent, pur- 
gative, and vermifuge. Those prepared from the 
root, possess the latter property in the highest de- 
gree. Dr. Collier recommends the Avhole of the 
last preparation to be given at 2 doses, at the in- 
terval of 2 hours. It purges, and in .5 or 6 hours 
frequently expels the worm ; if this does not take 
place, it should be persevered in. " Look for the 
head of the taenia, (worm ;) for if that is not ex- 
pelled, you have done nothing." (Collier.) 

DECOCTION OF PYROLA. Syn. Dec. 
OF Winter-Green. Dec. Pyrol^e. Dec. Chim- 
APHiL^, (P. L.) Prep. Winter-green §j ; distilled 
water 1^ pint ; boil to a pmt, and strain. Dose. 1 
to 2 oz. in dropsy, either alone or combined with 
cream of tartar. 

31 



DECOCTION OF POPPIES Syn. Dae 
Papaveris, (P. L.) Prep. Poppy heads, sliced, 
§iv ; water 2 quarts ; boil 15 minutes, and strain. 

Use, ^c. This decoction is employed as aa 
emollient fomentation in painful swellings, excori- 
ations, &LC. The addition of a :J pint of vinegar to 
the above quantity, is said to promote its eflicucy 

DECOCTION OF PURPLE WILLOW 
HERB. Syn. Dec Salicari^. Prep. (Thom- 
son.) Fresh root of tho purple willow herb 3x ; 
water 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes. 

DECOCTION OF QUINCE SEEDS. Syn. 
Dec Cydoni/E, (P. L.) Prep. Quince seeds 3ij ; 
water 1 pint ; simmer them together for 10 mui- 
utes, then strain. Demulcent. 

DECOCTION OF RICE. Syn. Rice Water 
Rice Drink. Dec. Oryz^e. Prep. Rice 2 oz. ; 
water 1 quart ; boil to one-half, and strain. De- 
mulcent. A good drink in fevers, coughs, &.c. It 
may be s\Veetened, and flavored with a little 
lemon-peel. 

DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. 
Dec Sarz^, (P. L. and E.) Dec SARSAPARiLLiE, 
(P. D.) Decoction de Salsepareille, (Fr.) Sar- 
saparille-Dekokte, (Ger.) Decotto di Sarsa- 
parillo, (Ital.) Prep. Sarsaparilla root, sliced, 
^v ; boiling distilled water 4 pints ; macerate for 
4 hours, in a vessel lightly covered, and placed in 
a warm situation ; then take out the root, bruise 
it, return it again to the liquor, and aguiu mace- 
rate for 2 hours ; next boil down to 1 quart, and 
strain. (P. L.) The formulaB of the Irish and 
Scotch Colleges are similar. 

Remarks. The medicinal virtues of sarsaparilla 
root reside wholly in the bark, or cortical portion ; 
it is therefore quite unnecessary to bruise it, as di- 
rected by the Colleges. By those houses which 
do largely in decoction of sarsaparilla, the root is 
seldom split or cut ; but the bundles in which it is 
made up are simply untied and spread open, to al- 
low of the free exposure of every part to the sol- 
vent action of the water. By this plan, the whole 
of the soluble portion of the bark is extracted, 
while the feculent matter that pervades the wood 
is only partially dissolved out. Dose. 4 oz. to half 
a pint, 3 or 4 times daily. (See Sarsaparilla.) 

An extemporaneous decoction of sarsaparilla is 
made by dissolving f oz. of the simple extract in 1 
pint of hot water. 

DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA, (CON- 
CENTRATED.) Prep. Sarsaparilla root (Ja- 
maica) 10 lbs. ; place it in a large and well-cleaned 
copper boiler, and add enough water to cover it ; 
bring it to the boiling temperature, then let it 
macerate, without boiling, for 5 or 6 hours, after 
which boil it for 1 hour, draw off the liquor into 
another clean copper pan, and wash the root (af- 
ter it has well drained) with boiling water, until 
the latter runs off but little colored ; add the wash- 
ings to the decoction, and evaporate as quickly as 
possible to 6^ pints ; let it cool, and further add 
1^ pint of rectified spirits of wine ; mix, and keep 
it in a well-corked bottle. In a few days it will 
become as clear and brilliant as brandy, will have 
but very little sediment, and will keep for any 
length of time uninjured. Some manufacturers, 
instead of washing the roots, give it a second and 
third water, boiling it each time, and evaporating 
the mixed liquors. 



DEC 



242 



DEC 



Remarks. 1 drachm of this decoction, mixed 
with 7 drachms of water, forms a similar prepara- 
tion to the Decoctum Sarzae of the Pharmacopoeia, 
and is now very frequently substituted for it in 
dispensing. (See Sarsaparilla.) 

DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Lisbon Diet Drink. Compound 
Decoction of Sarsaparilla and the Woods. De- 
coctum LusiTANicuM. Dec. SarsaparillvE com- 
posiTUM, (P. D.) Dec. Sarz^ comp., (P. L.) Prep. 
Decoction of sarsaparilla (boiling) 4 pints ; sassa- 
fras chips, guaiacum, (rasped,) liquorice root, 
(bruised,) of each 3x ; mezereon root 3iij ; boil for 
15 minutes, and strain. 

Dose, ^'C. 4 to 6 oz. 3 or 4 times a day, either 
along with or after a mercurial course, in chronic 
rheumatism, lepra, psoriasis, and several other 
skin diseases. It is alterative and diaphoretic ; 
during its use the skin should be kept warm. See 
the preceding articles, and Sarsaparilla, in its al- 
Dhabetical order. 

DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA, COM- 
POUND, (CONCENTRATED.) There is a 
very considerable trade done in this article, in con- 
sequence of the compound decoction of sarsapa- 
rilla being very commonly ordered in prescriptions, 
and taken in large doses. When mixed with 7 
times its weight of water, it forms a similar prepa- 
ration to the Decoctum SarzcB compositum, P. L. ; 
and is very generally substituted for it in dispens- 
*ig. When honestly and skilfully prepared, it is 
■eally a most convenient and valuable article ; it 
s, however, more frequently met with of an infe- 
rior quality, and as the difference is not readily 
distinguished by mere ocular examination, it would 
be better for the dispenser to avoid employing it, 
unless it be ordered. The following formula is 
that employed by one of the largest metropolitan 
drug-houses, which is proverbial for the superior 
quality of their decoction of sarsaparilla. 

Prep. Red Jamaica sarsaparilla 96 lbs. ; meze- 
reon root 9 lbs. ; liquorice root (bruised) 16 lbs. 
Proc. These are packed into a clean copper pan, 
and two or three boards with as many ^ cwt. iron 
weights placed thereon ; water is now run in, to 
about 10 inches higher than the ingredients, and 
heat is applied until ebullition commences. The 
materials are now allowed to macerate without 
boiling for about 6 hours, when the weights and 
boards are removed, and the liquid is gently boiled 
for 1 hour, care being taken to add fresh water 
from time to time, so as to keep the whole well 
covered. The decoction is next run off, and set 
evaporating. as quickly as possible ; the ingredients 
are then washed with boiling water, by allowing 
it to descend from a species of shower-bath, after 
the manner of " sparging," described under 
« Scotch ale." This is repeated until the water 
runs off nearly colorless. The whole of the liquid 
is now evaporated without delay, until reduced to 
Si gallons, when, after cooling, 2 drachms of es- 
Bcntial oi'I of sassafras, dissolved in 2 gallons of 
rectified spirit of wine, are added, and afterwards, 
1 pint of essence of guaiacum. The liquid is then 
placed in a suitable sized barrel, set uj)on its head, 
fitted with a small cock, {not placed too near the 
bottom,) atid allowed to repose for a week, by 
which time it becomes clear and brilliant. 

Remarks. To conduct tiiis process Buccessfully, 



several large copper pans are required ; one of 
which, to boil the ingredients in, must be capable 
of containing from 120 to 150 gallons at least, and 
the remainder sufficiently large to receive the 
liquors drawn off. The evaporation and decoction 
should also be conducted by steam-heat. A very 
excellent plan adopted by some houses is, to em- 
ploy large wooden vats, and to apply the heat by 
means of pipes laid along the bottom, and supplied 
with high-pressure steam. This method is less 
expensive than the use of double steam pans, as 
above. When essence of guaiacum is not used, 
24 lbs. of guaiacum shavings, from which the dust 
has been sifted, are boiled with the other ingTe- 
dients instead. (See Sarsaparilla.) 

DECOCTION OF SENEGA ROOT. Syn. 
Dec. of American Snakeroot. Dec. SENKGiB, 
(P. L.) Prep. Seneka root 3x ; water 2 pints ; 
boil to one-half, and strain. 

Dose, f^iss to f^iij, three or four times daily, in 
humoral asthma, chronic cough, cbopsy, &c. It 
is stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic, and in 
large doses, emetic and cathartic. It is the anti- 
dote employed by the Senegaro Indians against 
the bite of the rattlesnake. (Dr. Tennant.) 

DECOCTION OF SQUILLS, COMPCTUND. 
Syn. Dec Scill^ comp. Prep. (P. U. S.) Squills 
3iij ; juniper berries §iv ; snakeroot §iij ; wa-ter 
lb. iv ; boil to one half, strain, and add of sweet 
spirits of nitre f§iv. 

DECOCTION OF STARCH. Syn. Muci- 
LAGo Amyli, (P. L. 1788-1824.) Dec Amyli, 
(P. L. 1836.) Prep. Starch 5iv ; water 1 pint ; 
mix gradually and boil for a short time. Use. As 
an enema in dysentery, diarrhoea, and excoriations 
of the rectum. 

DECOCTION OF STEMLESS MILK 
VETCH. Syn. Dec Astragali. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
Root of the astragalus escapus 5x ; water 3 pints ; 
boil to 1 quart. Dose. The whole to be taken 
within the 24 hours. Alterative. &.c. 

DECOCTION, STRENGTHENING. Syn. 
ToNic Decoction. Prep. I. Peruvian bark, 
bruised, §ss ; Virginian snSlteroot 3ij ; water 1 
pint ; boil to one half, strain, and add spirits of 
cinnamon ^iss ; diluted sulphuric acid §iss. Dose. 
2 oz. two or three times a day. 

II. Decoction of bark ^v ; tincture of bark 3vj ; 
aromatic confection 3j ; sal volatile 3j. Dose. 1 
or 2 tablespoonfuls night and morning. 

DECOCTION OF SUET. Syn. Artificial 
Goat's Milk. Dec Sevi. Prep. (Dr. Cummin.) 
Tie some chopped mutton suet in a piece of muslin, 
and simmer it for a short time in milk. 

DECOCTION, SYDENHAM'S WHITE. 
Syn. Hartshorn Drink. Mistura Cornu Ustl 
Prep. Prepared burnt hartshorn ^ij 5 gim^ arable 
§j ; water 3 pints ; boil to 1 quart and strain. Mu- 
cilaginous ; demulcent. 

DECOCTION OF TAMARINDS. Syn. 
Dec Tamarindorum. Prep. Tamarinds ^'ss ; 
water 1 pint ; boil for 5 minutes and strain. A 
ileasant drink in fevers, asthma, chronic coughs, 
&c. 

DECOCTION OF TAMARINDS AND 
SENNA. Syn. Dr.c Tamarindorum cum Sen- 
na, (P. E. 1744.) Tamarinds 3vj ; cream of tartar 
3ij ; water f^xxiv; boil in a glazed earthen vessel 
until reduced to f^xiv ; then infuse therein for J 2 



DEC 



243 



DEC 



hours, senna 3iv ; strain, and add sirup of violets 
Ij. Purgative. 

DECOCTION OF TAR. Sijn. Tar Watep. 
Dec. Picis liquid.^. Prep. Tar 1 r.z. ; water 1^ 
pints ; boil to 1 pint. 

DECOCTION OF TORMENTIL. Syn. 
Dec. Torjientil.e, (P. L.) Prep. Tormentil root, 
bruised, 5 ij ; water li pints; boil to 1 pint and 
strain. Astringent. Dose. 2 to 4 tablespooni*uls 
:n diarrhoea, &c. 

DECOCTION OF VERBENA. Syn. Dec. 
Verben^e. Prep. Verbena (vervain) 2 oz. ; wa- 
ter 1^ pints ; boil to 1 pint and strain. 

Remarks. The verbena officinalis was former- 
ly highly recommended by Etmuller, Hartman, 
De Hae-n, Morley, and others, in scrofula, cepha- 
lalgia, &.C., but afterwards fell into neglect. More 
recently, a decoction of the plant has been highly 
extolled by BosXanov as an anti-febrile. 

DECOCTION, VULNERARY. Syn. Dec. 
VuLNERARiUM. Prep. (E. H.) Ground i\^', and 
broad-leaved plantain, of each ^ss ; water 3 pints ; 
boil to 1 quart, strain, and add sugar ^ss. 

DECOCTION OF WALNUT BARK. Syn. 
Dec. Jltglandis. Prep. (P. Gen.) Green bark of 
walnuts f j ; water 1 pint ; boil for 15 minutes 
and strain. 

DECOCTION OF WALL-PELLITORY. 
Syn. Dec. Parietarle. Prep. (Ratier.) Root of 
wall-pelliton" §j ; water 1^ pints ; boil to 1 pint. 

DECOCTION OF WHORTLEBERRIES. 
Syn. Dec. Uv^ Ursi, (P. L.) Prep. Whortleber- 
ry leaves, bruised, §j ; water 1^ pints; boil to 1 
pint and strain. 

Dose. 1 to 4 tablespocnfuls, in phthisis and pu- 
rulent affections of the urinarv organs. 

DECOCTION OF AVILLOW BARK. Syn. 
Dec Salicis. Prep. . (Wilkinson.) Willow (salix 
latifolia) bark, bruised, ^'ss ; macerate in water 
lb. ij, for 6 hours, then boil for 15 minutes and 
strain. Tonic, astringent, and febrifuge. 

DECOCTION OF WOODY NIGHT- 
SHADE. Syn. Dec. of Bitter-sweet. Dec 
DulcamarjE, (P. L.) Prep. Stalks of the herb, 
sliced, 3x ; water 1^ pints ; boil to 1 pint and 
strain. 

Dose. 1 to 3 oz. It is diaphoretic, diuretic, and 
narcotic, and is given in dropsy, asthma, and sev- 
eral scaly skin diseases. Its narcotic action may 
be obviated by the addition of ^ an oz. of com- 
pound spirits of lavender. (Collier.) 

DECOCTION OF WORMSEED. Syn. Dec 
Santomci. Prep. Wormseed, bruised, ^ij ; water 
1 pint ; boil down to ff xvj, and strain. Stomachic, 
vermifuge. It is principally used as an injection 
against ascarides. 

DECOCTION OF YELLOW MULLEIN. 
Syn. Dec. Verbasci Thapsi. Prep. (Dr. Home.) 
Yellow mullein §j ; water 1 pint ; boil for a short 
time. 

DECOT-ORATION. The blanching or loss 
of the natural color of any substance. Sirups, 
and many animal, vegetable, and saline solutions, 
are decolored or whitened by agitation with ani- 
mal charcoal, and subsequent subsidence ^^r filtra- 
tion. Many fluids rapidly lose their natural color 
oy exposure to light, especially the direct rays of 
the sun. In this way, castor, nut, poppy, and 
several other oils, are whitened. By the joint 



action of light, air, and moisture, cottons and 
linens are commonly bleached. The peculiar 
way in which light produces this efFect, has never 
been satisfactorily explained. That it is not de- 
pendent on the absorption of oxygen, appears 
evident, from the fact, that contact with air is not 
always necessary. I find that raw castor oil, ex- 
posed to the sun in a bottle closely corked, will 
whiten with as much rapidity as that in another 
similar sized bottle, placed beside it and left un- 
corked. There is, however, a small quantity of 
gaseous matter given off, which has an odor re- 
sembling carbureted hydrogen ; but in the open 
bottle, oxygen is continually absorbed, certain oily 
acids formed, and some impure carbonic acid 
evolved. When this action is permitted to go on 
for some time, the oil becomes thick and rancid, 
but may be partially restored to its former state, 
by filtration through coarsely-powdered and fresh- 
ly-burnt animal charcoal. The latter substance is 
commonly employed to deprive fish oils of their 
disagreeable odor, as well as to lessen their color. 
The decoloration of textile fabrics and solid bodies 
generally, is called bleaching. (See Oils, Tal- 
low, Sirup, Sugar, &-c.) 

DECOMPOSITION. Syn. Decomposition, 
(Fr.) Zersetzuxg, {Ger.) In Chemistry. The 
resolution of compounds into their elements, or the 
alteration of their chemical constitution in such a 
manner that new products are formed. — Thus: 
the gas that illuminates our streets, is the , >sult of 
the decomposition of pit-coal ; and vinegar and 
brandy, the result of the decomposition of the sac- 
charine matter of grape juice. The decomposition 
of bodies may be either simple or complicated, ac- 
cordingly as one or more compounds are produced. 
— Thus : when the vapor of water, (steam,) which 
is a compound of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 of hy- 
drogen, is passed over red-hot iron, the latter unites 
with the oxygen, and the hydrogen is liberated in 
an uncombined state. This resolution of the ele- 
ments of one body, and the formation of a new 
compound, is called by chemists, simple or single 
decomposition. The above change may be rep- 
resented by the following diagram : — 

Materials. Composition. Products. 

Hydrogen . Hydrogen gas 

Oxygen 
Iron Iron . . 



Vapor of Water 



Oxide of Iron. 



When, however, two bodies sufl^er mutual altera- 
tion, and an interchange of their elements takes 
place, producing new compounds, it is called dou- 
ble decomposition. Thus : when sal ammoniac 
and chalk are mixed together and distilled, as in 
the preparation of smelling salts, (sesquicarbonate 
of ammonia,) the hydrochloric acid of the former 
unites to the lime of the latter, forming hydrochlo- 
rate of lime ; while the ammonia of the sal ammo- 
niac unites with the carbonic acid of the chalk, form- 
ing sesquicarbonate of ammonia, which passes over 
and is condensed in the receiver. This mutual de- 
composition is exhibited in the following diagram : — 
Materials. Composition. Products 

Sal Am- S HydrochloricAcid ^ 

Ammonia • • ) > ^'Jdrockl. of Lime. 

Lime > ; Sesquicarbonate of 

^ Carbonic Acid S -^'n^nonia. 

For the sake of simplicity, no notice is taken in 



MONIAC 

Chalk. 



DEC 



244 



DEC 



the above diagram of the water formed by the hy- 
drogen of the hydrochloric acid and the oxygen 
of tiie lime, one portion of which is dissipated 
along with an atom of ammonia, and another is 
condensed along with the newly-formed carbonate 
of ammonia. 

An intimate acquaintance with the order in 
which decompositions take place among com- 
pounds, is of vast importance to the chemical man- 
ufacturer, and, in fact, forms the ground-work of 
operative chemistry. The tyro in this art is, there- 
fore, recommended to pay especial attention to the 
subject. A knowledge " of the elective affinities 
of bodies, siinpie and compound, imparts to its pos- 
sessor an irresistible power over the unions and dis- 
unions of the elements, which he can exercise 
with certainty in effecting innumerable transforma- 
tions in the arts." (Ure.) The following tables 
will be found to contain much valuable informa- 
tion on this subject, in a very conde^ised form, and 
will enable the reader to understand the nature of 
many of the decompositions that take place in the 
chemical operations detailed in this work, as well 
as to anticipate the effects resulting from the ad- 
mixture of numerous substances. 

I. Table of siynple Affinity. 
The following table, drawn up from the re- 
searches of Geoffrey, Bergman, Vauquelin, Four- 
croy, and others, has been arranged in alphabeti- 
cal order for the convenience of reference. The 
substance, the attractions of which are to be shown, 
is placed at the commencement of each paragraph, 
and the substances to which it has an attraction, 
follow in the order of the forces of attraction. 
Acetic Acid, Baryta ; Potasi?a ; Soda ; Stron- 
tia ; Lime ; Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Metallic 
oxides ; Glucina ; Alumina ; Zirconia. 
Alcohol. Water ; Ether ; Volatile oil ; Alkaline 

sulphurets. 
x\lumina. Acids — Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochlo- 
ric, Oxalic, Arsenic, Fluoric, Tartaric, Suc- 
cinic, Mucic, Citric, Phosphoric, Lactic, Benzoic, 
Acetic, Boracic, Sulphurous, Nitrous, Carbonic, 
Hydrocyanic. 
Ammonia. Acids — Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochlo- 
ric, Phosphoric, Fluoric, Oxalic, Tartaric, Ar- 
senic, SuQcinic, Citric, Lactic, Benzoic, Sulphur- 
ous, Acetic, Mucic, Boracic, Nitrous, Carbonic, 
Hydrocyanic ; Oil ; Water ; Sulphur. 
Arsenic Acid. The same as Fluoric Acid, omit- 
ting Sihca. 
Baryta. Acids — Sulphuric, Oxalic, Succinic, 
Fluoric, Phosphoric, Mucic, Nitric, Hydrochlo- 
ric, Suberic, Citric, Tartaric, Arsenic, Lactic, 
Benzoic, Acetic, Boracic, Sulphurous, Nitrous, 
Carbonic, Hydrocyanic ; Sulphur ; Phosphorus ; 
Water ; Fixed Oils. 
Benzoic Acid. White oxide of arsenic ; Potassa ; 
Soda ; Ammonia ; Baryta ; Lime ; Magnesia ; 
Alumina. 
Boracic Acid. The same as Fluoric Acid, omit- 
ting Silica, and adding Water and Alcohol. 
Cami'iioiuc Acid. Lime; Potassa; Soda; Ba- 
ryta ; Ammonia ; Alumina ; Magnesia. 
Carbon. Oxygen; Iron; Hydrogen. 
Carbonic Acid. Baryta; Strontia ; Lime; Po- 
tuHsa ; Soda; Magnesia; Ammonia; Glucina; 



Citric Acid. Same as Oxalic acid, excepting 
that Zirconia should be inserted after Alu- 
mina. 

Fixed Oils. Lime ; Baryta ; Potassa ; Soda ; 
Magnesia ; Oxide of Mercury ; Metallic oxides ; 
Alumina. 

Fluoric Acid. Lime ; Baryta ; Strontia ; Mag- 
nesia ; Potassa ; Soda ; Ammonia ; Glucina ; 
Alumina ; Zirconia ; Silex. 

Hydrochloric Acid. The same as Nitric acid, 
excepting that Ammonia should stand above 
Magnesia. 

Hydrocyanic Acid. Baryta ; Strontia ; Potassa ; 
Soda ; Lime ; Magnesia ; Ammonia. 

Hydrogen. Oxygen ; Sulphur ; Carbon ; Phos- 
phorus ; Nitrogen. 

Lactic Acid. The same as Acetic acid. 

Lime. Acids — Oxalic, Sulphuric, Tartaric, Sue 
cinic. Phosphoric, Mucic, Nitric, Hydrochloric. 
Suberic, Fluoric, Arsenic, Lactic, Citric, Malic, 
Benzoic, Acetic, Boracic, Sulphurous, Nitrous, 
Carbonic, Hydrocyanic ; Sulphur ; Phosphorus : 
Water: Fixed oil. 

Magnesia. Acids — Oxalic, Phosphoric, Sulphuric 
Fluoric, Arsenic, Mucic, Succinic, Nitric, Hy, 
drochloric. Tartaric, Citric, Malic, Lactic, Ben 
zoic. Acetic, Boracic, Sulphurous, Nitrous 
Carbonic, Hydrocyanic ; Sulphur. 

Nitric Acid. Baryta ; Potassa ; Soda ; Strontia 
Lime ; Magnesia ; Ammonia ; Glucina ; Alu- 
mina ; Zirconia ; Metallic oxides. 

Nitrogen. Oxygen ; Sulphur ; Phosphorus ; Hy- 
drogen. 

Oxalic Acid. Lime ; Baryta ; Strontia ; Mag- 
nesia ; Potassa; Soda; Ammonia; Alumina; 
Metallic oxides : Water ; Alcohol. 

Oxide of Antimony. Acids — Gallic, Hydro- 
chloric, Benzoic, Oxalic, Sulphuric, Nitric, Tar- 
taric, Mucic, Phosphoric, Citric, Succinic, Fluo- 
ric, Arsenic, Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydro- 
cyanic ; Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia. 

Oxide of Arsenic. Acids — Gallic, Hydrochlo- 
ric, Oxalic, Sulphuric, Nitric, Tartaric, Phos- 
phoric, Fluoric, Succinic, Citric, Acetic, Hy- 
drocyanic ; Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia ; Fixed 
oils ; Water. 

Oxide of Copper. Acids — Gallic, Oxalic, Tar- 
taric, Hydrochloric, Sulphuric, Mucic, Nitric, 
Arsenic, Phosphoric, Succinic, Fluoric, Citric, 
Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydrocyanic, Carbonic ; 
Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia ; Fixed oils. 

Oxide of Gold. Acids — Gallic, Hydrochloric, 
Nitric, Sulphuric, Arsenic, Fluoric, Tartaric, 
Phosphoric, Acetic, Hydrocyanic ; Ammonia ; 
Sulphureted Hydrogen. 

Oxide of Lion. Acids — Gallic, Oxalic, Tartaric, 
Camphoric, Sulphuric, Mucic, Hydrochloric, 
Nitric, Phosphoric, Arsenic, Fluoric, Succinic, 
Citric, Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydrocyanic, 
Carbonic. 

Oxide of Lead. Acids — Gallic, Sulphuric, Mu- 
cic, Oxalic, Arsenic, Tartaric, Phosj)horic, Hy- 
drochloric, Sulphurous, Suberic, JNitric, Fluoric, 
(/itric, Malic, Succinic, Lactic, Acetic, Benzoic, 
Boracic, Hydrocyanic, Carbonic ; Fixed oils ; 
Ammonia. 

Oxide of Mercury. Acids — Gallic, Hydrochlo- 
ric. Oxalic, Succinic, Arsenic, Phosphoric, Sul- 
pUuric, Mucic, Tartaric, Citric, Malic, Sulphur- 



DEC 



245 



DEC 



ous, Nitric, Fluoric, Acetic, Benzoic, Boracic, 
Hydrocyanic, Carbonic. 

Oxide of Platina. Acids — Gallic, Hydrochloric, 
Nitric, Sulphuric, Arsenic, Fluoric, Tartaric, 
Phosphoric, Oxalic, Citric, Acetic, Succinic, 
Hydrocyanic, Carbonic ; Ammonia. 

Oxide of Silver. Acids — Gallic, Hydrochloric, 
Oxalic, Sulphuric, Mucic, Phosphoric, Sulphur- 
ous, Nitric, Arsenic, Fluoric, Tartaric, Citric, 
Lactic, Succinic, Acetic, Hydrocyanic, Carbon- 
ic ; Ammonia. 

Oxide of Tin. Acids — Gallic, Hydrochloric, 
Sulphuric, Oxalic, Tartaric, Arsenic, Phosphor- 
ic. Nitric, Succinic, Fluoric, Mucic, Citric, Lac- 
tic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydrocyanic ; Ammonia. 

Oxide of Zinc. Acids — Gallic, Oxalic, Sulphu- 
ric, Hydrochloric, Mucic, Nitric, Tartaric, 
Phosphoric, Citric, Succinic, Fluoric, Arsenic, 
Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydrocyanic, Carbo* 
ic ; Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia. 

Oxygen. Carbon ; Charcoal ; Manganese ; Zinc ; 
Iron ; Tin ; Antimony ; Hydrogen ; Phosphorus ; 
Sulphur ; Arsenic ; Nitrogen ; Nickel ; Cobalt ; 
Copper ; Bismuth ; Caloric ? Mercury ; Silver ; 
Arseniouis acid ; Nitrous oxide ; Gold ; Plati- 
num ; Carbonic oxide ; Hydrochloric acid ; 
White oxide of manganese ; White oxide of 
lead. 

Oxygen.* Titanium ; Manganese ; Zinc ; Iron ; 
Tin ; Uranium ; Molybdenum ; Tungsten ; Co- 
balt ; Antimony ; Nickel ; Arsenic ; Clirome J 
Bismuth ; Lead ; Copper ; Tellurium ; Platinum ; 
Mercury ; Silver ; Gold. 

Phosphoric Acid. Baryta ; Strontia ; Lime ; Po- 
tassa ; Soda ; Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Glucina ; 
Alumina ; Zirconia ; Metallic oxides ; Silica. 

Phosphorous Acid. Lime ; Baryta ; Strontia ; 
Potassa ; Soda ; Ammonia ; Glucina ; Alumina ; 
Zirconia ; Metallic oxides. 

Phosphorus. The same as Sulphur. 

Potassa. The same as Ammonia. 

Silica. Fluoric acid ; Potassa. 

Soda. The same as Ammonia. 

Strontia. Acids — Sulphuric, Phosphoric, Oxahc, 
Tartaric, Fluoric, Nitric, Hydrochloric, Succin- 

* Vauquelin's table of the affinity of the metals for oxy- 
gen, according to the difficulty with which their oxides are 
decomposed by heat. 



ic. Acetic, Arsenic, Boracic, Carbonic ; Wa- 
ter. 

Suberic Acid. Baryta; Potassa; Soda; Lime j 
Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Alunjina. 

Succinic Acid. Baryta; Lime; Potassa ; Soda ; 
Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Alumina ; Metallic ox- 
ides. 

Sulphur. Potassa ; Soda ; Iron ; Copper ; Tin ; 
Lead ; Silver ; Bismuth ; Antimony ; Mercury ; 
Arsenic ; Molybdenum. 

Sulphuric Acid. Baryta ; Strontia ; Potassa ; 
Soda ; Lime ; Magnesia ; Ammonia ; Glucina ; 
Yttria ; Alumina ; Zirconia ; Metallic oxides. 

Sulphurous Acid. Baryta ; Lime ; Potassa ; So- 
da ; Strontia ; Magnesia ; Ammonia ; Glucina ; 
Alumina ; Zii ania ; Metallic oxides. 

SuLPHURETED Hf DROGEiJ. Baryta ; Potassa ; So- 
da ; Lime ; Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Zirconia. 

Tartaric Acid. Same as Oxalic acid. 

TuNGSTic Acid. The same as Fluoric acid. 

II. Table of the order of Decomposition among 
some of the Metallic Oxides, according to the 
researches of Prof. Persoz. 



NITRIC acid. 
Oxide of magnesium. 

" silver. 

" cobalt. 

" nickel. 
Protoxide of cerium. 
Oxide of zinc. 
Protoxide of manganese. 
Oxide of lead. 

" cadmium. 

" copper. 

" glucinum. 

" aluminum. 

" uranium. 

" chromium. 
Protoxide of mercury. 
Oxide of mercury. 

" iron. 

" bismuth. 



muriatic acid. 
Oxide of magnesium. 
" chromium. 

" nickel. 
Protoxide of mercury. 

" cerium. 

Oxide of zinc. 
Protoxide of manganese. 
" iron. 

" uranium. 

" copper. 

" tin. 

Oxide of glucinum. 
" aluminum. 

" uranium. 
" chromium. 
" iron. 
" tin. 
" bismuth. 
" antimony. 



milium, uranium, chromium, titanium, and vana- 
dium, from all the oxides which are precipitable, 
as sulphurets by hydrosulphuret of ammonia. 



III. Table of the Sequences of the Bases with the different Acids, by Dr. Young. 
In all mixtures of the aqueous solutions of two salts, each acia remams united to the base which stands nearest to it in thisl'ab.e. 



SULPHURIC ACID. 



Baryta 

Strontia 

Lime 

(Silver ?) 

(Mercury?) 

Potiissa 

Soda 

Zinc 

Iron 

Copper 

Magnesia 

Ammonia' 

Glucina 

Alumina 

Zirconia 

Nitric 



Baryta 

Strontia 

Lime 

Potassa 

Soda 

(Mercury ?) 

(Iron ?) 

Magnesia 

Ammoniat 

Glucina 

Aluminat 

Zirconia 

(Copper ?) 



Baryta 

Potassa 

Soda 

Ammonia 

Strontia 

Magnesia^ 

Glucina 

Alumina 

Zirconia 

Lime 



Baryta 

Potassa 

Soda 

Strontia 

Ammonia 

Magnesia 

Glucina 

Alumina 

Zirconia 

Lime 



Baryta 

Potassa 

Soda 

Strontia 

Ammonia§ 

Magnesia§ 

Glucina 

Alumina 

Zirconia 

Lime 



Baryta 


Potassa 


Baryta 


Baryta 


A^ead 


Potassa 


Soda 


Strontia 


Potassa 


Mercury 


Soda 


Baryta 


Lime 


Soda 


Iron 


Strontia 


Strontia 


Potassa 


Ammonia 


Potassa 


Ammoniall 


Ammoniall 


Soda 


Strontia 


Soda 


Magnesia 


Lime 


Magnesia ? 


Magnesia 


Magnesia 


Lime 


Magnesia 


Ammonia 


Glucina 


., 


Glucma 


Glucina 


Glucina 


Alumina 


Lead 


Alumina 


Alumina 


Alumina 


Zirconia 


Zinc 


Zirconia 


Zirconia 


Zirconia 


Lime.? 


Copper 



Mt RiATic Phosphoric Fluoric Sulphurous Boracic Carbonic Nitrous Phosphorous Acetic 



Ammonia stands above magnesia when cold. 



t A triple salt is formed. 



Perhaps mngnesia ought to stand lower. § A compound salt is formed, and when hot, magnesia stands above 

.*"<i''croy says that sulphate ot strontia is decomposed by borate of ammonia. 
With heat, ammonia stands below lime and magnesia. 



DEM 



246 



DEN 



DEFECATION. Syn. Defecation, {Ft.) 
Klaren, (Crer.) From Lat. de and fcBx, dregs. 
In chemistry, the separation of a liquid from its 
faeces or impurities. This is usually performed by 
subsidence and decantation, and is commonly ap- 
plied to the purification of saline solutions, on the 
large scale, in preference to filtration ; than which 
it is both more expeditious and inexpensive. 

DEFLAGRATION. Syn. Deflagration, 
{Fr.) Verpuffung, {Ger.) Deflagratio, {Lat., 
from deflagro, to burn.) In chemistry, the rapid 
combustion of any substance, for the purpose of 
producing some change in its composition, by the 
joint action of heat and oxygen. The process of 
oxidizing substances by means of nitre, is common- 
ly called deflagration, and is performed by project- 
ing a mixture of equal parts of the nitrate and the 
inflammable or oxidizable body into a red-hot cru- 
cible, in small portions at a time. Several articles 
mentioned in this work are prepared in this way. 

DELIQUESCENCE. Syn. Zerfliessen, 
{Ger.) Diliquescentia, {Lat., from diliquesco, 
to melt down.) The attraction of the moisture of 
the atmosphere, and solution therein. The term 
is applied to certain salts, that by exposure gradu- 
ally assume the liquid state. Such salts are said 
to be deliquescent. 

DELPHINE. Syn. Delphina. Delphinia. 
Delphinium. An alkaloid, discovered by Las- 
saigne and FeneuUe in the delphinium staphysa- 
gria, or stavesacre. ' 

Prep. I. The husked seeds are ground to pow- 
der, boiled in a little water, and pressed in a cloth. 
The filtered decoction is then boiled for a few min- 
utes with a little pure magnesia, and refiltered, 
and the residuum, after being well washed, is dis- 
solved in boiling strong alcohol, which dissolves 
out the alkali, and gives it up again by gentle 
evaporation and cooling. 

II. Digest the bruised but unshelled seeds in di- 
lute sulphuric acid, strain, precipitate with carbon- 
ate of potassa, and digest the precipitate in alcohol 
as before. 

Prep., Uses, SfC. A semi-ciystailijie white 
odorless powder, having an acid bitter taste. It is 
scarcely soluble in water, but dissolves in ether, 
and readily in alcohol. It forms salts with the 
acids, which are very bitter, and crystallize with 
difficulty. As commonly procured, it is mixed 
with an acrid resin called staphysain. (Couerbe.) 
Its alcoholic solution produces a burning and tin- 
gling sensation, when rubbed on the skin, and a 
similar sensation is produced in various parts of the 
body, when it is taken in doses of a few grains. It 
has been exhibited in neuralgia and rheumatism, 
by Dr. TurnbuU. 

DEMULCENTS. (From demulceo, I sooth.) 
Bland, emollient substances that obviate irritation 
by covering the exposed part, and protecting it 
from the action of acrid matter. The principal 
demulcents are, gum arable, gum tragacanth, lin- 
seed, liquorice, arrow-root, pearl barley, isinglass, 
almonds, spermaceti, almond and olive oils, and 
most mucilaginous and oily substances. For in- 
ternal use these are made into nuicikiges, decoc- 
tions, emulsions, or milks, with water, and form 
suitable beverages in dysentery, diarrhn;a, catarrh, 
diseases of the urinary organs, and uU other dis- 
eases where diluents are useful. 



DENSITY. (From densus, thick.) The quan- 
tity of matter contained in a given space. It is 
commonly used synonymously with specific grav- 
ity. Thus, quicksilver is said to have a greater 
density than copper, and alcohd a less density 
than oil of vitriol. 

DENTIFRICE. (Dentifricum, Lat, from 
dens, a tooth, and frico, I rub.) Substances ap- 
plied to the teeth, to cleanse and beautify them. 
The most usual form of dentifrices is that of pow- 
der ; but washes and electuaries are also some- 
times employed. The ingredients employed in 
dentifrices should not be too hard or gritty, lest 
they injure the enamel of the teeth ; nor should 
they be too soft or adhesive, for in that case they 
would adhere to the gums, and be disagreeable 
Finely-powdered pumice-stone is one of those sub- 
stances that act entirely by mechanical attrition, 
and is hence an objectionable ingredient in tooth- 
powder, intended for daily use. It is, however, 
very generally present in the various advertised 
dentifrices, which are remarkable for their rapid 
action in whitening the teeth. Finely-powdered 
Bath brick is another substance of a similar nature 
to pumice, and, like that article, should only be 
occasionally employed. Cuttle-fish bone, coral, 
and prepared chalk are also commonly used for 
the same purpose, but the latter is rather too soft 
and absorbent, to form the sole ingredient of a 
tooth-powder. Charcoal, which is so very gener- 
ally employed as a dentifrice, acts partly mechan- 
ically, and partly by its chemical properties of 
destroying foul smells, and arresting putrefaction. 
For this purpose it should be newly burnt, and 
kept in well-closed vessels, as by exposure to the 
air it rapidly loses its antiseptic powers. Powder- 
ed rhatany, cinchona bark, and catechu are used 
as astringents, and are very useful in foulness oi 
sponginess of the gums. Myrrh and mastich are 
employed on acount of their odor, and also because 
of their presumed preservative action, and power 
of fixing loose teeth. Insoluble powders have 
been objected to on account of their being apt to 
accumulate between the folds of the gums, and in 
the cracks of the teeth, and thus impart a disa- 
greeable appearance. To remedy this defect, a 
reddish or flesh-colored tinge is commonly given 
to them with a little rose pink, or similar coloring 
substance, when any small portion that remains 
unwashed off" will be less conspicuous. Some 
persons employ soluble substances as tooth-pow- 
ders, which are free from the above objection. 
Thus, sulphate of potash and cream of tartar are 
used for this purpose, because of the grittiness of 
their powders and their slight solubility in water. 
Phosphate of soda and common salt are also em- 
ployed as dentifrices, and possess the advantage of 
being readily removed from the mouth by means 
of a little water. Among those substances that 
chemically decolor and remove unpleasant odors, 
the only ones employed as dentifrices are charcoal 
and the chlorides of lime and soda. The first I 
have already noticed ; the others may be used by 
brushing the teeth with water, to which a little ot 
their solutions has been added. A very weak 
solution of chloride of lime is commonly employed 
by smokers to remove the odor and color imparted 
by tobacco to the teeth. Electuaries made of 
honey and astringent substances are frequently 



DEX 



247 



DIA 



employed in diseases of tlie gums. Tlie juice of 
the comuion strawberry has been recommended 
as an elegant natural dentifrice, as it readily dis- 
solves the tartareous incrustatious on the teeth, 
and imparts an agreeable odor to the breath. (See 
Electuary.) 

DEPILATORY. Syn. Depilatoire, (Fr.) 
Enthaarensmittel, (Ger.) Dei'ilatorius, (Lat., 
from de, from, and j)ilus, the hair.) A term ap- 
plied to any application that removes hair from the 
human skin. Depilatories act either mechanical- 
ly or chemically. To the first belong adhesive 
plasters, that on their removal from the skin bring 
away the hair with them ; equal parts of pitch 
and resin, spread on leather, have been used for this 
purpose. To the second class belong those sub- 
stances which act upon the bulbous roots of the 
hairs, and destroy their vitality. The former me- 
thod is more painful, but less dangerous, than the 
lattei one. The following are the principal depil- 
atories at present employed in the fashionable 
world. 

I. {Delcroix's Poudre Subtile.) Prep. Orpi- 
ment 3 part ; finely-powdered quicklime and starch, 
of each 11 parts ; mix. 

Reniarks. It should be kept from the air. For 
use, ma.ke it iiito a paste with a little warm water, 
and apply it to the part, previously shaved close. 
As soon as it has become thoroughly dry, it may 
be washed off with a little warm water. 

II. {Oriental Rusma.) Prep. Quicklime 2 oz. ; 
orpiment ^ oz. ; strong alkaline lye 1 lb. ; boll to- 
gether until a feather dipped into it loses its flue. 
It is applied to the skin, previously soaked in warm 
water, by gentle friction, for a very short time, 
followed by washing with warm water. This is 
one of the most certain and powerful depilatories 
made, but rapidly loses its strength unless kept in 
a well-stoppered glass bottle. 

III. {Chinese Depilatory.) Quicklime 1 lb. ; 
pearlash and sulphuret of potassium, of each 2 oz. ; 
reduce them to a fine powder, and keep it in well- 
corked bottles. Use like Poudre Subtile. 

IV. {Plenck^s Pasta Epilatoria.) Orpiment 1 
part ; quicklime 12 parts ; starch 10 parts. As 
last. 

V. {Payer's Depilatory.) Lime 1 oz. ; carbon- 
ate of potash 2 oz. ; charcoal powder 1 drachm. 
As last. This and No. Ill are preferred by those 
persons who do not approve of the use of arsenic. 

VI. {Roseate Depilatory.) Like IV, but slight- 
ly colored with rose-pink. 

VII. {Turkish Depilatory.) Quicklime 7 oz. ; 
orpiment 1 oz. ; mix. As above. 

VIII. {Depilatory Paste.) Quicklime 1 oz. ; 
orpiment and orris-root, of each, 3 drachms ; salt- 
petre and sulphur, of each 1 dr. ; soap-lees i a 
pint ; evaporate to a proper consistence. It should 
be kept from the air. 

IX. {Depilatory Soap.) Turkish depilatory 
and soft soap, equal parts ; mix. 

DETERGENT, COLLIER'S. Prep. Liquor 
of potassa f3ij ; rose-water f^vss ; spirits of rose- 
mary f§ss ; mix. Frees the head from scurf. 

DEXTRINE. A substance formed by the 
action of dilute acids at the boiling temperature, 
and by infusion of malt, at about 150° F. oa starch. 
It resembles gum. Its name is derived from the 
action of i';s solution on polarized light ; it causes 



the plane of polarization to deviate to the right 
(See Diastase.) 

DIAMONDS, PARISIAN. These beautiful 
imitations of the " priceless gem," which have 
lately attracted so much attention, are made by a 
chemist in Paris, and are only the oxide of tin. It 
is to be regretted that the brilliancy wliich has 
rendered this imitation so famous, cannot be de- 
pended upon, as, after exposure for some tiir.e, 
they become as dull as common glass. (Mining 
Journal.) 

DIAPENTE. Prep. Laurel berries and mus- 
tard, of each 3 lbs. ; gentian root 2 lbs. ; turmeric 
4 lbs. ; all in fine powder ; mix well. Used by 
farriers as a tonic. 

DIAPHORETICS. (Diaphoreticus, Lat, 
from Sia^opiu), 1 carry through.) Medicines that 
increase the perspiration. Those that produce 
this effect in a powerful degree, are generally 
called sudorifics. The principal diaphoretics are 
warm diluents, as gruel, tea, barley-water, &.c. ; 
salts of the alkalis, as the citrates of potassa and 
soda, acetate and carbonate of ammonia, sal am- 
moniac, nitre, &c. ; preparations of antimony, aa 
tartar emetic, antimonial powder, &lc. ; also Do- 
ver's powder, opium, camphor, ipecacuanha, al- 
cohol, wine, &.C. 

The use of diaphoretics is indicated in most 
diseases accompanied by fever, and a dry skin. 

DIAPHRAGM. (Diaphragma, Lat., from 
6ta(l>pdca(i}, I separate by a partition.) This term 
has been applied to the porous cell or vessel that 
separates the fluid containing the positive plate 
from the fluid that surrounds the negative plate, 
in constant galvanic batteries. (See Battery.) 
The most convenient diaphragms for all common 
purposes, are those composed of thin biscuit-ware * 
they are also frequently made of plaster of Paris, 
animal membrane, coarse and tightly-wove can- 
vass, &c. Those of plaster may be easily formed by 
surrounding an oiled cylinder of wood with a hoop 
of paper, and pouring plaster of Paris, mixed up 
with water, into the space between the two. 

DIARRHCEA. (From 6i4l>eu>, I flow through.) 
A purging or looseners of the bowels. The causes 
of diarrhcEa are various, but among the most com- 
mon is the presence of irritating matter, worins, or 
acidity in the stomach or bowels. In general, it 
v/ill be proper to administer an aperient, for which 
purpose rhubarb is usually preferred. The dose 
may be from 20 to 30 grains, on sugar, or made 
into a bolus. After the due operation of this med- 
icine, opium, astringents, and absorbents may be 
taken with advantage. The first and second are 
indicated when great irritability exists, and the 
third, in cases of diarrhoea arising from the pres- 
ence of acidity. Chalk mixture, to Vv^hich a few 
drops of laudanum have been added, &r the com- 
pound powder of chalk and opium, aie excellent 
medicines, and will generally quiet the bowels. A 
small piece of catechu, or hard extract of logwood, 
sucked in the same way as a lozenge, is a pleasant 
method of taking either of those powerful astrin- 
gents. 

DIASTASE. A peculiar substance, contained 
in malt, which effects the conversion of starch into 
dextrine and grape sugar. It may be procured 
from a cold infusion of malt, by adding alcohol, 
which precipitates it under the form of a tasteleBS. 



DIE 



248 



DII. 



white powder. In this state it is freely soluble in 
water. It appears from experiments, that 1 part 
of diastase will convert 2000 parts of starch into 
grape sugar. Malted barley is said to contain 3— q- 
part of this substance ; yet this small portion is 
quite sufficient to convert the starch of the malt 
into sugar during the operation of mashing, provi- 
ded this be properly conducted. " The most favor- 
able temperature for this conversion is 140° to 149° 
Fahr. It is also of the utmost importance that 
the saccharification should take place as speedily 
as possible, so that the sugar produced may not re- 
main in contact with much gummy matter, in 
which case the diastase will not convert the latter 
into sugar. In fact, the liquefaction and sacchar- 
ification should proceed simultaneously." (M. Gue- 
rin Varry.) 

Hence it would appear that the Scotch system 
of ale-brewing is, in this latter respect, most excel- 
lent, and if the mashing were conducted at a low- 
er temperature, would be almost perfect. It has 
been proved by experience, that the richest and 
sweetest extracts of malt are obtained by employ- 
ing water at a heat ranging from 157° to 160° F., 
beginning at the lowest of these temperatures. 
Where three mashings are made, the mean tem- 
perature of each mash should be respectively, — 
145°,— 160°,— 175° F. (See Brewing, and Fer- 
mentation.) 

DIET. " The dietetic part of medicine is no 
inconsiderable branch, and deserves a much great- 
er share of regard than it commonly meets with. 
A great variety of diseases might be removed by 
the observance of a proper diet and regimen, with- 
out the assistance of medicine, were it not for the 
impatience of the sufferers. On all occasions, it 
may come in as a proper assistant to the cure, 
which sometimes cannot be performed without a 
due observance of the non-naturals." The follow- 
ing tables will convey to the reader the meaning 
o' iiC terms, low diet, full diet, &c. 

Low Diet. 

Breakfast g.nd Tea. — Warm new milk and wa- 
ter ; weak black tea, its astringent properties cor- 
rected by a due addition of milk. Gruel, toasted 
bread, at least one day old, and without butter. 
Rusks sopped in the above fluids. 

Dinner. — Gruel, new milk and arrow-root, sago, 
or tapioca ; chicken and veal broths ; roasted ap- 
ples ; light bread puddings. Pastry of every de- 
scription must be avoided. 

Supper. — Gruel, arrow-root. 

Occasional drinks. — Filtered or spring water ; 
toast-and-water made with toasted bread or brown- 
ed biscuit : barley-water ; whey ; lemonade, of 
subdued acidity. Sweet oranges may be freely 
taken, if the sense of thirst be oppressive. 

Middle Diet. 

Breakfast and Tea. — Same as in low diet, with 
the addition of mixed tea. 

Luncheon, (if required.) — A cup of arrow-root, 
sago, tapioca, with biscuit, or two or three bars of 
toasted (stale) bread ; or these with oranges. 

Dinner. — In addition to " low diet," boiled chick- 
ens ; calves' and sheep's feet, stewed ; mutton 
broth ; beef tea ; boiled soles, whiting, turbot, &.c. ; 
iamb ; potatoes, asparagus, light bread or rice pud- 
ding, roasted apples. After the repast, may be ta- 



ken one glass of port, old sherry, or madeira wine. 
diluted with at least twice its quantity of water. 

Supper. — A cup of gruel, sago, tapioca, or ar- 
row-root. 

Full Diet. 

Breakfast and Tea. — Same as in "middle 
diet ;" in addition to which may be taken coffee or 
chocolate. Stale or toasted bread, sparingly but- 
tered. 

Luncheon — A biscuit and a glass of table-ale 
or porter. 

Dinner. — The " middle diet" bill of fare may be 
augmented by mutton-chops, rump-steaks, roast 
or boiled fresh meats, fruit pies, (avoiding the pas- 
try,) baked or boiled rice or tapioca puddings. At 
this meal table-beer or porter may be taken as 
common drink, and after it, one or two glasses of 
port, old sherry, or Madeira. 

Supper. — Same as in " middle diet." 

An additional glass of wine at dinner or lunch- 
eon, will convert this "full" into '< generous" 
diet. 

Milk, Farinaceous, Vegetable, and Fruit Diet. 

The articles of food within this range are milk, 
eggs lightly boiled, gruel, sago, arrow-root, tapio- 
ca, isinglass, wheaten and barley bread, rice, po- 
tatoes, carrots, parsnips, turnips, artichokes, peas, 
cauliflowers, cabbage, spinage, water-cress, cele- 
ry. Fruit may be regarded rather as a luxury 
than as nutriment ; however, when taken in mod- 
eration, it is wholesome ; when to excess, poison- 
ous. Stone fruit, as nectarines, apricots, peaches, 
plums, and cherries, are the least digestible, and 
should never be taken but when ripe ; apples and 
pears are not so apt to run into the acetous fer- 
mentation as stone fruit, but, unless ripe and well- 
masticated, had better be eaten cooked. Oranges, 
gooseberries, (avoiding the skins,) grapes, without 
the husks and seeds, currants, ripe strawberries 
and raspberries, follow consecutively in the order 
in which they are here enumerated, the first being, 
most easy of digestion. Notwithstanding such an 
ample store of materials, the selection must of 
course depend upon season, appetite, and the 
known effects of each upon individual constitu- 
tions. 

DIETETIC COMPOSITION^. Prep. Pow- 
dered sago and patent cacao, equal parts ; mix. 
It is used like arrow root. 

DIGITALIN. S(/n. Digitalu. Digitalina. 
An alkali discovered by M. Royer in the digitalis 
purpurea. 

Prep. Digest 1 lb. of foxglove in ether, first in 
the cold and then heated under pressure ; when it 
has again become cold, filter, and distil off the 
ether, dissolve in water, and again filter ; treat the 
solution with hydrated oxide of lead, gently evap- 
orate the whole to dryness, and again digest in 
ether. From this solution the alkali may be ob- 
tained by evaporation. By repeated re-solutions it 
may be procured in a crystalline state. 

Retnarks. As obtained above, it forms a brown 
mass, faintly alkaline to test paper. It is power- 
fully poisonous, and is said to possess the same 
])ropertie3 as digitalis, but in a very concentrated 
degree. 

DILUENTS. (From diluo, I wash away.) 
Aqueous liquors, so named because they incrviase 



DIS 



249 



DIS 



the fluid portion of the body. Tea, barley-water, ' 
water gruel, and similar articles are the most com- 
mon diluents, after pure water. The copious use 
of liquids of this class is recommended in all acute 
inflammatory diseases, and to promote the action : 
of diuretics and sudorifics. | 

DIOSMIN. A bitter extractive matter obtained j 
by Brande, from buchu leaves. It is very soluble ! 
m water, but not in alcohol and ether. | 

DISINFECTANTS. Agents which destroy! 
miasmata. The principal of these are chlorine, | 
the chlorides of lime and soda, the fumes of nitric 
and nitrous acids, heat, and ventilation. The last 
two are the most efficient and easily applied. The | 
clothing, bedding, &c. of patients laboring mider I 
contagious diseaises, may be effectually disinfected 
by e.xposure to a temperature of about that of boil- 
ing water. Neither the texture nor color of textile 
fabrics is injured even by a heat of 250'^ Fahr. It 
is a practice at some of the workhouses to bake 
the clothes of the paupers who have the itch, or 
are infested with vermin. Quicklime rapidly ab- 
sorbs carbonic acid, sulphureted hydrogen, and 
several other noxious gases, and is therefore com- 
monly used as a wash for the walls of buildings. 
Acetic acid, camphor, fragrant pastiles, cascarilla, 
and other similar substances, are frequently burnt 
or volatilized by heat, for the purpose of disguising 
unpleasant odors. The sulphates of iron and lime 
have the property of rapidly destroying noxious 
effluvia. A quantity of either of these sulphates 
thrown into a cesspool, for instance, will in a few 
hours remove the fetid smell. 

DISTILLATION. Syn. Distillation, (Fr.) 
Branntweinbrennerei, {Ger.) In Chemistry: — 
The evaporation and subsequewt condensation of 
fluid, by means of a still and refrigerator, or other 
similar apparatus. In. commercial language, the 
term is applied to the manufacture of spirituous 
liquors 

The discovery of the art of distillation is usu- 
ally ascribed to the alchemists, but there appears 
to be good reason to suppose that it was known in 
more remote ages to the Arabians and other eastern 
nations, to whom it probably descended from the 
ancient Babylonians. Certain it is, however, that 
a rediscovery of the process was made by some of 
the northern nations of Europe, and that the first 
notice of it appears in the writings of Arnoldus de 
Villa Nova, and his pupil Raymond Lully, by 
whom spirit, or aqua vitce, as it was called, was 
declared to be " an emanation of the deity ; an 
element nev/ly revealed to man, and destined to 
restore the energies of modern decrepitude," and 
that the discovery of this fluid indicated the con- 
summation of all things, and the end of the world. 

The process of distillation, as carried on 
in the distillerief. of Great Britain, may be di- 
rided into four general operations, viz. — The 
mashing or formation of a saccharine infusion, 
from certain vegetable matters, as malt, barley, 
oats, rye, «fcc. ; — the cooling of this wort or liquor ; 
the fermentation or process by which the sugar of 
the cosled wort is converted into alcohol ; and the 
separation of the spirit so formed by means of a 
still and refrigerator. By the first operation, the 
materials for the formation of the alcohol are ob- 
tained ; by the second, they are brought to a tem- 
perature most favorable to the transformation that 
32 



takes place in the third, after which it only re« 
mains to free the product of the labt operation from 
the foreign matter with which it is associated : this 
is done in the fourth, and, correctly speaking, 
constitutes the only part of the process which can 
be called distillation. 

The general principles of the first three of the 
preceding operations, are iioticed in the articles 
Brewing, Diastase, and Fermentation. It will 
there be seen, that the amylaceous or starchy mat- 
ter of the grain is first saccharified and afterwards 
converted into alchohol, and that certain precau- 
tions are necessary to render the process success- 
ful and economical. In many of the distilleries of 
Great Britain, molasses and analogous saccharine 
substances are employed, in which case the vege- 
table principle (sugar) essential to the formation 
of alcohol, is already present, and merely requires 
simple solution in water of a proper temperature, 
to be ready to be subjected to immediate fermen- 
tation. In general, hov jver, the sources of spirit 
in England are the various kinds of grain ; barley, 
wheat, and r3^e, are those commonly employed 
These are ground and mixed with bruised malt in 
various proportions, and are mashed in a similar 
manner to malted grain. The fermentation is car- 
ried on until the density of the liquor ceases to 
lessen, or attenuate, which is determined by an 
instrument called a saccharometer. When this 
point is arrived at, it is submitted to distillation, to 
prevent the access of the acetous fermentation, 
which would lessen its alcoholic value. 

During the process of distilling off the spirit of 
the fermented " wash" or wort, a hydrometer is 
employed to ascertain its strength, and as soon as 
the liquor that passes over acquires a certain de- 
gree of weakness, the operation is stopped and the 
spent wash removed. The spirits obtained by the 
first distillation are generally called " low wines," 
and have a specific gi-avity of about -975. By 
rectification or " doubling," a crude milky spirit, 
abounding in oil, at first comes over, followed by 
clear spirit, which is received in a separate vessel. 
The process is continued until the alcoholic con- 
tent of the distilled liquor diminishes to a certain 
degree, when the remaining weak spirit that comes 
over, called "faints," is caught separately and 
mixed with the low ivines, preparatory to another 
distillation. The strongest spirit passes over first, 
and the condensed liquor gradually becomes 
weaker, until it ceases to contain alcohol. It will 
thus be seen, that by receiving in separate vessels 
any given portion of the product, spirit of any re- 
quired strength within certain limits may be ob- 
tained. It is found from experience, and is readily 
accounted for by theory, that the lower the tem- 
perature at which the distillation is conducted, the 
stronger will be the product, and the less quantity 
of oil or other volatile matter will come over along 
with it. To promote this, it has been proposed to 
carry on the process in vacuo, but on the large 
scale this has never been adopted. The distilla- 
tion of the " wash" is usually carried on in a sep- 
arate set of stills, to those employed for the rec- 
tification of the low wines. For very strong and 
tasteless spirit, a third, and even a fourth rectifica- 
tion takes place, conjointly with other methods to 
abstract the water, and to remove any foreign 
matter that vitiates its odor or flavor. A portion 



DRA 



250 



DRA 



of soap is put into the still with the wash to pre- 
vent excessive frothing. 

The quantity of spirit obtained from various sub- 
stances, and even from pure sugar, depends upon 
the skill with which the several operations are con- 
ducted. By theory, pure sugar should yield 51§ 
of alcohol, but in practice 1 gallon of proof spirit 
is the utmost obtained from 10 lbs. of sugar. Ac- 
cording to Harmsttedt, 100 lbs. of starch yield 35 
lbs. of alcohol, or 7-8 gallons of proof spirit ; and 
100 lbs. of the following grains, produce the ac- 
companying quantities by weight of spirit of sp. gr. 
•9427, or containing 45 per cent, of pure alcohol ; 
wheat, 40 to 45§ ; rye, 36 to 42§ ; barley, 40^ ; 
oats, 36^ ; buckwheat, 40§ ; maize, 40§ ; the mean 
being, 3'47 gallons of proof spirit. It is found that 
a bushel of good malt yields 2 gallons of proof 
spirit, and that the maximum quantity of proof 
spirit obtained from raw grain, mashed with one- 
fifth or one-sixth of malt, does not exceed 22 gal- 
lons per quarter. 

By the excise laws, the distiller is restricted in 
the density of his worts, to sp. gr. between 1050 and 
1090 ; and in Scotland, between 1030 and 1075 ; 
nor is a distiller allowed to mash and distil at the 
same time. (See Alcohol, Fermentation, Still, 
Brandy, Gin, &c.) 

DIURETICS. (Diuretica, from Sia, throvgh, 
and ovpov, the urine.) Medicines which promote 
the secretion of urine. The principal diuretics 
are aqueous fluids, — which act by increasing the 
watery portion of the blood, — and certain sub- 
stances which promote the secretion of urine, by 
stimulating the kidneys. Among the former may 
be classed nearly all aqueous liquids, as most of 
them produce diuresis, if the ckin be kept cool. 
Among the latter, may be mentioned the nitrate, 
acetate, and bitartrate of potassa; oils of juniper, 
turpentine, cajeput, and copaiba ; dilute spirit, and 
sweet spirits of nitre ; decoction of common broom, 
&c. 

DOORS. Much annoyance is sometimes ex- 
perienced from the creaking of doors. This may 
be prevented by rubbing a little soap, or a mixture 
of tallow and blacklead on the hinges. 

DRACINE. Syn. Draconin. A red vegeto- 
alkaline body, discovered by M. Melandre in drag- 
on's blood. 

Prep. Dissolve dragon's blood in alcohol, filter, 
concentrate, add cold water, and collect the spongy 
precipitate. Wash this well, neutralize with di- 
lute sulphuric acid, and again wash well with 
water. 

Prop., i^c. Dracine has a fine red color ; is 
tasteless, inodorous, flexible, and fuses at 131° F. 
The most remarkable property is, that the smallest 
quantity of carbonate of lime in filtering-paper, 
may be detected by sulphate of dracine, the yellow 
color instantly turning red. 

DRAGON'S BLOOD, (FACTITIOUS.) 
Prep. Shellac 4 lbs. ; melt, remove from the fire, 
and add Canada balsam 5 oz. ; and coarsely-pow- 
dered gum benzoin 2 oz. ; when well mixed, stir in 
red Sanders wood and Venetian red, (both in fine 
powder,) of each 1 lb. ; blend well together, and 
form into sticks. 

Remarks. The above may be distinguished from 
genuine dragon's blood, by its partial solubility in 
alcohol. It makes, however, a very fine colored 



powder, but for varnishes is better without the Ve- 
netian red. 

DRAUGHT. Syn. Haustus, {Lat.) In Phar- 
MACY : a single dose of liquid medicine. Draughts 
are almost exclusively extemporaneous, and differ 
from mixtures only in quantity. They are gener- 
ally dispensed in two-ounce vials. 

DRAUGHT, ANTACID. Syn. Haustus An- 
tacidus. Prep. I. (Collier.) Compound tincture 
of cardamoms f 3j ; solution of bicarjjonate of mag- 
nesia (fluid magnesia) f 3ix ; mix. 

II. (Thomson.) a. Magnesia 3j ; peppermint 
water f 3iss ; tincture of orange-peel f 3j ; mix. In 
heartburn, and acidity of the stomach. 

b. Liquor of ammonia 16 drops ; almond mix- 
ture f3ij ; laudanum 10 drops. In acidities of the 
primse viae, 2 or 3 times daily. 

III. Carbonate of soda 20 grs. ; compound in- 
fusion of gentian and water, of each f3vj ; tincture 
of hops f3j ; mix. In dyspepsia, heartburn, &c., 
twice a day. 

DRAUGHT, ANTI-EML ITC. Syn. Haus- 
Tus Anti-Emeticus RiviERi. (P. Cod.) Prep 
Bicarbonate of potassa 3ss ; water f§iij ; lemon 
sirup f §j ; lemon juice f ^ss ; mix, and cork secure- 
ly in a strong bottle. 

DRAUGHT, ANTISEPTIC. Prep. (Collier.) 
Decoction of yellow cinchona bark f^j ; laudanum 
5 drops ; spirit of pimento f3ij ; mix. In putrid 
fevers, gangrene, &c. 

DRAUGHT, ANTISPASMODIC. Prep. L 
(Collier.) Tincture of castor f3j ; sulphuric ether 
10 drops ; peppennint water f^iss ; mix. In hys- 
teria, and that species of irregular muscular action 
dependent on debility. 

II. (Thomson.) a. Musk mixture f3xiv ; liquor 
of ammonia 16 drops ; tincture of castor f3j ; sirup 
of poppies f3ss ; mix. Three or four times daily, 
in hysteria and convulsive affections, after the 
bowels have been well cleared out. 

h. Oil of aniseed 10 drops; magnesia 20 grs.; 
tincture of senna f3ij ; peppermint water f3x ; 
mix. In flatulence and spasms of the stomach. 

DRAUGHT, APERIENT. I. (Haustus ape- 
riens niger, Paris.) Infusion of senna f^j ; tinc- 
tures of senna and jalap, of each f3j ; tartrate of 
potash 3j ; sirup of senna f3j ; mix. 

II. (Haustus aperiens effervescens, Dr. Young.) 
Prep. Crystals of carbonate of soda 3iiss ; water 
8 oz. ; cream of tartar 3iij ; mix, in a soda-watei 
bottle, and cork instantly. It should be drunk 
while effervescing. 

III. (Seidlitz.) Sesquicarbonate of soda 50 
grs. ; potassio-tartrate of soda 2 dr. ; water 6 oz. 
dissolve, and add tartaric acid 40 grs. 

DRAUGHT, AROMATIC. Syn. Haustus 
Aromaticus cum Rued. Prep. (St. B. H.) Aro- 
matic confection 3j. ; infusion of rhub.arb and cin- 
namon-water, of each, f3vj ; mix. In diarrhoea, 
«S^c. 

DRAUGHT, ASTRINGENT. Prep. I. (Dr. 
Paris.) Chalk mixture ^it^s ; laudamun 15 drops; 
tincture of catechu f3j ; mix. Both this and the 
last are excellent in diarrlura, after the bowels 
have been first cleared out with a purgative. One 
may be taken after each motion. 

II. (Thomson.) Extract of logwood 12 grs. ; 
cinnamon water f5xv ; tincture of catechu f3j. 
In diarrhoea, dysentery, &c. ; as last. 



DRA 



251 



DRA 



DRAUGHT, CATHARTIC. Prep. I. (Dr. 
Thomson.) a. Tartrate of potaslj ^j ; tincture of 
senna f3j ; infusion of seni.a foxivss ; sirup of saf- 
fron f3ss ; mix. Jn acute diseases, taken early in 
the morning. 

b. Epsom salts and rnaiyia, of each, 3ij ; infu- 
sion of ro.ses f3xiv ; dilute sulphuric acid 10 drops ; 
mix. In inflammatory affections, and to check 
vomiting in low fevers. 

c. Carbonate of magnesia 3j ; powdered rhubarb 
20 grs. : peppermint water fSxij ; mix. In dys- 
pepsia, attended with costiveness and acidity, taken 
an hour before dinner. 

d. Castor oil f3v ; powdered gum 20 grs. ; rose- 
water f3J; compound tincture of lavender 8 
drops ; sirup of poppies f3j ; mix. In colic and 
calculus. 

DRAUGHT, DIAPHORETIC. Prep. I. 
(Collier.) Infusion of serpentary f^iss; tincture 
of ditto f3j ; mix. Tonic and diaphoretic. 

II. (Thomson.) a. Sesquicarbonate of potassa 
20 grs. ; fresh lemon juice f3iv ; tartrats of anti- 
mony one-sixth gr. ; water f3xj ; sirup of poppies 
f3j : mix. 

b. Liquor of acetate of ammonia f3vj ; camphor 
mixture f3x ; nitrate of potassa 10 grs. ; sirup of 
tolu f3ss ; njix. In inflammatory aftections. 

DRAUGHT, DIURETIC. I. (Collier.) Tinc- 
ture of jalap f3ij ; vinegar of squills f3j ; pepper- 
mint water f3x ; mix. 

II. (Copland.) Acetate of potassa 3ss ; infusion 
of quassia and cinnamon water, of each f3vj ; 
vinegar of squills and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 
f3ss ; mix. 

III. (Thomson.) Nitre 8 grs. ; tincture of di- 
gitalis 16 drops; infusion of roses f3xiij ; sirup of 
roses f3j ; mix. In dropsv ; three times daily. 

DRAUGHT, EFFERVESCING. Prep. (G. 
H.) Sesquicarbonate of soda 30 grs. ; water or 
peppermint water f^iss ; sirup of orange-peel f5ij ; 
tincture of calumba fSss ; tartaric or citric acid 25 
grs. ; add the acid last, and drink while efferves- 
cing. Stomachic, tonic, anti-emetic, &c. 

DRAUGHT, EMETIC. Prep. I. (Thom»-:n.) 
a. Ipecacuanhapowder 20 grs. ; ipecacuanha wine 
f5ij ; water f3vj ; mix. For unloading the stomach 
in ordinary cases. • 

b. Sulphate of zinc 30 grs ; water f3x ; dissolve. 
In cases of poisoning, and the commencement 
of an intermittent fever. 

c. Sulphate of copper 10 grs. ; water f^ij ; mix. 
As an emetic when laudanum has been taken as 
a poison. 

DRAUGHT, EXPECTORANT. Prep. (Col- 
lier.) Mixtures of ammoniacum and almonds, of 
each, fSvj ; tincture of squills 10 drops ; mix. 

DRAUGHT, LAXATIVE. (Haustus Lax- 
ans cum Taraxaco, Dr. Copland.) Infusion of 
senna, and compound infusion of gentian, of each, 
f3vj : sulphate of potassa 20 to 30 grs. ; extract of 
taraxacum 30 to 40 grs. ; compound tincture of 
cardamoms 3iss ; mix. Aperient, stoi^'jchic, and 
alterative. 

DRAUGHT, NARCOTIC. Prep. (Thom- 
son.) a. Camphor mixture f^iss ; laudanum 35 
drops ; sulphuric ether and sirup of saffron, of each 
f3j ; mix. In intermittent headache. 

b. Carbonate of ammonia 15 grs. ; fresh lemon 
juice f^ss ; water f^j ; spirit of nutu'eg f3j ; surup 



of orange-peel fSss ; tincture of hemlock 10 drops 
mix. In diseases of increased irritability. 

c. Carbonate of potassa 20 grs. ; fresh lemon 
juice f^ss ; peppermint water f^j ; laudanum 25 
drops ; sirup of tolu f3ss ; mix. To procure sleep 
in the majority of diseases. 

DRAUGHT OF ACETATE OF AMMO- 
NIA. Prep. (Paris.) Camphor mixture f^iss; 
liquor of acetate of ammonia f3iv ; antimonial 
wine 20 drops ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF AMMONIA. Prep. 
(Brande.) Liquor of ammonia 20 to 30 drops ; 
compound tinctures of cardamoms and gentian, 
of each f3ss ; camphor mixture f^iss ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF BISMUTH. Prep. (Dr. 
Paris.) Trisnitrate of bismuth 8 grs. ; almond 
mixture f^j ; tincture of henbane 20 drops ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF BALSAM OF PERU. Prep. 
(Haustus Balsuvii Peruviani. St. B. H.) Bal- 
sam of Peru f3ss ; mucilage of acacia f3iv; pi- 
mento water f3iij ; water f3v ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF BALSAM OF TOLU. Aa 
the last. 

DRAUGHT OF CAJEPUT. (OIL.) Prep 
(Paris.) Oil of cajeput 3 drops : white sugar 10 
grs. ; infusion of calumba f3ix ; tincture of ditto 
f3j ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF CAMPHOR. Prep. (Haus- 
tus CamphorcB. G. H.) Powdered camphor 6 
grs. ; rectified spirit q. s. ; white sugar 3j ; muci- 
lage of gum acacia 3iij ;' water f^iss ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 
Prep. (Collier.) Liquor of chloride of calcium 20 
drops ; compound infusion of gentian f3x ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF CINCHONA. Prep. (Dr. 
Joy.) Decoction of cinchona f^iss ; extract of cin- 
chona 15 grs. ; tincture of cinchona f3j ; aromatic 
spirit of ammonia 30 drops ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF COLCHICUM. Prep. 
(Brande.) Wine of colchicum 30 drops ; carbon- 
ate of magnesia 15 grs ; cinnamon water f^ss ; 
water f§j ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF COPAIBA. (St. B. H.) The 
same as Draught of Balsam of Peru. 

DRAUGHT OF HEMLOCK AND HEN- 
BANE. {Haustus Conii et Hyosciami, Paris.) 
Extracts of hemlock and henbane, of each, 5 grs. *, 
mucilage oij ; liquor of acetate of ammonia f3iv ; 
sirup of red poppies f3j ; water ^j ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
Prep. (Collier.) Iodide of potassiurn 10 grs ; 
compound infusion of orange-peel f5x ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF IODIDE OF IRON. Prep. 
(Thomson.) Iodide of iron 1 to 2 grs. ; tincture 
of orange-peel f3j ; water f5xi ; mix. Tonic. 

DRAUGHT OF JALAP AND SQUILLS. 
Prep. (Copland.) Tincture of jalap foij ; vinegar 
of squills f3j ; peppermint water fjiss ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF NITRATE OF POTASSA. 
Prep. Nitre 15 grs. ; powdered gum 10 grs. ; al- 
mond mixture f^iss ; mix. 

DRAUGHT OF TURPENTINE. The same 
as Draught of Balsam of Tolu. 

DRAUGHT, REFRIGERANT. Prep. 1 
Carbonate of potassa 20 grs. ; sirup of orange-peel 
f5j ; spirit of nutmeg f3ss ; water f.f iss ; mix. 

II. (Thomson.) Nitre 12 grs. ; almond mixture 
f^iss ; sirup of tolu f5j ; mix. Both the above, 
in fevers and inflammatory diseases. 



DRO 



252 



DRO 



DRAUGHT, SALINE. I. (Collier.) Carbon- 
ate of potassa 20 grs. ; antimouial wine 20 drops ; 
sirup of orange-peel f3j ; tincture of orange-peel 
f3ss ; water ffiss ; mix and add a large tablespoon- 
ful of lemon juice. In inflammatory diseases. 

DRAUGHT, TONIC. I. (Collier.) Disulphate 
of quinine 2 grs. ; tincture of orange-peel f 3j ; 
diluted sulphuric acid 5 drops ; laudanum 10 drops ; 
infusion of cascarilla f §iss ; mix. In pyrosis, &c., 
I hour before dinner. 

II. (Thomson.) a. Inlusion of yellow bark f3iss ; 
compound tincture of cinchona f 3j ; powdered cin- 
chona 40 grs. ; sirup of orange-peel f 3ss ; mix. In 
intermittents and acute rheumatisms. 

h. Infusion of cascarilla ffiss; tinctures of cas- 
carilla and ginger, of each f 3j ; mix. In dyspepsia, 
arising from intemperance. 

DRAUGHT, VERMIFUGE. Fre^. (M. Le- 
vacher.) Castor oil 60 grammes ; essence of tur- 
pentine 16 ditto; mint water 64 ditto; sirup 32 
ditto ; powdered gum 8 ditto ; mix. For tape- 
worm. 

DRAWINGS, CHALK and PENCIL. These 
may be fixed so as not to suffer from abrasion, by 
washing them with skimmed milk, or with water 
holding in solution a little isinglass. When the 
former is used, great care must be taken to deprive 
it of the whole of the cream, as, if the latter sub- 
stance be present, it will grease the drawing. An 
easy way of applying these fluids, is to pour them 
into a shallow vessel, and to lay the drawing flat 
up>.A the surface, then to place it on blotting paper 
in an inclined position to drain and dry. 

DROP, BLACK. Syn. Braithwait's genuine 
Black Drop. Lancaster's do. Quaker's do. 
Toustall's do. Armstrong's do. Gutta Nigra, 
{Lat.) The following account of the origin and 
composition of this well-known medicine, is taken 
from Dr. Armstrong's Work on Typhus Fever : — 

" The black drop was originally prepared up- 
wards of one hundred years ago, by Edward 
Toustall, a medical practitioner in the county of 
Durham, and one of the Society of Friends. The 
recipe passing into the possession of a near relative, 
John Walton, of Shildon, was found among his 
brother's papers, and, by the permission of Thomas 
Richardson, of Bishop's Wearmouth, one of his 
executors, it is here inserted. 

" Prep. Take i lb. of opium, sliced ; 3 pints of 
good verjuice ; 1^ oz. of nutmeg ; ^ oz. of saifron ; 
boil them to a proper thickness, then add \ lb. of 
sugar and two spoonfuls of yeast. Set the whole 
in a warm place, near the fire, for 6 or 8 weeks, 
then place it in the open air until it becomes of the 
consistence of a sirup ; lastly, decant, filter, and 
bottle it up, adding a little sugar to each bottle. 
These ingredients ought to yield, when properly 
made, about 2 pints of the strained liquor." 

The article sold in trade under the name of 
Black Drop, is, however, seldom, or scarcely ever, 
made in the above way. It is generally prepared 
by macerating opium ^ lb. in distilled vinegar 2 lbs., 
for about a fortnight. Black drop is considered to 
bo four times the strength of laudanum, and to be 
milder and less exciting. 

DROP, TASTELESS AGUE. Prep. White 
arsenic 1 gr. ; water 1 oz. ; dissolve. Dose. 1 
teaspoonful night and morning. 

DROPS. Syn. GuTXiE, (Lat) This term is 



commonly applied to compound medicines that are 
only taken in small doses. The plan of directing 
liquids to be measured by dropping is objectionable, 
because the drops of different fluids vary in size, 
and are also further influenced by the size of the 
bottle and the shape of its neck, as well as the 
quantity of liquid it contains. In Confectionary, 
lozenges formed by dropping melted sugar on any 
sjnooth surface, are called drops. 

DROPS, ACIDULATED. Syn. Acidulated 
Lemon Lozenges. Trochisci Acidi Tartarici, 
(P. E.) Prep. Tartaric acid \ oz. ; white sugar 8 
oz., both in powder ; oil of lemon 10 drops ; mix 
thoroughly, then beat them into a mass with mu- 
cilage, and form into lozenges. 

Rcviarks. The above are the instructions of the 
Edinburgh College, but aCv^ulatcd drops are seldom 
prepared by the druggist, being generally pur- 
chased of the confectioner, who makes them in 
the way described under Confectionary Drops. 
They form an agreeable lozenge for coughs, sore 
throats, &c. 

DROPS, ABBE ROUSSEAU'S. Syn. Abbe 
Rousseau's Laudanum. Wine of Opium, pre- 
pared BY Fermentation. Prep. Honey §xij ; 
boiling water lb. iij ; set it in a warm place, and as 
soon as fermentation commences, add opium §iv, 
dissolved in water f ^xij ; let it work for a month ; 
strain, evaporate to f x ; again strain, and add rec- 
tified spirit of wine f ^ivss. 

Remarks. This preparation is similar to the 
Lancaster Black Drop. 

DROPS, ACOUSTIC. Prep. I. Almond oil 
1 oz. ; oil of turpentine and laudanum, of each 1 
drachm ; mix. 

II. (Dr. Hugh Smith.) Ox gall 3iij ; balsam of 
Peru 3j ; mix. In deafness. 

DROPS, iETHER AND TURPENTINE. 
Prep. {Gutta Mtheris TerebinthinatcB, M. Du- 
rande.) Sulphuric ether 2 parts ; oil of turpentine 
1 part ; mix. For gall-stones. 

DROPS, ANODYNE. Prep. Acetate of 
morphia 16 grs.; acetic acid 8 drops; rectified 
spirit of wine 3j ; water §j ; mix. Anodyne ; dose 
6 to 25 drops. The muriate or sulphate of mor- 
phia may be used for a change, instead of the 
acetate. 

DROPS, ANTACID. Prep. (U. C. H.) 
Liquor of potassa f^iij ; liquor of ammonia f^j 
myrrh §j ; triturate together, and strain. 

DROPS, CONFECTIONARY. Prep. Pound 
and sift double-refined sugar through a hair sieve, 
but not too fine ; and then sift it through a gauze 
sieve, to take out all the fine dust, which would 
destroy the beauty of the drop. Put the sugar into 
a clean pan, and moisten it with any favorite aro- 
matic ; if rose-water, pour it in slowly, stirring it 
with a paddle, which the sugar will fall from, as 
soon as it is moist enough, without sticking Color 
it with a small quantity of liquid carmine, or any 
other color, ground fine. Take a small pan with 
a lip, fill it tlipee parts with paste, place it on a 
small stove, the half-hole being of the size of the 
pan, and stir the sugar with a little ivory or bone 
liandle, until it becomes liquid. When it almost 
boils, take it from the fire and continue to stir it ; 
if it be tivo moist, lake a little of the powdered sugar, 
and add some to the paste, and stir it till it is of 
such a consistence as to run without too nuich ex« 



DRO 



253 



DRO 



tension. Have a tin plate, very clean and smooth ; 
take the little pan in tlie left hand, and hold in the 
right a hit of iron, copper, or silver wire, 4 inches 
long, to take off' the drop from the lip of the pan 
and let it fall regularly on the tin plate ; 2 hours 
afterwards take off" the drops with the blade of a 
knife. 

DROPS, DUTCH. Syn. Balsam of Turpen- 
tine. The imported or genuine Dutch drops are 
the residue of the rectification of oil of turpentine. 
It is also prepared by distilling rosin, and collecting 
the product in different portion.s. At first a white, 
then a yellow, and lastly a red oil, comes over. 
The latter is the balsam. The article commonly 
sold under this name is prepared as follows: — oil 
of turpentine, tincture of gum guaiacum, and sweet 
spirits of nitre, of each 1 oz. ; oil of amber and 
clov'-s, of each 15 drops ; mix. Another prepara- 
tion, made by mixing balsam of sulphur with 5 
times its weight of oil of turpentine, is also sold as 
Dutch drops. Each of the above is diuretic, 
stimulant, and detergent. 

DROPS, FIT. Syn. Soot Drops. Tinctura 
I'uLiGiMs. Prep. Wood-soot §ij ; subcarbonate of 
potassa lb. ss ; sal ammoniac §j ; soft water lb. iv ; 
digest for three days, and strain. Said lo be anti- 
spasmodic. 

DROPS, GOLDEN, (DE LA MOTTE'S.) 
Syn. Bestucheff's Nervous Tincture. Elixir 
d' or. Chloride of iron (obtained by distilling iron 
pyrites with twice its weight of corrosive sublimate) 
3 oz. ; alcohol | oz. ; expose for some time to the 
rays of the sun. These drops have the remarkable 
property of losing their yellow color in the sun, and 
recovering it in the shade. They are taken in 
gout, hvpochondriasis, and nervous complaints. 

DROPS, GINGER. Prep. Add finely-pow- 
dered Jamaica ginger, or a few drops of the es- 
sence, or a strong infusion, to the sugar, as in Con- 
fectionary Drops. 

DROPS, JESUITS'. Syn. Elixir Antivene- 
REUM. Balsamum Polychrestum. Prep. Gum 
guaiacum §vij ; balsam of Peru 3iv ; root of sar- 
saparilla §v ; spirit of wine lb. iiss ; digest for 14 
days. (See also Compound Tincture of Ben- 
zoin.) 

DROPS, LAVENDER. (The same as Com- 
pound Tincture of Lavender.) 

DROPS, LEMON. Prep. Confectionary drops 
acidulated with tartaric acid, and flavored with es- 
sence of lemons. They may be colored with an 
infusiou of turmeric. 

DROPS OF LIFE, SALMON'S. Syn. 
Gutt^ ViTiK. Prep. Tincture of castor fviij ; 
antimonial wine and water, of each lb. j ; opium 
§iij ; saffron ^ss ; cochineal, camphor, and nut- 
megs, of each 3ij ; digest for 10 days. Anodyne 
and diaphoretic. Dose. 20 to 60 drops. 

DROPS, NORRIS'S. An aqueous solution of 
tartar emetic, mixed with spirit of wine, and col- 
ored. 

DROPS, ODONTALGIC. Prep. (Dr. Blake.) 
Alum, in fine powder, 3j ; sweet spirits of nitre 
3vij ; dissolve. 

DROPS, PECTORAL, (BATEMAN'S.) 
Prep. Castor 1 oz. ; oil of aniseed 1 dr. ; camphor 
5 dr. ; cochineal Ih dr. ; opium | oz. ; treacle 1 
lb. ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; digest for a week. 

DROPS, PEPPERMINT. Confectionary drops 



flavored with essence or oil of peppermint, or pep- 
permint water. The whitest sugar should be used, 
and English oil of peppermint. 

DROPS, SCOURING. Prep. Spirits of tur 
pentine and oil of lemons, equal parts ; mix. Used 
to remove grease and paint from cloth. Both of 
the ingredients must be pure and newly-distilled. 

DROPS, SPILBURY'S. Prep. Corrosive sub- 
limate, gentian root, and dried orange peel, of each 
3ij ; crude antimony and red sanders wood, of each 
3j ; spirit of wine and water, of each ^viij ; mace- 
rate for 10 days. Antiscorbutic. 

DROPS, TONIC. Prep. (Collier.) Elixir of 
vitriol f 3ij ; tincture of calumba f 3vj ; mix. Dose 
A teaspoonful three times a day in cold water. 

DROPS, WARD'S WHITE. Prep. Quick- 
silver 4 oz. ; nitric acid 1 lb. ; dissolve, add carbon 
ate of ammonia 7 oz. ; evaporate and crj'stallize 
then dissolve the salt in four times its weight of 
rose-water. Poisonous. 

DROPSY. (From Wwp, water.) An unnaturaf 
collection of aqueous fluid in any part of the body 
Dropsy has been divided into different kinds, and 
has received different names, according to the part 
of the body affected by the disease. When it oc- 
curs in the cellular membrane it is called anasarca; 
when in the cavity of the abdomen, ascites ; in the 
cavity of the cranium, hydrocephalus ; in the scro- 
tum, hydrocele ; in the uterus, hydrometra ; and 
in tlie chest, hydrothorax. Dropsy is mostly a 
symptom of extreme debility and a broken-down 
constitution. 

The treatment of dropsy, perhaps, mor6 than 
any other disease, depends upon the circumstances 
with which it is connected, and more especially 
those which have caused it. The acute inflamma- 
tory forms of dropsy generally require depletion; 
in some other cases tonics are administered, and 
to promote the absorption of the accumulated flu- 
ids, diuretics are commonly resorted to. Confirm- 
ed dropsy, especially hydrocephalus and hydrotho- 
rax, are seldom cured. 

DROWNING. The cause of death from sub- 
mersion in water is but little understood by per- 
sons generally. It is commonly thought to arise 
from the introduction of water into the lungs in- 
stead of air ; and hence the vulgar and dangerous 
practice adopted by the ignorant, of holding the 
body of a drowned person in an inverted position, 
under the idea of allowing the inhaled water to 
flow out. The actual cause of death is, however, 
the exclusion of air from the lungs, by which the 
proper aeration of the venous blood is prevented, 
and consequently the latter circulates through the 
arterial system, while the pulmonary vein ceases 
to convey oxygenized blood to the heart. The con- 
sequences are, the rapid extinction of the vital 
functions, and the loss of animal heat, so that gen- 
erally, in the course of 4 or 5 minutes after the 
access of air has been cut off, life becomes extinct. 
Many cases have nevertheless occurred, where 
persons have been submerged for 15 or 20 minutes, 
and even longer, and where perfect insensibility 
has existed, and yet recovery has been effected by 
long and skilful exertion. 

Prevention. It is a well-established fact that 
the specific gravity of the human body is less than 
that of water, so long as the lungs are partially 
filled with air : and that this difference is suffi- 



URO 



254 



DRO 



eient to permit of the body floating with the mouth 
and nostrils free for respiration, provided the face 
be turned upwards, or the head thrown back, so 
that the greater portion of the latter may be im- 
mersed, and its weight sustained by the water. It 
is also, a well known fact, that if a person throw 
himself into the water, the body will rapidly rise to 
the surface and assume nearly the erect position, 
and that the upper part of the head, down to a lit- 
tle below the eyes, will remain above the surface. 
This position is occasioned by the greater density 
of the legs and thighs compared to tliat of the 
chest, which acts as a species of float or buoy to 
the rest of the body. In this situation, however, 
it would of course be found impossible to breathe, 
but if the head be thrown back, so that the face 
may become the exposed portion, as before men- 
tioned, respiration may be carried on without in- 
convenience. 

The truth of the above I have frequently de- 
monstrated in practice ; I found that at each in- 
spiration a larger portion of the face became ex- 
posed, and at each expiration, the water rose very 
nearly to the corners of the mouth, but still not 
sufficiently high to run into it, unless a forced and 
hurried respiration was purposely had recourse to. 
Thus a continual rising and sinking of the body 
takes place, and these motions are synchronous 
with the inflations and contractions of the lungs. 
When a hand and part of the forearm is raised 
above the water, the face becomes instantly im- 
mersed. From the above it appears evident, that 
if a person fall into the water, and exercise but 
common presence of mind, he may readily float 
for some time, or until assistance can reach him, 
even though he be not able to swim. Unfortu- 
nately, however, the state of alarm and agitation 
into which persons are thrown on falling into the 
water, and their ignorance of the general means 
which should be resorted to in such an emergency, 
as well as want of presence of mind, lead them to 
neglect those obvious measures that are essential 
to their preservation. Persons suddenly submerged 
in the water should endeavor to preserve them- 
selves as collected as possible, and should avoid 
splashing and throwing themselves about, as this 
will naturally increase the danger. They should 
allow the body to assume its natural position, and 
if they cannot swim, should patiently wait until 
assistance be afforded them. Another point which 
should be remembered by every person under such 
circumstances is, that there is always a considera- 
ble amount of residual air in the lungs in a nearly 
deoxidized state, and that if this be expelled by 
two or three forced inspirations, and a deep inspira- 
tion be then taken, a larger quantity of vital air 
will be introduced to the lungs, and the blood will 
continue aerated for a proportionally longer time, 
and consequently a longer period will elapse be- 
fore another inspiration will bo required. It will be 
found, that if, in the ordinary course of breathing, 
we suddenly hold our breath, we shall only be able 
to do so for a space of time varying from 20 to 30 
seconds ; but if, on the contrary, we prepare our- 
selves by taking two or three forced inspirations, 
and then take a full inspiration, wo may remain 
for ] i or 2 minutes before a second attempt at res- 
piration need bo \r\\ de. This is the plan adojjted 
by the pearl fishers, and other divers who are re- 



markable for remaining beneath the surface of thd 
water for some time. A person in danger of ship- 
wreck, or expecting immediate submersion in any 
other situation, should have recourse to this meth- 
od, as it would permit the breath to be held until 
the body rises to the surface of the water, and 
would prevent the dreadful effects of attempting 
respiration while tiie mouth is covered with that 
fluid. 

The writer of this article nearly lost his life a 
few years since, from not exercising the precau- 
tions which he is now recommending to others. 
He had been swimming for about a quarter of an 
hour, as was his daily custom at the period alluded 
to, and wiis leturning to the bank, when a species 
of paralysis seized both extremities, and instead 
of preserving his presence of mind, and patiently 
waiting until the fit went off", he exhausted him- 
self in fruitless endeavors to reach thes knd. The 
result was, that after a few vain struggles he sunk, 
and vividly present to his mind, even at this mo- 
ment, are the feelings he then experienced. The 
recollection of a comrade that was drowned a few 
days before, near the same spot, and the convic- 
tion of inevitable death, passed across his mind like 
an electrfc shock, — life, death, and eternity — the 
dread of leaving his friends in ignorance of his fate, 
and a thousand other subjects, were idealized in a 
moment, and were followed by others in incessant 
and rapid succession. Space and time seemed an- 
nihilated, — they presented no visible horizon to the 
mind's eye, — all was present, — all the events of 
life seemed collected and performing at the same 
moment — as in a day-dream, where individual dis- 
tinctness is blended with general confusion. A 
pleasing state of mental serenity ensued ; the pros- 
pect gradually changed, and surrounding space 
seemed covered with verdure of the softest green^ 
and illuminated with green light of the most sub- 
dued tone, which gradually faded into twilight; 
and — here consciousness ceased. During the whole 
of this time, which occupied about 3^ minutes, nc 
great bodily suffering was experienced ; after the 
first sensations of suffocation were passed, none at 
all are recollected to have been felt. Many years 
have now passed over since the occurrence of the 
accident above alluded to, but though time has 
erased from the memory of the writer many events 
of more recent date, and witli a busy hand has 
scattered trials and afflictions in his path, yet thrt 

incidents that occurred on the morning of •, 

still occasionally start up before the mind, as dis- 
tinctly as the doings of yesterday. 

Treatment of persons apparently drowned. 
The first object is the restoration of the animal 
heat. For this purpose, the wet clothes are to be 
removed without delay, and the body, after being 
well dried, is to be surrounded with warm air 
The heat should at first be moderate, and gently 
increased. In the absence of a warm-air bathj 
the body should be laid in a well-heated bed or 
blankets, and bottles of hot water laid to the feel 
and armpits. A warming-pan or heated brickei 
should be ])asse(l over the body, or gentle friction 
ex(M-ciscd willi olhcr warm substances. Mean- 
while, continual though gentle attempts should be 
nuide to excite respiration artificially ; and. if the 
apparatus be at hand, slight shocks of («loctricity 
should be kept up at the same time. If there be 



DRU 



255 



DRU 



any signs of returning life, such as sighincr or con- 
Tulsive twitching, a vein may be opened. Tlie 
throat may be tickled to excite a propensity to 
vomit, and a teaspoonful of warm water adminis- 
tered to test the power of swallowing. If it e.xist, a 
tabiespoonful of warm oiiluted wine or brandy may 
De given. Eveti if no vestige of returning ani- 
mation be discovered, these means of recovery 
should be persisted in for three or four hours. 

In the treatment of this species of asphyxia, 
nasal stimulants, as ammonia, aromatic vinegar, 
and similar pungent and volatile applications, 
should be avoided, as well as the injection of to- 
bacco smoke, which would prove injurious to a 
healthy person, and, in the present case, would 
most likely render all attempts at the restoration 
of animation ineffectual. The practice of holding 
the body with the head downwards, which is some- 
times adopted by the vulgar and ignorant, under 
the idea of allowing the water to run out by the 
mouth, should be equally avoided. The supposi- 
tion that water is inhaled by drowning persons, 
instead of air, though very plausible, is perfectly 
fallacious. The peculiar mechanism of the glottis, 
or upper portion of the windpipe, is such as to pre- 
vent, by the spasmodic closure of the epiglottis, 
the entrance of more than a very trifling and ac- 
cidental quantity of water, which is altogether too 
insignificant to produce any very injurious effects. 
(See Asphyxia.) 

DRUNKENNESS. The disordered condition 
of the intellectual functions and volition, produced 
by taking excessive quantities of alcoholic or intox- 
icating liquors. The word is also commonly ap- 
plied to habitual inebriety. 

The action of spirituous and fermented liquors 
on the human body, in all the numerous relations 
of causes and effects, has been ably and eloquently 
treated of, in the " Anatomy of Drunkenness," 
and it would afford to the editor and reader much 
pleasure and instruction, would our space permit 
us to avail ourselves of the mass of facts and judi- 
cious remarks collected in that work. As how- 
ever such is not the case, the present article will 
be confined to a short notice of the means of re- 
moving the " fit of drunkenness," and the vicious 
habit that produces its frequent repetition. The 
pernicious influence of intoxicating liquors upon 
individuals and society, and the beneficial effects 
of temperance, cannot be better illustrated than 
by reference to the general longevity of the Qua- 
kers. From the registers of this sect, it may be 
seen that, as a consequence of their habitual tem- 
perance and the regularity of their lives, " one half 
of those that are born live to the age of 47 years ; 
whereas. Dr. Price tells us, that of the general 
population of London, half that are born live only 
2| years 1* Among the Quakers, 1 in 10 arrives 
at 80 years of age ; of the general population of 
London, only 1 in 40." Never did a more power- 
ful argument support the practice of temperance 
and virtue. 

Among the remedies employed to remove the 
"fit of drunkenness," the preparations of ammo- 
nia, and the vegetable aci(k, are the most impor- 
tant. About 2 or 3 drachms of aromatic spirits of 

* Since the time that this calculation was made, the 
health of the metropolis has slightly improved, and, con- 
sequently, the expectation of life has increased. 



ammonia, (spirits of sal volatile,) or a like quantity 
of solution of acetate of ammonia, (mindererua 
spirit,) mixed with a wine-glassful of water, will 
in general neutralize or greatly lessen the action 
of intoxicating liquors. In some cases these fluids 
produce vomiting, which is, however, a good symp- 
tom, as nothing tends to restore an inebriated 
person so soon as the removal of the liquor from 
the stomach. Hence tickling the fauces with the 
finger or a feather, until sickness be produced, is 
a method very commonly adopted by drunkards 
to restore themselves to a sober state, and also by 
those wretches who are so far sunk in the scale 
of humanity, as to be eager, like a certain Roman 
emperor, to free their stomachs of one batch of 
liquor, that they may gratify their appetites by 
swallowing another. The use of aromatic water 
of ammonia was first suggested by Mr. Broomley. 
With a like intention, some persons have recourse 
to soda-water, which acts by the free carbonic 
acid it contains, as well as a diluent, and from its 
coldness, as a tonic on the coats of the stomach. 
The carbonates and bicarbonate^ of soda ind po- 
tassa are also favorite remedies with habitual 
drunkards. Among the vegetable acids, the acetic 
is the one that appears to possess the greatest power 
of removing intoxication ; and after this follow the 
tartaric, citric, malic, and carbonic acids. The 
above property of these substances is well known to 
habitual drunkards, and they are hence commonly 
taken by soldiers before going to parade. The 
usual dose is a small teacupful of vinegar. In the 
West Indies, where, from the low price of rum, 
no inconsiderable number of the soidiers are per- 
petually tipsy when off duty, lime juice, or lemon 
juice, is had recourse to. Both these juices act 
from the citric acid they contain. 

To cure the " habit of drunkenness," various 
means have been proposed, many of which are 
more ingenious than useful. Among several that 
have come under my attention, the following de- 
serve notice : — 

I. In a small treatise on Naval Discipline, late- 
ly published, the following whimsical and inge- 
nious mode of punishing drunken seamen is re- 
commended : " Separate for one month every man 
who is found drunk from the rest of the crew ; 
mark their clothes ' drunkard ;' give them six- 
water grog, or, if beer, mixed with one-half water ; 
let them dine when the crew have finished ; em- 
ploy them in everv' dirty and disgraceful work, 
&,c. This had such a salutary effect, that in less 
than six months not a drunken man was to be 
found in the ship. The same system was intro- 
duced by the writer into every ship on board which 
he subsequently ser\-ed. When first lieutenant of 
the Victor}' and Diomede, the beneficial conse- 
quences were acknowledged ; the. culprits were 
heard to say, that they would rather receive six 
dozen lashes at the gangway, and be done with it, 
than be put into the ' drunken ?ness' (for so it 
was named) for a month." 

II. Dr. Pitcairn, in attempting to break the 
habit in a highland chieftain, one of his patients, 
exacted a promise that the latter would every day 
drop as much sealing-wax into his glass as would 
receive the impression of his seal. He did so, and 
as the wax accumulated, the capacity of the glass 
diminished, and consequently, the quantity of 



DRU 



256 



DYE 



whiskey it was capable of containing. By this 
plan he was cured of his bad habit altogether. In 
mentioning such a whimsical proceeding, I do not 
mean particularly to recommend it for adoption, al- 
though I am satisfied that the principle on which 
its eccentric contriver proceeded was substantially 
correct. (Coombe.) 

III. Dr. Kain, an American physician, recom- 
mends tartar emetic for the cure of habitual drunk- 
enness. " Possessing," he observe-s; " no positive 
taste itself, it communicates a disgusting quality 
to those fluids in which it is dissolved. I have 
often seen persons who, from taking a^.edicine in 
the form of antimonial wine, could never after- 
wards drink wine. Nothing, therefore, seems bet- 
ter calculated to form our indication of breaking 
up the association in the patient's feelings, between 
his disease and the relief to be obtained from stimu- 
lating liquors. These liquors, with the addition of 
a very small quantity of emetic tartar, instead of 
relieving, increase the sensation of loathing of food, 
and quickly produce in the patient an indomitable 
repugnance to the vehicle of its administration. 
My method of prescribing it has varied according 
to the habits, age, and constitution of the patient. 
I give it only in alterative and slightly nauseating 
doses. A convenient preparation of the medicine 
is 8 grains dissolved in 4 oz. of boiling water, ^ an 
oz. of the solution to be put into a ^ pint, pint, or 
quart of the patient's favorite liquor, and to be 
taken daily in divided portions. If severe vomit- 
ing and purging ensue, I should direct laudanum 
to allay the irritation, and diminisii the dose. In 
every patient it should be varied according to its 
effects. In one instance, in a patient who lived 
ten miles from me, severe vomiting was produced, 
more, I think, from excessive drinking than the 
use of the remedy. He recovered from it, how- 
ever, without any bad effects. In some cases, the 
change suddenly produced in the patient's habits 
has brought on considerable lassitude and debility, 
which were of but short duration. In a majority 
of cases, no other effect has been perceptible than 
slight nausea, some diarrhoea, and a gradual but 
very uniform distaste to the menstruum," A sim- 
ilar plan has been proposed by Mr. Chambers. 

IV. Infuse a little of the star-shoot plant in the 
liquor, at drinking which disgust will be gradually 
excited, 

V. The following singular means of curing 
habitual drunkenness is employed by a Russian 
physician, Dr. Schreiber, of Brzese-Litewski : it 
consists in confining the drunkard in a room, and 
in furnishing him at discretion with his favorite 
spirit diluted with two thirds of water; as much 
wine, beer, and coffee as he desires, but containing 
one third of spirit ; all the food — the bread, meat, 
and the legumes, are steeped in spirit and water. 
The poor devil is continually drunk and ' dort.'' 
On the fifth day of this rogima he has an extreme 
disgust for spirit ; he earnestly requests other diet ; 
but his desire must not be yielded to, until the poor 
wretch no longer desires to eat or drink ; lie is then 
certainly cured of his •penchant for drunkenness. 
He accjuircs such a disgust for brandy, or otlior 
spirits, that ho is ready to vomit at the very sight 
of it. (Bulletin do Thdrapeutiquo.) 

Tho same treatment ii equally adapted to the 
wine or beer drunkard, Jut in such cases tho fa- 



vorits liquor, whatever it may be, must be the on« 
employed to soak the victuals in, 

DRY DISTILLATION, Syn. Destructivm 
Distillation. The distillation of substances with- 
out the addition of water or any other fluid matter. 
Thus, wood is exposed to destructive distillation in 
the preparation of pyroligneous acid ; and coal un- 
dergoes a like process, in the manufacture of the 
gas that lights our streets. 

DRYING OIL. Syn. Boiled Oil. Linseed 
oil boiled along with oxide of lead, (litharge,) by 
which it acquires the property of drying quickly 
when exposed in a thin stratum to the air. It is 
much used in the preparation of paints and var- 
nishes. 

DRY-ROT, A peculiar disease that attacks 
wood, and renders it brittle and rotten. It prin- 
cipally occurs among the timbers of ships and of 
damp and ill-ventilated houses. It has been as- 
cribed to the formation of fungi. Various means 
have been proposed to prevent the attacks of Ary- 
rot, and to arrest its progress when it has com- 
menced, among which the process called " Kyani- 
sing," (after Kyan, the name of the patentee,) is 
most generally known, and has been most exten- 
sively adopted. It consists in immersing the tim- 
ber in a bath of corrosive sublimate, A solution 
of pyrolignite of iron has also been used for the 
same purpose and in a similar way, with the best 
effect. It is asserted, however, that " Kyanised'^ 
wood, that has been exposed for a considerable 
time in some unfavorable situations, has suffered 
from the dry-rot in nearly an equal degree with 
unprepared wood. Lately, the process termed 
" Paynising" (after Mr. Payne, the inventor) has 
been adopted, and appears likely to supersede 
every other method. This plan consists in first 
filling the pores with a solution of muriate of lime, 
and next forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron, 
by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is formed 
in the body of the wood, and the latter is rendered 
nearly as hard as stone. Wood so prepared has 
already been adopted in several public works. 

DYEING. Syn. Teinture, (Fr.) Farberei, 
(Ger.) The art of fixing coloring matters uni- 
formly and permanently in the fibres of wool, silk, 
linen, cotton, and other substances. Dyeing is a 
chemical process, and the mode of its performance 
depends upon the substance operated on. Thus, it 
is found that the process by which wool is dyed 
black, would only impart a rusty brown to linen. 
Wool unites with almost all coloring matters with 
great facility, silk in the next degree, cation less 
easily than silk, and linen with even more diffi- 
culty. Preparatory to the operation of dyeing, 
each of these substances undergoes a species of 
preparation to free the fibres from adhering foreign 
matter, as dirt, grease, &c., which would prevent 
the absorption of the aqueous fluid to be afterwards 
applied, as well as impair the brilliancy of the 
edge. Wool is cleaned or scoured by means of a 
weak alkaline lye, soap and water, or putrid 
urine ; the latter being very generally used for this 
purpose. Silk is cleaned from the natural varnish 
that covers it, by boiling with white soap and 
water. Cotton and linen are cleaned with alka- 
line lyes of more or less density. The substances 
so prepared are ready to undergo the various ope- 
rations of dyeing. 



DYE 



257 



DYS 



Amoiiff the various coloring materials employed 
by dyers, some impart their tints to different sub- 
stances by simple immersion in their infusions or 
decoctions, and have hence been called "substan- 
tive colors ;" but by fur the greater number only 
impart a fugitive dye, unless the fibres of the stuff 
have been previously filled with some substance, 
which has a strong affinity for the latter on the 
one hand, and the coloring material on the other. 
The substances applied with this intention are 
called " Mordants,^' and generally exercise the 
double property of '^fixing" and '' sirikinor^' the 
color. Thus, if calico be dyed with a decoction of 
madder, it will only receive a fugitive and dirty red 
tinge, but if it be first run through a solution of 
acetate of alumina, dried at a high temperature, 
washed, and then run through a madder bath, it 
will come out of a permanent and lively red. The 
principal mordants are the acetates of iron and 
alumina, sulphate of iron, alum, and some other 
chemical salts. A perfect knowledge of the beha- 
vior of mordants, with different coloring substances, 
is of paramount importance to the dyer. 

After having received the proper mordants, the 
goods are dried and rinsed, after which they are 
passed for a shorter or longer time through an in- 
fusion, decoction, or solution of the dyeing mate- 
rials, which constitute the "dye-bath;" they are 
again dried and rinsed. In many cases, the im- 
mersion in the dye-bath is repeated, eitb^er with 
the same materials or with others to vary or modify 
the color. After the substances have been proper- 
ly dyed, they are subjected to a thorough rinsing 
or washing in soft water, until the latter runs off 
uncolored. 

The modification of the art of dyeing called 
" calico printing," consists in the application of 
the mordants, and sometimes the colors, by means 
of blocks of wood or engraved copper cylinders, 
the calico being either subsequently passed through 
a dye-bath, or a solution of a mordant, as the case 
may be. It was my intention to have given in this 
article a concise history of the arts of dyeing and 
calico printing, and an outline of the scientific 
principles and mechanical operations employed 
therein, but from want of space I am compelled 
to omit the paper I had prepared on the subject. 
I must therefore conclude v/ith the following con- 
densed de&oription of the fast dyes employed by 
the calico printers, for which I am indebted to Dr. 
Ure. 

Dye-stuffs used by the calico-printers for pro- 
ducing fast colors. The mordants are thickened 
with gum, or calcined starch, when applied with 
the block, roller, plates, or pencil. 

1. Black. The cloth is impregnated with acetate 
of iron, (iron litjuor,) and dyed in a bath of madder 
and logwood. 

2. Purple. The preceding mordant of iron, di- 
luted ; with the same dyeing bath. 

3. Crimson. The mordant for purple, united 
with a portion of acetate of alumina, or red mor- 
dant, and the above bath. 

4. Red. Acetate of alumina is the mordant, (see 
AxUMiNA,) and madder is the dye-stuff. 

5. Pale red of different shades. The preceding 
mordant diluted with water, and a weak madder 
bath. 

6 Brown or Pompadour. A mixed mordant, 
3.3 



containing a somewhat larger proportion of the red 
than of the black ; and the dye of madder. 

7. Orange. The red mordant ; and a bath first 
of madder, and then of quercitron. 

8. Yellow. A strong red mordant ; and thb 
quercitron bath, whose temperature should be con- 
siderably under the boiling point of water. 

9. Blue. Indigo, rendered soluble and gre^>nish- 
yellow colored, by potash and orpiment. It re- 
covers its blue color by exposure to air, and there- 
by also fixes firmly on the cloth. An indigo vat is 
also made, with that blue substance diffused in 
water with quicklime and copperas. These sub- 
stances are supposed to deoxidize indigo, and at 
the same time to render it soluble. 

Golden-dye. The cloth is immersed alternately 
in a solution of copperas and lime water. The 
protoxide of iron precipitated on the fibre, soon 
passes, by absorption of atmospherical oxygen, into 
the golden -colored deutoxide. 

Buff. The preceding substances, in a more 
dilute state. 

Blue vat, in which white spots are left on a blue 
ground of cloth, is made by applying to those points 
a paste composed of a solution of sulphate of cop- 
per and pipeclay ; and after they are dried, im- 
mersing it, stretched on frames, for a definite 
number of minutes, in the yellowish-green vat, of 
1 part of indigo, 2 of copperas, and 2 of lime, with 
water. 

Green. Cloth dyed blue, and well washed, is 
imbued with the aluminous acetate, dried, and 
subjected to the quercitron bath. 

In the above cases, the cloth, after receiving the 
mordant paste, is dried, and put through a mixture 
of cow-dung and warm water. It is tiien put into 
the dyeing vat or copper. (Ure's Diet, of Chem. 
and Miu.) 

DYSPEPSIA. (From 6v?, with difficulty, 
and ninru), I digest.) Indigestion. This com- 
plaint, of all others, is of the most common occur- 
rence, and pervades every rank of society. The 
usual symptoms are want of appetite, sudden and 
transient distensions of the stomach, frequent eruc- 
tations, heartburn, stomachic pains, occasional 
vomiting, and frequently costiveness and diarrhoea. 
Sometimes the head is affected, and dimness of 
sight, double vision, muscee volitantes, and slight 
vertigo, are experienced, along with a multitude 
of other symptoms, depending on a disarrangement 
of the functions of the nervous system. The 
causes of dyspepsia are numerous. In the higher 
ranks of society, it is a common consequence of 
over indulgence in the luxuries of the table, or of 
the want of proper exercise, both bodily and men- 
tal. In the studious, and those who lead a seden- 
tary life, it is usually caused by excessive mental 
exertion oi anxiety, or by the fatigues of business, 
and the want of sufficient bodily exertion and pure 
air. In the lower orders of society, it generally 
results from inebriety, or a deficiency of proper 
food and clothing. 

Treat. The treatment of dyspepsia depends less 
on medicine than on the adoption of regular habits 
of life. Moderation in eating, drinking, and the 
indulgence of the passions ; early rising, due ex- 
ercise and retiring to rest at an early hour, wilJ 
do much to restore the tone both of the stomach 
and nerves Excessive study and mental exertion 



EAR 



258 



EAU 



should be avoided, and recourse should frequently 
be had to society, and amusements of a lively and 
interesting character. If the bowels are confined, 
mild aperients should be taken, and if diarrhoea be 
present, antacids and absorbents may be had re- 
course to with advantage. The stomach should 
be strengthened by the use of mild bitters, tonics, 
and stimulants, and sea-bathing, or the tepid bath 
may be taken when convenient. Where dyspepsia 
is a secondary or symptomatic disease, the cause 
should be sought into, and the treatment varied 
accordingly. Among the aperient medicines most 
suitable to dyspepsia, may be mentioned — Epsom 
salts, piiosphate of soda, and Seidlitz powders, 
either of which should be taken largely diluted 
with water. An occasional dose of the Abernethy 
Medicines, noticed on our first page, has also been 
recommended. Among antacids, are the bicar- 
bonates and carbonates of potassa and soda, either 
of which may be taken in doses of half a teaspoon- 
ful dissolved in water, or if the spirits be low, one 
or two teaspoonfuls of spirits of sal volatile will be 
more appropriate, and in cases accompanied by 
diarrhoea, a little prepared chalk. As hitters, 
compound infusion of orange-peel, or gentian, is 
excellent. As tonics, small doses of bark, or 
disulphate of quinine, to which chalybeates may 
be added, if there be no disposition to fever or 
headache. 



EARTHS. Syn. Terr^, {Lat.) Terres, (Fr.) 
Erden, (Ger.) In Agriculture: soils wholly or 
nearly destitute of organic matter. In Chemistry : 
certain metallic oxides that constitute the principal 
portion of the various stony and pulverent masses 
that form our mountains, valleys, and plains, and 
the whole crust of the globe we inhabit, as far as 
the researches of man have penetrated. The prim- 
itive earths are nine in number, viz. baryta, 
strontia, lime, magnesia, alumina, glucina, zir- 
conia, yttria, and thorina. The first four have 
been denominated alkaline earths, from their 
partial solubility in water, their alkaline taste, and 
their action on vegetaW - colors ; the remainder 
have been called earth's proper, from their insolu- 
bility in water, and their imperfect neutralization 
of the acids. Silica and lithia have also been 
classed with the earths, but the former is more 
correctly placed among the acids, from its power 
of neutralizing bases, and the latter with the al- 
kalis, from its behavior with the acids, and the 
solubility of its carbonate in water. All the above 
earths were regarded as elementary substances, 
until Sir H. Davy, in 1808, proved them to be 
metallic oxides. In a state of purity they are 
white and incombustible, but they exist in nature 
in combination with other substances, mostly acids 
and oxides of the common metals, which alter their 
appearance. Baryta is the mineral constituent of 
rat's stone and heavy spar ; Lime, combined with 
carbonic acid, forms chalk, marble, and the shells 
of fish, and with phosphoric acid, the earthy por- 
tion of the bones of animals ; alumina constitutes 
clay, in which state it is usually combined with 
oxide of iron and carbonate of lime ; the other 
earths play a less imi)ortant part iii the economy 
of tlio globe. The metals of which the earths arc 
Uie oxides^ are obtained with difficulty, and possess 



but an evanescent existence. (See Barium.- Aj.U- 

MINIUM, &c.) 

EATON'S STYPTIC. A spirituous solution 
of sulphate of iron, disguised by the addition 01 
some other ingredients. 

EAU. {Fr.) Water. Eau douce, fresh or river 
water. Eau de mer, sea or salt water. Eau de 
fontaine, spring water. Eau de source, do. Eau 
de puits, well water. Eau de riviere, river wa- 
ter. Eau de rose, eau rose, rose water. Eau de 
vie, brandy. Eau d'Hongrie, Hungary' water. 
Eau benite, holy water. Eau forte, aquafortis. 

The word eau is applied to numerous substances, 
differing in their composition, sensible properties, 
and uses, as will b^ seen above. In perfumery, it 
is generally used to . esignate solutions of the fra- 
grant essential oils in spirit, as eau de Cologne, 
eau de bouquet, &lc., or to distilled waters, largely 
charged with the odorous principles of plants, as 
eau de rose, eau de fieurs d'oranges, &c. In the 
art of the liqueur iste, it is frequently applied 
to aromatized spirits, or cordial liqueurs. (See 
Water.) 

EAU D'ANGE DISTILLEE. Prep. Ben- 
zoin 4 oz. ; storax 2 oz. ; cloves ^ oz. ; calamus 
and cinnamon, of each \ oz. ; coriander seeds 1 
dr. ; all bruised ; water 5 pints ; draw off 2 quarts. 
Fragrant. 

EAU D'ANGE DISTILLEE ET MUS- 
QUE]^ Prep. Benzoin 4 oz. ; storax 2 oz. ; cin- 
namon i oz. ; cloves and calamus ^ oz. ; 2 fresh 
emptied musk bags ; water 3 pints ; digest in a 
gentle iieat for 2 hours, then draw over 1 quart 
Fragrant. 

EAU D'ANGE BOUILLEE. Prep. Rose 
water and orange-flower water, of each 3 pints ; 
benzoin 1 lb. ; storax ^ lb. ; cinnamon 1 oz. ; cloves 
i oz. ; 3 fresh emptied musk bags ; digest in a 
securely-covered vessel at nearly the boiling heat 
for 2 hours, then allow it to cool ; strain oiF the 
clear, and press the remainder ; lastly filter for use. 
Fragrant. 

EAU D' ANSERINE. Distilled from the herb, 
2 lbs. to water 5 quarts, drawing off only 1 gallon. 
It is scentless and tasteless. Used by the French 
in dressing gauzes. 

EAU D'ARQUEBUSADE. Syn. Vulne- 
RARY Water. Aqua Vulnekaria. Aq. Vul. 
Spirituosa. Aq. Sclopetaria. Prep. Dried 
tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, 
savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint, balm, pepper- 
mint, schordium, angelica leaves, (fresh,) basil 
leaves, and lavender flowers, of each 4 oz. ; proof 
spirit 2 gallons ; digest for 14 days, and distil over 
1^ gallons. 

II. Rosemary leaves 1^ lbs.; leaves of thyme 
and summits of millefoil, of each i lb. ; proof spirit 
2 gallons ; distil over 5 quarts. 

This water is stimulant and vulnerary, and is 
used as a cosmetic and cordial. 

EAU DE BELLOSTE. Prep. Brandy 1 pint; 
muriatic acid ^ pint ; hay saffron and sirup of saf- 
fron, of each 2 oz. ; digest for 14 days and filter 
Formerly used as a resolvent. 

EAU DE BOUQUET. Prep. Rectified spirit 
of wme 1 quart ; spirits of rosemary and essence 
of violets, of each 1 oz. : essences of bergamotte 
and jasmine, of each 1 dr. ; oils of vorbt-na and 
lavender i dr. ; eau do rose i pint ; ovdnge-flowci 



EAU 



259 



EAU 



water 1 oz. ; mix well and filter. An agreeable 
perfume. 

EAU DE COLOGNE. St/n. Cologne Wa- 
ter.. Aqua Coloniensis. Simritus do. Pre/ I. 
(P. Cod.) Oils of bergamotte, lemons, and cedrat, 
of each 5''j ; o''s of rosemary, lavender, and neroli, 
of each ^iss ; oil of cinnamon 3vj ; rectified spirit 
3 gallons ; spirits of rosemary 1 quart ; compound 
spirit of bahn (eau de melisse des carmes) 3 pints; 
digest for 8 days, then distil 3 gallons. 

II. (Cadet Gassincourt.) Neroli, essences (oils) 
of cedrat, orange, lemon, bergamotte, and rosema- 
ry, of each 24 drops ; lesser cardamom seeds ^ oz. ; 
spirit at 32° B. (0-869) 2 quarts ; digest, then dis- 
til li pint. 

III. (Farina.) Rectified spirit 5 gallons ; cala- 
mus aromaticus, sage, and thyme, of each h dr. ; 
balm mint and spear mint, of each 1 oz. ; angelica 
root 10 grs. ; camphor 15 grains ; petals of roses 
and violets, of each 3 drs. ; lavender flowers 1^ 
dr. ; orange flovi^ers 1 dr. ; w^ormwood, nutmeg, 
cloves, cassia lignea, and mace, of each 20 grs. ; 
oranges and lemons, sliced, of each 2 in number ; 
bruise or slice the solids, macerate M^ith agitation 
for 48 hours, then distil off §, and add to the pro- 
duct — essences of lemons, cedrat, balm mint, and 
lavender, of each 1 dr. ; pure neroli and essence 
of the seeds of anthos, of each 20 drops ; essences 
of jasmine and bergamotte, of each 1 oz. ; mix 
well, and filter, if necessary. 

IV. (TrommsdorfF.) Oils of neroli, citron, ber- 
gamotte, orange, and rosemary, of each 12 drops; 
Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit 
of wine 1 quart ; mix, and after standing 2 or 3 
days distil. 

V. Essence of bergamotte 40 drops ; essence of 
lemons 45 drops ; oil of rosemary 6 drops ; oil of 
orange 22 drops ; finest neroli 12 drops; essence 
of musk 1 drop ; rectified spirit of wine 6 oz., 
(fluid ;) mix. Excellent without distillation, if the 
oils be good. 

VI. Rectified spirit of wine 1 pint ; oils of ber- 
gamotte, orange, and rosemary, of each 1 dr. ; car- 
damom seeds 1 dr. ; orange-flower water 1 pint ; 
mix, digest for a day, then distil. 

VII. Neroli, essences of cedrat, orange, citron, 
bergamotte, and rosemary, of each ^ dr. ; oil of 
verbena 20 drops ; lesser cardamoms 1 dr. ; recti- 
fied spirit of wine, at 32° B. ^ gallon ; orange- 
flower water ^ pint ; digest and distil 3 pints. 

VIII. To the last add, before distillation, es- 
sences of musk and ambergris, of each 10 drops ; 
powdered benzoin 15 grs ; otto of roses 8 drops. 

IX. Essence of bergamotte 3 oz. ; essence of 
lemon 3 drs. ; essence of cedrat 2 drs. ; neroli 1^ 
dr. ; oil of rosemary 1 dr. ; spirit of wine 1^ gal- 
Ion ; rosemary tops 4 oz. ; balm ^ dr. ; distil. 

Remarks. In the preparation of eau de Cologne, 
it is essential that the spirit be of the purest de- 
scription, both tasteless -eind scentless, and that the 
oils be not only genuine, but recently distilled, as 
old oils are less odorous and contain a considerable 
quantity of resin and camphor, which would prove 
injurious. To produce an article of the fniest qual- 
ity, distillation should be had recourse to, as di- 
rected above ; but a very excellent eau de Cologne 
may be produced by simple solution or maceration 
of the ingredients in the spirit, provided all the es- 
sences be new, pale-colored, and pure. When pre- 



pared in the latter way, any article that would im- 
part a color should be avoided, as eau de Cologne 
should be both transparent and colorless. The mass 
of the eau do Cologne prepared in England, some 
of which possesses the most delicate fragrance, and 
is nearly equal to the best imported, is made with- 
out distillation. In the shops two kinds of this ar- 
ticle are generally kept, viz., French and German. 
That prepared by Faruia of Cologne is esteemed 
the best, and is preferred in the fashionable world. 

Eau de Cologne is principally used as a per- 
fume, but a very large quantity is consumed by 
fashionable ladies, as a cordial and stimulant to 
drive away the vapors. For this purpose it is dulcified 
with sugar. A piece of linen dipped in Cologne 
water, and laid across the forehead, is a fashiona- 
ble remedy for headache. 

EAU DIVINE. Prep. Essences of lemon and 
bergamotte, of each 1 dr. ; dissolve in rectified 
spirit of wine 1 gallon ; distil or filter ; then add 
clarified sirup 3 quarts ; distilled water 5 quarts ; 
mix well and add orange-flower water 6 oz. A 
pleasant and fragrant cordial. 

EAU DE FRAMBOISES. Prep. Strawber- 
ries, bruised, 16 lbs.; spirits of wine 1 gallon; dis- 
til to dryness in a salt-water or steam bath. 

EAU DE HUSSON. Syn. Eau Medicinale. 
Aqua Medicinalis Hussonii. This is a nostrum 
which was originally prepared by M. Husson, a 
French military officer, and which has acquired 
great reputation for allaying the pain and remov- 
ing the paroxysms of gout. It was submitted to a 
chemical investigation by Cadet and Parmentier, 
in 1782, but without eliciting further information 
than that it is a purely vegetable solution. Alyon 
has asserted that it is prepared witli gratiola ; Mr. 
Moore that it is an infusion of hellebore and lauda- 
num ; and Mr. Want that it is a vinous infusion 
of colchicum. The general opinion coincides with 
that of the latter gentleman', and the wine of col- 
chicum is commonly substituted for it, and pro- 
duces like effects. Dr. Collier has given the fol- 
lowing form for the eau medicinale de Husson: — 
" Colchicum root, sliced, §ij ; cherry wine f ^iv ; 
macerate." This preparation is 2^ times as strong 
as the " vinum colchici" of the Pharmacopoeia, 
and the dose should consequently be from 8 to 24 
drops. 

EAU DE LAVANDE. Syn. Lavender Wa- 
ter. Double Distilled do. Prep. I. Picked 
flowers 7 lbs. ; rectified spirit 2 gallons ; macerate 
for a week, then distil. 

II. Flowers 7 lbs.; rectified spirit 1^ gallons; 
water ^ gallon ; as before. 

III. Mitcham oil of lavender 8 oz. ; essence of 
bergamot 1^ oz. ; essence of musk 4 oz. ; rectified 
spirit 2 gallons; mix well. Very fine. 

IV. To the last add 3 quarts of distilled water, 
and after well mixing, filter through blotting pa- 
per, with a few grains of magnesia. 

Remarks. Both this and the preceding are better 
for distillation, and in that case, the musk should 
be added to the distilled spirit. The oils should be 
of the best quality, and newly distilled, and the 
spirit should be perfectly scentless. 

Eau de Lavande is a most agreeable perfume. 
The article produced by the third form has been 
used bv her n^ajesty and many of the nobility. 

EAU DE MARESCHALE. Prep. I. Musk 



EAU 



260 



EGG 



(grain) and ambergris, of each 20 grs. ; oils of ber- 
gamot, lavender, and cloves, of each 1 oz. ; oil of 
sassafras, 10 drops; oil of origanum 20 drops; rec- 
tified spirit 2 quarts ; macerate. 

II. Rectified spirit 1 pint ; essence of violets 1 
oz. ; essences of bergamot and cEillets, of each \ 
oz. ; orange-flower water ^ pint. As last. 

EAU DE MELISSE DES CARxMES. Syn. 
Eau DES Carmes. Aq,ua Melissa comp. Si'iritus 
Melissa co. Prep. (P. Cod.) Fresh balm flow- 
ers §xxiv ; fresh lemon-peel §iv ; cinnamon, cloves, 
and nutmegs, of each §ij ; coriander seed and dried 
angelica root, of each §j ; rectified spirit lb. viij ; 
macerate for 8 days, and distil in a water-bath to 
dryness. 

II. Take of spirit of balm 8 pints ; lemon-peel 
4 pints ; nutmegs and coriander seeds, of each 2 
pints ; rosemary, marjoram, thyme, hyssop, cinna- 
mon, sage, aniseed, cloves, angelica, (roots,) of 
each 1 pint. Mix, distil, and keep it for a year in 
an ice-house. 

This is tlie original receipt of the barefooted Car- 
melites, now in the possession of the Company of 
Apothecaries of Paris, who sell a vast quantity of 
this celebrated water. It is much esteemed in 
France as a stomachic, a cosmetic, and a stimu- 
lant. 

EAU DE MILLEFLEURS. Prep. I. Musk 
10 grs.; essence of lemon 1^ oz. ; essence of am- 
bergris 2 oz. ; oils of cloves, and lavender, (Eng- 
lish,) of each 1 oz. ; neroli and oil of verbena, of 
each 15 drops ; rectified spirit 2 quarts. Macerate 
in a close vessel in a warm situation for a fort- 
night. 

II. Rectified spirit 1 pint ; essence of bergamot 
\ oz. ; eau lavande and essence of jasmine, of each 
1 oz. ; orange-flower water 8 oz. ; mix. 

III. Grain musk 15 grs. ; essence of ambergris 
1 drachm ; eau d'ange 1 quart. As before. 

EAU DE NAPHRE. Syn. Eau de Naphe. 
AauA NaphjE. Double distilled Orange-flow- 
er Water. Prep. This article is distilled in Lan- 
guedoc from the leaves of the bigarade or bitter 
orange-tree, but the preparation sold in England 
under this name, is commonly prepared as fol- 
lows : orange-flowers 7 lbs. ; yellow peel of the 
bigarade or Seville orange ^ lb. ; white wine 5 
quarts ; spirits of wine 1 pint. Macerate in a 
warm place for three days, then distil. 

EAU D'CEILLET. Prep. Cloves, bruised, 
1 lb. ; water 5 quarts ; macerate for 24 hours, then 
distil 1 gallon. 

EAU DE RABEL. Syn. Aqua Rabelil 
Prep. Strong oil of vitriol 1 part ; alcohol 3 parts. 
Used as an astringent. 

EAU D' HONGRIE. Syn. Eau de la Reine 
d'Hongrie. AauA Hungarica. Hungary Wa- 
ter. Prep. I. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs. ; 
fresh sage ^ lb. ; bruised ginger 2 oz. ; rectified 
spirit 1^ gallon ; water i gallon. Macerate for 10 
days, then distil 11 pints. 

II. Fresh rosemary flowers 2 lbs. ; lavender 
flowers 2 oz. ; rectified spirit 3 pints. Distil 3 lbs. 

Hungary water is fragrant and stimulant, and 
is much esteemed by some persons as a cosmetic, 
and, sweetened with sugar, as a liqueur. 

EAU SANS PAREILLE. Prep. I. Essence 
of bergamotte 5 draclnns ; essence of lemon 8 
drachms ; essence of citron 4 drachms ; Iluugaiy 



water 1 pint ; rectified spirit 6 quarts. MacerttB 
and distil. 

II. Grain musk 20 grs. ; ambergris 25 grs. ; oila 
of lavender and cloves, of each 1 oz. ; essence of 
bergamot i oz. ; oils of sassafras and origanum, of 
each 20 drops ; rectified spirit 1 gallon. Macerate 
for 14 days. A fragrant cosmetic. 

EAU DE TAIN. Prep. Lemon thyme 1 lb. ; 
water 5 quarts. Distil 1 gallon. Fragrant. 

EAU DE VIE D'ANDAYE. Prep. Brandy 
or proof spirit 1 .gallon ; simple sirup 1 lb. ; aniseed 
water | pint ; mix. 

EBONY. Pale-colored woods are stained in 
imitation of ebony, by washing them with or steep 
ing them in a strong decoction of logwood or galls, 
allowing them to dry and then washing them over 
with a solution of the sulphate or acetate of iron. 
When dry they are washed with clean water, anq 
the process repeated if required. They are lastly 
polished or varnished. 

EDULCORATE. Syn. Ei^icorer, (Ft.) 
AussiisEN, {Germ.) From edulco, to make sweet 
(In Chemistry.) The affusion of water on any sub- 
stance for the purpose of removing the portion so- 
luble in that fluid. Edulcoration is usually per- 
formed by agitating or triturating the article with 
water, and removing the latter after subsidence by 
decantation or filtration. It is the method com- 
monly adopted to purify precipitates and other 
powders which are insoluble in water. 

EGGS. Syn. GEufs, {Fr.) Ovum, an egg ; Al- 
bumen Ovi, white of egg ; Vitellus Ovi, yelk of 
egg ; {Lat.) The eggs of birds are nutritious and 
easily digestible ; and when lightly cooked by boil- 
ing, and eaten with a little salt, are admirably 
adapted as an aliment for the sick, and for persons 
with delicate stomachs. When boiled hard or fried, 
they are rendered less easily digestible, and have 
no advantage in this respect over good meat. A 
new-laid egg, broken into a cup of tea, coffee, or 
chocolate, and well beaten up, is an excellent in- 
gredient in the breakfast of a person having a de- 
ficient appetite, and will be found very supporting. 
A glass of wine, beer, or porter, similarly treated, 
along with a biscuit, has been recommended as a 
light and nutritious luncheon or supper, well suited 
to the debilitated and the dyspeptic. 

The average weight of a new-laid egg is about 
3i oz. ; the white generally weighs 1| oz. ; the yelk 
\\, and the shell and skin ^ oz. 

Choice. The larger end of a new-laid egg fee' 
cold, when placed against the tongue. New-laio 
eggs appear semi-transparent when placed be- 
tween the eye and a strong light, and have a small 
and perceptible division of the skin from the shell, 
which is filled with air. When they shake the} 
are stale. The eggs of the large black fowls called 
Minorcas or Spanish, and which have a very white 
and rough shell, are those that possess the most 
delicate flavor. The eggs of turkeys are much es- 
teemed for some purposes ; those of ducks anc 
geese are coarse and inferior. 

Pres. Eggs may be preserved for any length oi 
time by excluding them from the air. One of the 
cleanest and easiest methods of doing this, is to 
pack them in clean dry salt, in barrels or tubs, and 
to place them in a cool and dry situation. I have 
eaten eggs thus preserved that were a tv/elvemonth 
old, and that liad oeen some months aboard slijp. 



EGG 



261 



ELA 



in a tropical climate, and yet retained all the pe- 
culiar sweetness of new-laid ejrgs. With a like 
intention, eggs are placed in vessels containing milk 
of lime, or strong brine, or rubbed over with butter, 
lard, or gum-water ; all of which act by excluding 
the air. Eggs may be preserved for some weeks 
in a cold situation, by placing them in a cabbage 
or potato-net, and hanging them to a nail, observ- 
ing to hang them up by a fresh mesh of the net 
every day. Some persons place eggs which they 
wish to preserve in a netting, or on a sieve or col- 
ander, and immerse them for an instant in a cal- 
dron of boiling water, before packing them away. 
The practice of packing eggs in damp straw, or 
any thing else that can convey a flctvor, should be 
avoided. The shells of eggs are porous, and readi- 
ly admit the passage of gaseous substances and 
fetid odors. It is from inattention to this point 
that a large portion of the egg^ imported from the 
coast of France have a less delicate flavor than 
those of our poultry yards. Damp chopped straw, 
as well as most other organic substances exposed to 
warmth and moisture, readily ferment, and during 
fermentation, a considerable increase of tempera- 
ture takes place, as any one may readily perceive 
by examining the common hotbeds in our gardens ; 
which are merely masses of organic matter in a 
state of decomposition. Eggs, a^ long as they re- 
tain the vital principle or embryo of the future 
chick, in a living state, (if I may be allowed the 
term,) possess in themselves a certain degree- of 
warmth, which tends materially to promote the 
decomposition of the substance they are packed in, 
if moisture be present. 

The importation of foreign eggs, during the year 
1838, amounted to nearly 84,000,000, and the duty 
paid on them to upwards of jC29,000. Since that 
time the number annually imported has, I believe, 
immensely increased. 

EGGS AND BACON, ARTIFICIAL. "Make 
clear blancmange in a white dish, cut it into rounds 
with the top of a teacup, and lay them on the dish 
on which it is to be served ; make yellow Dutch 
flummery, run it mto a small teacup, in the form 
of the yelk of an egg, and place one on each round 
of the blancmange. Cut six straight pieces of 
blancmange, on which lay three streaks of pre- 
serv^ed damsons, and serve all on the same dish." 

EGG FLIP. Beer 1 pint ; eggs 3 in no. ; su- 
gar 2 oz. ; nutmeg and ginger sufficient. Break 
the eggs into one half of the beer, add the sugar, 
and beat well together ; then place it in a clean 
" warmer," and heat it over the fire to nearly the 
boiling point, stirring it all the time, but do not let 
it boil ; next add the other portion of the beer and 
the spices, and mix well together. Some persons 
add a glass of spirits. Care must be taken not to 
let it boil, as, if it does, the eggs will separate. 

EGG WINE. Like the last, using equal parts 
of white wine and water instead of beer. 

EGGS, GLAIRE OF. Prep. Separate the 
whites from the yelks, and whisk them to a froth, 
let them stand 24 hours, and strain them through 
muslin. Used as a glaze or varnish. 

EGGS IN SALADS, &c. (Substitute.) Prep. 
Cream 1 tablespoonful ; unflavored calves' feet 
jelly 2 do. ; a piece of salt the size of a bean ; hot 
water, stained yellow with turmeric, 1 dessert- 
spoonful ; mix well. 



ELAIDIC ACID. An acid compound formed 
by the action of nitroqs acid or nitrute of mercurj 
on oleic acid. 

Prep. Pass a current of niir-.i.- gas through 
pure oleic acid, at a low temperature, for 5 min- 
utes ; wash the crystalline mass, that shortly af- 
terwards forms, with hot water ; and tlieu dissolve 
it in an equal volume of hot alcohol. On cooling, 
crystals will form, and must be purified by pres- 
sure, re-solution, and crystallization. (Meyer.) 

Prop., <^c. Elaidic acid, prepared as above, re- 
sembles sublimed benzoic acid ; melts at 1 13^ Fahr,, 
and is soluble in alcohol and ether ; with the alka- 
lis and their carbonates it forms hydrated salts, 
which yield strong soapy .solutions. 

ELAIDIN. A compound of elaidic acid and 
glycerine, formed by the action of nitrate of mer- 
cury on olive oil. It is one of the components of 
citrine ointment. 

ELATERINE. Syn. Momordicfne. The ac- 
tive principle of elaterium. It was discovered by 
Dr. Clutterb^:k in 1819, but first obtained in a 
state of purity in 1830, by the late Mr. Hennel. 

Prep. I. Digest elaterium in hot alcohol, evapo- 
rate the tincture to the consistence of thin oil, 
then throw it into boiling distilled water, and allow 
the whole to cool ; collect the precipitate, and puri- 
fy by re-solution in alcohol and precipitation by 
water as before. (Dr. Morries.) 

II. Digest the alcoholic extract of elaterium in 
ether, and dissolve the residuum in hot alcohol ; 
crystals will form as the solution cools. (Hennel.) 

Remarks. Elaterine forms delicate silky crys- 
tals, having a bitter taste. It is a drastic purga- 
tive. Dose. One-sixteenth err. 

ELATERIUM. {From iXaww, I stimulate or 
urge forward.) The term tXarfipiov \vq.s, applied 
by the Greeks to any drastic purgative, but prin- 
cipally to the juice of the wild or squirting cucum- 
ber. The word elaterium, according to present 
usage, means the deposite obtained from the juice 
of the wild cucumber. 

Prep. I. (Dr. Clutterbuck.) Gather the cucum- 
bers when as ripe as possible, but without violence 
that might endanger their bursting. Then wet 
them by the affusion of cold water, cut them 
through . longitudinally, and allow the juice to 
strain through a fine sieve into an earthenware 
vessel. Scoop out the seeds and surrounding 
pulp, place them o* the sieve, and wash them re- 
peatedly with cold water. The same process may 
afterwards be applied to the split cucumbers. The 
several waters being received in the same vessel 
with the juice, the whole is to be allowed to re- 
pose for a few hours, when the clear portion must 
be decanted and the sediment spread thinly on fine 
linen and exposed to the air to dry. Exposure to 
sunshine or a bright light should be avoided, but 
gentle warmth may be employed without injury. 
Quality very fine, but the product small. Forty 
fruits yielded Dr. Clutterbuck only 6 grains of 
elaterium. 

II. (Process followed at Apothecaries^ Hall.) 
The fruit cut longitudinally into halves, is placed 
in hempen or horse-hair bags, and subniitted to 
slight pressure in a tincture press. The juice, as 
it runs off, passes through a fine hair sieve into a 
cylindrical glass jug or jar, where it is allowed to 
remain for two hours, when the clear supernatant 



ELE 



262 



ELE 



liquor is poured off, and the thick portion contain- 
ing the sediment is placed on a bibulous paper fil- 
ler, supported on linen, and allowed to drain, after 
which it is dried by a gentle heat in a stove. The 
product has a green color, and constitutes the 
-finest elaterium. A paler and inferior article is 
obtained from the mother liquor, poured from the 
first sediment by placing it in shallow pans and al- 
lowing it to deposite. 

Remarks. To procure a fine article of elaterium 
it is necessary to remove it as soon as it is depos- 
ited, as a heavy mucilage falls down soon after- 
wards, which materially injures its quality and 
appearance. Good elaterium yields from 50 to 
60§ of its weight to strong alcohol, and from 25 to 
44§ of elaterin. (See Extract of Elaterium.) 

ELECTROTYPE. Electrometallurgy. 

The art of working in metals by means of voltaic 
electricity. The most simple and easily managed 
electrotype apparatus, is formed in a similar man- 
ner to the common constant battery, but instead 
of employing a plate of copper for the negative 
element, a mould of the object to be copied, the 
face of which has been covered with plumbago, is 
substituted. An electrograph of this kind may be 
made of any well-glazed earthen jar or vessel, and 
the following arrangement will be found conve- 
nient for most of the purposes to which this art is 
applied by the amateur ; viz. copying medals, 
multiplying plates, &c. 




a. Aa oval vessel of salt glazed earthenware or wood, 
nearly filled with a concentrated solution of sulphate of 
copper. 

b, A poroiis diaphragm, containing the cylinder of zinc 
c, and filled with dilute sulphuric acid. 

(Z, A small bar of brass or copper, fastened to the vessel 
by the binding screws e, e, and supporting the cylinder of 
zinc c, by the hook of copper wire /, and the mould g, by 
the hook h. 

i, A small shelf or partition to support crystals of sul- 
phate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solution. 

Another method is to employ a trough or de- 
composition cell connected with a constant batte- 
ry, by which means several moulds may be coated 
at once. 

This arrangement will be understood by refer- 
ence to the annexed engraving : 




a, A constant battery. (Sec Rattery.) 
h, decomposition cell ; a cubical vessel made of wood, 
flr eartheawure, and filled with u mixture of 1 >uit of di- 



lute sulphuric acid and 2 parts of concentrated solution of 
sulphate of copper. 

c, c, c, Moulds suspended to the brass rod /, and con 
nected with the copper or negative element of the battery 
a, by means of the screw g. 

d, d. Pieces of sheet copper suspended on the brass rod 
h, and connected with the zinc end of the battery, by 
means of the screw i, employed to keep up the strength of 
the cupreous solution in the decomposition cell. 

When it is desired to copy any object by either 
of these apparatuses, an exact mould must be first 
procured. Supposing the article to be a medal, 
for instance, a hoop of paper is commonly placed 
round it, and white wax, or any similar substance, 
poured on it in a melted state, and then allowed 
to cool, when it is removed, a small piece of cop- 
per wire to suspend it by is attached, and its face 
brushed over with finely -powdered plumbago, by 
means of a camel-hair pencil ; the excess and 
loose portion being carefully removed. The mould 
so prepared is next suspended in the apparatus, to 
receive a deposite of metal on its surface. Some 
persons experience considerable difficulty in pro- 
curing moulds free from air bubbles, but this in- 
convenience is readily avoided, by removing with 
a camel-hair pencil any that may be observed on 
the surface of the medal, after the melted wax is 
poured on, and while it remains liquid and trans- 
parent. Stearine, hard tallow, shellac, rosin soft- 
ened with a little oil, plaster of Paris, sealing wax, 
fusible metal, and numerous other substances are 
employed as materials for moulds. When plaster 
of Paris is used, it is necessary to imbue its surface 
with melted wax, to enable it to retain the plum- 
bago. Fusible metal requires no preparation. 

After the mould has received a sufficiently thick 
deposite, the latter is separated, washed in a little 
clean water, and bronzed. Any of the methods 
mentioned under " Bronzing of Metals," may 
be employed for this purpose, but either the first 
or second will be found the simplest and most coa- 
venient. The length of time required to produc6> 
a deposite of any given thickness, depends upon the 
temperature of the solution and the state of the 
battery. Other things being equal, this takes 
place more rapidl)^ the higher the temperature, 
within given limits. In very cold water, the ope- 
ration proceeds exceedingly slowly. 

The tyro in electrotype manipulation, frequently 
experiences much annoyance from the metal 
being deposited on the surface of the mould, under 
the form of a powder, or in a very friable or brittle 
state. This generally arises from the battery be- 
ing in too active a condition. It is found that the 
slower the deposite is formed, the tougher and more 
perfect it will be. Air-bubbles may be avoided by 
brushing them off the face of the mould after im- 
mersion in the decomposition cell, and by properly 
regulating the action of the battery. The dilute 
sulphuric acid employed to excite the zinc end of 
the battery, should never be stronger than I pari 
of concentrated acid, to 8 or 9 parts of water. Iron 
may be substituted for zinc, and is more econom- 
ical. 

In gilding, silvering, or platinizing the common 
metals, by electricity, solutions of gold, silver, oi 
platina, are placed in the decomposition cell, or 
around the moulds, and plates of those metals, 
instead of copper, suspended in the solutioii. 

ELECTUARY. Syn. Electuarium, {Lat., 



ELE 



263 



ELE 



from ^hlK^iKTdv.) Vegetable and light earthy pow- 
ders, mixed up with honey, sirup, or sugar, to the 
consistence of a thick paste. In the present Phar- 
macopoeia, electuaries are included under the title 
CoNFECTJON, but this arrangement is manil'estly 
improper, as these words are not synonynious. " In 
Conserves (or confections) the addition of the sac- 
charine matter is in much larger proportion, and 
»s designed to preserve the vegetable matter ; in 
Electuaries the sirup is designed merely to com- 
municate the required form." (Dr. Murray.) 

The preparation of electuaries is similar to that 
of confections and conserves, and the same pre- 
cautions must be observed to reduce the dry in- 
gredients to very tine powder, and vegetable sub- 
stances to a minutely divided state. Care must 
also be taken to diffuse the ingredients equally 
through every portion of the mass, by patient and 
laborious pounding or stirring. An inattention to 
this point has often led to disagreeable conse- 
quences, from some portion of the electuary- being 
nearly inert, while another portion has possessed 
mcreased activity. (See Conserves and Confec- 
tions.) 

ELECTUARY, AROMATIC. Syn. Elec- 
TUARiUM Aromaticu3I, (P. E.) Prep. Aromatic 
powder (P. E.) 1 part ; sirup of orange-peel 2 
parts ; mix. 

Remarks. This preparation differs from the aro- 
matic confection of the other British Colleges, in 
not containing chalk. It is aromatic and sto- 
machic, but not antacid or absorbent. 

ELECTUARY, BLACK. Syn. Elect. 
Nigrum. Trousseau's Black Tonic. Prep. 
Perchloride of iron 3iv ; tannin 3j ; confection of 
roses §ij ; sirup of orange ^j ; mix. Tonic and 
astringent. 

ELECTUARY, CATHARTIC. Syn. E. 
Catharticum. Confection of senna §iss ; flow- 
ers of sulphur f ss ; sirup of roses or orange peel 
q s. 

Pose. A teaspoonful 3 or 4 times a day in piles. 
A mild and excellent medicine. 

ELECTUARY, DEMULCENT. Syn. E. 
Demulcens. Prep. Spermaceti, sirup of poppies, 
and sirup of tolu, of each 3ij ; powdered gum 
tragacanth 5j ; confection of roses 3vj ; nitre oss ; 
mix. 

Dose. A piece the size of a small nutmeg fre- 
quently. 

ELECTUARY, EMMENAGOGUE. Syn. 
E. Emmenagogicum. Prep. Myrrh 1 dr. ; ammo- 
niated iron 1 scruple ; ginger sirup to mix. 

Dose. A piece the size of a nutmeg, night and 
morning. 

ELECTUARY, FEBRIFUGE. Syn. E. 
Febrifugum. Prep. (E. H.) Powdered cinchona 
§j ; sal ammoniac 5j ; sirup of lemon juice q. s. 
In fevers. 

ELECTUARY FOR DYSENTERY. Syn. 
E. Anti-dysentericum. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) 
Electuary- of catechu, mixed with half its weight 
of Locatel's balsam. 

ELECTUARY FOR EPILEPSY. Syn. E. 
Anti-epilepticum. Prep. (Dr. Mead.) Powdered 
cinchona ^j ; valerian and tin (both in powder) of 
each ^ss : sirup to mix. 

ELECTUARY FOR THE CHOLERA. Syn. 
E. Anti-cholericdm. Prep. Mix together equal 



parts of finely-powdered and newly-burnt char- 
coal, lard, and maple sugar. A popular remedy 

ELECTUARY FOR THE PILES. Syn. E 
H.EMOiuuioiuALE. Prcp. (Dr. Copland.) Creara 
of tartar 5j ; precipitated sulphur 5iij ; confection 
of senna 3ij ; sirup of orange or ginger to mix. 

Remarks. An excellent medicine for piles. 
Dose. A teaspoonful 3 or 4 times a day. P'rom 
the difficulty experienced in procuring pure pre- 
cipitated sulphur, the flowers of sulphur may be 
advantageously substituted. 

ELECTUARY FOR THE TEETH. Syn. 
E. Dentifricu.>l Prep. I. (Coral dentifrice. E. 
Gingivale.) a. Red coral 4 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone 1 
oz. ; cream of tartar 2 oz. ; cochineal 1 dr. ; alum 
i dr. ; (all in fine powder ;) clarified honey 10 oz. ; 
mix. 

b. Clarified honey 12 oz. ; tincture of myrrh 3 
oz. ; oil of cajeput 10 drops ; oil of cassia or cin- 
namon 20 drops ; tincture of cochineal 1 dr. ; 
cream of tartar ^ oz. ; mix. 

II. Myrrh 3 oz. ; cream of tartar and cochineal, 
of each 1^ oz. ; powdered cloves 1 oz. ; honey 4 
oz. ; mix. 

III. To the last add 1 dr. of powdered orris root 
and 5 drops of otto of roses. 

Remarks. All the above are used to whiten and 
preserve the teeth, but are most serviceable in foul 
or scorbutic gums. 

ELECTUARY FOR WORMS. Syn. E. 
Vermifugu3I. E. Anthelminticum. Prep. I. 
(Bresmer.) Worm seed and tansy seed, of each 
5iv ; powdered valerian root 5ij ; ditto jalap and 
sulphate of potash, of each 5iss to 3ij ; oxymel of 
squills to mix. 

II. Powdered tin ^iij ; confection of red roses 
f ss ; orange sirup to mix. Dose. A tablespoonful 
early in the morning for 3 or 4 successive days, 
followed by a cathartic. 

III. (Dr. Cheston.) Powdered tin fiv ; confec- 
tion of wonTiwood §iij ; carbonate of iron f j ; mix. 

ELECTUARY OF ANTIMONY. Syn. E. 
Antimonii. Prep. (P. C.) Prepared sulphuret of 
antimony, gum guaiacum, and black sulphuret of 
mercury', of each 5j ; confection of senna 3ij ; sirup 
to mix. 

Diaphoretic and alterative. Dose. 1 to 2 
drachms twice a day in chronic cutaneous diseases, 
combined with sarsaparilla or decoction of elm 
bark. 

ELECTUARY OF CASSIA. Syn. E. Cas- 
sia. Prep. (P. D.) Fresh cassia pulp and sirup^ 
of orange, of each lb. ss ; manna f ij ; tamarind 
pulp §j ; mix and evaporate to a proper consist- 
ence. 

Dose. 2 dr. to 1 oz. It is gently laxative, and 
is chiefly used as a purge for children, or as a 
vehicle for other cathartics. It is commonly made 
with equal parts of tamarind and cassia pulps, 
mixed with | of manna, and flavored with a few 
drops of tincture of orange peel, without any evap- 
oration. 

ELECTUARY OF CATECHU. Syn. E. 
Catechu. Prep. (P. E.) Powdered catechu, and 
kino, of each ^iv ; cinnamon and nutmegs, of each 
§j ; opium (dissolved in a little sherry) 3iss ; sirup 
of red roses (evaporated to the consistence of honey) 
1^ pints. 

ELECTUARY OF CATECHU, COM- 



ELE 



264 



ELE 



POUND. Syn. E. Catechu compositum. Prep. 
(P. D.) Catechu §iv ; kino f iij ; cinnamon §ij ; 
ginger sirup (boiled as above) lb. ij, §iij ; hard re- 
fined opium (diffused in wine as above) 3iss ; mix. 
Retnarks. Both the above are astringent and 
aromatic. Dose. 3j to 3ij in diarrhoea, dysentery, 

ELECTUARY OF CHARCOAL. Syn. E. 
Carbgnis. Prep. Newly-burnt and finely-pow- 
dered charcoal and carbonate of soda, of each 3ij ; 
confection of senna §iv ; mix. 

ELECTUARY OF CINCHONA AND 
SODA. Syn. E. Cinchona cum Soda. Prep. 
(P. C.) Powdered cinchona ^j ; carbonate of soda 
3ij ; thin mucilage to mix. Dose. 2 dr. 2 or 3 
times a day. 

ELECTUARY OF COPAIBA. Syn. E. Co- 
PAiBiE. Prep. (Caspar.) Blanched almonds 3vj ; 
powdered althaea 3j ; catechu 3ss ; balsam of co- 
paiba 3iij ; mix. 

ELECTUARY OF COWHAGE. Syn. E. 
DoLiCHi. E. MucuNiE. Prep. (Chamberlain.) 
Dip the pods into treacle, withdraw, and scrape 
off the hairs, repeating the process with fresh pods 
till sufficiently thick. 

Dose. One teaspoonful in the morning fasting, 
followed by a purgative a day or two afterwards. 
Vermifuge. (See also E. for Worms.) 

ELECTUARY OF HELLEBORE. Syn. E. 
Hellebori Albi. Prep. Bruised white hellebore 
root lb. j ; water 1 gallon ; boil to one half, strain, 
add honey lb. iij ; and evaporate to a proper con- 

ELECTUARY OF IRON. Syn. E. of Steel. 
E. Chalybeatum. Prep. (Collier.) a. Potassio- 
tartrate of iron ^ss ; confection of red roses §j ; 
sirup to mix. 

b. Precipitated sesquioxide of iron §j ; honey ^ij ; 
ginger sirup ^ss ; mix. 

Both the above are tonic. Dose. One tea- 
spoonful thrice a day, 

ELECTUARY OF LAUREL BERRIES. 
Syn. E. e Baccis Lauri. Prep. Leaves of rue, 
caraway seeds, parsley seed, and laurel berries, of 
each §j ; gum sagapenum 3ss ; black pepper and 
Russian castor, of each 3ij ; honey §xv ; mix. 
(See Confection of Rue.) 

ELECTUARY OF MUSTARD. Syn. E. 
SiNAi'is. Prep. (P. C.) Flour of mustard and con- 
serve of roses, of each 3iv ; ginger sirup to mix. 

ELECTUARY OF OLIBANUM. Syn. E. 
Olibani. Prep. (P. C.) Powdered olibanum, and 
balsam of copaiba, of each 3iv ; confection of hips 
§j ; sirup to mix. 

ELECTUARY OF OPIUM. Syn. E. Tiie- 
BAiAcuM. E. Opii. E. Opiatum. Prep. (P. E.) 
Aromatic powder §iv ; senega fiij ; opium (diifused 
in a little sherry) §ss ; sirup of ginger lb. j ; mix. 

ELECTUARY OF PEPPER. Syn. F Pi- 
peris. Prep. (P. E.) Black pepper and liquorice 
root, in fine powder, of each lb. j ; fennel lb. iij ; 
honey and white sugar, of each lb. ij ; mix. Use, 
&c. Same as confection of black pepper. 

ELECTUARY OF SCAMMONY. Syn. E. 
ScAMMONii. Prep. (P. D.) Powdered scammony 
§iB8 ; cloves, bruised, and ginger, in powder, of 
each 3vj ; oil of caraway 3ss ; Kiruj) of roses to mix. 
A stimulant cathartic. Dose. 10 grs. to ^ dr. 

ELECTUARY OF SULPHUR. Syn. E. 



SuLPHURis. Prep. Flowers of sulphur 1 oz, and 
honey or treacle 2 oz ; mix. Gently laxative 
Dose. A teaspoonful night and morning in piles 
and some skin diseases. 

ELECTUARY OF SULPHUR, COM- 
POUND. Syn. E. Sulphuris co. Prep. I. (St. 
B. H.) Precipitated sulphur fss : rream of tartar 
3j ; honey §j ; mix. An excellenc laxative in 
piles. Flowers of sulphur may be substituted for 
precipitated sulphur in the above form. Dose. 3j 
to 3ij. 

II. Flowers of sulphur fss ; cream of tartar ^j ; 
confection of senna §ij ; confection of black pep- 
per §iss ; sirup of ginger f ^j ; mix. This is an ex- 
cellent medicine. Dose and Use. As last. 

ELECTUARY OF SULPHUR AND BO- 
RAX. Syn. E. Sulphuris cum Borace. Prep. 
Flowers of sulphur §j ; cream of tartar §iss ; borax 
§ss ; confection of senna §iiss ; sirup of orange peel 
to mix. Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls in diseases of 
the uterine organs and lower bowels. 

ELECTUARY OF TURPENTINE. Syn. 
E. Terebjnthin^. Prep. (St. B. H.) Common 
turpentine §j ; honey §ij ; mix. Dose. 1 to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls in complaints of the urinary organs, 
worms, &c. 

ELECTUARY, PECTORAL. Syn. E. Pec- 
TORALE. Prep. I. (P. E. 1744.) Conserve of roses 
§ij ; compound tragacanth powder § ss ; benzoic 
acid 3j ; sirup of tolu q. s. 

II. Oxymel of squills, sirup of marshmallows, 
mucilage of gum arable and sirup of tolu, of each 
§ss ; powdered lump sugar f ij ; mix. 

ELECTUARY, STIMULANT. Syn. E. 
Stimulans. Prep. Gum ammoniacura (strained) 
§j ; vinegar of squills ^ss ; mix with a gentle heat 
and spread on leather. As an application to the 
chest or pit of the stomach. 

ELECTUARY, STOMACHIC. Green pep- 
permint, lump sugar, and confection of orange- 
peel, of each equal partg ; mix. Dose. A tea-, 
spoonful. 

ELEMI. This resin is the produce of an unas- 
certained tree, respecting which there have beer 
various conjectures. The London and Dublir. 
Colleges assign it to the amyris elemifera, but the 
Edinburgh College, with greater discretion, state 
it to be the " concrete resinous exudation from one 
or more unascertained plants." Dr. Pereira has 
suggested, that it may be the produce of the icica 
icicaribo, the canarium zephyrinum, or the cana- 
rium balsamiferum, but the question is still unde- 
cided. 

The eiemi of commerce is of a pale yellow color, 
exteriorly brittle, but soft and tough within ; it has 
a warm bitter taste, and a fragrant aromatic smell, 
partaking of fennel and juniper. It is only par- 
tially transparent even in thin plates, is very fusi- 
ble, and has a density a little greater than that of 
water. According to Bonastre, it consists of 84 
per cent, of resin, 12-15 of a fragrant essential oil 
and a little bitter extractive. In medicine it is 
only employed in the preparation of the elemi 
ointment of the Pharmacopa^ia. 

The elemi of the shops is often adulterated, but 
more frequently a factitious kind is sold for the 
genuine gum. This is fornuHl by adding 1 part 
of balsam of Canada to 4 parts of yellow resin, in 
the melted state, but removed from the fire, aftej 



ELI 



265 



ELL 



which about IJ p. c. of oil of juniper, and half this 
quantity of oil of fennel are stirred in. This fraud 
may be detected by exposing the suspected article 
to heat, along with a little water, when its fra- 
grance will evaporate, and the coarse terebinthi- 
nate smell of the resin will become readily distin- 
guishable. 

ELIXIR. {From the Arabic Elekser, quintes- 
sence.) A name formerly applied to various com- 
pound tinctures. 

ELIXIR, ANTISCROFULOUS. Syn. E. 
Antiscrofulosum. Ammoniated tincture of gen- 
tian. 

ELIXIR, ASTHMATIC. Prep. Opium, oil 
of aniseed and camphor, of each 1 oz. ; proof spirit 
1 gallon. Digest a week. 

ELIXIR, BOERHAAVE'S ANTI-ASTH- 
MATIC. Syn. Elixir Antiasthmaticum Boer- 
HAAVii. A tincture made with aniseed, orris-root, 
assarabacca, sweet flag, liquorice, and elecampane. 
Dose. 2(J to 40 drops. 

ELIXIR, DAFFY'S. Syn. E. Salutis. Com- 
pound Tincture of Senna. Prep. I. Jalap root 
5 oz. ; East India senna 1^ lbs. ; coriander seeds 
and aniseed, of each ^ lb. ; rhubarb \ lb. ; shavings 
of red sanders wood 2 oz. ; treacle 7 lbs., and sub- 
carbonate of potash 2 oz., both dissolved in water 
3^ gallons ; rectified spirit of wine 2^ gallons. All 
the solids must be well bruised, and macerated in 
the mixed fluids for 14 days, when the whole must 
be pressed, and strained through a fine flannel 
bag. It is too glutinous to run through filtering 
paper. 

II. (Dicey's.) Senna lb. j ; guaiacum shavings, 
elecampane root, (dried,) aniseed, caraway seed, 
coriander seed, and liquorice root, of each lb. ss ; 
stoned raisins 'bs. ij ; proof spirit or brandy 9 quarts. 
As last. 

III. (Swinton's.) Jalap 3 lbs. ; senna ,1 lb. ; 
coriander seeds, caraway seeds, liquorice root, and 
elecampane root, of each 4 oz. ; moist sugar 2 lb. ; 
rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 1 gallon. 
As last. 

IV. Jalap and caraways, of each 1 lb. ; senna, 
rhubarb, and aniseed, of each 2 lbs. ; red sanders 
wood i lb. ; brown sugar 7 lbs. ; proof spirit 1 
gallons. As last. 

V. Rhubarb (East India) 14 lbs. senna 56 lbs. ; 
aniseed 7 lbs. ; coriander seeds f bs. ; caraway 
seeds and red sanders wood, of each 5 lbs. ; cassia 
bark and jalap, of each 3 lbs. ; proof spirit 100 gal- 
lons. Digest for 14 days, press, strain, and add 
molasses 84 lbs. Mix well, and either clarify, or 
strain through flannel. 

VI. For proof spirit in the preceding formulte, 
use equal parts of spirit of wine and water. 

Remarks. Daffy's elixir is a favorite purge with 
drunkards, and is a common and very popular 
remedy in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c. Dose. 
1 to 4 tablespoonfuls. 

ELIXIR, THE DEVIL'S. Prep. Pods of 
capsicum and cloves, (bruised.) of each ^j ; ginger 
and saffj-oh, of each ^'ij ; cantharides 3v ; proof 
spirit lbs. vij. Digest for 10 days. Dose. 3ss to 
3iij, in mixtures. It is stimulating and aphrodisiac. 

ELIXIR OF GARLIC. Syn. E. Allii. Prep. 

Garlic roots 80 in number; rectified spirit 1 pint. 

Distil to dryness, and repeat the process with the 

same spirit from fresh roots a second and a third 

34 



time, then add camphor 3ij. Diaphoretic. Doa*. 
A teaspoouful twice a day. 

ELIXIR DE GARUS. Prep. Myrrh ^ss; 
aloes and saffron, of each 3ij ; cinnamon, cloves, 
and nutmegs, of each 3ss ; proof spirit 1 quart. 
Digest for 7 days, strain, and add sirup of maiden- 
hair lbs. ij ; orange-flower water ^iss. 

ELIXIR OF JALAP. Syn. E. Jalaps com- 
posiTUM. Prep. Jalap §iv ; scammony 3iv ; gam- 
boge 3ij ; rectified spirit 1 quart. 

ELIXIR OF LONG LIFE. Syn. E. Long« 
ViTvE. Tincture of rhubarb and aloes. 

ELIXIR OF MYRRH. Tincture of savine. 
(comp.) P. L. 1788. 

ELIXIR D'OR. Syn. Elixir of Gold. De 
La Motte's golden drops. 

ELIXIR, PAREGORIC. Tincture of cam- 
phor (CO.) and ammoniated tincture of opium. 

ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS. Compound 
tincture of aloes. 

ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS CUM ACIDO. 
The last article acidulated with sulphuric acid. 

ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS TARTARIZA- 
TUM. The elixir proprietatis alkalized with salts 
of tartar. 

ELIXIR, PECTORAL. Syn. E. Pectorale. 
Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Balsam of tolu §ij ; gum 
benzoin §iss ; saffi-on f ss ; rectified spirit f^^xxxij. 
Digest in a sand heat for 4 days. 

ELIXIR POLYCHRESTUM. Prep. (P. E 
1744.) Gum guaiacum §vj ; balsam of Peru ^ss ; 
rectified spirit 1 quart. Digest 4 days and strain. 

ELIXIR SACRUM. Tincture of aloes and 
rhubarb. 

1ELIXIR SALUTIS. Tincture of senna. 

ELIXIR, SQUIRE'S. Prep. Opium 2 oz. ; 
camphor and cochineal, of each ^ oz. ; sweet fen- 
nel 1 drachm ; tincture of serpentary 10 oz. ; spi- 
rits of aniseed 1 gallon ; water 1 pint ; aurum 
musivum 3 oz. ; mix. 

ELIXIR, STOMACHIC. Compound tincture 
of gentian. 

ELIXIR OF VITRIOL. Syn. E. Vitrioli. 
Water strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid. 
See Aromatic Sulphuric Acid, which is also 
frequently called elixir of vitriol. 

ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, SWEET. Syn. E. 
Vitrioli Dulce. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Spirit of 
sulphuric ether lbs. ij ; oil of peppermint ^ss ; es- 
sence of lemons and oil of nutmegs, of each 3ij ; 
mix. See Aromatic Spirit of ^Ether, which 
is also called by this name. 

ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, MYNSICHT'S. 
Syn. Acid E. of Vitriol. E. Vitrioli Myx\- 
siCHTi. Prep. Cinnamon, ginger, and cloves, of 
each 3iij ; calamus aromaticus §j ; smaller galan- 
gal fis^ ; sage and peppermint leaves, (dried,) of 
each §ss ; cubebs and nutmegs, of each 5ij ; aloes 
wood and lemon-peel, of each 3j ; sugar candy 
^iv ; rectified spirit lbs. iss ; oil vitriol lb. j. Digest 
for three weeks. 

ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, VIGANI'S. Prep. 
Spirits of sulphuric ether §viij ; aromatic tincture 
lb. j ; mix. 

ELLAGIC ACID. (From Galle reversed.) 
V/hen an aqueous infusion of nut galls is left for 
some time exposed to the atmosphere, the tannic 
acid gradually disappears, and is replaced by gal- 
lic acid, and an insoluble gray powder, to which 



EMB 



266 



EME 



the term ellagic acid was applied by Chevreul. It 
is soluble in alkalis, forming salts, and is precipi- 
tated by acids. 

ELUTRIATION. Syn. Elutriatio, (Lat., 
from elutrio, to cleanse.) In Chemistry, the ope- 
ration of washing insoluble powders with water, 
to separate them from foreign matter, or the coars- 
er portion. It is usually performed by grinding 
or triturating the mass with a little water, until 
reduced to a very fine powder, and this paste is 
suddenly diffused through a large quantity of wa- 
ter, in a deep vessel, from which, after the subsi- 
dence of the grosser portion, the liquid is poured 
into another vessel, and allowed to deposite the fine 
powder it still holds in suspension. When this has 
taken place, the clear supernatant liquor is de- 
canted, and the sediment drained and dried. The 
coarse sediment deposited in the first vessel is now 
submitted to a fresh grinding and diffusion through 
water, and the entire operation is repeated, until 
the whole of the pulverizable portion is washed 
over. The proper length of time for the liquid to 
remain in the first vessel, depends solely on the 
density of the powder, and the degree of fineness 
required in the product ; heavy powders subsiding 
almost immediately, while light ones often take 
several minutes to deposite their coarser portion. 
Sometimes three or more vessels are employed, 
and the muddy liquor, after remaining a short time 
in the first, is poured into the next one, and this, 
in a short time longer, into the third, and so on, 
until the last vessel is filled, by which means, pow- 
ders of different degrees of fineness are obtained ; 
chat deposited in the last vessel being in the minu- 
test state of division. (See Chalk, Bistre, De- 

CANTATION, EdULCORATION, &C.) 

EMBROCATION. Syn. Embrocatio, (Lat, 
from £ii6p£x<^, I moisten.) A fluid medicine rubbed 
on any part of the body. 

EMBROCATION, COMMON. Syn. Em- 
brocatio Communis. Prep. (U. C. H.) Sesqui- 
carbonate of ammonia §iv ; distilled vinegar 6^ 
pints ; mix, and add proof spirit 3 pints. 

EMBROCATION, GUESTONIAN. Syn. 
Emb. TerebinthixN^. Prep. Oil of turpentine and 
olive oil, of each f iss ; dilute sulphuric acid f 3iij ; 
mix well. For rheumatic n. 

EMBROCATION FOR BRUISES. Prep. 
I. Soap liniment 5 oz. ; liquor of ammonia 1 oz. ; 
mix. 

II. Soap liniment 3 oz. ; oil of turpentine 2 oz. ; 
camphor 1 oz. ; mix. 

III. Tincture of cantharides and rectified spirit, 
of each 1 oz. ; camphor and oil of origanum, of 
each i oz. ; mix. 

IV. Sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; distilled vinegar ^ 
pint ; dissolve. 

V. Sugar of lead ^ oz. ; distilled vinegar and 
water, of each ^ piut ; dissolve. 

EMBROCATION Foa HOOPWG COUGH, 
ROCHE'S. Prrp. Sweet oil 2 oz. ; oil of amber 
1 oz. ; oil of clov«>s 1 druf;liin ; mix. 

EMBROCATION FOll STRAINS. (In 
Horses.) Prep. I. Soft soap and oil of turpen- 
tine, of each 4 oz. ; oil of rosemary and campiior, 
of each 1 drachm ; mix. 

II. Olive oil, oil of turpentine, and elder-flower 
oinlmeiit, of eacli 2 oz. ; mix, and add oil of origa- 
num 3 drachms. 



EMBROCATION, LYNCH'S. Prep. Steep 
alkanet root in sweet oil until the latter becomes 
sufficiently colored, then scent with essential 
oils. 

EMBROCATION OF ACETATE OF AM 
MONIA AND SOAP. Syn. Emb. Ammonia 
Acetatis cum Sapone. Prep. (P. C.) a. Soap 
liniment and solution of acetate of ammonia, of 
each 1 oz. ; mix. 

h. To the last add liquor of ammonia f 3iij. For 
sprains, bruises, &lc. 

EMBROCATION OF ALUM. Syn. Emb. 
Aluminis. Alum ^ oz. ; distilled vinegar and proof 
spirit, of each ^ pint ; mix. For chilblains, dis- 
eased joints, &c. 

EMBROCATION OF AMMONIA. Syn. 
Emb. Ammoni.(E. Prep, "iquor of ammonia 1 oz. ; 
proof spirit and water, of each 5 oz. As last. 

EMBROCATION OF AMMONIA, CAM- 
PHORATED. Syn. Emb. Ammonite Acetatis 
Camphorata. Prep. I. Soap liniment and liquor 
of acetate of ammonia, equal parts ; mix. For 
sprains, bruises, chilblains, &c. 

II. To every ounce of the above, add 2 drs. of 
liquor of ammonia. 

EMBROCATION OF CAMPHOR. Syn. 
Emb. Camphors. Prep. I. Soap liniment and 
camphorated spirit of wine, equal parts. 

II. (Collier.) Camphorated spirit of wine, essen- 
tial oil of amber, and laudanum, equal parts. 

EMBROCATION OF CANTHARIDES. 
Syn. Emb. Lytt^. Emb. Cantharidis. Prep. 
Tincture of cantharides and camphorated spirit, of 
each 1 oz. ; mix. Stimulant. It should be used 
with caution, lest the absorption of the cantharides 
induce strangury. 

EMBROCATION OF SOAP. Soap hniment. 
The following is also a common form : soft soap 3 
oz. ; camphor 1 oz. ; soap liniment ^ pint ; water 
and spirit of wine, of each 6 oz. ; spirits of harts- 
horn 4 oz. ; mix. For sprains, bruises, chilblains, 
&c. 

EMBROCATION, STIMULANT. Syn. 
Emb. Stimulans. Prep. (Thompson.) a. Liquoi 
of ammonia f 3ij ; olive oil f 3vj ; mix. Used in 
sore throat, (fee. 

b. Compound camphor liniment f 3ix ; tincture 
of cantharides f3j ; laudanum f3ij ; mix. Rubbed 
over painful joints, and over the bowels in colic 
and cramp. It is stimulant and anodyne. 

EMBROIDERY. Gold and silver fancy work 
of this description may be easiest cleaned with a 
little spirit of wine, either alone, or diluted with 
an equal weight of water. The common prac- 
tice of using alkaliime or acidulous liquors is very 
injurious, and frequently destroys the beauty of the 
articles instead of cleaning them. 

EMERALD. Syv. Emeraude, (Fr.) Smaragd, 
(Ger.) A precious stone of a beautiful green color, 
and ranking next to the diamond in value. A fine 
emerald of 4 or 5 grains is worth as many pounds, 
one of 10 grs. about 21. per gr. ; one of 15 grs. 3/. 
to 4/. per gr., and so on in pro])ortion to the in- 
crease in size. One of 24 grs. fetched 100/. Ac- 
cording to Vauquelin, the emerald consists of ()5§ 
of silica, IGJ] of alumina, 13§ of glucina, (about) 
3g of oxide of chromium, and a trace of lime. The 
finest emeralds are obtained from Peru. 

EMERALDS, FACTITIOUS. The foUow- 



EME 



267 



EMU 



mg method of obtaining artificial rubies and emer- 
alds is exceedingly simple and inexpensive, and 
offers an ample field for the ingenious experiment- 
alist. Recently precipitated and well washed hy- 
drate of alumina is moistened with a few drops of 
neutral chromate of potassa, and kneaded so that 
tlie mass assumes a tinge scarcely perceptible ; it 
is then rolled out into small sticks, about the thick- 
ness of a finger, and slowly dried, taking the pre- 
caution to fill the fissures that form during desicca- 
tion with fresh hydrate of alumina. When per- 
fectly dry, one end of these sticks is brought into 
the termination of the flame of an oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe, until a portion of the mass fs fused into 
a small globule. After the lapse of a few minutes, 
several minute balls, of some millimetres diameter, 
and of such intense hardness, that quartz, glass, to- 
paz, granite, can be easily and perceptibly scratch- 
ed therewith, will form. When cut and polished, 
they appear, however, slightly opaque. By em- 
ploying nitrate of nickel in lieu of chromate of 
potassa, green-colored globules resembling the 
emerald were obtained. (Boettger.) 

By the substitution of oxide of chromium for 
chromate of potassa, the editor of this work has 
procured factitious gems of considerable hardness 
and beauty, though slightly opaque in some por- 
tion of the mass. But this might doubtless be 
avoided by more careful manipulation. From 
some experiments in which a little silica was added, 
there was less opacity, though in other respects -the 
stones were inferior. 

EMETIC. Syn. Emetique, (Fr.) Emeticus, 
(Lai.) EtiSTiKos, {Gr., from e^/ew, I vomit.) A med- 
icine which excites vomiting. The principal 
emetics are Ipecacuanha and Tartarized Anti- 
mony, and their preparations ; and the sulphates 
of zinc and copper. The. first of these is commonly 
employed either in substance or infused in wine, 
(wine of ipecacuanha,) when it is merely wished 
to evacuate the contents of the stomach, when 
that viscus is in a disordered state, or overloaded 
with food. At the beginning of fevers and other 
inflammatory disorders, the timely administration 
of an emetic will frequently induce copious dia- 
phoresis and produce a cure, or at least greatly 
mitigate the severity of the symptoms. For this 
purpose emetic tartar or antimonial wine is pref- 
erable, either alone or combined with ipecacuanha. 
When poison has been taken, and the stomach- 
pump is not at hand, the sulphate of zinc or copper 
should be administered. ^ dr. of either of these 
substances should be dissolved in 3 or 4 oz. of wa- 
ter, and a third should be taken every ten minutes 
until vomiting is induced. The operation of emet- 
ics is powerfully promoted by drinking copiously 
of diluents, especially warm water. The latter, in 
fact, is itself an emetic, when taken in quantity. 
Its use will also prevent that dreadful straining 
and retching, which make emetics so much dread- 
ed by some persons. Small and repeated doses of 
emetics are freijuently administered to produce 
nausea, in many diseases of the lungs and stomach. 
Emetics should be avoided in plethoric habits, in 
hernia, pregnancy, and whenever an inflamma- 
ioTj diathesis exists. They should also be given 
with great caution to young children, and in such 
cases, wine or powder of ipecacuanha should alone 
be employed. Some chronic and obstinate dis- 



eases, especially rheumatism, are sometimes re« 
lieved by emetics. 

EMETL\E. Syn. Emetina. Emetin. La 
Matiere Vomitive. Prep. I. Digest coarsely- 
powdered ipecacuanha root, first in ether and 
then in alcohol. Evaporate the latter tincture to 
dryness, dissolve in water, and precipitate with 
acetate of lead. Wash the precipitate, diffuse it 
in distilled water, in a tall glass vessel, and pass 
sulphureted hydrogen through it, to throw down 
the lead ; filter and evaporate to dryness. Prod. 
Brownish red, deliquescent scales. Emetic in doses 
of ^ to i a gr. (Ann. de Chimie et de Physique.) 

II. The powder of ipecacuanha is digested in 
water with calcined magnesia. The deposite is 
thrown on a filter, washed carefully with very cold 
water, and dried. The emetin is then taken up 
by alcohol. It may be afterwards combined with 
an acid, and the salt may be purified with animal 
charcoal. W^hen the emetin is once more thrown 
down by magnesia, alcohol redissolves it in a color- 
less state. Emetin thus obtained is yellowish- 
white and pulverulent, but may be obtained per- 
fectly white, by repeating the latter part of the 
process. Wliite and pure emetin is emetic in 
doses of one-sixteenth of a grain. 

Props. Emetin is pulverent, inodorous, and bit- 
ter ; fusible at 122° F. ; very soluble in alcohol, 
but only slightly so in ether, oils, and water. It 
partially neutralizes the acids, forming scarcely 
crystallizable salts. Tincture of iodine produces a 
reddish precipitate in an alcoholic solution of eme- 
tin. With tincture of galls this solution behaves 
like morphia ; but, unlike the last substance, the 
salts of iron produce no change of color in it. 

EMULSION. Syn. Emulsion, {Fr.) Emulsio, 
{Lat., from emulgeo, to milk.) A milky fluid, 
formed by the mechanical admixture of oil and 
water, by means of some other substance that 
possesses the power of combining with both. The 
emulsions of the London Pharmacopoeia, are in- 
cluded under the same head as mixtures. In the 
preparation of emulsions, the oily or resinous in- 
gredients are usually suspended by means of mu- 
cilage of gum arable ; almonds, or new-laid eggs ; 
1 drachm of the first, made with equal parts of 
gum and water ; 1 oz. of the second, (usually 26 
in number,) and one in no. of the last, will form 
two drachms of any oil into an emulsion with 
about 1 oz. of water. 

EMULSION, FARPJERS'. Prep. I. (Simple.) 
Sweet oil 2 oz. ; honey or moist sugar 3 oz. ; salts 
of tartar ^ oz. ; warm soft water 1 pint ; mix and 
shake till quite cold. 

II. (Pectoral.) Camphor 2 dr. ; spirit of wine 1 
oz. ; oil of aniseed 20 drops ; dissolve, then add 
of simple emulsion | pinr. 

EMULSION OF ASAFGETIDA. Syn. 
Emulsio Assaf(etid.«. Prep. (Duclow.) Asa- 
foetida ^viij ; powdered gum ^xvj ; oil of almonds 
] A pints ; water 1 quart ; make an emulsion, strain 
through linen, and keep it in a well-corked bottle. 
Antispasmodic. 

EMULSION OF CAMPHOR. Syn. Mistura 
Camphor.e. E. do. E. Camphorata. Prep. (P. 
E. 1839.) Camphor 3j ; lump sugar ^^s ; tritu- 
rate together, and add blanched almonds fss ; beat 
well, then gradually add water 1 pint. Stimulant, 
antispasmodic, and diaphoretic. 



ENA 



268 



ENA 



EMULSION OF COPAIBA. Syn. E. Co- 
PAiB^. Prep. Balsam of copaiba, mucilage of 
gum, and simple sirup, of each 3ij ; water f xij ; 
mix. Dose. ^ oz. to an ounce 2 or 3 times a day 
in certaiji complaints. 

EMULSION, CATHARTIC. Syn. E. Pur- 
GANs CUM Resina Jalap^. Prep. (P. Cod.) Resin 
of jalap 10 grs. ; white sugar f j ; ^ the yelk of an 
egg ; orange-flower water 3ij ; water f |iv ; mix. 

EMULSION OF GUM. Syn. E. Acacij3. 
MisTURA Acacia. Prep. (P. E., 1839.) Sweet 
almonds, blanched, 3x ; white sugar 5v ; mucilage 
f fiij ; water 1 quart. In coughs, &c. 

EMULSION OF OIL OF ALMONDS. Syn. 
E. Olei Amygdala. Prep. Oil of almonds 3iij ; 
thick mucilage and simple sirup, of each §ss ; rose 
water f f j ; distilled water §iij or §iv ; mix. 

Remarks. When well made, this is an elegant 
and efficient substitute for almond milk. 

EMULSION OF PERUVIAN BALSAM. 
Syn. E. Balsamica. E. Balsami Peruviani. 
Prep. (Ger. H.) Balsam of Peru 3iv ; oil of 
almonds 3vj ; powdered gum ^j ; mix, and add 
cautiously rose water f fvj. 

EMULSION, PURGATIVE. Syn. E. Pur- 
GANS CUM ScAMMONio. Prep. (P. Cod.) Virgin 
scammony 10 grs ; milk f §iv ; sugar 5iv ; cherry- 
laurel water f3ij ; mix. 

EMULSION OF SPERMACETL Syn. E. 
Cetacei. Prep. (F. H.) as emulsion of wax. De- 
mulcent. 

EMULSION OF TURPENTINE. Syn. E. 
Terebinthin^. Prep. Chio turpentine 3ij ; white 
sugar 5j ; yelk of 1 egg; milk of almonds ffiv ; 
mix. In gleets. 

EMULSION OF OIL OF TURPENTINE. 
Syn. E. Olei Terebinthin^e. Prep. Oil of tur- 
pentine 9j ; white sugar §j ; yelk of one egg ; mix. 
For nephritic pains. 

EMULSION OF WAX. Syn. E. Cer^. E. 
C. Alb^. Prep. (Guibourt.) White v/ax §j ; pow- 
dered gum 3iss ; water f ^xxiv ; simple sirup f f iv ; 
put the wax with the sirup and gum into a warm 
mortar, triturate with a warm pestle until united, 
then add the water (warm) gradually, and con- 
tinue the agitation till quite cold. Demulcent. 

ENAMELS. Syn. Emaux, (Fr.) Schmelzglas, 
{Ger.) Transparent or opaque substances, usually 
formed of glass colored with metallic oxides, and 
applied in a thin stratum to brightly polished me- 
tallic surfaces, (copper or gold,) on which they are 
fused by the flame of a lamp urged by the blow- 
pipe, or by the heat of a small furnace, ani in 
cooling form a sort of vitreous varnish. The art 
of enamelling acquired the greatest perfection in 
ancient times, and very beautiful specimens are 
Btill preserved, which the moderns are unable to 
equal, and with the materials of which they are 
totally unacquainted. At the present day, this 
pleasing and useful application of human industry 
is carried on with the greatest success by the Ve- 
netians, and, after them, by tiie French. The 
limits of this work will not permit a description of 
the various operations of enamelling, which essen- 
tially depend on skilful manipuhition ; a knowledge 
of which can onl)' be obtained by long practice. 
The preparation of enamels being, however, en- 
tirely dependent on chemistry, I deem it proper to 
present the following fomultB to the reader. It is 



nevertheless right to remark, that almost every 
artist has his own receipts. (See Gems, and 
Pastes.) 

The basis of all enamels is a highly transparent 
and fusible glass, which readily receives a color on 
the addition of metallic oxides. As this is required 
in the preparation of many of those that follow, it 
is placed first. 

ENAMELS, BASE OR FLUX FOR. Prep. 
Red lead 16 parts; calcined borax 3 parts ; pow- 
dered flint glass 12 parts ; powdered flints 4 parts ; 
fuse in a Hessian crucible for 12 hours, then pour 
it out into water, and reduce it to g, powder in a 
biscuit-ware mortar. (Wynn. Trans. Soc. Arts, 
1817.) 

II. Powdered flints 10 parts ; nitre and white 
arsenic, of each 1 part ; as last. (Wynn.) 

III. Flint glass 3 oz. ; red lead 1 oz. ; as last 
(Wynn.) 

IV. Red lead 18 parts ; borax (not calcined) 11 
parts ; flint glass 16 parts ; as last. (Wynn.) 

V. Flint glass 6 parts ; flux No. II. (above) 4 
parts ; red lead 8 parts ; as last. (Wynn.) 

VI. Tin 2 to 5 parts ; lead 10 parts ; calcine in 
an iron pot at a dull cherry-red heat, and scrape 
off" the oxide as it forms, observing to obtain it quite 
free from undecomposed metal : when enough of 
the dross is obtained, reduce it to fine powder by 
grinding and elutriation, then mix 4 parts of this 
powder with an equal weight of pure sand or pow- 
dered flints, and 1 of sea-salt, or other alkaline 
matter, fuse the mixture in a Hessian crucible, and 
proceed as before. The best proportions of the tin 
and lead, for all ordinary purposes, are about 3 of 
the former to 10 of the latter. The calcined mixed 
oxides are commonly called " calcine." 

VII. Lead and tin, equal parts ; calcine as 
above ; and take of the mixed oxides, or calcine 
and ground flints, of each 1 part ; pure subcarbon 
ate of potash 2 parts ; as before. (Chaptal.) 

VIII. Lead 30 parts ; tin 33 parts ; calcine as 
before, then mix 50 parts of the calcine with an 
equal weight of flints, in powder, and 1 lb. of salts 
of tartar ; as before. A fine dead white Bnamel. 
(Neri. Kunckel.) 

Remarks. The precise qualities of the products 
of the above processes depend greatly upon the 
duration and degree of heat employed. By in- 
creasing the quantity of sand, glass, or flux, the 
enamel is rendered more fusible, and the opacity 
and whiteness is increased by the addition of oxide 
of tin. The use of borax should be avoided, or 
used very sparingly, as it is apt to make the enamel 
effloresce and lose color. (Tilloch.) 

ENAMELS, BLACK. Prep. I. Pure clay 3 
parts ; protoxide of iron 1 part ; mix and fuse. A 
fine black. (Clouet.) 

II. Calcined iron (protoxide) 12 parts ; oxide of 
cobalt 1 part ; mix and add an equal weight of 
white flux. 

III. Peroxide of manganese 3 parts; zaffre 1 
part ; mix and add it as required to white flux. 

ENAMELS, BLUE. Prep. Either of the 
fluxes colored with oxide of cobalt. 

II. Sand, red lead, and nitre, of each 10 paits : 
flint glass or ground flints 20 parts ; oxide of cobalt 
1 part, more or less, the quantity wholly depend- 
ing on the depth of color required. 

ENAMELS, BROWN. Prep. I. Red lead 



ENA 



269 



ENE 



and calcined iron, of each 1 part ; antimony, 
litharge, and sand, of each 2 parts ; mix and add 
it in any required proportion to a flux, according 
to the color desired. A little oxide of cobalt or 
zafFre is frequently added, and alters the shade of 
brown, 

II. Manganese 5 parts ; red lead 16 parts ; 
flint powder 8 parts ; mix. 

III. Manganese 9 parts; red lead 34 parts; 
flint powder 16 parts. (VVynn.) 

ENAMELS, GREEN. Prep. I. Flux 2 lbs. ; 
black oxide of copper 1 oz. ; red oxide of iron i 
dr. ; mix. 

II. As above, but use the red oxide of copper. 
Less decisive. 

III. Copper dust and litharge, of each 2 oz. ; 
nitre 1 oz. ; sand 4 oz. ; flux as much as required. 

IV. Add oxide of chrome to a sufficient quantity 
of flux to produce the desired shade : when well 
managed, the color is superb, and will stand a 
very great heat ; but in common hands, it fre- 
quently turns on the dead-leaf tinge. 

V. Transparent flux 5 oz. ; black oxide of cop- 
per 2 scruples ; oxide of chrome 2 grs. Resem- 
bles the emerald. 

VI. Mix blue and yellow enamel in the requir- 
ed proportions. 

ENAMELS, OLIVE. Prep. Good blue 
enamel 2 parts ; black and yellow do., of each 1 
part ; mix. (See also Brown Enamels.) 

ENAMELS, ORANGE. Prep. I. Red l^ad 
12 parts ; red sulphate of iron and oxide of anti- 
mony, of each 1 part ; flint powder 3 parts ; cal- 
cine, powder, and melt with flux, 50 parts. 

II. Red lead 12 parts ; oxide of antimony 4 
parts ; flint powder 3 parts ; red sulphate of iron 
1 part ; calcine, then add flux 5 parts to every 2 
parts of this mixture. (Wynn.) 

ENAMELS, PURPLE. Prep. I. Flux color- 
ed with oxide of gold, purple precipitate of cassius, 
or peroxide of manganese. 

II. Sulphur, nitre, vitriol, antimony, and oxide 
of tin, of each 1 lb. ; red lead 60 lbs. ; mix and 
fuse, cool and powder, add rose copper 19 oz. ; 
zaffre 1 oz. ; crocus martis 1^ oz. ; borax 3 oz. ; 
and 1 lb. of a compound formed of gold, silver, 
and mercury ; fuse, stirring the melted mass with 
a copper rod all the time, then place it in crucibles, 
and submit them to the actio\j of a reverberatory 
furnace for 24 hours. (Phil. Mag.) 

Remarks. This is said to be the purple enamel 
used in the mosaic pictures of St. Peter's at Rome. 

ENAMELS, RED. Prep. I. Sulphate of iron 
(calcined dark) 1 part ; a mixture of 6 parts of 
flux (IV.) and 1 of colcothar, 3 parts ; dark red. 
(Wynn.) 

II. Red sulphate of iron 2 parts ; flux (No. I.) 
6 parts ; white lead 3 parts ; light red. (Wynn.) 

III. Paste or flux colored with the red or pro- 
toxide of copper. Should the color pass into the 
green or brown, from the partial peroxidizement of 
the copper, from the heat being raised too high, 
the red color may be restored by the addition of 
any carbonaceous matter, as tallow, or charcoal. 

IV. The most beautiful and costly red, inclining 
to the purple tinge, is produced by tinging glass or 
flux with the oxide or salts of gold, or with the 
purple precipitate of cassius, which consists of gold 
and tin. In the hands of the skilful artist, any of 



these substances produce shades of red of the most 
exquisite hue: when most perfect, the enamel 
comes from the fire quite colorless", and aftcrwurds 
receives its rich hue from the flame of a cand.r or 
lamp, urged by the blowpipe. 

ENAMELS, ROSE -COLORED. Prep. 
Purple enamel, or its elements, 3 parts ; flux 90 
parts ; mix and add silver-leaf, or oxide of silv-ir, 
1 part or less. 

ENAMELS, TRANSPARENT. Either 
of the fluxes, except the last three. (See also 
Pastes.) 

ENAMELS, VIOLET. Prep. Saline or al- 
kaline frits or fluxes colored with small quantities 
of peroxide of manga^ ese. As the color depends 
on the metal being at the maximum of oxidation, 
contact with all substances that would abstract 
any of its oxygen should be avoided. The same 
remarks apply to other metallic oxides. 

ENAMELS, YELLOW. Prep. I. Red lead 
8 oz. ; oxide of antimony and tin, calcined toge- 
ther, of each 1 oz. ; mix and add flux (No. IV.) 15 
oz. ; mix and fuse. (Wynn.) By varying the 
proportion of the ingredients, various shades may 
be produced. 

II. Lead, tin ashes, litharge, antimony, and 
sand, of each 1 oz. ; nitre 4 oz. ; mix, fuse, and 
powder ; and add the product to any quantity of 
flux according to the color required. 

III. White oxide of antimony, alum, and sal 
ammoniac, of each 1 part ; pure carbonate of lead 
1 to 3 parts, as required ; all in powder ; mix, and 
expose to a heat sufficiently high to decompose the 
sal ammoniac. Very bright. 

IV. Flux fused with oxide of lead, and a little 
red oxide of iron. 

V. Pure oxide of silver added to the metallic 
fluxes. The salts of silver are also used, but are 
difficult to manage. If a thin film of oxide of silver 
be spread over the surface of the enamel to be 
colored, exposed to a moderate heat, then with- 
drawn, and the film of reduced silver on the sur- 
face removed, the part under will be found tinged 
of a fine yellow. 

Remarks. Superior yellow enamels are less easi- 
ly produced than most other colors ; they require 
but little flux, and that mostly of a metallic na- 
ture. 

ENAMELS, WHITE. Prep. I. Calcine, 
(from 2 parts of tin and 1 part of lead calcined 
together) 1 part ; fine crystal or frit 2 parts ; a 
very trifling quantity of manganese ; powder, mix, 
melt, and pour the fused mass into clean water ; 
dry, powder, and again fuse, and repeat the whole 
process 3 or 4 times, observing to avoid contami- 
nation with smoke, dirt, or oxide of iron. A fine 
dead white. 

II. Washed diaphoretic antimony 1 part ; fine 
glass (perfectly free from lead) 3 parts ; rnix, and 
proceed as before. Very fine. 

Remarks. For white enamel, the articles must 
be perfectly free from foreign admixture, as this 
would impart a color. When well managed, either 
of the above forms will produce a paste that will 
rival the opal. 

ENEMA. {From hvntlv, to inject.) A clyster, 
glyster, lavement, or injection. Medicine usually 
liquid (sometimes gaseous) thrown into the rectum 
or lower bowels. The number of substances era* 



ENE 



270 



ENE 



ployed in the preparation of enemata is very great ; 
the following are some of them, arranged accord- 
ing to their effects. 

I. (Aperients or Cathartics.) Aloes, colocynth, 
senna, various purging salts, gruel, decoction of 
marshmallows, decoction of linseed, warm water, 
&c., are commonly employed to promote the 
peristaltic action of the bowels, and to destroy 
worms. 

II. Tobacco infusion or smoke is employed to 
relax the powers of the body, to remove spasms, 
and to produce syncope. 

III. Demulcents, as decoction of starch, gum, 
isinglass, glue, &c. either alone or combined with 
opium, are used to protect the coats of the intes- 
tines and to allay irritation ; as also to restrain 
diarrhoea, especially when combined with astrin- 
gents, as logwood, catechu, or oak bark. 

IV. Animal jelly, soups, broths, milk, &c. are 
frequently used as injections to convey nourish- 
ment to the body. 

V. Anodynes and narcotics, as opium, henbane, 
&.C., are employed to allay spasms of the bowels, 
stomach, uterus, bladder, &lc. 

It is generally regarded that the susceptibility 
of the rectum is only i of that of the stomach, 
and that to exert a nke absorbent action, it occu- 
pies 5 times as long as that viscus ; and that, con- 
sequently, the dose and the interval between its 
repetition should be proportionally increased. This 
has been shown, however, not to be universally 
correct, for according to Orfila, and some other 
authorities, narcotics, as opium, tobacco, &c., are 
more readily absorbed by the rectum than the 
stomach. Others deny this altogether, and assert 
that 2 or 3 times the ordinary dose of opium may 
be exhibited per anum, without producing any 
remarkable effect. (Pereira, Christison.) 

Clysters usually consist of some weak glutinous 
or mucilaginous fluid, to which the active ingre- 
dients are added ; or a decoction or infusion is 
made of the medicaments. In either case the 
fluid is administered warm. The quantity for an 
adult may vary from ^ to | of a pint ; that for an 
infant within a month old, should be about 1 oz. ; 
for a chii.^ 1 year old, about 2^ oz. ; from 1 to 7 
years, from 3 oz. to 4 oz. ; and from that age to 12 
or 14, from 6 to 7 oz. ; after that age to puberty, 
i a pint may be employed. Clysters are usually 
administered by means of a syringe, bladder, or 
elastic bag, furnished with a rectum tube. Great 
care should be taken to avoid injuring the coats 
of the rectum by the use of an improperly shaped 
pipe, or one that is too long. A neglect of this 
point often produces very serious consequences in 
young children. The extremity of the pipe or tube 
should be perfectly smooth, well rounded, and 
rather spherical than pointed, and in using it no 
force should be employed. I once witnessed a 
case where a young infant lost its life, from an 
ignorant nurse forcibly thrusting the tube of a sy- 
ringe through the upper parts of the rectum, in her 
attempt to administer a clyster. 

Tobacco smoke may bo administered by means 
of a doable pair of bellows, supplied with air from 
a small funnel under which the herb is burning, — 
and gaseous matter, by connecting the rectum 
tube with a small gasometer, exerting a trifling 
p>*eHsure on the confined gas. 



The injection of large quantities of liquid mat- 
ter into the bowels, as well as the constant use of 
clysters, (even of warm water,) is deemed by the 
highest medical authorities to be injurious. The 
bowels, continually accustomed to a stimulant, 
cease to act without one. 

ENEMA, ANODYNE. Syn. Enema Anody- 
NUM. Prep. Starch jelly ^ pint ; laudanum 40 to 
60 drops ; mix. In dysentery, diarrhoea, cholera, 
colic, &c. 

II. (For horses.) Opium IJ dr., (or laudanum 
1^ oz. ;) water gruel 2 or 3 pints ; mix. 

ENEMA, ANTISPASMODIC. Syn. E. 
Antispasmodicum. Prep. Tincture of asafoetida 
§ss ; laudanum 40 drops ; thin gruel half a pint ; 
mix. For spasmodic affections of the bowels. 

ENEMA, ASTRINGENT. Syn. E. Astrin- 
GENS. Prep. (H.) Electuary of catechu 3ij ; lime 
water ffv; water 5 or 6 oz. ; mix. In diarrhoea, 
&c., arising from a relaxed state of the coats of the 
intestines. 

II. Any of the astringent decoctions ''as pome- 
granate, cinchona, oak bark, galls, &lc.j 3 oz. ; 
water or barley water 6 or 8 oz. ; mix. As the 
last. 

ENEMA, CATHARTIC. Syn. E. Cathar- 
TicuM. (Purging clyster.) Prep. I. (P. D.) 
Manna ^j ; compound decoction of chamomile ^ 
pint ; add olive oil §j ; Epsom salts ^ss ; mix. 

II. (P. E.) Senna §ss ; water f §xvj ; infuse, 
add Epsom salts §ss ; sugar and olive oil, of each 
5j ; mix well. Both the above are purgative. 

III. Epsom salts §j ; dissolve in water gruel or 
barley water §xj ; then add sweet oil §j ; mix well. 
Purgative. 

IV. Compound decoction of mallows | pint ; 
Epsom salts §j ; sweet oil f ^ij ; mix, as above. 

V. (For horses.) Common salt 8 oz. ; warm 
water 1 gallon ; dissolve. 

VI. (For cows.) Common salt 12 oz. ; water 10 
pints ; dissolve. 

ENEMA, COMMON. Syn. E. CoMftiuNE. 
Prep. (St. B. H.) Barley water 1 pint ; com- 
mon salt f j ; dissolve. Purgative. Decoction of 
mallows, linseed tea, or water gruel, may also be 
used as the solvent. 

ENEMA, DOMESTIC. Sijn. E. Domesti- 
CUM. Prep. (E. H.) Milk ^ pint ; sugar or ho- 
ney and olive oil, of each ^j ; mix. Laxative and 
nutritive. 

II. Mutton broth and oil, of each 4 oz. ; brown 
sugar 1 oz. ; dissolve. As last. 

ENEMA, EMOLLIENT. Syn. E. Emol- 
LiENs. Prep. (H.) Decoction of linseed, barley, 
or starch, 1 pint ; linseed or olive oil 1 oz. ; mix. 
Emollient ; demulcent. 

ENEMA FOR COLIC. Syji. E. Anticoli- 
CUM. Prep. Infusion of chamomile f §x ; oil of 
cajeput or peppermint 5 drops ; (dissolved in) 
sweet spirits of nitre 40 drops ; laudanum 10 drops ; 
mix. 

ENEMA FOR FEVER. Syn. E. Febrifu- 
GUM. Prep. (Collier.) Thin gruel f §xij ; sugar 
§j ; mix. In low fevers. 

ENEMA FOR WORMS. Syn. E. Vermifu- 
GUM. Prep. (Collier.) Oil of turpentine f^j ; olive 
oil J^ pint ; mix. In ascarides. 

ENEMA, LAXATIVE. Syn. E. Laxativum. 
Prep. (Richard.) Linseed and senna, of each ^ss ', 



ENE 



271 



ERU 



water 1 ^ pint ; Boil to a pint, strain and add glau- 
ber or Epsom salts 3ij to 3iij. 

ENEMA, NOURISHING. Syn. E. Nutri- 
ENB. Prep. Strong beef tea 12 oz. ; thicken with 
hartshorn shaving's or arrow-root. To nourish the 
body when aliments cannot be received by the 
mouth or retained bv the stomach. 

ENEMA OF ALOES. Sijn. E. Aloes. (P. 
L.) Prep. Aloes 3ij ; carbonate of potassa 15 grs. 



barley water f^ 



In ascarides, atonic 



amenorrhoea, &c. It should not be employed when 
irritability of the rectum, bladder, or genitals ex- 
ists, nor in piles. 

ENEMA OF ASAFCETIDA. Si/n. E. Fce- 
TiDUM. (P. E. & D.) Prep. Add f 3ij of tincture 
of asafoetida to the cathartic clyster. Stimulant, 
antispasmodic, carminative, and purgative. An 
excellent remedy in hysteria, flatulent colic, in- 
fantile convulsions, worms, hooping-cough, &c. 

ENEMA OF CAMPHOR. Syii. E. Cam- 
phors. Camphor Clyster for Horses. Prep. 
Camphor ^ oz. ; dissolve in sweet oil by heat ; add 
i oz. of subcarbonate of potash, mix well together, 
and add gradually warm water 1 quart. Diuretic. 
In difficult or obstructed micturition. 

ENEMA OF COPAIBA. Syn. E. Copaiba. 
Prep. (Collier.) Balsam of copaiba 3ij ; oil of tur- 
pentine 3iv ; extract of opium 1 gr. ; make an ene- 
ma with the yelk of egg. In ascarides and cer- 
tain complaints. 

ENEMA OF COLOCYNTH. E. Colocyn- 
THiDis. (P. L.) Prep. Compound extract of colo- 
cynth 3ij ; soft soap §j ; warm water 1 pint ; 
carefully mix the first two by trituration, then 
gradually add the water. A strong purgative in 
colic and constipation without spasms. 

ENEMA OF OPIUM. Syn. E. Opil E. 
Opiatum. E. Anodynum. Prep. (P. L.) De- 
coction of starch f fiv; laudanum 30 drops ; mix. 

II. (P. E.) Starch ^ss ; laudanum 30 to 60 
drops ; water f 3ij ; make the starch into a muci- 
lage with the water, boiling ; and when cooled suffi- 
ciently, add the tincture. 

III. (P. D.) Laudanum 3j ; water f vj ; mix. 

Remarks. The above are the orders of the Col- 
leges, but in practice the quantity of laudanum is 
frequently doubled ; this should, however, be done 
with great care. Opium clysters are used in dys- 
entery, colic, cholera, and various painful affec- 
tions of the intestines, bladder, «fec. The bowels 
should be emptied before its administration, and in 
inflammatory complaints it should not be used for 
the first 48 hours. Clysters containing opium, 
even in small quantities, are dangerous remedies 
for young children. 

ENEMA OF TOBACCO. Syn. E. Tabacl 
(P. L.) Prep. Tobacco 3j ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
macerate for 1 hour, and strain. Violently depress- 
ing and relaxing ; producing fainting. It is ex- 
hibited in strangulated hernia. Sec. : 3 parts of Vir- 
ginian tobacco are equal to 7 parts of any other 
kind. (Daw.) 

ENEMA OF TURPENTINE. Syn. E. Te- 
HEBiNTHiNS. (P. L.) Prep. Oil of turpentine f ^j ; 
yelk of egg, a sufficiency ; rub together until uni- 
ted, then add barley water f §xix ; mix. In calcu- 
lus, flatulent colic, ascarides, &c. (See Enema 
FOR Worms.) 

ENEMA OF SOAP. Syn. E. Saponis. Prep. 



(St. B. H.) Soft soap 3vj ; hot water 1 pint ; dis- 

ENEMA, STIMULANT. Syn. E. Stimulan* 
(F. H.) Colocynth pulp 3j ; boil in water 1 pint 
till reduced to two-thirds, then add common salt 
and sirup of buckthorn, of each 3j. Cathartic. 

II. (For Horses.) Common salt and linseed oil, 
of each 8 oz. ; hot water 1 gallon ; gum arable 1 
oz. ; mix. In stomach staggers. 

ERGOT. Syn. Spurred Rye. Secale Cor- 
NUTUM. Ergota. Diseased grains of rye, much 
used as an emmcnagogue in small doses, and to 
accelerate the contraction of the uterus in protract- 
ed labor. The dose is 10 to 15 grs. everj' 10 or 15 
minutes, either in powder, or made into an infu- 
sion. 

Pres. Ergot of r^^e deteriorates greatly by age. 
It is fed on by a description of acarus resembling 
the cheese mite, but much smaller, and this insect 
in time destroys the whole of the internal portion 
of the grain, leaving nothing but the shell, and a 
considerable quantity of excrementitious matter. 
To prevent this the ergot should be v/e!l dried, and 
then placed in bottles or tin canisters, and closely 
preserved from the air. The addition of a few 
cloves, or drops of the oil of cloves, or strong acetic 
acid, or a little camphor, or camphorated spirit of 
wine, will preser^'^e this substance for years in close 
vessels. The following method has been proposed 
by M. Martin, and is likely to prove efficacious, 
but is somewhat troublesome : — 

Ergot in good condition and very dry is steeped 
in a concentrated solution of gum arable, and dried 
on a sheet of white iron. When it is dry the op- 
eration is repeated : two or three immersions are 
sufficient. When the last layer of gum is perfect- 
ly dry, the ergot is kept in a very dry and well- 
corked flask. Gum arable cannot be prejudicial 
to the effect of ergot of r^'e. {Jour, de Chimie 
Med. 1841.) 

Ergot is mostly kept in large well covered tin 
canisters or boxes, by the wholesale druggists, and 
these are placed in a dr}^ situation. 

ERGOTINE. Syn. Ergotina. A substance 
discovered by Wiggers in ergot of rye, and of 
which it appears to be the active constituent. 

Prep. Submit ergot (previously ground in a 
coffee-mill, not powdered) to the action of ether 
to remove the fatty portion, then digest it in boil- 
ing alcohol, and evaporate the latter solution to 
the consistence of a sirup ; treat this fluid extract 
with water, which will dissolve the foreign matter, 
and leave the ergotine behind. It may be further 
purified by re-solution in hot alcohol. 

Props., Uses, <^'C. Ergotine, as thus prepared, 
has a brownish red color, an acrid bitter taste, and 
a peculiar unpleasant odor when warmed. Nine 
grs. are said to be equivalent to 1^ "oz. of ergfot. 

ERGOT, ESSENTIAL SOLUTION OF. 
(Lever's.) Prep. Ergot, coarsely powdered, ^iv ; 
ether ff iv ; digest for 7 days; submit to sponta- 
neous evaporation, and dissolve the residuum in 
ether f^ij. Dose. 15 to 30 drops on sugar. It 
exercises a similar action on the uterus to the 
crude ergot. 

ERUCINE. A yellowish white substance, dis- 
covered by Simon in white mustard, (sinapis alba.) 
It is soluble in ether and essential oils, and in 
boiling alcohol. 



£SP 



272 



ESS 



ERYTHRIiVE, Pseudo-erythrine, Erythri- 
LiNE, Amarythrtne, Telerythrine. Substances 
obtained by Kane and Heeren from parmelia roc- 
cella and leconara Tartarea. The names have 
been differently applied by these authorities, and 
hence has arisen some confusion. They are of 
little interest except in a theoretical point of 
view. 

ERYTHROLEINE, Erythrolitmine, Azo- 
litmine, Azoerythrine, Spaniolitmine, Ery- 
THROLEic Acid. Substances obtained from htmus 
and archil by Kane. They are but little known, 
and have not been applied in the arts. 

ESCHAROTIC. Syn. Escharoticus. (Lat., 
from £<T%apoa), to scab over.) Any substance that 
destroys the texture of living organic substances, 
with the production of an eschar (iay(^apa) or scab. 
Escharotics have been divided into eroding eschar- 
otic s ; as blue vitriol, red precipitate, burnt alum, 
&c. ; and into caustic escharotics ; as lunar caus- 
tic, pure potassa, strong sulphuric acid, nitric acid, 
&c. All caustics that produce a scab, or eschar, 
are properly eschaisptics. (See Caustics.) 

ESCHAROTIC SOLUTION. (Freyburg's.) 
Prep. Camphor 30 grs. ; corrosive sublimate 460 
grs. ; strong alcohol 450 grs. ; dissolve. This is 
employed in the Hospital of Charity at Berlin in 
syphilitic vegetations, and especially against cou- 
dylomes. It is spread over the diseased surface, 
either at once, or after the application of a liga- 
ture. 

ESCULENTS. (Esculentus, Lat.) Animal 
and vegetable substances used for food. 

ESCULIC ACID. A peculiar acid found by 
M. Bussy in the bark of. the horse-chesnut. It is 
but little known, and has not been applied to any 
use. 

ESENBECKINE. An alkaloid found by 
Buchner in the esenbeckia febrifuga. 

ESPRIT. (Fr.) Spirit. This term is applied 
to alcoholic solutions of the essential oils and to 
various odorous and aromatic essences. Sold by 
the perfumers. 

ESPRIT DE BERGAMOTTE. Syn. Spi- 
rit OF Bergamotte. Prep. Peel of the Berga- 
motte orange 2 lbs. ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; digest 
for a week, add water 1 quart, and distil 1 gal- 
lon. 

II. Essence of bergamotte (best) 5 oz. ; essence 
of ambergris (pale) 2 oz. ; essence of musk ^ oz. ; 
oil of verbena \ oz. ; rectified spirit of wine 1 gal- 
lon ; mix. An elegant perfume. 

ESPRIT DE LA ROSE. Syn. Spirit of 
Roses. Prep. I. Fresh petals of roses 8 lbs. ; 
rectified spirit of wine ^ gallon ; macerate for a 
week, and distil to dryness in a water bath. 

II. Salted petals 14 lbs. ; spirit of wine 4^ pints ; 
distil i gallon. 

III. Attar of roses 2 dr. ; neroli 20 drops ; spirit 
of wine 1 gallon ; dissolve, add chloride of cal- 
cium, well dried and in powder, 1 lb. ; agitate 
well, and distil 7 pints. Very fine. 

IV. Spirit of wine 1 quart ; otto ^ drachm ; 
mix, place the bottle in hot water so as to warm 
the spirit, then cork close, shake until cold, and 
the next day filter if required. 

ESPRIT DE SAVON. Syn. Spirit of Soap. 
Essence of do. Shaving Fluid. Prep. Vene- 
tian soap |lb. ; subcarbonate of potash I'oz. ; ben- 



zoin ^ oz. ; spirit of wine 1 gallon ; digest for a 
week, or until the whole is dissolved, then filter. 

II. Best soft soap ^ lb. ; boiUng water 1 pint ; 
dissolve, cool, and add oils of cinnamon, (cassia,) 
verbena, and neroli, of each, 4 drops ; dissolved in 
rectified spirit of wine 1 pint ; mix well, and if 
not perfectly transparent, filter through blotthig 
paper. 

Remarks. Instead of the above perfumes, 15 
drops of essence of musk or ambergris, or 30 drops 
of any of the perfumed spirits, or 3 drops of attar 
of roses, or 6 drops of any of the aromatic essen- 
tial oils, may be added, when a corresponding 
name is given to the preparation, as esprit de sa- 
von de la rose, &c. 

This alcoholic solution of soap is used for sha- 
ving, and is very convenient in travelling, as a 
good lather may be instantly produced without 
the trouble of employing a soap-box. 

ESPRIT DE SUAVE. Prep. Essences of 
cloves and bergamotte, of each, 1^ dr.; neroli 
^ dr. ; essence of musk 1 oz. ; eau de rose, spirits 
of tuberose, and the strongest spirits of wine, of 
each, 1 pint ; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each, 
1 quart ; dissolve the essences in the spirit of 
wine, then add the other spirits, and when well 
mixed add the rose-water. A most delicious per- 
fume. 

ESPRIT DE TAIN. Syn. Spirits of Lem- 
on Thyme. Spiritus Thymi. Prep. Tops of 
lemon thyme 1 lb. ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; distil 7 
pints. 

ESPRIT DE VIOLETTES. Syn. Spirit 
OF Violets. Essence of do. Essence of Or- 
ris. Prep. I. Florentine orris root, reduced tc 
coarse powder, \ lb. ; rectified spirit of wine 1 
pint ; digest for 14 days, and strain with expres- 
sion. 

II. Orris (as above) 5 lbs. ; rectified spirit 1 gal- 
lon ; digest as before and submit the root to pow- 
erful pressure in a tincture press, to extract the 
last portion of the liquor ; filter. Very fragrant. 
This may be advantageously prepared by percola- 
tion. 

ESSENCE. Syn. Essence. Esprit, {Fr.) 
Essentia, {Lat., from esse, to be, or exist.) That 
part of a substance on which its most remarkable 
properties depend. The term has been very gen- 
erally applied to preparations of vegetables or 
organic substances, that contain their active prin- 
ciples in a concentrated form, but it is more 
properly restricted to the volatile oils obtained 
from vegetables by distillation, or to a solution of 
these oils in alcohol. In Pharmacy the word es- 
sence is very commonly applied to concentrated 
preparations that vastly difter from each other. 
Thus, concentrated infusions, decoctions, liquors, 
and tinctures are frequently called essences by 
the druggists, but the term "fluid extracts" 
would be more appropriate. The present article 
will be confined to a short notice of the principal 
compound essences, or those that undergo some 
preparation, beyond being merely extracted from 
vegetables by distillation aiong with water. The 
latter will be considered under the article Oils. 

Prep. The concentrated preparations of the 
pharmaceutist, termed essences, are mostly pre- 
pared by digesting the active ingredient in recti- 
fied spirit of wine, either with or without the addi- 



ESS 



273 



ESS 



tion of a certain portion of water ; or they are 
extemporaneously formed by dissolving a certain 
portion of the essential oil of such substances in 
the spirit. In this way are made the essences of 
lavender, of musk, and of ginger. When it is 
desired only to obtain the aromatic and volatile 
portion of the ingredients, the latter are usually 
first digested in the spirit for a few days, and then 
submitted to distillation, when the alcohol comes 
over fragrant, and loaded with aromatic essential 
oil, or other volatile matter. In this way are pre- 
pared most of the fragrant essences of the per- 
fumer and druggist, when simple solution of the 
essential oils in alcohol is not resorted to. In 
many cases the active principles of the ingredients 
are partly volatile, and partly fixed, or at least do 
not readily volatilize at the temperature at which 
alcohol distils over. This is the case, for instance, 
with the active portion of cubebs aud Jamaica 
ginger. In such cases digestion alone should be 
adopted. When the principles of organic sub- 
Btances, of which it is desired to obtain a concen- 
trated solution, are resinous, oily, or but little solu- 
ble in weak spirit, which is mostly the case, the 
strongest rectified spirit of wine should alone be 
employed. In the preparation of essences, with- 
out distillation, the metbed by percolation is pref- 
erable to that of simple maceration and expression, 
as it is not only more economical, but a more con- 
centrated solution may thereby be obtained. The 
ingredients for the preparation of essences must 
undergo the same operations of bruising, f)owder- 
ing, or slicing, as is directed under Tinctures, 
previous to digestion in the spirit, or other men- 
struum; and the length of time they should be 
allowed to infuse, when this method alone is 
adopted, should not be less than ten days; but 
this time may be advantageously extended to a 
fortnight, or longer. During the whole of this pe- 
riod frequent agitation should be employed, and 
when the ingredients are so bulky as to absorb 
the whole of the fluid, the vessel which contains 
the mixture should be securely fastened by a bung 
covered with bladder, and inverted fevery alternate 
day. By this means, the fluid will equally extract 
the virtue of every portion of the ingredients. In 
all such cases percolation is preferable. For the 
essences used as perfumes and flavoring, not only 
must the spirit be perfectly tasteless and scentless, 
but it must be also quite devoid of color. (See 
Concentrated Decoctions, Infusions, Liquors, 
Spirit, and Percolation.) 

ESSENCE, ANODYNE. Syn. Essentia 
Anodyna. Prep. (Germ. Ph.) Aqueous extract 
of opium 1} ; spirits of cinnamon f ^ix ; dissolve. 

ESSENCE, ANTI-HYSTERiC. Syn. Ess. 
Anti-iivsterica. Prep. (P. Cod.) The same as 
fetid spirit of ammonia. 

ESSENCE, BITTER. Syn. Ess. Amara. 
Prep. (Ph. Den.) Wormwood 4 parts ; gentian 
root, bitter orange peel, and blessed thistle, of each 
1 part ; alcohol 45 parts ; digest for a week. Dose. 
i dr. to 2 drs., combined with mixtures. Tonic 
and stomachic. 

ESSENCE, CEPHALIC. Syn. E. Cephali- 
CA, Prep. (Dr Ward.) The same as the com- 
pound camphor liniment, P. L. 

ESSENCE D'CEILLETS. Prep. Cinnamon 
3 oz. ; Cloves 1^ oz., (both well bruised ;) rectified 
35 



spirit 2 quarts ; digest for a week. Oil of clovM 

also bears this name. 

ESSENCE D'ORIENT. A pearly-looking 
substance, found at the base of the scales of the 
blay or bleak, a small fish of the genus cyprinus. 
It is employed in the arts for the manufacture of 
factitious pearls. 

Prep. The scales are scraped from the fish into 
a tub containing water, and after agitation and re- 
pose, the fluid is poured off", and its place supplied 
with fresh water, and this in its turn, after agita- 
tion and repose, is also poured off". This part of 
the operation is repeated till the essence and scales 
are perfectly freed from impurities, when the whole 
is thrown on a sieve, which retains the latter, but 
allows the former to flow through. The essence 
is then obtained as a deposite at the bottom of the 
vessel. 

Remarlis. This substance has a bluish white 
and pearly aspect, and is employed to cover the 
interior of glass bubbles and beads, in imitation of 
pearls, or mother of pearl. Its tendency to putre- 
faction, while in the moist state, may be obviated 
by the addition of a little water of ammonia. 

ESSENCE DE MYRTE. Syn. Essence of 
Myrtle Blossoms. Prep. Myrtle tops (in blos- 
som) 1^ lb.; proof spirit 9 pints; digest 3 days, 
then distil 1 gallon. A pleasant perfume. 

ESSENCE DE TUBEROSE. Prep. The 
flowers are stratified with sheep's or cotton wool, 
impregnated with the purest oil of ben or olives, in 
an earthen vessel, closely covered, and kept for 12 
hours in a water bath ; the flowers are then re- 
moved and fresh ones substituted, and this is re- 
peated until the oil is sufficiently scented. The 
wool or cotton is then mixed with the purest spirit 
of wine, and distilled in a water bath, or else di- 
gested in a warm situation, and in a well closed 
vessel, for several days ; during the whole of which 
time frequent agitation should be had recourse to. 
In a similar way may be made the essences of 
jasmine, violets, and other flowers. fSee Spirit.) 

ESSENCE DES VIOLETTES. (See Es- 
prit DES Violettes, and Spirit of Violets.) 

ESSENCE FOR THE HEADACHE. 
(WARD'S.) Prep. Liquor of ammonia, 4 oz. ; 
English oil of lavender ^ dr. ; camphor 1 oz. ; 
spirit of wine 1 pint ; dissolve. Stimulant ; rube- 
facient ; used for local pains, as headache, colic, 
&c. Compound camphor liniment is usually sold 
for it. 

ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Syn. Ess. of 
Pimento. Ess. Piment^e. Prep. Essential oil of 
allspice 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 quart ; dissolve 
Used as a flavoring by cooks and confectioners 

ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE, CONCEN- 
TRATED. Oil of allspice 1 oz. ^ strongest spirit 
of wine 1 pint; mix. As last. 

ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIS. Syn. Ess 
Ambr^e Grise^e. Tinctura do. Prep. I. Am- 
bergris I oz. ; rectified spirit of wine 1 pint ; cut 
the ambergris into small fragments, place it in a 
strong vessel, secure the mouth very firmly, and 
expose it to the heat of the sun or in an equally 
warm situation for 1 or 2 months, frequently sha- 
king it during the time ; lastly decant, and filter 
through paper. 

II. To the last add a fresh emptied musk bag 
and proceed as before. 



ESS 



274 



ESS 



III. Ambergris 2 oz. ; bladder musk 1 oz. ; 
spirit of ambrette 1 gallon ; as before. 

IV. Ambergris ^ oz. ; musk 3 drs. ; lump sugar 
2 drs. ; grind together in a smooth Wedgwood - 
ware mortar, add 10 drops of oil of cloves, 20 drops 
of true balsam of Peru, and enough essence of 
jasmine or tuberose to convert it into a perfectly 
smooth paste ; then put it into a strong bottle with 
1 quart of rectified spirit of wine, observing, before 
adding the whole of the last, to raise the mortar 
out well with it, that nothing may be lost ; lastly, 
digest for 6 or 8 weeks, as above. 

Remarks. Essence of ambergris is used as a 
perfume, and is added in small quantities to sweet- 
scented spirits and wines, to improve their flavor 
and aroma. The last two formulae produce re- 
markably fine products. A very small quantity 
of either of these added to lavender water, eau de 
Cologne, tooth-powder, hair-powder, wash-balls, 
or a hogshead of claret, communicates a delicious 
fragrance. 

ESSENCE OF AMMONIACUM. Syn. 
Ess. Ammoniac:. Prep. I. Ammoniacum in tears 
1 lb. ; bruise it in a very cold marble mortar with 
half its weight of coarse and well -washed silicious 
sand or powdered glass ; add gradually rectified 
spirit of wine ^ pint, work the whole to a smooth 
paste, then place it in a wide-mouthed bottle, and 
further add spirit of wine 1^ pints; cork down 
close, digest for a week with constant agitation, 
allow it to repose until quite settled, then pour off 
the supernatant transparent liquid into another 
bottle for use. 

II. Reduce 1 lb. of gum ammoniacum to a 
cream with | pint of boiling water, cool a little, 
place it in a strong bottle, and add cautiously 1-J 
pint of rectified spirits of wine, cork down close, 
and macerate for a few days ; lastly, place the 
bottle in a moderately warm situation that the 
sediment may subside, after which pour off the 
clearest portion through flannel into another bottle. 

Remarks. Both the above are used as substi- 
tutes for the gum in substance, for extemporane- 
ously preparing the milk and mixture of ammo- 
niacum, &,c. They are said to possess equal 
medicinal virtue, with the same weight of solid 
gum. The product of the first process, when well 
managed, is a beautiful pale brownish-colored 
transparent tincture ; that of the second is milky. 

ESSENCE OF AMMONIACUM, (CON- 
CENTRATED.) The preparation usually sold 
under this name, and represented as twice as 
strong as the gum in substance, is generally pre- 
pared with the same quantity of ingredients as the 
first of the above. A stronger article may be pre- 
pared by a similar process by using 1 lb. of an)mo- 
Uiacum to a pint of the strongest rectified spirit. 
As, however, a clear liquid at this strength is 
somewhat difficult to produce, it is very seldom 
attempted by druggists ; they therefore generally 
content themselves with sending out the liquid at 
half the professed strength, leaving the label to 
confer the additional concentration. 

ESSENCE OF ANCHOVIES, Prep. I. An- 
cliovies 7 lbs.; pulp through a fine hair or brass- 
wire sieve ; boil the bones and portion that will not 
pass through in water 5 quarts; slruiu, add to the 
clear liquid the pulped fish, and salt aud flour, of 
each i lb., along with red bole, or infusion of co- 



chineal, sufficient to color, and again pass thq 
whole through the sieve. The product will be 
about 20 lbs. 

II. To the last add Cayenne pepper ^ oz. ; the 
grated peel of a lemon, and mushroom catsup, 
4 oz. 

III. Use British anchovies (pickled sprats) oi 
young pilchards, along with herring liquor, or the 
drainings of anchovy barrels. 

Use. As a sauce and condiment ; when well 
prepared it has a fine flavor. 

ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS. (See 
Almond Flavor.) 

ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS, 
(CONCENTRATED.) Prep. Essential oil of 
almonds 2 oz. ; rectified s^.rit of wine 1 pint ; dis- 
solve. Very powerful. (See page 49.) 

ESSENCE OF CHAMOMILE. Prep. Es- 
sential oil of chamomile ^ oz. to 1 oz. ; spirit of 
wine 1 pint ; mix. White. 

II. Gentian root, sliced or bruised, 1 lb. ; dried 
orange peel \ lb. ; spirit of wine 1 gallon ; essen- 
tial oil of chamomile 5 oz. ; macerate a week. 
Slightly colored. Some persons use ^ lb. of quas- 
sia wood, instead of the gentian and orange peel. 
Both the above are stomachic and tonic. 

ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR. Syn. Ess, 
Camphors. Do. Concentrated. Prep. Cam- 
phor (clean) 4^ oz. ; rectified spirit of \> ae 1 gal- 
lon ; dissolve. 

Remarks. There is a large quantity of this so- 
lution of camphor sold by the wholesale druggists, 
who charge a considerable price for it. It is very 
convenient for preparing extemporaneous camphor 
julep or mixture. About ^ dr. added to 7^ drs. of 
distilled water forms 1 oz. of a transparent aque- 
ous solution of camphor. (See Camphor Julep, 
p. 156.) 

ESSENCE OF CAPSICUM. The same as 
Essence of Cayenne. 

ESSENCE OF CARAWAY SEEDS. Syn. 
Ess. Carui. Concentrated Ess. of Caraways. 
Prep. Essential oil of caraway 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 
1 pint. Used in dispensing, and by confectioners 
and cooks as a flavoring. 

ESSENCE OF CARAWAY SEEDS, (dou- 
ble distilled.) Essential oil 2 oz. ; spirit of win© 
1 pint. 

ESSENCE OF CAYENNE. Syn. Ess. Cap- 
sici. Concentrated Essence of Cayenne Pep- 
per. Prep. Capsules of capsicum, bruised, 3 lbs. : 
rectified spirit 1 gallon ; digest for 14 days, then 
press and filter. 

Remarks. This liquid has an intensely burning 
taste ; one drop is sufficient to deprive a person of 
the power of speech for several seconds. It is used 
as a flavoring, and for making soluble cayenne 
pepper ; also in dispensing. 

ESSENCE OF CASSIA. Syn. Ess. Cassia 
Prep. Oil of cassia 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 pint j 
mix. Used as a flavoring, &c. 

ESSENCE OF CARDAMOMS. Syn. Ess. 
Cardamomi. Do. DO. concent. Prep. Lesser 
cardamom seeds 5^ lbs. ; spirit of wine 1 gallon ; 
digest for a fortnight ; press and filter. 

Remnrks. This preparation is very convenieni 
for flavoring cordials, pastry, «Scc. It is very pow- 
erful. I a the druggist's laboratory it is frequently 
substituted for powdered cardamoms in making 



ESS 



275 



ESS 



coi/ipound extract of colocynth, and for this pur- 
pose has the advantage of adding no inert matter, 
while it imparts the characteristic odor of the seeds 
in a remarkable degree. When used in this way, 
it is added to the Extract when nearly cold and 
about to be taken from the pan. 

Cardamom seeds are very difficult to bruise in 
a mortar, and seldom get perfectly crushed, even 
after long beating. It will be found much the best 
plan 10 grind them in a pepper-mill. The testa; 
should be separated from the kernels, as the for- 
mer are quite inert, and if used occasion a loss of 
spirit for no purpose. 

ESSENCE OF CELERY SEED. Syn. Con- 
centrated Ess. OF Celery. Prep. Celery seeds, 
bruised, 4 oz. ; proof spirit 1 pint ; digest 10 days 
or more. Use. As a flavoring. It is better if pre- 
pared with rectified spirit, when double the weight 
of seed may be used. 

ESSENCE OF CINNAMON. Syn. Ess. 
CiNNAMOMi. As Essence of Cassia. Used in con- 
fectionery and cookery. 

ESSENCE OF CIVETTE. Syn. Ess. Zr- 
BETHi. Prep. I. Civette 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 
pint ; as essence of musk. 

II. Instead of spirit of wine iise' spirit of am- 
brette. Used as a perfume. 

ESSENCE OF COLTSFOOT. Prep. I. Bal- 
sam of tolu 1 oz. ; compound tincture of benzoin 
and rectified spirit of wine, of each 2 oz. ; dissolve. 
II. Tincture of tolu, compound tincture of ben- 
zoin, and spirit of wine, of each equal parts. 

Remarks. This balsam is pectoral and stimu- 
lant. It is a quack remedy for consumption and 
most diseases of the lungs, but is more likely to 
kill than cure in these complaints. 

ESSENCE OF CUBEBS. Syn. Ess. Cube- 
s'. Prep. Cubebs 4 lbs., (bruised, or preferably 
ground in a pepper-mill ;) rectified spirit 1 gallon ; 
digest 14 days, press and filter. This essence has 
a very large sale, and if carefully prepared from a 
good sample of the drug, is a most excellent prep- 
aration.. It is generally called '.' Concentrated Es- 
sence of Cubebs." 

II. (Dublanc.) Oleo-resinous extradt of cubebs 
5j ; rectified spirit ^iij ; dissolve. This is a very 
active and concentrated form of administering cu- 
bebs, but must not be confounded with the pre- 
ceding. The former is the one always njeant 
when " Essence of Cubebs" is ordered. 

ESSENCE OF DILL. S,/n. Ess. Anethi. 
Prep. I. Oil of dill (anethum) f f j ; spirit of wine 
f fxix ; mix ; white. 

II. Oil of dill, extract of dill, and salt of tartar, 
of each ^ss ; spirit of wme | pint ; digest and 



stram 

Remarks Both the above are aromatic and 
flatulent. The first is commonlj us-^d as an ad- 
iunct to other medicines, especially purgatives for 
children. 

ESSENCE OF ERGOT. Syn. Ess. Ergots 
Ess. Secali Cornuti. Concentrated Ess. of 
Ergot of Rye. Prep. Ergot, reduced to coarse 
powder by pounding, or preferably bv grinding in 
a pepper-mill, 1 lb. ; boiling distilled water 4 Tbs. ; 
mix in a close vessel, and digest with agitation 
until cold, then put it into a wide-mouthed" bottle, 
and add r(!ctified spirit 2 lbs. ; macerate for a week, 
Dress and filter. 



Remarks. 4 dr. of this essence are equal to 1 dr. 
of ergot in substance. It is 8 times the strength 
of the infusion, (as usually prepared according to 
the formula of Pereira and others,) and 2^ times 
the strength of the tincture of ergot of the London 
Apothecary's Hall. 

ESSENCE OF GINGER. Syn. Ess. Zingi- 
BERis. Concentrated Ess. of Ginger. Prep. 
I. Unbleached Jamaica ginger 4 oz., (well bruised ;) 
rectified spirit of wine 1 pint ; digest for a fortnight, 
press, and filter. 

II. (Oxley's concentrated Essence of Jainaica 
Ginger.) The same as the preceding, with the 
addition of a very small quantity of essence of 
cayenne. 

III. Bruised unbleached Jamaica ginger 12 lbs. ; 
rectified spirit of wine 2^ gallons ; digest 14 days, 
press, strain, and reduce the essence by distilla- 
tion to 1 gallon ; cool and filter. Remarks. This 
produces a most beautiful article. A certain me- 
tropolitan drug-house that does very extensively 
in this preparation, employs this form. It is at 
once inexpensive and easily performed, as the spi- 
rit distilled off may be used with advantage for 
preparing the common tincture of ginger, and sev- 
eral other articles ; 2 oz. of this essence are re- 
garded as equivalent to 3 oz. of the finest ginger. 
A single drop swallowed will almost produce suf- 
focation. 

IV. Digest 12 lbs. of ginger in 3 galls, of spirit 
of wine, as last, and reduce the tincture by distil- 
lation to 4 pints, then cool as quickly as possible 
out of contact with the air, and add, of the strong- 
est rectified- spirit of wine i a gallon ; lastly, filter 
if required. Quality remarkably fine. 

V. Ginger and animal charcoal, both in coarse 
powder, equal parts ; add enough rectified spirits 
of wine to perfectly moisten them, and after 24 
hours put the mass into a " percolator," return the 
first runnings 2 or 3 times, then change the re- 
ceiver, and pour on spirit gradually as required, 
and at intervals, until as much essence is obtained 
as there was ginger employed. Remarks. Quality 
excellent. The mass remaining in the percolator 
may be treated with fresh spirit until exhausted, 
and the tincture so obtained maybe advantageous- 
ly employed, instead of spirit, in making more es- 
sence with fresh ginger. The last portion of spirit 
in the mass may be obtained by adding a little 
water. (See Percolation.) 

ESSENCE OF GUAIACUM. Syn. Ess. 
Guaiacl Concentrated Ess. of Guaiacum. FLtiiD 
Extract of do. Prep. Guaiacum shavings, from 
which the dust has been sifted, 3 cwt. Exhaust 
the wood by boiling with water, as in preparing an 
extract, using as little of that fluid as is absolutely 
necessary ; evaporate to exactly If gallons; let it 
stand until cold, stirring it all the'time to prevent the 
deposite of resinous matter ; put the whole into a 
bottle, add spirit of wine 5 pints ; agitate repeat- 
edly for a week, then allow it to settle for 7 or 8 
davs, and decant the clear into another bottle. 

RoT^arks. This preparation is frequently substi- 
tuted for guaiacum shavings in the preparation of 
compound aeroction of sarsaparilla. 1 pint of this 
essence is considered equivalent to 19 lbs. of guaia- 
cum in substance. 

ESSENCE OF LEMON-PEEL. Syn. Esa. 
CoRTicis LiMONis. Quintessence of Lemon-rind 



ESS 



276 



ESS 



Prep. I. Yellow peel of fresh lemons ^ lb. ; spirit 
of wine 1 pint. Digest for a week, press, and filter. 
Very fragi-ant. 

II. Yellow peel of fresh lemons 1 lb. ; boiling 
water ^ gallon. Infuse 1 hour, express the liquor, 
boil down to ^ a pint, cool, and add essence of 
lemon \ oz., dissolved in spirit of wine 1^ pints; 
mix well, and filter. 

Remarks. The above are used by cooks and 
confectioners as a pleasant fl^vorinc»-. Essence of 
orange-peel is made in the same way. 

ESSENCE OF MUSK. Syn. Ess. Moscm. 
TiNCTURA DO. Prep. I. Grain musk 2 oz. ; boil- 
ing water 1 pint. Digest in a close vessel until 
cold, then add rectified spirit of Vv^ine 7 pints ; car- 
bonate of potassa ^ dr. Cork close, and digest in 
a matrass, in the sunshine, for 2 months, if in sum- 
mer, or in winter in an equally warm situation. A 
water-bath may be employed to facilitate the pro- 
cess. 

II. Substitute 1 oz. of liquor of ammonia for the 
carbonate of potassa in the last formula. 

III. Grain musk 2 drs. ; spirit of wine 2 pints ; 
essence of ambergris 1 oz. As above. 

IV. Musk from the bladder, cut small, 5 oz. ; 
civet 1 oz. ; essence of ambergris 1 pint ; spirit of 
ambrette 1 gallon. As before. 

Remarks. All the preceding formulae yield fine 
essences, but the product of the last is of the very 
finest quality, and such as is seldom sold except by 
the most celebrated houses, when it fetches a very 
high price. It is powerfully and deliciously odorous. 

ESSENCE OF MUSTARD, (WHITE- 
HEAD'S.) Prep. Oil of turpentine 1 pint ; cam- 
phor, oil of rosemary, and flower of mustard, of 
each ^ oz. ; mix. 

ESSENCE OF NEROLI. Prep. I. Neroli 2 
dr. ; spirit of wine 1 pint ; mix. A pleasing per- 
fume. 

II. Oil of orange 2 drs. ; orris root, bruised, ^ 
oz. ; ambergris 10 grs. ; neroli 15 drops; spirit of 
wine 1 pint ; digest 14 da vs. Very fragrant. 

ESSENCE OF NUTMEG. Syn. Ess. My- 
RiSTiciE. Ess. Nucis MoscHAT^. Prep. Essen- 
tial oil 1 oz. ; rectified spirit 1 pint ; dissolve. Use. 
As a flavoring in the arts of the cook, liqueurist, 
and confectioner. 

ESSENCE OF ORANGE, YELLOW. Prep. 
Fresh orange-peel, spirit of wine, and water, of 
each i pint. Digest for 1 week, press, filter, and 
add sherrv wine 2 or 3 pints. A pleasant liqueur. 

ESSENCE OF ORANGE PEEL, (SAC- 
CHARINE.) Syn. Oleo-saccharum of Orange. 
The yellow rind rubbed off with hard white sugar. 
In a similar way may be prepared essences or oleo- 
sacchara of every variety of lemons, citrons, 
oranges, &c. (See Citrons, p. 199.) 

ESSENCE OF PATCHOULI. Syn. Spirit 
OF Patchouli. Prep. Indian patchouli leaves 2 
lbs.; rectified spirit of wine 9 pints; water 1 gal- 
lon. Macerate for 1 week, frequently shaking the 
vessel, then distil over exactly 1 gallon. A very 
fashionable perfume. 

ESSENCE OF PENNYROYAL. Syn. Ess. 
PuLEGii. Spiritus Pulegii. Spirit of Penny- 
royal. Prep. Oil of pennyroyal 3 oz. ; green 
Bpinage orj)arsley 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 quart; 
mix. Digest until sufliciently colored, and strain. 
Aromatic, stimulant, emmenagoguo. 



ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT. Syn. Ess 
Mentha Piperita. Prep. Oil of peppermint I 
oz ; herb peppermint ^ oz. ; spirit of wine 1 pint. 
Digest for a week, or until sufiiciently colored. 
Palish-green, and very strong of the peppermint. 

Remarks. Essence of peppermint is not con- 
ceived to be good by the ignorant unless it has a 
pale tint of green, which they presume is a proof 
of its being genuine. The most harmless way is 
to steep a little of the green peppermint in the spirit 
for this purpose, (as above,) or if this is not at hand, 
a little parsley will do equally as well, and in fact 
improve the flavor. Some persons use spinage for 
the same purpose, and others add a few grains of 
sap green, dissolved in a spoonful of hot water. All 
these are quite innocent. The practice of using 
cupreous salts, ^adopted by some lazy and unprin- 
cipled makers, is unpardonable, and admits of no 
excuse, even a lame one, $ not the least advan- 
tage, either of convenience, or cost, or appearance, 
results from such a practice, while the coloring 
matter, though small in quantity, is nevertheless 
sufficient to impart a noxious quality to the liquor. 
This fraud may be detected by the addition of 
liquor of ammonia in excess. 

Essence of peppermint is cordial, s. pulant, and 
stomachic. A few drops on sugar, or mixed with 
water, or wine, is an excellent remedy in flatu- 
lence, colic, sickness, &c. It is also used as a fla- 
voring. Dose. 10 drops to a teaspoonful. 

ESSENCE OF QUININE. Syn. Alkaline 
Ess. OF Quinine. Prep. Diluted sulphuric acid 
1 dr.; alcohol 1 oz. ; add sulphate of quinine to 
saturation. 

ESSENCE OF RATIFIA. Prep. Essential 
oil of almonds 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 pint ; mix. 
Used to make noyeau, &.c. (See Almond Fla- 
vor, and Essence of Bitter Almonds.) 

ESSENCE OF ROSES, (ODOROUS.) Prep. 
I. Attar of roses 1 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 gallon. Mix 
in a close vessel, and assist the solution by placing 
it in a bath of hot water. As soon as the spirit 
gets warm, take it from the water and shake till 
quite cold. The next day filter. Unless the spirit 
of wine be-of more than the common strength, it 
will not retain the whole of the otto in solution in 
very qold weather (See Esprit de la Rose.) 

II. Petals of roses .3 lbs. ; digest in spirit of wine 
5 quarts for 24 hours ; distil to dryness in a water- 
bath ; digest the distilled spirit on 2 lbs. of fresh 
rose petals, as before, and repeat the whole pro- 
cess of maceration and distillation a third, fourth, 
fifth, and sixth time, or oftoner, the last time only 
drawing, over 1 gallon, which is the essence. Very 
fine. 

ESSENCE OF ROSES, (RED.) Syn. Spirit 
OF Red Roses. Tincture ot do. Prep. Rose 
leaves 1 lb. ; spirit of wine and water, of each 2 
quarts. Digest for 14 days, press, strain, add di- 
luted sulphuric acid 2 drs. ; mix well, and the next 
day filter. Use. To make extemporaneous sirup 
and honey of roses, &c. Smells, colors, and tastes 
strongly. 

ESSENCE ROYALE. Syn. Royal Essence. 
Ess. Regalis. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Ambergris 
9ij ; musk ^j ; civet and subcarbonate of po- 
tassa, of each 10 grs. ; oil of cinnamon 6 drops ; 
oil of rhodium and otto of loses, of each 4 drops; 
rectified spirit of wine 4 fluid ounces. Macerate 



ESS 



277 



ETC 



for 10 days, or longer. Antispasmodic and aphro- 
disiac. A few drops on sugar, or in sirup of capil- 
laire. 

ESSENCE ROYALE POUR FAIRE LA 
BARBE. Prep. Castile soap, in shavings, 4 oz. ; 
proof spirit 1 pint ; dissolve. As Esprit de Savon. 

ESSENCE OF SAVORY SPICES. Piep. 
Black pepper 2 oz. ; allspice 1 oz. ; nutmegs i oz. ; 
cloves, cassia, coriander and caraway seeds, of 
each 1 drachm, (all hruised ;) rectified spirit of 
wine 1 pint. Digest for 14 days, press, and filter. 
Used as a flavoring. When made with proof 
spirit, and only ^ the above weight of 'spice, it is 
called " TiNCTURK of Savory Spices." 

ESSENCE OF SOUP HERBS, (KITCH- 
INER'S.) Syn. Spirit of Soup Herbs. Con- 
centrated Tincture of do. Prep. Lemon 
thyme, winter savory, sweet marjoram, and sweet 
basil, of each 1 oz. ; lemon-peel, grated, and 
shalotes, of each ^ oz. ; bruised celerj' seed \ oz. ; 
proof spirit 1 pint. Digest for 10 days, or a fort- 
night. A superior flavoring essence for soups, 
gravies, &c. 

ESSENCE OF SOAP. Syn. Ess. Saponis. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) White soap ^iij ; carbonate of 
potassa 3j ; prftof spirit f xij. Dissolve and filter. 

ESSENCE OF SMOKE. Syn. Ess. Fuli- 
GiNis. Smoking Fluid, &c. Rough pyroligneous 
acid. Used to impart a smoky flavor to meat and 
fish, by washing it over them, or immersing them 
in it for 2 or 3 minutes. 

ESSENCE OF SPEARMINT. Syn. Ess. 
MentHvE Viridis. Ess. Mentha Sativ^. Prep. 
1 oz. of essential oil to 1 pint of spirit of wine, 
tinged green. Process, use, and dose, the same as 
Essence of Peppermint. 

ESSENCE OF SPRATS. Syn. Solid Es- 
sence OF Sprats. Extract of do. Prep. Es- 
sence of anchovies (made with sprats) 7 lbs. ; add 
wheat flour to thicken to the consistence of cream, 
then gently evaporate to a stiff paste. Sold for 
solid essence of anchovies. 

ESSENCE OF SPRUCE. Syn. Ess. Abie- 
Tis. This is prepared by boiling the twigs of the 
spruce or Scotch fir in water, and evaporating the 
decoction. It is stimulant and tonic. Used to 
make spruce beer. 

ESSENCE OF TURTLE. Prep. Essence 
of anchovies and shallot wine, of each 3 oz. ; basil 
wine i pint ; mushroom ketchup \ pint ; the juice 
of 2 lemons ; the yellow peel of 1 lemon ; curry 
powder \ oz. Digest for 1 week. Use. To im- 
part the flavor of turtle to soups and gravies. 

ESSENCE OF VANILLA. Prep. I. Va- 
nilla, cut small, 1 lb. ; spirit of wine J^ gallon. As 
Essence of Musk. 

II. Vanilla (best) | lb. ; -spirit of ambrette 1 
quart ; cloves 30 grs. ; grain musk 7 grs. As last. 
Very superior. Used as a perfume and flavoring. 

ESSENCE OF WORMWOOD. Syn. Ess. 
Absinthil Prep. (Van Mons.) Salt of worm- 
wood 3v ; extract of wormwood 3j ; tincture of 
wormwood 1 pint. Digest and filter. 

ESSENCES FOR KITCHEN USE. Syn 
Culinary Essences. Flavoring do. Spice do. 
Essences for the Table. The principal of these 
are the Essences of Allspice, Cassia, Celery, 
Cinnamon, Cloves, Mace, Marjoram, Nutmegs, 
Ginger, Cayenne, Garlic, Lemon-peel, Orange- 



peel, Peppermint, Spearmint, Caraway seeds 
Cardamom seeds. Coriander seeds, t^c, rf-c. ; the 
whole of which are generally made by either dis. 
solving ^ oz. of the essential oil of the spice in a 
pint of rectified spirit of wine, or by m;iftrating 4 
oz. of the bruised spice in a like quaiility of the 
same fluid for a week. When miide with only ^ 
or i the above quantity of spice or flavoring, and 
with proof spirit, or brandy, instead of spirit of 
wine, they are commonly called " Culinary Tinc- 
tures," or " Tinctures for Kitchen Use.'^ The 
whole of these are employed to flavor gravies, 
soups, pastry, mulled wine, &c. See also Con- 
centrated Essences, before described. 

E.SSENTIA BINiE. (Literally, Essence of 
Mali.) The brewer's name for coloring, or burnt 
sugar. (See Coloring.) 

ESSENTIA ODORIFERA. Prep. I. Grain 
musk and balsam of Peru, of each 11 grs.; civet 
and oil of cloves, of each 5 grs. ; oil of rhodium 2 
grs. ; salt of tartar 30 grs. ; alcohol 2 oz. Mace- 
rate for 14 days, then pour off the clear. A beau- 
tiful perfume. 

II. Oil of rhodium and balsam of Peru, of eat.; 
J dr. ; oil of cloves 1 dr. ; spirit of ammonia \ oz. ; 
essence of civet 2 oz. ; essence of musk 5 oz. ; ne- 
roli, oils of lavender, verbena, and cassia, of each 
5 drops. Mix. dissolve, and filter. Very fine 

ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK. Exti-.a 
of Peruvian bark, prepared with cold water, and 
evaporated by a gentle heat. 

ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. The 
preparation sold under this name is made by mix- 
ing cream of tartar (bitartrate of potassa) with 
twice its weight of salt of sorrel, (biuoxalate of po- 
tassa.) both in fine powder. It is used to remove 
fruit stains from linen, by rubbing a little of it on 
the part moistened with warm water. It is poison- 
ous. 

ETCHING. A species of engraving, in which 
the design is formed on the plate by the action of 
an acid, or some other fluid, instead of the graver. 

Proc. The plate is covered with a ground or 
varnish capable of resisting the action of the etch- 
ing fluid, the design is next scratched on the metal 
by means of a species of needle or pointed tool of 
steel. A border of wax is then placed round the 
plate, and the "biting" menstruum poured on, and 
allowed to remain till the lights or finest portion of 
the design is sulliciently "bit in." The etching 
fluid is then poured off, the plate washed, and the 
light parts " stopped up" with wax or varnish, 
when the solvent is again poured on, and allowed 
to remain until the finest portion of the exposed 
lines are sufl'iciently deep, when the acid is again 
poured off, and the whole process is repeated till 
the very darkest lines or shadows are sufficiently 
formed. The plate is then cleaned, and is printed 
from in the same way as a common engraved cop- 
per-plate. The most approved way of laying the 
design on the etching ground, is first to draw it 
with a black-lead pencil on paper, then to damp 
the paper, place it with the design next the wax 
or varnish, and to pass the whole through a rolling- 
press, by which means the picture will be trans- 
ferred from the paper to the ground. 

There are several varieties of etching, among 
which may be named etching with a dry pointy 
performed entirely with the point, without any 



ETC 



278 



ETH 



ground, the burr being removed with the scraper ; 
etching with a soft ground, when a coating of 
lard or tallow is employed, and the design is drawn 
on a piece of paper, laid evenly on the ground, by 
which means the fatty matter adheres to the paper, 
on the parts pressed on by the pencil, and the cop- 
per beneath becomes exposed. This method is 
employed to produce imitations of chalk or pencil 
drawings. Stippling, or executing the design in 
dots instead of lines. Aquatinta, in which a weak 
spirituous solution of gum mastich is poured over the 
plate, placed in a slanting direction, by which a 
granulated surface is formed, and small interstices 
left, exposing the naked metal : a wall of wax is 
next placed round the margin of the plate, the 
etching fluid poured on, and the lighter parts suc- 
cessively " stopped out" until the design is com- 
pleted. Aquatinta etchings bear a great resem- 
blance to Indian ink drawings. The fineness or 
coarseness of the grain depends entirely upon the 
quantity of matter dissolved in the spirit employed 
to form the ground. 

The fluids employed for " biting" in the designs 
vary considerably ; almost every etcher having his 
own receipt. Aquafortis, more or less diluted, is, 
however, generally employed for copper, and this, 
with the addition of pyroligneous acid, for etching 
on steel ; but any fluid that will rapidly dissolve the 
metal ma.y be used for this purpose. The etching 
varnish or grouind may be formed of any substance 
capable of resisting the action of the etching fluid, 
and, at the same time, sufficiently soft to allow of 
the free use of the needle or point, and sufficiently 
solid to prevent an injury to the design during the 
" scratching in." (See Fluids and Varnishes.) 

In etching on glass, the ground is laid on, and 
the design scratched out in the usual way, when 
liquid hydrofluoric acid is applied, or the glass is 
exposed to the action of hydrofluoric acid gas. The 
former renders the surface of the etching transpa- 
rent, the latter opaque. A very simple way of 
performing this operation is to wet the design with 
sulphuric acid, and then to sprinkle on some finely- 
pulverized fluor spar, (fluoride of calcium,) by 
which means hydrofluoric acid is set free and at- 
tacks the glass. This may be very easily applied 
to the graduation of glass vessels, thermometer 
tubes, &c. 

A most rapid method of etching on iron or steel, 
capable of very general application, is as follows : 
Warm the metal until it is capable of melting a 
piece of beeswax, or etching varnish, which must 
then be carefully rubbed over it, so as to form a 
thin and even coating ; allow the whole to cool, 
and scratch out the design in the common way, 
with a needle or point ; then sprinkle on a little 
powdered iodine, and at the same time add a few 
drops of water with a camel-hair pencil, and work 
them into a liquid paste, which must be moved 
about over the intended engraving, for a period 
varying from one to five minutes, according to the 
depth of lines required to be produced. After- 
wards wash the whole in clean water. Persons 
acquainted with the properties of iodine will read- 
ily perceive that the same etching-paste, by being 
kept for a few days, will again acquire the prop- 
erty of dissolving iron. I have finis successfully 
employed the same materials three or four times. 
Iodine will, doubtless, at no very distant period, su- 



persede the use of acids for the above purpose, or 
account of its portability and convenience. To 
travellers and amateurs who amuse themselves 
with the delightful art of etching, it will, I think, 
prove invaluable. [I published this method of 
etching some two or three years since, and have 
since adopted it with considerable success.] 

ETHAL, (from eth and al, the first syllables of 
ether and alcohol, from its composition resembling 
those liquids.) A substance discovered by Chev- 
reul, and formed during the saponification of sper- 
maceti. 

ETHER. Syn. Sulphuric Eiher. Oxide of 
Ethule. Ether, {Fr.) ^ther, {Lat.) ^Ether 
viTRioLicus, (P. L. 1788.) ^Ether rectificatus, 
(P. L. 1809 and 1824.) ^Ether sulphuricus, (P. 
L.) Vitriolic Naphtha. Naphtha Vini. (From 
aidrji, pure air, or any highly subtile fluid.) In 
Chemistry, a volatile, fragrant, inflammable, and 
intoxicating liquid, obtained by distilling a mixture 
of sulphuric acid and alcohol. 

Hist. Ether, in combination with alcohol, is 
said to have been known to Raj'^mond Lully in the 
13th, and to Basil Valentine in the 15th century; 
but the precise directions for its preparation were 
first published by Valerius Cordus in 1544, by 
whom it was called Oleum Vitrioli dulce. The 
term ether was first employed by Froberus about 
the year 1730. It is only within the present cen- 
tury that ether has been obtained in a state of 
absolute purity. 

Principles of etherification. When a mixture 
of alcohol and sulphuric acid is heated to a certain 
temperature, a series of complicated changes en- 
sue, among which is the conversion of the former 
into ether, which passes over along with some wa- 
ter and undecomposed alcohol, and condenses in 
the receiver. According to Liebig, ether is the 
oxide of a hypothetical radical called " ethule ;" 
and alcohol is the hydrate of this oxide. On the 
admixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, a hydra- 
ted bisulphate of ether (oxide of ethule) is formed, 
and this is subsequently decomposed by heat intc 
ether, water, and sulphuric acid. " If we consider 
each particle of the hydrated bisulphate of oxide 
of ethule, as composed of ether, (oxide of ethule,) 
anhydrous sulphuric acid, and water, it is clear that 
the anhydrous acid, at the moment of its separa- 
tion from the ether, must seize on all water, free 
or combined, in the vicinity of the ether. Thus, 
at the moment the ether becomes free, the anhy- 
drous acid, also set free, prevents it from uniting 
with water to form alcohol. But when the gaseous 
ether passes through the undecomposed hydrated 
bisulphate of oxide of ethule, a certain portion of 
the water of that compound must evaporate in the 
dry gas ; and under these circumstances the ether 
and water do not combine together. The surface 
of the effervescing liquid has the temperature at 
which the hydrated bisulphate of oxide of ethule is 
decomposed ; but at this temperature (284°) the 
water of that compound is gaseous- There are 
thus produced simultaneously, — water, in the gas- 
eous form, and ether, also gaseous, by decomposi- 
tion ; which, as both are in the nascent state, unite 
to form alcohol. Thus, the alcohol, always ob- 
served to distil over with the ether, is derived from 
the surface; and the ether and water which dis- 
til over, proceed from the decomposition in the 



ETH 



279 



ETH 



interior of the liquid. This explains why no ether 
is obtained, when the liquid is not in a state of 
brisn ebullition, no matter how high the temper- 
ature may be ; it explains further why more alco- 
hol is obtained when a current of dry air passes 
through the liquid ; as, in that case, the same de- 
composition goes on in the interior of the liquid as 
generally occurs at the surface." (Liebig.) 

According to tlie opinion of some, ether is the 
first hydrate of defiant gas, and alcohol the sec- 
ond ; and the conversion of the latter into the for- 
mer consists in the mere abstraction of the second 
equivalent of water. This hypothesis has been 
principally held in France, and the former in Ger- 
many ; and the elaborate investigations into the 
composition of ethereal compounds, induced by 
these conflicting opinions during nearly a dozen 
years, has led to the enrichment of organic chem- 
istry with a multitude of new compounds and new 
facts, which might otherwise have been lost to 
science. These opposite opinions are, however, 
essentially the same ; and, as it has been justly 
observed by Liebig, " men disputed about them 
because they were not agreed on the interpreta- 
tion of phenomena." 

A similar opinion to the preceding, is that ether 
is the hydrate of a quadrihydrocarbon, to which 
the name etherin has been given. The late Mr. 
Hennel, of Apothecaries' Hall, held this view. He 
considered that in the conversion of alcohol into 
ether) a compound of sulphuric acid and etJierin 
(sulphovinic acid) is first formed with part of~"the 
alcohol, and that during the ebullition this com- 
pound is decomposed ; its dihydrate of carbon uni- 
tmg with the remaining alcohol to form ether, 
which distils over, mixed with midecomposed alco- 
hol and water. 

Thus ether has been regarded by different au- 
thorities as a a dihydrate of olefiant gas ; a hy- 
drate of etherin ; and as an oxide of ethule, or 
ethereurn ; but it must appear to an impartial ob- 
server that these opinions do not so greatly differ, 
as their advocates have represented ; and if, as 
suggested by Kane and Malaguti, acetule be taken 
£is the hypothetical radical of the series, this will 
be very evident, as may be seen by mere inspec- 
tion of the following table : 

Acetule = C4HS unknown. 

Olefiant gas = C,H 3 -f-H 

Ethule = C4 H^-f-Ha = unknown. 

Ether = C^H H2-f(>= oxide of ethule. 

Chloride of ethule. 

= C 4 H 3 H 2 -f CZ = chloric ether. 

Iodide of ethule . . . 

= C4H3H2-f-I = hydriodic do. 

Acetate of oxide of ethule 

= C4H3 H 2 0-|-A= acetic do. 

From the above table the formation of other 
I compounds of ethule may be readily explained, by 
I mere substitution, which view is supported by the 

actual constitTition of the ethers, according to the 

most correct analysis. 
' During the distillation of a mixture of sulphuric 

( ac\(i and alcohol, the relative proportions of the 

ingiedients are. constantly varying, occasioned by 
' the decomposition of the alcohol, and evaporation 
I of the newly-formed ether and undecomposed al- 
I Gohol, by which means tlie relative quantity of 



sulphuric acid increa-ses, the boiling point rises, and 
new reactions take place. Olefiant gas, sulphur- 
ous acid, water, carbon, and other products are 
formed, some of which pass over into the receiver. 
The distillation of i!ie/ is, however, usually stop- 
ped before this po n. is arrived at. 

According to tiieory, 2 equivalents, or 46 parts 
of absolute alcohol, sliould produce 1 eq., or 37 
parts of pure ether, but in practice no such product 
can ever be obtained. Tlie greatest product, by 
operating according to Boullay's method, which 
produces more ether than any other, does not ex- 
ceed 33^ parts for the preceding quantity of alco- 
hol, or 7l-.3g. (Geiger.) 

Frep. There are only two methods employed 
for the preparation of ether, viz. I. By mixing the 
whole of the ingred'ents at once, and immediately 
subjecting them to distillation. II. By adding the 
alcohol in a slender streamlet to the acid, previ- 
ously raised to the etherifying temperature. The 
former, though less economical, is the one more 
generally employed. " Ether is also formed by 
the decomposition of the bisulphate, biphosphate, 
and biarseniate of oxide of ethule, (sulphovinic, 
phosphovinic, and arseniovinic acids,) and by the ac- 
tion of fluoride of boron, chloride of zinc, chloride 
of tin, and other chlorides on alcohol." (Liebig.) 

I. a. (Process of the L. Ph.) Rectified spirit 
lij.iij ; sulphuric acid lb. ij ; carbonate of potassa, 
previously ignited, ^j ; pour ib. ij of the spirit into 
a glass retort, add the acid, place it on a sand- 
bath, so that the liquor may boil as quickly as pos- 
sible, and the ether pass into a receiver cooled by 
ice or water ; and distil until a heavier fluid begin 
to pass over. Then lower the heat, add the re- 
mainder of the spirit, and distil as before. Mix 
the distilled liquors together, pour off" the super- 
natant portion, add the carbonate of potassa, and 
agitate occasionally for one hour; finally, distil the 
ether from a large retort, and keep it in a well- 
stoppered bottle. 

k- {Liebig.) Mix 5 parts of alcohol of 90§ with 
9 parts of oil of vitriol, in a vessel of copper or 
iron, immersed in cold water ; introduce the mix- 
ture into a still, connect it with a refrigerator, and 
a well-cooled receiver, and raise it to a state of 
ebullition as rapidly as possible. Next add to the 
liquid in the still a fresh quantity of alcohol, equal 
in bulk to the liquid distilled over, and repeat the 
operation. To the distilled liquid, add as much 
concentrated alcoholic solution of potassa as will 
give it a perceptible alkaline reaction, then rectify 
it by distillation in a water-bath as long as the 
ether, which distils over, has a sp. gr. of 0-720 to 
0-725 at 80° Fahr. Instead of the pot-assa, a lit- 
tle milk of lime may be used, along with its own 
bulk of water, rectifying the ether as before. By 
allowing the product to stand for. some days over 
chloride of calcium or quicklime, and again recti- 
fying along with one of these substances, perfectly 
pare ether will be obtained. 

II. a. (Process of the Edinburgh Ph.) Rec- 
tified spirit f^L ; sulphuric acid f^x ; pour ffxijol 
the spirit gently over the acid contained in an 
open vessel, mix well ; transfer the mixture rrnme 
d.afely into a glass matrass connected with a re- 
frigeratory, and raise the heat quickly to about 
280°. As soon as ether begins to distil over, sup- 
ply fresh spirit through a tube into the matrass> ii. 



ETH 



280 



ETH 



a continued stream, and in such quantity as to 
equal timt of the fluid which distils over This is 
best done by connecting one end of the tube with 
a graduated vessel containing the spirit, passing 
the other end through a cork fitted into the mat- 
rass, and having a stopcock on the tube, to regu- 
late the discharge. When ffxlij have distilled 
over, and the whole spirit has been added, the pro- 
cess may be stopped. Agitate the product with 
f fxyj of a saturated solution of muriate of lime, 
containing §ss of lime recently slaked, pour off 
the supernatant liquor, and distil it with a very 
gentle heat, so long as the liquor which passes over 
has a density not above "735. More ether of the 
same strength is then to be obtained from the so- 
lution of muriate of lime. From the residuum of 
both distillations a weaker ether may be obtained 
in a small quaiitity, which must be rectified by 
gently distilling it again. Remarks. This process 
is a mere modification of that first pointed out by 
Boullay, and which has since been described and 
recommended by Mitscherlich, Liebig, and others. 

/?. (Process employed at Apothecaries^ Hall.) 
The apparatus consists of a leaden still, having a 
pewter head, and connected by means of about 6 
feet of tin pipe, with a powerful worm condenser, 
surrounded by a constant stream of cold water, 
and which is connected with pewter receivers, fur- 
nished with glass lids. The still is heated with a coil 
of lead pipe, supplied with high pressure steam, and 
the alcohol is supplied to the acid as required,by means 
of a small pipe entering the upper part of the still. 

y. {Process of Boullay.) Three parts of the 
strongest oil of vitriol are mixed with sufficient al- 
cohol to reduce its sp. gr. to 1-780, (about 2 parts 
of alcohol of '830,) which may be easily regulated 
by distilling off some of the ether, if required. The 
still or retort is then connected with a vessel full 
of alcohol, of 90§, by means of a small syphon fur- 
nished with a stopcock ; the longer limb of the 
syphon, which should be of glass, being so arranged 
that it just dips into the mixture of acid and alco- 
hol. Heat is next applied, and the contents of the 
still raised to the boiling point as rapidly as possi- 
ble, and as soon as full ebullition commences, the 
stopcock of the syphon is turned, so as to allow the 
alcohol to flow down in such a manner as to keep 
the boiling liquid exactly at the same level ; or, in 
other words, to supply a quantity of alcohol exactly 
equal to that of the liquid which distils over. By 



careful manipulation the whole of the alcoh«ri 
which enters the retort will pass over as etner and 
water, and this decomposition proceeds for some 
time, and would continue for an unlimited period, 
but that the sulphuric acid ultimately becomes too 
weak to form ether, from the gradual absorption 
of the superfluous water contained in the alcohol. 
Were it convenient or practicable to use absolute 
alcohol, a given weight of sulphuric acid, of the 
proper strength, would maintain the power of pro- 
ducing ether for an indefinite period. In practice, 
the quantity of alcohol that may thus be etherefied 
is twice or thrice as much as by the common pro- 
cess, while neither sulphurous acid, sulphovinic 
acid, (Geiger,) nor sweet oil of wine is generated, 
and the residual liquid of the distillation continues 
limpid, and has only a pale brown color, A mix- 
ture of 9 parts of oil of vitri i and 5 parts of alco- 
hol of 90§, ceases to produce ether, after 31 parts 
of such alcohol have been added. Sulphuric acid 
containing more than 4^ atoms of water to 1 atom 
of dry acid, is too weak for the etherification of 
alcohol, and 3^ to 4 atoms of water appears to be 
the limit of dilution, fixed by experience, for the 
productive preparation of ether. (Liebig.) 

Remarks. The mixture of alcohol with strong 
oil of vitriol requires some caution. It may be best 
done by introducing the alcohol into a suitable 
vessel, and imparting to it a rapid whirling motion, 
by which a considerable conical cavity will be 
formed in the centre, and into which the acid may 
be gradually poured with perfect safety. The 
mixed fluids should be brought to a state of rapid 
ebullition as quickly as possible, as without this 
precaution much of the alcohol will distil over be- 
fore the liquor acquires the proper temperature for 
etherification. On the small scale, a tubulated 
retort, connected with a Liebig's condensing tube, 
and two globular receivers surrounded with a freez- 
ing mixture, or very cold water, may be employed 
as the distillatory apparatus. The second receiver 
should be connected with the first by means of a 
bent glass tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of 
the latter ; and the whole of the joints should be 
securely luted as soon as the expanded air has 
been allowed to escape. The following convenient 
little apparatus has been employed by the writer 
for the preparation of small quantities of ether, and 
will be found very suitable for the distillation of 
most volatile fluids. 




a, Condenser tube, japanned zinc 28 inches long ; b, c, 
glass tube, 36 inches long; d, funnel by which cold water 
runs in from the water bottle, h ; c, pipe by which water es- 
capes through /into the bottle /r; i, retort; k, adapter con- 
necting the retort with the condenser; I, adapter, connect- 
ing the condenser with the bottles, t, t. Jl, Black wooden 
tressel, with moveable arms, n, o, for supporting and ad- 
justing the height of the condenser; B, black wooden 



stool for supporting the water bottle, (the legs unscrew 
for travelling:) y, furnace; r, support lor the furnace; y, 
gutter for carrying oft' water that overflows the funnel d, 
and preventing its escape along the pipe c ; s, leg of syphon 
connected with bottle containing alcohol ; t, t, glass globes, 
placed in the basins r, w, and surrounded with ice-cold 
water ; w, safety tube containing a little mercury at x. 



ETH 



281 



ETH 



This apparatus may be purchased of Messrs. 
Griffin and Co., or their agents, at a very reasona- 
ble price. By connecting the neck of a flask, or 
digester containing volatile fluids with the lower 
Instead of the upper end of the refrigerator, ebulli- 
tion may be carried on without loss, as the vola- 
tilized fluid will be condensed, and run back into 
the vessel from which it had just distilled. Tiiis 
arrangement will be found useful for boiling mix- 
tures of alcohol and organic acids, described further 
on, or for any similar purpose. (See Ethers, or- 
ganic.) 

For the rectification of ether a water-bfv*h 
should be employed, and the neck of the retort 
may be advantageously connected with the above 
simple refrigerator, and the recei\*ers should be 
surrounded by freezing mixtures. 

Pres. Ether rapidly evaporates at common tem- 
peratures when kept in corked bottles, and even 
in bottles secured with ground-glass stoppers and 
tightly tied over with bladder and leather; it also 
becomes sour by age. To prevent this waste, the 
stoppers should fit very accurately, and the bottles 
should be placed in as cool a situation as possible. 
Bottles furnished with ground-glass caps 
(see engraving) as well as stoppers, are 
frequently employed. Dewar's ether 
vial is formed on a similar principle. 
The shoulder is surrounded with a cir- 
cular rim not rising quite so high as the 
mouth of the bottle, and a capsule sirn- 
ilar to the one in the engraving is in- 
verted and fitted into it. Mercury is 
then poured into the rim, and hermeti- 
cally closes it. I have seen bottles of ether accu- 
rately stoppered, tied over with bladder and waxed, 
which have yet become quite empty by a voyage 
to the tropics,- though they still appeared to be as 
firmly secured as when they were first put up. 

Prop., ^c. Pure ether is a colorless, transpa- 
rent, and very limpid fluid, having a penetrating 
and agreeable smell, and a taste at first burning 
and sv,^eetish, followed by a sensation of coolness. 
Its specific gravity has been variously stated. Ac- 
cording to Liebig and Gregory it is 0-7119 at 75° ; 
0-7154 at 68° ; and 0-7237 at 55° Fahr. Others 
state it to be 0-713 to 0-715 at 60°, (Ure, &c. ;) or 
0-713 at 68°, (Dumas, BouUay.) It is said to be- 
gin to crystallize in brilliant white plates when 




cooled to —24° F., and at —46° 



it be- 



comes a white crystalline mass, (Ure, Liebig, 
Fourcroy, Vauquelin,)' but, according to others, 
absolutely pure ether cannot be solidified by any 
degree of cold that can be produced, (Thenard 
and Bussy.) It remained fluid when placed in 
contact with solid carbonic acid, at a temperature 
of about —148° Fahr., (Fereira.) It boils at 96° 
or 97° Fahr. ; is very combustible, is soluble in 10 
parts of distilled water, and mixes with alcohol in 
all proportions. It abstracts corrosive sublimate, 
terchloride of gold, and sesquichloride of iron from 
their watery solutions. It readily dissolves the 
volatile and fixed oils, most fatty matters, as well 
as sulphur and phosphorus, in small quantities. 
By exposure to light and air it absorbs oxygen, and 
water and acetic acid are formed. 

Ether may be recognised by its volatility, odor, 
taste, sparing solubility in water, admixture with 
alcohol in all proportions; its inflammability, 
36 



burning with a yellowish white flame, and by iti 
power of dis.solving fats and resins. 

Pur. The ether of the shops, generally, contains 
alcohol, water, or acetic acid, and sometimes al 
of them. Its usual specific gra^■ity fluctuates be- 
tween -733 and -765. The London College states 
that it should be -750, while the Edinburgh Col- 
lege fixes it at -735 or under. " It totally evapo- 
rizes in the air, and slightly reddens litmus." (P. 
L.) Pure ether should, however, be neutral to test 
paper. " When shaken in a minim measure with 
half its volume of concentrated solution of muriate 
of lime, its volume is not lessened." (P. E.) Ten 
fluid ounces of water should only dissolve one fluid 
ounce of ether, and sh6uld remain transparent. 

Uses, ^'C. Ether is powerfully stimulant, nar- 
cotic, and antispasmodic, and externally refrige- 
rant, and is used in various diseases. Applied to 
the forehead by means of the fingers or a strip of 
linen, it will generally relieve nerv^ous headache. 
In pharmacy it is employed in the preparation of 
several tinctures, alkaloids, spirits, «fcc. ; and in 
chemistry is frequently used in organic analyses. 
It is also employed as a solvent of resins, Indian 
rubber, &c., in the preparation of varnishes, and 
for several other useful purposes. Dose. 20 drops 
to f 3ij in water or wine. Excessive doses of ether 
produce intoxication resembling that from alcohol, 
and require 'similar antidotes. It is commonly 
taken as a stimulant by fashionable ladies, and 
though generally disguised by Cologne water, may 
be often distinguished in the breath of persons be- 
longing to the higher ranks of society. 

Caution. The vapor of ether is very inflamma- 
ble, and when mixed with atmospheric air it forms 
a violently explosive mixture. The density of this 
vapor is 2-586, that of air being 1, (Gay Lussac :) 
hence it rapidly sinks, and frequently accumulates 
in the lower parts of buildings, especially cellars 
which are badly ventilated. Every crack, every 
joint in the floors of rooms, the space beneath 
doors, &c., offer a road for the passage of this 
vapor, which, though invisible, as surely runs out 
of every orifice and finds its level, as a stream of 
water would do. The only remedy is thorough 
ventilation. Many serious accidents have arisen 
from this cause, for no sooner is a light carried into 
an apartment where such vapor is present, than an 
explosion takes place. In this respect the vapor 
of ether resembles fire-damp and light gas. A late 
extensive fire in Upper Thames -street arose from 
a small bottle of ether being broken in the opera- 
tion of packing. I have heard Dr. Reid particu- 
larly call attention to this point at his lectures ; 
and Dr. Pereira, in his excellent work on Materia 
Medica, mentions the case of an apothecary at 
Bern, whose house was blown up in consequence 
of a lighted candle being taken into- the cellar, in 
which a bottle of ether had been broken. 

ETHER, ACETIC. Syn. Acetate of Oxide 
OF Ethule. Pyroligneous Ether. jEther 
AcETicus. A compound of acetic acid and ether, 
discovered by the Coune de Lauraguais in 1759. 
(Thomson.) Prep. I. (Liebig.) a. Dry acetate 
of lead 32 parts ; alcohol 9 parts ; oil of vitriol 12 
parts ; mix and distil. 

p. Crystallized acetate of soda 10 pa'ts ; oil of 
vitriol -15 parts ; alcohol of 80 or 85g, 6 parts ; as 
before. 



ETH 



282 



ETH 



II. (Ure.) a. Acetate of lead 40 parts ; alcohol 
20 parts ; concentrated sulphuric acid 23 parts ; 
as before. 

j8. Anhydrous acetate of lead 16 parts; sulphu- 
ric acid 5 parts ; absolute alcohol (or its equivalent 
in alcohol of 80 or 85§) 4^ parts ; as before. 

III. Acetate of potassa 3 parts, (or an equiva- 
lent proportion of acetate of soda ;) alcohol of 85§, 
3 parts ; strong oil of vitriol 2 parts ; as before. 
An economical process. 

IV. (P. Cod.) Rectified spirit f xxx ; acetic acid 
f ^xx ; sulphuric acid §vj 3ij ; distil §xl ; agitate 
with carbonate of potash and redistil. 

Remarks. The distillation should be conducted 
in a glass retort, or earthenware still, connected 
with a well-cooled receiver, and the product should 
be rectified along with chloride of calcium to ab- 
sorb the water, and slaked lime to remove the acid, 
(Liebig ;) or the distilled liquid may be agitated 
along with a weak lye of potassa, and after repose 
the supernatant ether may be decanted and recti- 
fied along with magnesia and powdered charcoal. 
(Ure.) The rectified acetic ether will be equal in 
weight to the alcohol employed. (Liebig.) 

Prop. Acetic ether is colorless, and bears a con- 
siderable resemblance to ether, (sulphuric ether,) 
but has a much more agreeable and refreshing 
odor. It boils at 165°, (Liebig —166° Ure ;) has 
a sp. gr. of 0-89 at 60° Fahr., (Liebig —0-866 at 
45° Fahr., Ure ;> dissolves in 7 parts of water, 
(Liebig, — 8 parts, Ure ;) and mixes in all propor- 
tions with alcohol and ether. It is decomposed by 
alkalis and oil of vitriol. According to the acetule- 
theory this ether is properly an acetate of ether, 
(oxide of ethule,) and may consequently be regard- 
ed as a salt of acetic acid. 

Uses. Acetic ether is diaphoretic, stimulant, 
antispasmodic and narcotic, and has been given in 
doses of f 3ss to f 3ij, in similar cases to those in 
which sulphuric ether is employed. Its principal 
consumption is in the manufacture of British 
brandy. 

ETHER, BENZOIC. Syn. Benzoate of 
Ether. Benzoate of Oxide of Ethule. A 
colorless oily liquid, having an aromatic odor and 
taste, and a sp. gr. shghtly exceeding that of wa- 
ter. It boils at 410° Fahr,, and is miscible with 
alcohol and ether. It was discovered by Scheele. 

Prep. Alcohol of -830, 4 parts ; crystals of ben- 
zoic acid 2 parts ; concentrated muriatic acid 1 
part ; mix, distil, and as soon as the product turns 
milky when mixed with water, change the receiver 
and collect the liquid that distils over. To the 
product add water, separate the supernatant ether, 
boil with water and a little oxide of lead, (to sepa- 
rate benzoic acid,) and lastly, free it frofn water 
by allowing it to stand over chloride of calcium. 
(Liebig.) See Ethers, organic. 

ETHER, CARBONIC. Syn. Carbonate of 
Ether. Carhonate op Oxide of Ethule. 
iETHER, Carhonicus. An ethereal liquid, dis- 
covered by Eltling, and somewhat resembling ox- 
alic ether. 

Prep. Add grad\ially, fragments of potassium 
to oxalic ether, gently warmed, as long as bub- 
bles of gas are formed ; remove the excess of metal 
from the semisolid mass, add water and distil. 
The carbonic ether will float on the surface of the 
liquid in the receiver, and nuist be collected, dried 



by contact with chloride of calcium, and rectified 
along with some potassium or sodium, till it ceases 
to yield acetate of potassa when acted on by caus- 
tic potassa. (Liebig.) 

ETHER, CHLORIC. Syn. Chloride of 
Ethule. Chlorhydric Ether. Hydrochloric do» 
Muriatic do. Marine do. tEther Muriaticus. 
Do. Chloricus. Do. Hydrochloricus. Prep. L 
(P. Cod.) Alcohol and muriatic acid equal parts by 
weight ; distil by a gentle heat, into a series of re- 
ceivers, the first of which should contain a little 
warm water, and the others should be surrounded 
with ice. 

II. {Medicinal Chloric Ether.) This is usually 
prepared by putting dry chloride of lime into a 
glass or earthenware retort, with just enough al- 
cohol to moisten and cover it, and distilling by a 
gentle heat into a receiver, surrounded with ice or 
a freezing mixture. 

III. {Pure.) Saturate alcohol with muriatic 
acid gas, carefully distil, purify the product from 
alcohol and water by neans of chloride of calcium, 
and preserve it in inverted stoppered bottles, in a 
cool place. 

Remarks. Chloric ether requires the same care 
in its distillation as sulphuric ether, previously de- 
scribed, and the same apparatus may be advanta- 
geously employed. It has a penetrating, garlic- 
like smell, a sp. gr. of -874 at 40°, dissolves in 24 
parts of water, is neutral, boils at 51°, and burns 
with a greenish flame and the production of mu- 
riatic acid. Its physiological action is similar to 
the other ethers. It has been given in dyspepsia, 
hepatic diseases, hectic fever, «fcc., in doses of f 3ss 
to f3iij. The spiritus salis dulcis (P, E. 1735) 
was a mixture of this ether and alcohol, but Gehlen 
first brought it into notice in 1804. (Thomson.) 
It is but little employed in England, judging from 
the demand for it ; a very large metropolitan drug- 
house having only sold about 16 ounces in the last 
twelve months. 

ETHER, CHLORO-CARBONIC. Dumaa 
has given this name to a peculiar liquid formed by 
saturating absolute alcohol with chloro-carbonic 
acid, (phosgene gas.) The lower stratum that 
forms is the ether. It must be purified by stand- 
ing over oxide of lead and muriate of lime, and by 
subsequent rectification. It has a disagreeable 
smell, is heavier than water, and boils at 200° 
Fahr, It is decomposed by water. 

ETHER, CYANIC. Syn. Bicyanurate op 
Ether. Do. of Oxide of Ethule. /Ether 
Cvanicus. Prep. Saturate a mixture of alcohol 
and ether with hydrated cyanic acid, in vapor. In 
24 hours collect the crystals, and purify by solu- 
tion and crystallization in hot alcohol or water. 
Tasteless, inodorous, colorless, transparent needles 
and prisms. (Wohler and Liebig.) 

ETHER, HYDRIODIC. Syn. Iodide of 
Ethule. A colorless liquid, discovered by Gay 
Lussuc, and obtained by saturating alcohol with 
hydriodic acid and distilling. It is about as dense 
as oil of vitriol, has an ethereal smell, and boils at 
150° to 160° Fahr. 

ETHER, HYDROBROMIC. Syn. Bromide 
OF Ethule. A volatile ethereal liquid discovered 
by Serullas. It is prepared by dissolving 8 parts 
of bromine in 32 parts of alcohol, adding one part 
of phosphorus, and distilling the mixture by u gentle 



ETH 



283 



ETH 



heat as soon as it becomes cold. The ether is sep- 
arated from the distilled liquid by the addition of 
water ; it is heavier than the latter. 

ETHER, HYDROTELLURIC. This may be 
prepared by distilling the mixed aqueous solutions 
of sulphovinate of baryta and telluret of sodium. 
The latter is prepared by calcining tellurium, or 
telluret of bismuth with carbonate of soda and char- 
coal, and must be used as soon as made. Hydro- 
telluric ether has a yellowish red color, like bro- 
mine, and is heavier than water. (Wohler.) 

ETHER, METHYLIC. Syn. Hydrate of 
Methylene. A colorless gas, prepared by distil- 
ling a mixture of "qual measures of oil of vitriol and 
pyroxilic spirit 

ETHER, MURIATIC, (HEAVY.) A name 
given to a liquid obtained by Scheele, by distilling a 
mixture of oil of vitriol, peroxide of manganese, chlo- 
ride of sodium and alcohol. It is more conveniently 
prepared by saturating alcohol of 80 to 85§, in the 
cold, with chloriiie, adding water, collecting the 
oily fluid that separates, and washing it with wa- 
ter as long as any of it is dissolved. This fluid 
boils at about 245° Fahr., and is heavier than wa- 
ter. This ether enters into the composition of the 
Bpiritus muriatico-ethereus, a remedy occasionally 
used on the Continent. (Liebig.) 

ETHER, NITROUS. Syn. Hyponitrous 
Ether. Hyponitrite of Oxide of Ethule. Do. 
OF Ether. It is said that sweet spirit of nitre was 
known to Raymond LuUy in the 13th century, and 
that Basil Valentine, in the 15th century, taught 
an improved method of preparing it, (Dulk, quoted 
by Dr. Pereira;) but nitric ether was first mention- 
ed by Kunckel in 1681. (Thomson.) 

Prep. I. {Process of the Edinburgh Ph.) Rec- 
tified spirit 1 quart, and f §vj ; pure nitric acid of 
r500 f^vij ; put f §xv of the spirit into a quart 
matrass, fitted with a cork and safety tube, reach- 
ing to within an inch of the spirit, and a second 
tube leading to a refrigeratory. Fill the safety tube 
with the nitric acid, then add through it, gradually 
and cautiously, f ^iiiss of the acid. When the vio- 
lent action that ensues is nearly over, gradually 
add the remaining portion of the acid, f §ss at a 
time, and at intervals. The ether that distils ovev 
must be agitated first with a little milk of lime, till it 
ceases to redden litmus paper, and then with half its 
volume of concentrated solution of muriate of lime. 
" The pure hyponitrous ether should have a densi- 
ty of 0-899." 

II. The Dublin College orders purified nitrate 
of potash, dried and in powder, lb. iss ; sulphuric 
acid Ib.j ; rectified spirit of wine f^xix; the acid 
and spirit are to be first mixed, and then poured 
very gradually on the powdered nitrate placed in 
a tubulated retort, and connected with a well- 
cooled receiver, by means of a bottle, containing a 
pound of spirit of wine, adopting the usual precau- 
tions ; the product is to be shaken with about a 
drachm of dried and finely-powdered carbonate of 
potassa, and the ether decanted after a time. 

III. (Process of M. Pedroni.) Crystallized ni- 
trate of ammonia 11 parts ; oil of vitriol 8 parts; 
alcohol 9 parts ; mix the last two, and pour them 
on the salt contained in any suitable distillatory 
vessel, connected with a well-cooled receiver. Ni- 
trous ether will gradually distil over by the appli- 
eation of heat. A common fire may be employed 



without danger, as the liberation of the ether pro- 
ceeds gradually, and not almost instantaneously, 
as in operating in the usual way. Sulphate oi am- 
monia is left in the retort. (Comptes Rendus, 
1«43.) 

IV. Alcohol of 85^, 9 parts ; water 4 parts ; 
fuming nitric acid 8 parts ; introduce the spirit into 
a strong cylindrical glass vessel, 3 times as high as 
wide, capable of holding one-fifth more than the 
liquid to be placed in it, and by means of a funnel 
tube reaching to the bottom of the vessel, and 
having a small orifice ; add the water cautiously, 
so that it may forai a stratum beneath the alcohol, 
without mixing with it ; in like manner add the 
acid, taking care that the three strata do not mix ; 
then tightly stop the vessel, and allow it to repose 
at a temperature of 53° Fahr., for 2 or 3 days, 
when the stratum of ether which ha.s formed inust 
be collected and purified by rectification. (Turner's 
Chem., 7th ed.) 

V. {Liebig's Process.) Starch 1 part ; nitric 
acid, sp. gr. 1-30, 10 parts ; alcohol of &5§, 2 parts; 
water 1 part ; introduce the starch and acid into 
a capacious retort, connected with a wide tube 2 
or 3 feet long, bent at right angles, and terminating 
near the bottom of a two-necked bottle, contain- 
ing the alcohol and water mixed together, and 
surrounded with a freezing mixture or very cold 
water. The other neck of tho bottle must be con- 
nected by a wide and long glass tube, with a good 
refrigerator or condenser. The heat of a water 
bath must be cautiously applied to the retort, when 
pure hyponitrous acid will be set free, and passing 
into the alcohol will form hyponitrite of oxide of 
ethule, (ether,) which will distil in a gentle stream. 
The tube connecting the retort and bottle must be 
cooled by means of a rag or moist paper, wetted 
from time to time with ice-cold water ; for if the 
tube and the alcohol be not carefully cooled, the 
latter becomes spontaneously hot, and boils vio- 
lently, when the product is vitiated. This process 
is very productive and economical, and yields per- 
fectly pure hyponitrous ether. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Pure hyponitrous ether has a 
pale yellow color, a mixed odor of apples and Hun- 
gary wines, a sp. gr. of 0-947 at 60° Fahr., and boils 
at 62° Fahr. That prepared by the ordinary pro- 
cesses contains aldehyde, boils at 70°, has a sp. gr. 
of 0-886 at 40° Fahr., has a similar odor to the for- 
mer, but si times suffocating, and turns brown when 
mixed with an alcoholic solution of potassa, while 
the former remains white. It also becomes acid by 
age, while pure hyponitrous ether remains neutral. 
The ether prepared by the last formula is chemi- 
cally pure, (Liebig,) and that by the third, nearly 
so. The others contain aldehyde. Ordinary hy- 
ponitrous ether dissolves in about 48 parts of wa- 
ter, and mixes in all proportions with alcohol and 
sulphuric ether. (Liebig.) 

Hyponitrous ether is refrigerant, diaphoretic, and 
diuretic, but is seldom employed alone, tliou^h, 
when largely diluted with alcohol, under the name 
of " sweet spirits of nitre," it is a common remedy. 
It is also used in the manufacture of British bran- 
dy. (See Spirits of Nitre, sweet.) 

ETHER, (ENANTHIC. Syn. (Enanthate 
OF Oxide of Ethule. This is the oil obtained 
towards the end of the distillation of fermented 
liquors, especially wines It is purfied by agita- 



ETH 



284 



ETH 



tion with a weak solution of carbonate of potassa, 
repose, and decantation. It is lighter than water, 
boils at 425° Fahr., and has an odor resembling 
an empty wine cask or bottle that has been ex- 
posed to the air for some time. As obtained by dis- 
tillation, it is united with a little oenanthic acid. 
2200 imperial gallons of wine (about 35 hogsheads) 
only yielded 24 lbs. of the mixed oil. 

ETHER, OXALIC. Syn. Oxalate of Ox- 
ide OF Ethule. Neutral do. A colorless oily 
liquid, slightly heavier than water, boiling at 370° 
Fahr., and having an aromatic smell. It was dis- 
covered by Thenard. 

P7-ep. Binoxalate of potassa, and alcohol of 90§, 
of each 4 parts ; oil of vitriol 5 parts ; mix in a 
glass retort and distil with a quick fire ; as soon as 
the product becomes turbid when mixed with wa- 
ter, change the receiver, agitate the subsequent 
product with 4 or 5 times its weight of water, and 
repeat the agitation with fresh water until the 
ether becomes neutral to test paper ; then rectify 
it in a dry retort that it will about nine-tenths fill, 
and as soon as the boiling proceeds smoothly, in- 
stead of by jerks, change the receiver; the remain- 
ing product will be pure anhydrous oxalic ether. 
(Ettling.) See Ethers, organic. * 

ETHER, PHOSPHORATED. Syn. JEther 
Phosphoratus. Prep. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut 
small, 1 part ; ether 50 parts ; digest with occa- 
sional agitation for 1 month, and decant the clear. 

ETHER, SULFURIQUE lODURE. Syn. 
Ethereal Tincture of Iodine. Prep. Iodine 
40 grs. ; sulphuric ether §j ; dissolve. Dose. 5 to 
10 drops, where the use of iodine is indicated. 

ETHER, SULFURIQUE avec le Deuto- 
lODURE DE Mercure. Syn. Ethereal Tincture 
OF BiNioDiDE OF Mercury. Prep. Biniodide of 
mercury 16 grs. ; sulphuric ether ^iss ; dissolve. 
Dose. 5 to 12 drops. 

ETHERS, ORGANIC. The preparation of 
some of the organic ethers has been found to be 
attended with considerable difficulty, and hence 
have arisen various contrivances to induce the or- 
ganic acids to combine with the ethereal base. 
Among the methods generally adopted until lately, 
may be mentioned the admixture of a salt of the 
organic acid with alcohol, to which some strong 
inorganic acid is added, when the acid of the salt 
being liberated in the nascent state, it enters into 
a new combination, forming ether. In this way 
acetic and oxalic ethers are commonly prepared. 
Or the organic acid being mixed with alcohol, sul- 
phuric or hydrochloric acid is added, by which an 
oiganic ether is produced. Benzoic ether may be 
taken as an instance of this mode of operating. 
Ethers have also been formed by the simple dis- 
tillation of some of the organic acids with alcohol, 
but this method is usually tedious, and requires the 
repeated return of the products of distillation into 
the retort, as well as considerable time for its per- 
formance, to which several other objections may 
be added. More recently it has been shown that 
when the organic acids are heated nearly to their 
point of decomposition, and alcohol is gradually 
and cautiously dropped on them, ethers of those 
acids are readily formed. In this way many of 
the acids which are wholly or partly volatile — as 
the oxalic, benzoic, and succinic acids, — yield large 
quantities of ether. (Gaultier do Claubry.) This 



method is applicable to most acids that do not suf- 
fer decomposition a a low temperature, but in 
other cases the prod(.2!t would be vitiated and un- 
certain. Thus, citric acid under this treatment 
might yield citric, itaconic, citraconic, or aconitic 
ether, or a mixture of two or more of them, and 
this in a way entirely beyond the power of the 
operator to influence. Another method recom- 
mended, and very suitable to the preparation of 
the ethers of the fatty acids, is — to dissolve the 
organic acid in alcohol, and to pass a current of 
muriatic acid gas through the solution. A still 
simpler plan, and which appears likely to super- 
.sede most others, at least in the majority of cases, 
is to mix equal parts of alcohol and the organic 
acid, with -^th or gth of oil of vitriol, and to 
place it in a flask or digester, fitted with a cork, 
through which passes an upright thin glass tube, 5 
or 6 feet long, and after luting the joint quite se- 
curely, to submit the mixture to gentle ebu'^ition 
in a sand-bath, or over a spirit lamp for several 
hours. In this way the spirituous and ethereal 
vapors are condensed in the cool portions of the 
tube, and fall back again into the matrass, by 
which means no loss of either can possibly occur 
A Liebig's refrigerator reversed may also be used 
for this purpose. (See Ether.) By this method 
some ethers may be readily formed that can 
scarcely be obtained pure in the usual way. Thus 
mucic ether may be obtained by this process, which 
will become perfectly white by crystallization, 
while by Malagutti's method, the product is quite 
black, and is purified with difficulty. One or othei 
of the above plans may be adopted for the prepara- 
tion of those ethers for which formulae are not in- 
serted in this volume. 

ETHERIN. A name applied by some chem- 
ists to a hydrocarbon, assumed to be the base of 
ether. Its atomic constitution, according to this 
hypothesis, is 4 equivalents each of hydrogen and 
carbon. 

ETHERINE. Syn. Camphor of Oil of Wine. 
A peculiar substance obtained by exposing ethe- 
role for a long time to a low temperature. It 
forms brilliant prisms and plates, and is tasteless, 
soluble in alcohol and ether, fuses at 230°, boils at 
500°, and is a little lighter than water. The crys- 
tals are purified by pressure between the folds of 
bibulous paper, solution in ether, and evaporation. 

ETHEROLE. Syn. Light Oil of Wine. A 
hydrocarbon discovered by Hennel. It is pre- 
pared by gently heating ethereal oil with water, se- 
parating the supernatant light oil, and washing this 
with water till it becomes quite neutral, after which 
it is dried by means of chloride of calcium. Ethe- 
role is a colorless oily liquid, lighter than water, 
boiling at 536°, and soluble in absolute alcohol and 
ether. 

ETHIOPS. (See tEthiops.) 

ETHIOPS, MARTIAL. Syn. ^Ethiops Mar- 
tialis. Oxide of iron prepared by keeping iron 
filings under water, and occasionally shaking them. 
It must be washed with water, and dried as quickly 
as possible to prevent its rusting. It was formerly 
much esteemed as a tonic. 

ETHIOP'S MINERAL, (TYSON'S.) Prep. 
Oxide of mercury, (prepared by decomposing calo- 
mel with an equivalent proportion of liquor of po- 
tassa, to which a little liquor of ammonia has been 



EVA 



285 



EXP 



added.) and flowers of sulphur, equal parts. Tri- 
turate together till perfectly mixed. 

Remarks. Mr. Tyson has recommended this as 
an efficient substitute for the old and uncertain 
preparation commonly sold under the name of 
Ethiop's mineral. Mr. Tyson's ethiops is, how- 
ever, of more than double the usual strength, and 
should therefore be taken in proportionate doses. 
(Pharm. Journ.) 

ETHIOPS, VEGETABLE. Syn. Ethiops 
Vegetabius. Pulvis Quercus Marin.e. Blad- 
der wrack (fucus vesiculosus) burned in a close 
vessel till it becomes black and friable. It has 
been used in bronchocele, &c. ; and, like burnt 
sponge, probably owes any little virtue it may 
possess to the presence of a very small quantity 
of iodine. 

EUGENIN. Syn. Stearoptene of Oil of 
Cloves. Thin, white, pearly scales, found by 
Bonastre in oil of cloves. It smells and tastes of 
cloves, and is soluble in alcohol and ether 

EUPHORBIUM, PREPARED. Syn. Eu- 
PHORBiUM PR^PARATUM. Prep. Euphorbium 2 oz. ; 
leii.. /. juice, or vinegar, 1 pint. Dissolve, strain, 
and evaporate to dryness. 

EVAPORATION. Syn. Evaporatio,' {Lat.) 
EvAPORATiOiN^ {Fr.) Abdunsten, Abdampfen, 
^Ger.) The dissipation of a fluid by means of 
heat. In Chemistry and Pharmacy evaporation 
is had recourse to, either for the purpose of recov- 
ering a solid body from its solution, as in the4)re- 
paration of extracts, chemical salts, &,c., or to 
strengthen a solution by the expulsion of some of 
the fluid matter that forms the menstruum. Evap- 
oration is also employed, though less frequently, 
to purify liquids, by dissipating the volatile matters 
which may contaminate them. Under ordinary 
circumstances, evaporation is confined to the sur- 
fa|ie of the heated liquid, and is therefore slower 
or quicker in proportion to the extension of that 
surface. Hence has arisen tte adoption of wide 
Bhallow vessels for containing fluids during their 
exposure to heat for this purpose. 

It has been found that evaporation proceeds 
most rapidly when a current of air is made to pass 
over the surface of the fluid, as, in this case, the 
vapor is prevented resting upon the surface, and 
impeding the process by its pressure. On the 
small scale, shallow capsules of glass, Wedgwood- 
ware, porcelain, or metal, are commonly employed 
as evaporating vessels, and these are exposed to 
heat by placing them over a lamp, or naked fire, 
or in a water-bath, or sand-bath, according to the 
temperature at which it is proper to conduct the 
process. On the large scale, high-pressure steam 
is usually employed 'as the source of the heat. 
The term ^'spontaneous evaporation" is applied 
to the dissipation of a fluid by mere exposure in 
open vessels, at the common tem.perature of the 
atmosphere, and without the application of artifi- 
cial heat. The celerity of this species of evapora- 
tion wholly depends on the degree of humidity of 
the surrounding air, and differs from the former, in 
which the rate of evaporation is proportionate to 
the degree of heat at which the process is con- 
ducted, and the amount of pressure upon the sur- 
face of the liquid. Evaporation in vacuo (as it is 
called) is conducted under the receiver of an air- 
pump, or in an attenuated atmosphere, produced I 



by filling a vessel with steam, by which means the 
air is expelled, when all communication with the 
external atmosphere is cut off*, and the vapor con- 
densed by the application of cold. Fluids are also 
evaporated in air-tight receivers over sulphuric 
acid, by which they are continually exposed to the 
action of a very dry atmosphere. When such a 
receiver is connected with an air-pump in action, 
evaporation proceeds with increased rapidity, and 
intense cold is produced. (See Congelation, Dis- 
tillation, Extracts, &c.) 

EXCORIATION. Stjn. Excoriatio, (from 
excorio, to flay, or to cut off" the skin.) An abra- 
sion. Young children are very apt to be chafed 
under the arms, behind the ears, betAveen the 
thighs, and in the wrinkles -^Jid folds of the skin, 
unless great attention is paio -o cleanliness, and 
wiping the skin perfectly dry after washing. 
Whenever there is a tendency to excoriations of 
this kind, either in adults or children, a little finely 
powdered starch, or violet powder, applied by 
means of a pufF, or a small bag of muslin, once or 
twice a day, will generally remove them, and pre- 
vent their occurrence in future. Mild unguents, 
as cold cream, or spermaceti cerate or ointment, 
may also be used with advantage. The prefer- 
ence should, however, be given to the former 
remedies from their not soiling the linen. Exco- 
riations arising from the removal of the skin by 
friction or external violence, have already been 
noticed under the head Abrasion. 

EXPECTORANTS. (From expectorare, to 
expectorate.) Medicines that promote the secre- 
tion of the tracheal and bronchial mucus. Ac- 
cording to Dr. Good, true expectorants are "those 
medicines which rather promote the separation of 
the viscid phlegm with which the bronchise are 
loaded, than simply inviscate and dilute it ; though 
these are also treated as expectorants by many 
writers." Numerous articles of the materia medica 
have been denominated expectorants, of which the 
following are the principal : — Tartarized antimony, 
ipecacuanha, squills, garlic, asafoetida, ammonia- 
cum, the oily resins, the balsams of tolu and Peru, 
benzoin, styrax, benzoic acid, the fumes of vine- 
gar, tar, and of many of the volatile oils, and the 
smoke of tobacco and stramonium. Chlorine and 
ammoniacal gases have also been called expecto- 
rants. Medicines of this class are commonly era- 
ployed in pulmonary complaints and affections of 
the air-tubes, attended by a vitiated state of the. 
mucus, or an imperfect performance of the natural 
functions of the secretory vessels. *' Of all classes 
of the materia medica, none are more uncertain in 
their action than expectorants." (Pereira.) The 
act of ejecting matter from the chest is called 
expectoration. 

EXPRESSION. Syn. Expressio, (Lat., from 
exprimo, to press out.) A mechanical operation, 
by which any fluid contained in the pores or cells 
of a solid is expelled. Many of the fluid sub- 
stances employed in pharmacy and chemistry are 
obtained by expression. Thus, the unctuous vege- 
table oils, as those of almonds, linseed, &.c. &,c., 
are procured by submitting those substances to 
powerful pressure between iron plates, which are 
either made warm, or the bruised seeds are previ- 
ously exposed in bags to the steam of boiling wa« 
ter. The juices of fresh vegetables are also ob* 



EXT 



286 



EXT 



tained by expression. The substances are first 
bruised in a marble mortar, or, on the large scale, 
in a mill, and immediately submitted to the press, 
to prevent them passing into the state of fermenta- 
tion, which would injure the quality of the product. 
Fruits which contain highly-flavored seeds, or 
which have rinds containing essential oil, should 
be deprived of them before pressing. The subacid 
fruits should also be allowed to lie together for 
some days before being pressed, as the quantity 
and quality of the product are thereby increased. 
The fluid matter absorbed by the ingredients em- 
ployed in the preparation of tinctures, infusions, 
decoctions, extracts, &c., is generally obtained by 
powerful pressure. Expression is also frequently 
employed for the purpose of obtaining solids in a 
state of purity, as in the expulsion of oleine from 
stearine, and water from the bicarbonate of soda. 
On the small scale, the common screw-press, or 
one of like construction, is usually employed ; but 
the power thus obtained is insufficient to expel the 
whole of a fluid diff'used through the pores of a 
solid. Hence has arisen the use of the hydraulic 
press, which is alone employed on the large scale. 
In all these cases, the substances are placed in 
bags made of hair-cloth, or coarse canvass, previ- 
ously to their being submitted to pressure. 

EXSICCATION. Syn. Exsiccatio, {Lat., 
from exsicco, to dry up.) The evaporation of the 
aqueoiis portion of solid bodies. In Chemistry and 
Pharmacy, this term is commonly applied to the 
operation by which plants and chemical prepara- 
tions are deprived of their humidity. This is done 
by exposure to the sun, a current of dry air, an 
atmosphere rendered artificially dry by sulphuric 
acid, or by the direct application of heat by means 
of a water-bath, a sand-bath, or a common fire. 

EXTRACTS. Syn. Extraits, (Fr.) Ex- 
TRACTEN, (Gei:) ExTRACTA, {Lat., ivom extrako, 
to draw out.) In Chemistry, the residuum from 
the evaporation of aqueous decoctions, or infusions 
of vegetable matter. In Pharmacy, preparations 
obtained by evaporating the expressed juices, or 
the decoctions, infusions, or tinctures, of vegeta- 
ble substances, until a mass, of a solid or semi- 
solid consistence, is formed. Extracts vary in 
their nature and composition with the substances 
from which they are prepared, and the fluids em- 
ployed as solvents. When water is used for ma- 
king the solution, the extract will usually consist 
of gum, starch, sugar, albumen, and saline and 
other matter, along with a peculiar vegetable prin- 
ciple, which, from its occurrence in most plants, 
has received the name of extractive. This sub- 
stance was discovered by Fourcroy, and presumed 
by him to be the common basis of all extracts ; 
but it has since been proved by Chevrenl, and sev- 
eral other chemists, to be a heterogeneous com- 
pound, varying in composition with the plant from 
which it is extracted. This substance has a brown 
color, speedily putrefies, and becomes oxidized, 
and is rendered insoluble by long exposure to air, 
and by repeated solutions and evaporations. In its 
unaltered state it is soluble in \'ater, and in alco- 
hol, and is precipitated i'rom it» solutions by the 
acids and metallic oxides. With alumina it forms 
the basis of several brown dyes. In the propiira- 
tion of the greater number of extracts, water is 
employed as the menstruum, and these prepara- 



tions are called, by way of distinction, " watery 
extracts." When spirit is employed as the solv- 
ent, the extract may contain most of the sub- 
stances above enumerated, except gum, which is 
insoluble in strong spirit. Besides these, spirit dis- 
solves out many substances which are either whol- 
ly or nearly insoluble in water^ as resins, essential 
oils, and the proximate principles of vegetables. 
Extracts prepared with alcohol, either alone, or 
diluted with water, are termed " spirituous ex- 
tracts," and, with scarcely an exception, are con- 
siderably more powerful than the aqueous extracts 
of the same vegetables. In some cases, dilute acid, 
(the acetic.) or acidulated water, is employed as 
the menstruum, and such preparations are hence 
called " acetic extracts." The extracts of aco- 
nite, hemlock, henbane, stramonium, and colchi- 
cum, as well as of all other plants containing alka- 
loids, possess greater activity when prepared with 
vinegar than with water. Thus, a quantity of 
either the alcoholic or acetic extract of colchicum, 
equal to the common dose of the aqueous extract, 
would most probably produce death. Still more 
active extracts rnay be obtained by a combination 
of the last two menstrua. According to Ferrari, 
plants treated with rectified spirit of wine, mixed 
with one-thirty-sixth part of pyroligneous (acetic) 
acid, yield extracts of remarkable activity. (Prov 
Med. Jour., 1843.) To the preceding may be 
added, that the term simple extract is applied to 
one prepared from a single plant, or vegetable 
substance, and the term compound extract to one 
prepared from two or 7nore of such substances. 

The above are the principal varieties of extracts 
employed in British Pharmacy, all of which are 
classed under the general head Extracta, (ex- 
tracts,) in the London Pharmacopoeia ; but on the 
Continent, ether is sometimes used as the men- 
struum for the active principles of certain subs^n- 
ces, as cantharides, cubebs, sem. cinse, &c. 

Of all the- foreign Pharmacopceias, that of Ba- 
den is most prolific of extracts ; its pages contain 
directions for 58 or 60 of these preparations, of 
which the following is a brief notice : — 

I. Watery Extracts, a. (By displacewnt 
with cold water.) Ext. absinthii ; cardui ber.e- 
dicti ; centaurii min. ; chamomillae ; chinse fu^cse, 
(cinchonse ;) chinas regise ; dulcamarae ; fuma.ias; 
gentianae ; glycyrrhizae ; graminis ord., (liqulJ and 
solid ;) ligni campech. ; marrubii alb. ; mil.'efolii ; 
rhataniae ; rad. saponar ; taraxaci, (ordinary and 
fluid ;) tormentillas ; trifolii fibr. 

/?. (By the ordinary method of maceration.) 
Ext. aloes ; myrrhae ; opii ; scillae, Valerianae ; chi- 
nae fuscae, 

II. Spirituous Extracts, a. (Prepared with 
spirit of sp. gr. 0*944, by 24 horns' maceration, 
or by the method, of displacement.) Ext. cort. 
aurantii ; angelicis ; rad. arnicoe ; calami ; calen- 
dulas, (marygold ;) cascarillae ; calumbae ; colo- 
cynth. ; inulae ; hellebori nigri ; levistici, (Lovage ;) 
quassiae ; rhaei. 

p. (Prepared, in a similar way to thu last with 
spirit of sp. gr. 0-841.) Ext. aconiti : belladon- 
iKE ; chelidonii maj., (great cehvidine conii mac. ; 
digitalis; gratiolae, (hedge hyssop:) hyoscyami ; 
lactncae virosoa ; pulsatilli«, (Pasque fli.wer ;) herb, 
taxi baccatae, (yew ;) rad. artemitme , nucis vom« 
icoB. 



EXT 



287 



EXT 



III. Ethereal Extracts, Cubfebs ; sem. cinse ; 
and the roots of male-fern ; prepared as the last. 

IV. Compound Extracts. Ext. ferri pom. ; ext. 
rhsei co. 

To the above may be added fel. tauri inspiss. 

Though many of the above extracts may be su- 
perfluous, yet the directions for their preparation 
are doubtless very judicious, and it would promote 
in no small degree the success of the medical prac- 
titioner, if a like exactness pervaded the instruc- 
tions of the London Pharmacopceia, and equal care 
and skill obtained in the pharmaceutical laboratory 
in England to that which is general in France and 
Germany. 

Prep. The preparation of medicinal extracts 
may be conveniently considered under two divi- 
sions, viz. : the production of a solution of the 
soluble portion of the substances operated on, and 
the reduction of this solution by evaporation to the 
consistence of an extract. 

When water is employed as the menstruum, the 
vegetable matter subjected to its action should be 
well bruised or reduced to coarse powder, or other- 
wise divided by slicing with a knife, that every 
portion may be fully exposed to the solvent powers 
of the fluid. The ingredients should then be treat- 
ed with water until all the soluble matter that it 
is desired to obtain is dissolved out. There are 
several methods of effecting this object, depending 
upon the nature of the vegetable substance acted 
on. In some cases, maceration in cold water-is 
resorted to ; — at other times, percolation with tiiat 
fluid in a displacement apparatus ; but more gen- 
erally, boiling water is poured on the substance, or 
it is boiled along with water, as in the preparation 
of infusions and decoctions. After the ebullition 
or infusion has continued a sufficient time, the 
heat is removed, and the- liquid portion drawn off. 
The ingredients are then pressed to extract the 
remaining liquid, or, they are washed with hot 
water, which expels it by displacement. In the 
majority of cases, however, a second quantity of 
water is poured on after the firot has been thorough- 
ly drained off, and the infusion or decoction is re- 
peated a second and a third time, or until the in- 
gredients are perfectly exhausted of their soluble 
portion. The several liquors, bemg allowed to re- 
pose for 15 or 20 minutes, for the purpose of de- 
positing the sand or other gritty and heavy matter 
that is mechanically mixed with them, are then 
carefully decanted from the sediment, and, after 
being run through a fine sieve, or flannel bag, are 
ready for concentration. 

The reduction of the solution to the proper con- 
sistence is effected by evaporation ; but the mode 
in which this is performed varies for different ex- 
tracts. The London College directs that, " unless 
otherwise ordered, the evaporation should be con- 
ducted as quickly as possible, in a broad shallow 
pan, placed in a water-bath, until a proper con- 
sistence is acquired for forming pills ; stirring as- 
siduously with a spatula towards the end of the 
operation." Though the water-bath has the sanc- 
[ tion of the British colleges, it is doubtful whether 
it will be well adapted for ordinary purposes, as, 
from its low evaporative .power, the advantages 
which are derived from its equable temperature, 
ftre vastly overbalanced by the lengthened expo- 
I sure of the solution in a heated state to the action 



of the atmosphere. It is doubtful whether a •vege- 
table solution so prepared is not inferior in quality 
to a similar one, evaporated in a shallow pan ov«r 
a naked fire, or placed in a sand-bath, provided 
proper care be taken, and assiduous stirring be 
adopted during the whole time of the exposure ta 
heat. In practice, however, the use of a naked 
fire is perfectly inadmissible, as the least neglect 
on the part of the operator would probably lead to 
the incineration of the whole ; but the water-bath 
may readily be rendered available by the addition 
of one-fifth part of salt, which will raise its boiling 
point to 218|° Fahr., and the temperature of the 
contained extract to 212° ; the remaining 6|° be- 
ing lost by the interposition of the substance of the 
evaporating vessel. 

**)n the large scale the evaporation of extracts 
is u&vially conducted in very wide, shallow copper 
or tinned-copper pans, having steam-tight jackets 
of cast iron, and heated by allowing steam to play 
between the two. In this way a^s^ery high evapo- 
rative power is obtained, and a degree of heat 
which may be regulated at the will of the operator, 
and which will at no time much exceed the temper- 
ature of boiling water. 

The rapid deterioration wiiich vegetable juices 
and solutions undergo by exposure to the air, 
especially at high temperatures, has led to the in- 
troduction of apparatus, by which they may be 
concentrated without contact with the atmosphere, 
and at a less degree of heat than is required for 
that purpose in open vessels. Such is the method, 
commonly called Barry's process, in which the 
air is removed from certain air-tight refrigerators 
by the introduction of steam, which is then con- 
densed by the application of cold, by which means 
a partial vacuum is obtained. Another process 
for attenuating the atmosphere over the surface of 
fluids during evaporation, is by the action of an air- 
pump. This plan was introduced by Howard, 
and is commonly applied to the concentration of 
sir.ups in our sugar refineries. Extracts obtained 
by either of these methods are said to be prepared 
" in vacuo," and are found in practice to be im- 
mensely superior to the common extracts of the 
shops, and consequently require to be exhibited in 
proportionably small doses. 

When water, acidulated with acetic acid, is 
employed in the preparation of extracts, the vege- 
table substances are usually macerated in it, in 
the cold, or the dilute acid is sprinkled over the 
bruised plant in the fresh or recent state, and the 
whole is then submitted to strong pressure, to ex- 
pel the juice, which is strained and evaporated in 
the usual way, but preferably in a tin or plated- 
copper pan. 

Spirituous extracts are prepared by evapora- 
ting a concentrated tincture of the "vegetable sub- 
stance in any suitable vessel, by which the volatil- 
ized spirit may be saved. Ethereal extracts are 
obtained in a similar manner ; but being merely 
prepared in small quantities at a time, the process 
may be conveniently performed in glass vessels. 
When it is required to boil either of the above fluids, 
or any other volatile liquid on the ingredients, a 
vessel fitted with a long tube, or a Liebig's refri- 
gerator reversed, may be used to prevent any loss 
of the menstruum. (See Ether and Ethers, oa- 

GANIO.) 



EXT 



288 



EXT 



The inspissated vegetable juices are classed with 
extracts by the London College, and are ordered 
to be prepared by evaporating the expressed juice 
without filtration in a water-bath ; but in this way 
a considerable portion of their activity is lost. Some 
of these juices, as that of aconite, are impaired in 
so short a time as scarcely to compensate for the 
trouble of preparing them. This deterioration does 
not, however, take place in any remarkable degree, 
if the expressed juice from the recent vegetable be 
evaporated by exposing it in a thin stratum to a 
current of very dry air, as adopted by Mr. Squire. 
This may be managed by putting the juice into 
small flat trays or dishes, placed on shelves in a 
suitably arranged apparatus, alternated with simi- 
lar vessels of concentrated sulphuric acid, and by 
causing a current of dry air, at the common tem- 
perature of the atmosphere, to pass over them, by 
which means the moisture continually exhaling 
from the one will be absorbed by the other. Prac- 
tical experiment^ have fully demonstrated the 
superiority of this method of inspissating vegetable 
juices over every other plan at present in use ; 
" for it was shown that 10 grains of extract, thus 
prepared, were more than equal to 20 grains pre- 
pared in vacuo ; and to more than 60 grs. of that 
prepared by the common process of boiling down 
the juice to an extract." 

The Dublin College directs that all simple ex- 
tracts, (extracta simpliciora,) unless otherwise or- 
dered, are to be prepared by boiling the vegetable 
matter in 8 times its weight of water till the liquid 
is reduced to one half ; the liquor is then to be 
expressed, and after a short time allowed for defe- 
cation, to be decanted, filtered, and evaporated in 
a water-bath, until it begins to thicken, and then 
finally inspissated by a reduced heat, continually 
stirring until a consistence for forming pills be at- 
tained. 

I have already mentioned that it is proper to al- 
low the infusion or decoction to purify itself by 
defecation, and to pass it through a flannel or 
horse-hair strainer previously to concentration. 
This may be regarded as a general rule for all 
ordinary extracts. But in some cases, this method 
will be found insufficient to render the liquid clear. 
Such solutions may be rendered transparent by 
clarification with a little white of egg, skimming 
off" the scum as it rises, and straining through flan- 
nel in the common way ; or they may be filtered 
through a bag made of very fine Welsh flannel, 
or of twilled cotton cloth, both of which should be 
soaked in clean water for at least an hour before 
use. In the small way, filters of linen or paper are 
sometimes employed ; but as all media sufficient- 
ly fine to render vegetable solutions transparent 
soon choke up, such filters are objectionable, from 
the length of time the liquid has to be exposed to 
the air when they are employed. In this respect, 
the method of clarifying first mentioned is vastly 
preferable, and is inexpensive, expeditious, and 
easy of performance, and hence has been adopt- 
ed by many large manufacturers. In some 
houses, the aqueous infusion or decoction is allowed 
to repose for 24 hours, and then decanted and 
evaporated ; but such a plan is objectionable ; as, 
however smooth and glossy extracts so prepared 
may appear, their medicinal virtues are lessened 
by the lengthened exposure to the atmosphere. 



Spirituous tinctures should be filtered through 
paper, and acetic solutions through linen, or paper 
supported on linen. Ethereal tinctures are pref- 
erably clarified by repose and decantation, as th« 
volatility of ether precludes its filtration, except in 
close vessels. 

When about one half of an aqueous solution haa 
evaporated, it is often advantageous to repass it 
through a flannel or horse-hair strainer, to remove 
the flocculi that generally form by the action of 
the heat and air. This is especially necessary 
with vegetable solutions prepared without boiling, 
and should be adopted whenever a smooth and 
sightly extract is desired. 

The directions previously given for " finishing 
off"" extracts should be scrupulously attended to. 
Towards the end of the process, the heat should 
be lessened, and as soon as the extract acquires 
the consistence of thick treacle, it should be re- 
moved altogether, and the remainder of fluid mat- 
ter evaporated by the heat retained by the copper 
pan, the process being promoted by assiduous and 
laborious stirring with a suitabl)- -shaped wooden 
spatula ; and this stirring should be continued until 
a proper consistence is attained and the extract is 
nearly cold. It must be carefully observed not to 
commence the stirring until the heat (steam) has 
been withdrawn, as, if an extract having a temper- 
ature of about the boiling point of water, or even 
a few degrees below it, be agitated, it becomes full 
of bubbles, and appears rough and pufFy, and this 
appearance cannot be removed by subsequent stir- 
ring, or by any method but re-solution in water 
and re-evaporation. This is especially the case 
with the extracts of sarsaparilla, (simple and com- 
pound,) gentian, liquorice, and most others of a 
similar class. A good workman knows from expe- 
rience the proper time for the removal of the heat, 
but unpractised persons often fail in this particular. 
In such cases, should the heat retained by the 
evaporating pan, and by the extract, prove insuffi- 
cient to complete the process, a little more may 
be cautiously applied. Without assiduous and 
laborious stirring in the way described, a very 
smooth and glossy extract cannot be produced. 
To promote this artificial appearance, some per- 
sons add 3 or 4 per cent, each of olive oil and gum 
arable, dissolved in water, with about 1 or 2 per 
cent, of spirit of wine. 

In conclusion, it may be observed, that the great 
desiderata to be aimed at in the preparation of ex- 
tracts are, to suit the menstrua and the methods 
of manipulating to the peculiar characteristics 
of the active constituents of the vegetable sub- 
stances operated on. The pharmaceutist should 
always bear in mind that a perfect extract should 
be " a concentrated, solid mass, exactly repre- 
senting in mediciiial efficacy the materials from 
which it has been prepared, and capable of being 
redissolved, so as to form a solution exactly 
similar to that whence it has been derived." 
(G. M. Mowbray.) An extract possessing equal 
strength to the whole mass of the ingredients from 
whicli it has been prepared, is almost next to an 
impossibility, however desirable such a degree of 
perfection may be. The operator may deem him- 
self fortunate, if, after the exercise of the utmost 
skill and judgment, and accuracy o\' manipulation, 
he obtain a product only approximating to the ideak' 



EXT 

s 



289 



EXT 



picture of a perfect extract above quoted. It is a 
fact that is proved by practical experience, and is 
readily accounted for by chemical science, that 
the medicinal properties of all solutions of vegeta- 
ble matter are injured by being reduced to the 
solid state ; and this deterioration, more or less, 
takes place, whether the solvent be water, proof 
spirit, or alcohol. Thus the volatile portions, the 
essential oils, the aroma, &c., are nearly or wholly 
dissipated, and though these do not always form 
the principal or active ingredients of the vegetables 
from which extracts are prepared, yet it cannot 
be denied that they generally exercise a modify- 
ing and controlling influence over the other ingre- 
dients, which considerably alters their therapeuti- 
cal action. That the essential oils which mostly 
constitute the fragrant portion of vegetables are 
devoid of efficacy, it would be the height of folly 
to assert ; examples to the contrary may be in- 
stanced in the oils of cloves and chamomile. The 
power of small doses of the former to lessen or 
prevent the griping properties of some acrid cathar- 
tics, and of the latter as a stomachic, are instances 
familiar to every one who has tried them. Yet in 
extractum anthemidis, no odor of chamomiles can 
be perceived, or, at least, if such exists, it is pro- 
duced by the addition of the essential oil after the 
solution has been evaporated. But this is a mere 
trifling deficiency, compared to that in the extracta 
aconiti, hyoscyami, belladonnse, conii, &c., pre- 
pared according to the pharmacopoeial process. 
In these cases, it is well known that the inert prep- 
arations are wholly deficient of the odor of the 
recent plant, and that in proportion as the odor is 
developed so is their activity preserved. Compare 
the powerful smell of the recently expressed juice 
of hemlock with the scarcely perceptible odor of 
the extractum conii, P. L. Yet the dose of the 
one often reaches 20 or 30 grs., while that of the 
other seldom exceeds 5 or 10 drops, or a portion 
equivalent in dry ingredients to considerably less 
than i a grain. 

Though I have mentioned some processes as 
preferable to others, and have noticed the inferi- 
ority of some of the officinal extracts, yet it is 
proper to observe that when extracts are ordered 
in prescriptions, those of the London Pharmaco- 
poeia should be alone employed by the dispenser, 
as the substitution of others would not only be vio- 
lating faith with the prescriber, but might produce 
consequences alike injurious to the dispenser and 
the patient. Many medical gentlemen prefer ex- 
tracts prepared by particular processes or persons, 
but such is always indicated in their prescriptions. 
A serious accident of this sort lately came under 
my notice. A druggist had prepared a number of 
prescriptions from an extract which he had pur- 
chased of a wholesale drug house, and which was 
labelled P. L., but was in reality almost inert, and 
in consequence of the presumed insensibility of the 
patient to its narcotic action, the medical practi- 
tioner had gradually increased the quantity to an 
enormous extent. In the mean time, the druggist's 
small stock of extract was exhausted, and another 
pot purcha::ed of the same parties, which was of 
an average quality : in came the receipt as usual ; 
but this time it was prepared from the new extract. 
I need scarcely mention the consequences: — loss 
•f speech, coma, delirium, and death ensued. 
37 



Pres. Extracts should be put into pots as soon 
as taken from the pan, and, after being securely 
tied over with bladder, should be placed in a dry 
situation. The London College orders '• a small 
quantity of rectified spirit to be sprinkled upon all 
the softer extracts, to prevent them becoming 
mouldy." A better way is, however, to employ a 
little spirit, holding in solution a few drops of ol of 
cloves, or a still less quantity of creosote. This 
should be added to them the last thing before re- 
moving them from the evaporating pan, and when 
they are nearly cold. Hard extracts should be 
kept in bladders or gut skins, placed in stone pots, 
and well covered over. With care, extracts pre- 
pared from recent vegetable substances may be 
preser\'ed twelve months, or from season to season ; 
i and those from dry ingredients, or such as are 'eas 
inclined to spoil, for perhaps double that time ; but 
beyond these periods their virtues cannot be relied 
on, and they should consequently be discarded, if 
remaining unused or unsold. 

Qual, pur., ^-c. The quality of an extract can 
not be ascertained by mere inspection, nor can it 
be readily discovered by chemical tests. A know- 
ledge of these facts has induced the mercenary 
and fraudulent manufacturer to employ damaged 
and inferior drugs in their preparation, regardless 
of their slight medicinal virtues and the welfare of 
the patient. The production of a smooth, bright, 
and glossy article is all that is usually attempted 
by these individuals, and all that is sought after by 
the mass of purchasers, who mistake the mere ex- 
ternal appearances of good quality for its actual 
existence. But it is a fact, which I can verify 
from extensive experience in the laboratory, and 
from years of observation on this point, that the 
mass of extracts, faithfully prepared from good 
materials, do not possess such a sightly and pleas- 
ing appearance as those commonly vended by the 
wholesale druggists. I have with great care, for 
some years, compared the extracts prepared by 
different metropolitan houses, and, without being 
desirous of making any remarks hurtful to the 
feelings, or injurious to the interests of any individ- 
ual in particular, I feel bound to state, that those 
extracts that have come under my notice, and 
which exhibited a remarkably bright and glossy 
appearance, I have found to be uniformly inferior, 
and sometimes nearly inert, while those that ap- 
peared less prepossessing were generally of good 
quality. This is also well established by reference 
to the extracts of those houses and institutions that 
are remarkable for the superior quality of their 
preparations, and by comparing them with the 
common extracts of the shops supplied by the 
wholesale trade. Without naming any private 
individual or establishment in particular, I will 
only instance the extracts last mentioned, and 
those of Apothecaries' Hall. 

It is a common practice with some manufac- 
turers, not only to pick out the least expensive va- 
riety of every drug for the preparation of their 
extracts, but the most inferior, and often damaged 
and worthless portion of this already inferior arti- 
cle. I have seen rubbish employed for this pur- 
pose that an honest man would not pick off a 
dunghill; and yet, because the worthless product 
obtained from this stuff has been " finished off" in 
such a manner as to exhibit a smooth and glossy 



EXT 



290 



EXT 



appearance, it has been sold at a good price, and 
been deemed of superior quality by the purchaser. 

A good extract should be free from grit, and 
wholly soluble in 20 parts of the menstruum em- 
ployed in its preparation, forming a nearly clear 
solution ; it should have a luiiform texture and 
color, and be of a proper consistence. The ex- 
tracts prepared from the expressed juices of plants, 
without straining off the coagulated albumen, are 
of course exceptions to the second particular. 

The best mode of ascertaining the medicinal 
value of extracts is to assay them for the proxi- 
mate vegetable principles contained in the plants 
from which they have been prepared, or, where 
this is impossible, they may be exhibited in proper 
doses, and the effects carefully watched. Unfor- 
^nately, however, these tests are not easily per- 
formed, and are inapplicable to those extracts that 
exercise no very marked physiological action, un- 
less when taken in repeated doses, and long con- 
tinued. This want of a ready means of accurately 
testing the qualities of extracts, has enabled the 
fraudulent manufacturer to sell inferior articles 
with impunity, and without even the fear of de- 
tection. 

Prop, and Uses. The extracts of the shops are 
generally acknowledged to be the most varying, 
imperfect, and uncertain class of medicines con- 
tained in the pharmacopoeia. They are mostly 
used in the same cases as the plants from which 
they are prepared, but in smaller doses. 

EXTRACT, BLACK. Syn. Ext. Nigrum. 
Extract of cocculus indicus. It is used by fraudu- 
lent brewers to impart an intoxicating property to 

EXTRACT OF ACONITE. Syn. Ext. of 
Monkshood. Do. of Wolfsbane. Extrait d'- 
AcoNiT, (Fr.) Eisenhutlein-extrakt, (Ger.) 
Estkatto di Aconito, (Ital.) 

R ■-'.ark. The extract of the root is said to be 
12 times as strong as that of the leaves. 

EXTRACT OF ALOES. Syn. Purified 
Aloes. Aloes Lota. Gummi Aloes. Extract- 
UM Aloes, (P. L. 1809.) Ext. Aloes purifica- 
TUM, (P. L. 1824, and since.) Ext. Aloes He- 
patic^, (P. D.) Extrait d' Aloes, (Fr.) Aloe- 
EXTRAKT, (Ger.) EsTRATTO d'Aloe, {Ital.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Hepatic aloes, in powder, ^xv ; boiling 
water 1 gallon ; macerate for 3 days in a gentle 
heat, strain, defecate, decant the clear, and evap- 
orate. 

Remarks. The object of this process is to de- 
prive the aloes of resin, on which its acrid and 
griping qualities have been erroneously supposed 
to depend. When made with the juice, it formed 
the old Aloes Depurata, and with the juice of 
borage, bngloss, &,c., the old Aloe Insuccata. 
Dose. 5 to 15 grs., in the same cases as powdered 
aloes. 

EXTRACT OF ANEMONE. Syn. Ext. 
Anemonis Prate.nsis. Prep. The undcpurated 
expressed juice of the anemone pratensis, evapo- 
rated to a proper consistence. It is said to be 
resolvent, and has been given in some chronic dis- 
eases, especially amaurosis, cataract, opacity of 
the cornea, 'nocturnal pains, suppressions, &c. 
CStoerck.) 

EXTRACT OF BARDANA. Syn. Ext. of 
Burdock. Ext. BARDAiN^E. Prep. (P. Cod.) Grind 



the root moderately fine with half its weight of dis 
tilled water, macerate for 12 hours, then put it 
into a percolator, and pass temperate water through 
it until exhausted ; filter, and evaporate in a wa- 
ter-bath 

EXTRACT OF BARK. Syn. Ext. of Cm- 
CHONA Bark. Extrai-^ de Quinquina, {Fr.) Es- 
tratto di China, {Ital.) China-extrakt, {Ger.) 
Prep. I. {Ext. Cinchonce, P E. Ext. Corticis 
Peruviana. Ext. Cinchojia Resinosum. Ext 
Corticis CinckoncB cum Resina.) Any variety 
of cinchona bark, reduced to fine powder, §iv 
proof spirit f ^xxiv ; percolate, distil off most of tha 
spirit from the tincture, and then evaporate in a 
water-bath to a proper consistence. (P. E.) 

Remarks. The ext. cinchonae (P. D.) is an 
aqueous extract of lance-leaved cinchona bark. 
The above extract is kept in two forms ; one hard 
and dry for powdering ; the other of a pillular con- 
sistence. The one is called Extractum Cin- 
chona MOLLE ; the other Ext. Cinchona durum. 
The ext. cinchoncB cum resina, (F. I- 1788,) and 
the resinous extract of bark of the shops, are pre- 
pared in the same way as extract of cascarilla. 

II. {Extract of lance-leaved cinchona bark ; 
ext. of pale do. ; ext. corticis Peruviani, P. L. 
1745, 1788. Ext. cinchoncp., P. L. 1809, 1824. 
Ext. cinchontB lancifoli(B,Y. J-i. 1836.) Prep. Pale 
bark, bruised, ^xv ; water 4 gallons ; boil with 1 
gallon of water till reduced to 6 pints, and strain 
while warm ; repeat the same process witn each 
remaining gallon of the water, and finally evapo- 
rate the mixed solutions. 

III. {Extract of yellow cinchona bark. Ext, 
of heart-leaved do. Extractum cinchoncB cordi- 
folicB, P. L.) Prep. The same as the last. Nei- 
ther this extract nor the following is kept in tho 
shops ; and, as far as my knowledge extends, is 
never employed or asked for. 

IV. {Extract of red cinchona hark. Ext. of 
oblong -lea.ved do. Ext. cinchoncB oblongifolicB, 
P. L.) Prep. The same as the last. 

V. {Essential salt of bark. Extractum cincho- 
ncB per aquam frigidam.) Prep. (P. Cod.) Ex- 
haust the bruised bark by maceration in successive 
portions of cold water, evaporate the mixed infu- 
sions to the consistence of a soft extract, spread it 
thinly on earthen or porcelain dishes, dry by a 
gentle heat, and chip off the extract. 

Remarks. The aqueous extracts of cinchona 
bark possess little medicinal virtue, and this prin- 
cipally arises from the insolubility of the alkaloids, 
(quinine, cinchonine,) or their most valuable por- 
tion, in water, and also from the rapid oxidation of 
their extractive matter, when exposed in solution 
to the joint action of heat and atmospheric oxygen. 
The spirituous extract of the P. E. is less objec- 
tionable. 

Dose. 5 grs. to 3ss, dissolved in water, faintly 
acidulated with sulphuric acid. Cinchona bark 
yields about 25g of aqueous extract. 

EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA. Syn. Ext. 
OF Deadly Nightshade. Ext. Belladonna, (P. 
L. and E.) Succus Spissatus Belladonna, (P. D.) 
Extrait de Belladonne, {Fr.) Belladonna- 
extrakt, {Ger.) Estratto di l'Erka di Bella- 
donna, {Ital.) Prep. I. (P. L. and D.) As ex- 
tract of aconite. 

II. (P. E.) Bruise the plant in a marble mor- 



EXT 



291 



EXT 



tar, express the juice, sprinkle the rosidmim with 
water, and again press, mix the two Hquids, filter, 
and evaporate in a water-bath. 

Remarks. This extract is an aero-narcotic 
Dose, i gr. to 5 grs. It is principally employed 
to allay pain and nervous irritation iu neuralgia, 
tic-douloureux, «fcc. ; as an antispasmodic to re- 
lieve rigidity and spasms wf the muscular fibre in 
various afitctions of the uterus, rectum, urethra, 
bladder, &-c., and in hooping-cough ; in various 
maladies of the eyes ; and as a resolvent and di's- 
cutient in several glandular diseases. It has been 
recommended by some German physicians as a 
preservative against scarlet fever. It is most fre- 
quently employed externally, under the form of a 
plaster, ointment, or lotion. It is poisonous. Fresh 
belladonna yields about 5§ of extract. (Brande. 
h Gray.) 

EXTRACT OF BISTORT. Syn. Ext. Bis- 
TORTJE. (P. Cod.) Prep. As extract of bardana. 
It is astringent and tonic. 

EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE. 
Syn. Ext. Hellebori Nigri, (P. L. 17SS.) Ext. 
Radicum Helleb. Nig. Prep. Macerate the 
bruised root in 10 parts of boiling water for 24 
hours, express the liquid, strain, and evaporate. 

Remarks. When prepared by coction with wa- 
ter till exhausted of soluble matter, black hellebore 
root yields about 40§ of extract. It is alterative, 
cathartic, and resolvent. Dose. 2 to 20 grs. 

EXTRACT OF BITTER-SWEET. Syn. 
Ext. of Woody Nightshade. Ext. Dulcamara. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) As the last. It is diuretic, dia- 
phoretic, and narcotic. 

EXTRACT OF BROOM TOPS. Syn. Ext. 
Cacuminum Genist^e. Ext. Spartii Scoparii, 
(P. D.) Boil the tops of broom in 8 times their* 
weight of water, till reduced to one half, express 
the liquid, strain, and evaporate. Dose. ^ a dr. to 
1 dr., as a diuretic in dropsy. Seldom used. 

EXTRACT OF CALAMUS. Syn. Ext. of 
CoMMox Sweet Flag. Ext. Acori. Ext. Cal- 
ami Aromatici. From the Rhizomes of the acorus 

EXTRACT OF CALUMBA. Syn. Ext. Ra- 
Dicis CalumbjE. Prep. From calumba root, in the 
same way as extract of dandelion. Bitter, tonic, 
stomacliic. 

EXTRACT OF CANTHARIDIS. Syn. Ext. 
OF Spanish Flies. Ext. Cantharidis. Ext. 
LvTTiE. Prep. (P. Cod.) Evaporate a tincture 
made with proof spirit. 

EXTRACT OF CASCARILLA. Syn. Ext. 
CAscARiLLiE. ExT. CoRTicis Cascarill^. Prep. 
(P. L. 1788.) Cascarilla lb. iiss ; rectified spirit of 
wine 1 gallon ; macerate for 4 days, and express 
the liquid ; boil the residue in water 2 gallons, and 
strain. Distil off the spirit from the tincture till the 
latter accfuires the consistence of honey, then mix 
it with the decoction, also brought to the same con- 
sistence by evaporation, and continue stirring until 
the whole is reduced to a proper consistence. 

Remarks. This extract is tonic and stomachic. 
Dose. 5 to 15 grs., or more, 2 or 3 times a day. 
28 lbs. of bark yield 5^ lbs. of extract. 

EXTRACT OF CATECHU. Prepared from 
the wood of the mimosa, or acacia catechu. It is 
W^holly imported, and is commonly known as Japan 
earth, terra Japonica, &c. It is astringent and 



tonic. Dose. 5 grs. to 3ss, or more. It is mostly 
used iu dyeing and tanning. 

EXTRACT OF CHAMOMILES. Syn. Ext 
Florum Cham^meli. Ext. CiiAMiEMELi, (P. D.) 
ExT, Anthemidis, (P. E.) Ext. Anthe.midis Mo- 
BiLis. ExTRAiT DE Camomille Romaine, {Fr.) 
Kamillen-extrakt, (Ger.) Est-iatto di fiori 
Di Camomillo, {Ital.) Prep. P'rom the flowers, 
as extract of dandelion. Bitter, tonic, and sto- 
machic. Dose. 10 to 20 grs. 

Remarks. This extract contains all the bitter 
portion of the chamomile, but none of the aromat- 
ic volatile oil ; the latter being dissipated during 
the evaporation. It is usually prepared from flow- 
ers that have lost their smell from age, and, are 
thus rendered unsaleable. The extract of chamo- 
mile that has been lately offered for sale by some 
houses, and which smells strongly of the jlowers, 
is prepared by adding 1 drachm of the essential oil 
to every pound of extract, when nearly cold, and 
just before removing it from the evaporation pan. 
The mass of this extract met with in the shops is 
nothing but extract of gentian flavored with oil 
of chamomile. 1 cwt. of chamomiles yields about 
48 lbs. of extract. 

EXTRACT OF COCCULUS. Syn. Hard 
Multum. Black Extract. Ext. Cocculi I.\- 
Dici. Prep. By decoction with water. It is nar- 
cotic and poisonous. Employed by fraudulent 
brewers to give a false strength to their liquor. 

EXTRACT OF COLClilCUxM. Syn. Ext. 

OF THE CoilMS OF CoLCHICUM. ExT. OF MeaDOW 

Saffron. Ext. Colchici. Ext. Colchici Cormi, 
(P. L.) Prep. As extract of acoiiUe, P. L. (See 
page 24.) It is given in the usual cases in which 
colchicum is employed. Dose. 1 to 4 grs. every 
third or fourth hour. (Thomson.) " This is a fa- 
vorite remedy of Dr. Hue of St. Bartholomew's 
Hospital, in the early stages of acute rheumatism. 
The dose is 1 gr. every four hours." (Pereira.) 

EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM, (ACETIC.) 
Syn. Acetic Ext. of Colchicum. Do. of Mea- 
dow Saffron. Ext. Colchici Aceticum, (P. L.) 
Prep. Fresh colchicum (cormi) lb. j ; acetic acid 
f §iij ; bruise the corms, sprinkle on the acid, ex- 
press the juice, and evaporate in a Wedgewood- 
ware or salt-glazed earthen vessel. Dose. 1 to 3 
grs. two or three times a day. It is stronger than 
the common extract. 

Remarks. The above extracts are generally 
prepared from the dried corms, and hence the va- 
rying activity and inferior quality of those com- 
monly met with. The simple extract is made by 
decoction with water and evaporation ; but the 
product rapidly gets dry and crumbly, and will 
scarcely keep a week in warm weather without 
becoming mouldy, unless spirit be added. It has 
not above ^ of the activity of the ext. colchici, 
P. L. The following form is employed by several 
wholesale houses, and, I believe, a similar one is 
adopted by the majority of persons to the exclu- 
sion of that of the college : — colchicum (cormi, 
dried) 14 lbs. ; pyroligneous acid (acetic) 6 pints ; 
distilled water 5^ gallons; digest 14 days, filter, 
and evaporate. Product. 2^ to 3 lbs. Inferior to 
the ext. colchici aceticum, P. L. The same quan- 
tity of colchicum treated with water, by decoction, 
yields more than half its weight of simi)le extract, 
which is considerably more than that procurtJ by 



EXT 



292 



EXT 



the process of the college ; hence its adoption by 
the druggists. 

EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH. Syn. Ext. 
OF Bitter Apples. Ext. Colocynthidis Molle. 
Ext. Colocynthidis, (P. L., E., & D.) Prep. Co- 
locynth pulp, sliced, lb. j ; water 2 gallons ; boil for 6 
hours, adding more water as it wastes, strain and 
evaporate. 

Remarks. This extract rapidly gets hard, crum- 
oly, and mouldy by keeping ; but this may be pre- 
vented by adding a little spirit, holding in solution 
a few drops of oil of cloves. Dose. 5 grs. to 3j, as a 
cathartic. Colocynth pulp yields 65§ of extract. 

EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Compound Ext. of Bitter Ap- 
ples. Ext. Catharticum, (P. L. 1745.) Ext. 
Colocynthidis compositum, (P. L. 1788, and 
since.) Prep. I. (P. L. 1836.) Colocynth pulp, 
sliced, §vj ; puri-fied extract <d aloes (ext. aloes 
purif., P. L.) §xij ; powdered scammony ^iv ; pow- 
dered cardamoms §j ; hard soap (Castile) §iij ; 
proof spirit 1 gallon ; digest the colocynth in the 
spirit, with a gentle heat, for 4 days, express the tinc- 
ture, filter, add the aloes, scammony, and soap, 
evaporate (distil) to a proper consistence, and to- 
wards the end add the powdered cardamoms. 

II. (P. D.) The same as the London form, 
except using hepatic aloes for the aqueous extract. 
Remarks. There are few formulas which have 
undergone so many alterations in the hands of the 
College as that for the ext. coloc. co. Before 1809, 
proof spirit was ordered to be employed as the 
menstruum, and the preparation resembled that of 
the present Phafeacopceia, omitting the soap ; but 
in 1809, the College directed loater to be used 
instead of spirit, and added a certain quantity of 
soap. — Colocynth 3vj ; water lb. ij ; aloes (socc.) 
§iss; scammony §S3 ; hard soap §iij ; cardamoms 
3j. (P. L. 1809.) In the next edition of the Phar- 
macopcEia, or that of 1815, the soap was again 
omitted ; but in the edition of 1824, the formula of 
1809 was again adopted, substituting, however, 
proof spirit lb. j for the water. These directions 
were also continued in the edition of 1836, as will 
be seen by reference to the above formula, (No. I.,) 
which is that of the present Pharmacopoeia. 

Compound extract of colocynth, when faithfully 
prepared, is a most valuable medicine, but that 
which is commonly met with in trade is a very in- 
ferior and uncertain preparation. This inferiority 
of the extracts of the shops, chiefly arises from the 
substitution of water for the proof spirit ordered by 
the College, and the use of inferior scammony and 
aloes. There are, however, many establishments 
where this extract may be procured of most ex- 
cellent quality, but these are the exceptions, not 
the rule. As a proof, however, of the proverb, 
" honesty is the best policy," it may be menltioned 
that a certain metropolitan druggist, remarkable 
for the superiority of his compound extract of colo- 
eynth, has obtained no inconsiderable fortune by 
the sale of this preparation alone ; while the miser- 
able host of venders of the evaporated decoction of 
colocynth seeds, Cope aloes, worthless sc/CLmmony , 
and scentless cardamoms, sold under this name, 
attempt to ruin each other by ottering their rub- 
bish at a price tliat prevents the possibility of a 
large profit, or even the establishment of a re- 
tpectable counectiou. 



The following forms are employed by a whole- 
sale house that does very largely in this prepara- 
tion : 

III. Turkey colocynth 18 lbs. ; hepatic aloes 
40 lbs. ; Castile soap 10 lbs. ; powdered scammony 
6 lbs. ; essence of cardamoms 2 lbs. ; moist sugar 
4 lbs. ; boil the colocynth in 20 times its weight of 
water for six hours ; strain and add the aloes ; boil 
until dissolved, and decant the solution. In the 
mean time exhaust the colocynth with a second 
quantity of water, less than the first, strain and 
add this to the undissolved residuum of the aloes, 
boil again for a few minutes, then draw it off, mix it 
with the former decoction of aloes, and allow the 
mixed liquors to stand until the next day, to depos- 
ite the resinous portion. Next draw oft' the liquor, 
evaporate as quickly as possible, and as soon as 
the consistence of treacle is arrived at, allow the 
whole to cool considerably, and add the soap (pre- 
viously melted with a little water) and the scarri- 
mony. Sift the latter in gradually, while the ex- 
tract is assiduously stirred by a second person. 
Lastly, moderate the heat and continue the stir- 
ring until a rather harder consistence is acquired 
than is proper for the extract, then, as soon as the 
whole has become sufficiently cool to prevent any 
considerable evaporation of the spirit, add the es- 
sence, mix thoroughly, and immediately put it 
into stone jars or pots for use. The extract is 
usually labelled Ext. Colocynth. Comp. Opt. It 
looks well, and smells very aromatic. 

IV. Turkey colocynth 2-| lbs. ; hepatic aloes 5^ 
lbs.; powdered scammony 1^ lbs. ; powdered car- 
damoms 6 oz. ; (or essence 8 oz. ;) Castile soap 
(genuine) 1 lb. 2 oz. ; pale moist sugar ^ lb. ; as 
the last. This certainly produces a beautiful ar- 
ticle, and of excellent quality, though of course 
inferior to the extract of the College. It is labelled 
and sent out as Ext. Colocynth. Comp. P. L. 

The compound extract of colocynth, and the 
simple and compound extracts of sarsapariila, are 
in greater demand in the wholesale trade, and are 
sold in larger quantities at a time, than all the 
other medicinal extracts put together. 

Qual. and Tests. This extract is often adulter- 
ated with powerful and acrid cathartics to make 
up for the deficiency or inferiority of its proper in- 
gredients, and foreign matter often becomes mixed 
with it by the use of impure scammony. The 
presence of Cope aloes may usually be detected 
by the odor ; chalk, (an article frequently present 
in bad scammony,) by placing a little ball of the 
e 'ract in a glass tube, and pouring over it some 
dilute muriatic or acetic acid, when an eflferves- 
cence will ensue, if that substance be present ; 
jalap, scammony adulterated icith fecvla, and 
other starchy substances, by the filtered decoction 
of the extract turning blue on the addition of 
tincture of iodine ; gamboge, by the decofction be- 
coming deep red on the addition of liquor of potassa, 
and by a filtered alcoholic solution of the extract 
forming a yellow emulsion with water, which be- 
comes transparent and assumes a deep red color 
on the addition of caustic potassa, and by this solu- 
tion (if the alkali be not in excess) giving a yellow 
precipitate with acids and with acetate of lead, a 
brown precipitate with sulphate of copper, and a 
very dark brown one with the salts of iron. The 
ethereal solution dropped on water yields an opaque 



EXT 



293 



EXT 



yellow film, also soluble in caustic potassa, if gam- 
boge be present. 

Dose. 5 grs. to Sj. It is a safe, mild, yet cer- 
tain purgative. It may be mixed with calomel 
without the latter being decomposed. 2^ grs. 
mixed with an equal weight of blue pill and taken 
overnight, forms an excellent aperient in dyspepsia, 
liver complaints, &c. 

EXTRACT OF CUBEBS. (OLEO-RESI- 
NOUS.) Sijn. Ext. Cubeb^g Oleo-resinosum. 
Prep. (M. Dublanc.) Mix the oil obtained by 
distillation, with the resinous extract obtained by 
evaporating a spirituous tincture of the dried resi- 
duum. Possesses the whole of the virtues of cubebs 
in a very concentrated form. 

EXTRACT OF DANDELION. Syn. Ext. 
OF Taraxacum. Ext. Taraxaci, (P. L. &l E.) 
Ext. Herb.b et radicis Taraxaci, (P. D.) Low- 

ENZAHN-EXTRAKT, (Get:) EsTRATTO DI TaRAS- 

6ACO, (Ital.) ExTRAiT DE PissENLiT, (Fr.) Prep. 
Macerate the fresh root of taraxacum in 10 or 11 
times its weight of boiling distilled water for 24 
hours, then boil down to i, strain and evaporate to 
a proper consistence. 

Remarks. The above are the orders of the Col- 
lege, but the extract is better when prepared by 
rapidly inspissating the expressed juice in a current 
of dry air. The extract of the shops is usually 
prepared by exhausting the root by coction with 
water. Tlie first of the above has a faint and 
agreeable odor, and a sweet, bitter taste ;^ the 
second smells strongly of the recent root, has a 
pale and lively brownish yellow color, and a bitter 
acidulous taste without any trace of sweetness ; 
the third is devoid of odor, and possesses a cofFee- 
brown color, and a sweetish, burnt taste, not much 
unlike a solution of burnt sugar. The medicinal 
virtue of this extract is greatest when the aroma 
and bitter taste of the recent root are well develop- 
ed, and when sweet, its efficacy as a remedy is 
impaired. (Squire.) The Dublin College directs 
the employment both of the herb and root. Tarax- 
acum root should be gathered during the winter 
months, as then a given weight of the juice yields 
more extract, but in summer and autumn it pos- 
sesses more bitterness and aroma ; 4 lbs. of juice 
from roots gathered in November and December 
yielded 1 lb. of extract, while it took from 6 to 9 
lbs. of juice from the root, gathered in spring or 
summer, to yield a like quantity. (Squire.) The 
herb yields by the evaporation of its expressed 
juice, about 5§ of extract. Good extract of tarax- 
acum should be wholly soluble in water. Dose. 
10 grs. to 3ss, as a resolvent, aperient, and tonic 
in liver and stomach complaints, &c. 

EXTRACT OF DANDELION. Syn. Ext. 
FoLioRUM Taraxaci. From the leaves, as the 
last. 

EXTRACT OF ELATERIUM. Syn. Ext. 
OF Squirting Cucumber. Elaterium. Ext. 
Elaterh, (P. L.) Succus spissatus momordic^ 
Elaterii. Prep. {Process of the L. Ph.) Slice 
ripe wild cucumbers, very gently express the juice, 
strain through a fine hair sieve, and set it aside for 
some hours, until the thicker part has subsided ; 
then decant the supernatant liquor, and dry the 
remainder by gentle heat. (See Elaterium.) 

Remarks. Good elaterium should have only a 
light greenish hue, and should be light and easily 



pulverized by pressure. Elaterium obtained as a 
second deposite, is dark and inferior, and hence 
called elaterium nigrum. The English elaterium 
is the best. The foreign is uniformly adulterated 
with chalk, and colored with saj> green. Dose. 
One-sixth gr. to 2 grs., as a hydragogue and cathar- 
tic, in dropsies. 

EXTRACT OF ELATERIUM, (WHITE.) 
Syn. White Elaterium. Elaterium Album. 
Prep. From the half-ripe fruit of the squirting 
cucumber, as last. Its properties are similar. 

EXTRACT OF ELECAMPANE. Syn 
Ext. Inul^. Ext. Radicum Inul.^ Campan^. 
Prep. From elecampane root, like extract of dan- 
delion. 

EXTRACT OF FOX-GLOVE. Syn. Ext. 
Digitalis, (P. L. & E.) Prep. From the leaves of 
digitalis purpurea as extract of aconite, P. L. (See 
page 24.) 

Remarks. The juice of foxglove is readily in- 
jured by exposure to air and heat. The evap- 
oration should therefore be conducted as rapidly 
as possible, but at a low temperature. It spoils 
by keeping. Dose. ^ gr. to 3 grs. It is narcotic, 
sedative, and diuretic, and is powerfuWy poisonous. 
It is principally given in fevers, dropsy, diseases of 
the heart, pulmonary consumption, epilepsy, scro- 
fula, and asthma. 

EXTRACT OF FUMARIA. Sijn. Ext 
Fumari^. Prep. From the leaves of the com- 
mon fumitory, like extract of dandelion. It has 
been recommended in some diseases of the leprous 
kind. 

EXTRACT OF GENTIAN. Syn. Ext. 
Gentians. Molle. Ext. Radicis Gentian.®. 
Ext. Radicis Gentian.e lute^, (P. D.) Ext. 
GsNTiANiE, (P. L. and E.) Extrait de Gentiane, 
(Fr.) Estratto di Gentiane, (Ital.) Enzian- 
extrakt, (Ger.) Prep. From gentian root sliced, 
as extract of dandelion. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh College directs the 
powdered root to be exhausted by percolation with 
temperate water. On the large scale this extract 
is almost universally prepared by exhausting the 
root by coction with water. When well prepared 
it is one of the smoothest and liveliest-looking ex- 
tracts of the pharmacopoeia. Good gentian root 
yields by the process of the College fully 50§ by 
weight of extract, and by decoction about 60§. 
Dose. 10 grs. to 3ss, as a bitter stomachic and 
tonic. The great consumption of extract of gen- 
tian is by the brewers. 

EXTRACT OF GENTIAN, (HARD.) Syn. 
Ext. Gentian^e Durum. The last extract re- 
duced to a proper consistence for powdering. 

EXTRACT OF GUAIACUM. Syn. Ext. 
Ligni Vit^. Ext. Guaiaci. Ext. Ligni Guaiaci 
Molle. Prep. (P. L. 1746.) From lignum vitae 
shavings or sawdust, by decoction with water. 

EXTRACT OF HELLEBORE, (ALKA- 
LINE.) Syn. ExT. Hellebori Alkalinum. 
Ext. Hellebori Bacheki. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
Black hellebore lb. j ; carbonate of potassa f iv ; 
proof spirit and white wine, of each 3 pints ; digest 
12 hours, strain and evaporate. (See Ext. of 
Black Hellebore.) 

EXTRACT OF HEMLOCK. Syn. Succua 
spissatus Conii maculati. Succus CicuT^ spis- 
satus, (P. L. 1788.) EXTRACTUM CONII, (P E. 



EXT 



294 



EXT 



and P. L. 1809, ana since.) Succus inspissatus 

CONII, (P. D.) EsTRATTO DEL ErBA DELLA Ci- 
CUTA, (Ital.) EsTRAIT DE CiGUE, (Fr.) ScHIER- 

lings-extrakt, (Ger.) Prep. (P. L.) From 
hemlock leaves, like extract of aconite, P. L. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh College directs the 
filtered juice to be evaporated in vacuo, or by 
means of a current of dry air. Of all the inspis- 
sated juices (excepting aconite) that of hemlock 
is most readily injured by exposure and heat. Its 
active principle is a volatile alkaloid named conia, 
and in proportion as the extract smells of this sub- 
stance, so is its medicinal value. Good extract of 
hemlock should have a green color, a strong odor 
of the fresh bruised plant, and should develop a 
strong " mouse odor" when triturated with caustic 
potassa. On the large scale the whole of the green 
portion of the plant is pressed for juice. 1 cwt. of 
hemlock yields from 3 to 5 lbs. of extract. Dose. 
2 grs. to 3ss, as an alterative and resolvent in 
various obstinate disorders. 

EXTRACT OF HENBANE. Syn. Ext. 
OF Hyoscvamus. Ext. Hyosciami, (P. L. and E.) 
Succus spissatus Hyoscyami, (P. D.) Succus 
spissATus Hyoscyami nigri. Extrait de Jusqui- 
AME, {Fr) Hyoszyamus-extrakt, {Ger.) Es- 
tratto di Giusquiama nera, {Ital.) Prep. (P. 
L.) From the leaves of henbane, as the extract 
of aconite, P. L. (See page 24.) 

Remarks. The Edinburgh Ph. directs this ex- 
tract to be prepared in the same way as the ex- 
tract of hemlock, P. E. 1 lb. of the fresh leaves 
yielded 8 to 10 drs. of extract, (Geiger ;) 1 cwt. 
yielded 4 to 5 lbs., (Brande ;) 1 cwt. of the recent 
plant yielded by an ordinary screw press 59^ lbs. 
of juice, and this evaporated in a water-bath gave 
5 lbs. 9 oz. of extract. (Squire.) 1| cwt. of the 
green herb yielded 11 pounds of extract. (Gray.) 
Dose. 2 to 20 grs. as an anodyne, and antispas- 
modic. It is narcotic and poisonous. 

EXTRACT OF HOPS. S^jn. Ext. Lupuli, 
(P. L. and E.) Ext. Humuli, (P. L. 1809, 1824, 
and P. D.) Prep. From the strobiles of hops, in 
the same way as extract of dandelion. 

Remarks. 1 cwt. of ordinary hops yield about 
40 lbs. of extract. (Brande.) The druggists usu- 
ally employ hops 2 or more years old, called by 
the dealers "yearlings," "olds," or "old olds," 
because these may be purchased at | to ^ the price 
of those of the last season's growth. The first of 
the above are estimated to have only | the strength 
of new hops ; the second about ^ ; and the last 
little or none, at least in a medical point of viewf. 
Dose. 5 to 20 grs., as an anodyne, in cases that do 
not admit of the use of opium. 

EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP. Syn. 
Ext. Cannabis Indici. Prep. (O'Shaughnessy.) 
Boil the resinous tops of the dried gunjah, (the 
Indian hemp plant, which has flowered, and from 
which the rosin has not been removed,) in rectified 
epirit of wine until all the resin is dissolved, then 
distil off the spirit, and finish the evaporation in a 
water-bath. 

Remarks. It is anodyne, stimulant, and aphro- 
disiac, and, in over doses, produces catalepsy. 
(O'Shaughnessy.) 10 to 20 grs. of this preparation 
have been recommended in hydrophobia ; but, ac- 
cording to the above authority, 1 grain produced 
catalepsy in a rheumatic patient. The extract 



prepared with the plant grown in our botanic gar- 
dens has quite a different effect to that of the 
Indian plant. This hemp is known in India as the 
" increaser of pleasure," the " exciter of desire,*' 
the " cementer of friendship," the " causer of a 
T3eling gait," the ".aughter-mover," &c. (For a 
fuH examination i..£o the merits of this plant, and 
the opinions of preceding writers, see Dr. Pereira's 
valuable work on Materia Medica, 2d ed.) 

EXTRACT OF IPECACUANHA. Syn. 
Ext. Ipecacuanha. Prep. (P. Cod.) Evaporate 
a tincture prepared from powdered root of ipecacu- 
anha lb. ij, and proof spirit lb. vij, by the method 
of displacement. 

EXTRACT OF JALAP. Syn. Ext. Jalapii, 
(P. L. 1745, 1788.) Ext. Jalaps, (P. L. 1809, 
and since.) Ext. sive Resina Jalaps, (P. E.) 
Ext. Jalapii Molle. Ext. Jalaps Resinosum. 
Ext. Radicis Jalaps. Ext. Convolvuli Jalaps. 
Extrait de Jalap, {Fr.) 

Prep. I. (P. L.) From the root of the ipomoea 
jalapa, in the same way as extract of cascarilla, 
P. L. 1788. Product. About 66§ of the weight 
of the jalap employed. (Brande.) 18 lbs. of jalap 
yield, in this way, 16 lbs. (?) of extract. (Gray.) 

II. (P. E.) Moisten finely-powdered jalap with 
rectified spirit, put it into a percolator, and exhaust 
it with more spirit ; filter, recover the greater part 
of the spirit by distillation, and finish the evapora- 
tion in a water-bath. This is an impure resin of 
jalap. Product. 16§. 

III. (P. D.) Similar to the London form, and 
produces, like that, a mixture of resin of jalap and 
gummy extractive matter. 

Remarks. The extract of the London and Dub- 
lin Colleges is purgative in doses of 10 to 20 grs. ; 
that of the Edinburgh in doses of 2 to 6 grs. They 
should be well beaten up with a little sulphate of 
potassa, sugar, or some aromatic powder, to pre- 
vent griping. 

Extract of jalap is kept in the soft state, or of a 
pilular consistence, and in a hard state fit for pow- 
dering. The latter is termed Hard Extract of 
Jalap, or Extractum Jalap^e durum. 

The substance commonly sold as extract of jalap 
in the shops, is prepared by boiling jalap root for 
3 or 4 hours in water, when it is taken out, and 
well bruised or sliced, and again boiled with water 
until exhausted of soluble matter. The mixed de- 
coctions are then allowed 12 or 14 hours for defe- 
cation, after which the supernatant portion is de- 
canted and evaporated. 

EXTRACT OF JALAP. Syn. Ext. Jalaps 
Alkalinum. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Add 1 oz. of 
subcarbonate of potash to the water used for ma- 
king the extract of jalap, P. L. 

EXTRACT OF JUNIPER. Syn. Ext. Ju- 
NiPERi. Prep. (P. Cod.) Macerate juniper ber- 
ries in warm water (about 85° F.) for 24 hours, 
strain, repeat the process with a fresh quantity of 
water ; mix the liquors, filter, and evaporate. 

EXTRACT OF LETTUCE. Syn. Succus 

SPISSATUS LaCTUCjE SATIViE. ExT. LACTUCiB, (P. 

L.) ExTRAiT DE Laitue, {Fr.) Prep. (P. L.) 
From the er.prcssed juice of the common garden 
lettuce, like Extract of Aconite, P. L. 

Remarks. This extract is anodyne, antispas- 
modic, sopon 10, and sedative. Dose. 3 to 5 gra., 
or more, gra iually increased, in cases where the 



EXT 



295 * 



EXT 



iBe of opium is objectionable. 1 cwt. of lettuce 
yields 4 to 5 lbs. of extract. (Brande.) " The 
proper juice, collected by incisions into the flower- 
ing stem when the plant is in flower, is preferable 
to this extract. A good plant of garden lettuce 
will yield oss of dried juice ; of lactuca virosa will 
yield 3j." (Thomson.) See Lactucarium. 

EXTRACT OF LILY OF THE VALLEY. 
Syn. Ext. of May-lily. Ext. Convallari^. 
Prnp. From the flowers or roots, like extract of dan- 
delion. Aperient and laxative. Dose. 15 grs. to 3j. 

EXTRACT OF LIQUORICE. Syn. Ext. 
Glycyriuuz.*. (P. L. E. & D.) Ext. Glycyr- 
RHiz^ MOLLE. Piep. (P. L.) From liquorice 
root, sliced, as extract of dandelion. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh College directs this 
extract to be prepared Mke its extract of gentian, 
by percolation with dis-iilled water, and the Dublin 
College according to the general rule for simple 
extracts. It is, however, seldom prepared by the 
English druggists, being principally imported in the 
dry state, and only softened down in England. 
The extract prepared from the fresh root is usually 
preferred to the best foreign, as the latter has a 
less sweet and agreeable taste. Foreign extract 
of liquorice is commonly called Spanish or Italian 
Juice, being chiefly imported from those countries, 
that from Solazzi being most esteemed. It is also 
termed Black Sugar, LiauoRicE Juice, Succus 
Glycyrruiz^ simplex, &c. a great deal of the 
foreign extract is mixed with faecula, or the pulp of 
plums ; hence its inferior quality. Refined jmce 
is prepared by dissolving the foreign juice in water, 
filtering and evaporating. 

Pontefraci cakes, or lozenges, are made of re- 
fined juice, to which some sugar is added. By the 
following process an extract of superior quality 
may be prepared from the imported juice : — A 
layer of straw is placed in the vessel about half a 
line above the cock ; it is then filled with rolls of 
liquorice, and water poured over them. After 48 
hours this is drawn off, fresh water added, and 
again drawn ofi" after 24 hours, and this is repeated 
until the water passes through nearly colorless. On 
the whole, about li^ time the weight of the liquor- 
ice juice in water is consumed. The residue, 
when stirred with water, imparts to it but a very 
faint color. (Mohlenbrock. Buch. Rept. xxviii, 198.) 

Soft extract of liquorice is often employed as a 
pill basis, and the hard extract is used as a lozenge 
to allay tickling cough. The mass of the latter is, 
however, consumed by the porter brewers. 

EXTRACT OF LOGWOOD. Syn. Ext. 
LiGM Campechensis, (P. L. 1745.) Ext. H.bma- 
toxyli, (P. L. and E.) Ext. Scobis H^matoxyli 
Campeciiiani, (P. D.) Campecheholze-extrakt, 
{Ger.) Prep. The College orders this extract to 
be prepared from the chips, in the same way as the 
extracts of dandelion, gentian, and liquorice. On 
the large scale it is prepared by decoction. 1 cwt. 
of wood yields about 20 lbs. of extract, (Brande :) 
80 lbs. yield 14 lbs. of extract, (Gray.) It is kept 
in two states, hard and soft. The Dose of the 
first is 10 to 20 grs. dissolved in wine, or any cordial 
water, after each motion in diarrhoea ; the second 
may be employed as a lozenge in the same disease. 

EXTRACT OF LUPULINE. Syn. Ext. 
LupuLiNi. Estrait de Lupuli.\e, (Fr.) Prep. 
From lupuline by infusion in cold water. 



EXTRACT DE LUPULINE avecleDecoc 
TiON. Syn. Ext. Lupulini Coctione Paratum 
Prep. By boiling with water and evaporatmg 
Both this and the preceding are similar to extract 
of hops, but stronger. 

EXTRACT OF MAHOGANY. Prepared by 
decoction from the chips or sawdust. It is astrin- 
gent, and is frequently sold for kino. It is also 

i employed in tanning. 

i EXTRACT OF MALE FERN. (ETHE- 
REAL.) Syn. Ext. Filicis ^Etiiereum. Bal- 
SAMUM FiLicis. Oleum Filicis Peschierl Prep. 
(Peschier.) From the rhizomes, or buds of the male 

I shield fern, (Aspidium filix mas, P. L.) 

j EXTRACT OF MALE FERN. (Alcoholic.) 
Syn. Ext. Filicis Alcoholice. Prep. As last, 

: but using alcohol. 

j Remarks. Both the above are given for tape- 
Avorm, in doses of 3ss to 3j, made into an electuary 
with powdered sugar, followed in 1 or 2 hours by a 

' strong dose of castor oil. Madame Nouffer's cele- 

j brated Swiss remedy for tapeworm, for which 

I Louis XVI. gave 18,000 francs, consisted of 2 or 3 
drachms of powdered male fern, taken in ^ pint of 

; water in the morning, /as^ino-, followed in 2 hours 
by a bolus made of calomel and scammony, of 

] each 10 grs. ; gamboge 6 or 7 grs. (Pereira.) 
Heaven help the man who swallowed the whole 
of this bolus ; for it would certainly assist him to 
the grave ! 

EXTRACT OF MILLEFOIL. Syn. Ext. 

I Achillea Millefolii. From the achillea mille- 
folium. As Extract of Dandelion. Astringent 
and tonic. 

EXTRACT OF MIMOSA BARK. Imported 
from New Holland. Said to be much superior to 
oak bark for tanning. 

EXTRACT OF MYRRH. Syn.^ Ext. 
Myrrhs. Prep. (P. Cod.) As extract of squills. 
EXTRACT OF MYRRH. (AQUEOUS.) 
Syn. ExT. Myrrh.« Aquosum. Prep. Digest 
coarsely-powdered myrrh in warm water, filter 
and evaporate. 

EXTRACT OF NOSEGAY. Syn. Extrait 
DE Bouquet. Prep. Flowers of benzoin 1 drachm ; 
essence of ambergris 2 oz. ; spirit of jasmine and 
extract of violets, of each 1 pint ; spirits of cassia, 
roses, orange, and gillyflower, of each ^ pint ; mix. 
A most delightful perfume. 

EXTRACT OF NUX VOMICA. (ALCO- 
HOLIC.) Syn. Ext. Nucis Vomica, (P. E. and 
D.) Prep. I. (P. D.) Nux vomica, rasped, §viij ; 
proo/ spirit 3^ pints ; make a tincture, express the 
liquid, filter, distil off most of the spirit, and evap- 
orate. 

II. (P. E.) By percolation, or boiling with rec^ 
tified spirit. 

III. (P. Cod.) As extract of squills. 
Remarks. This extract consists of impure igas- 

urate of str^'chnia, and is exhibited in similar cases 
to that alkaloid. Dose. ^ gr. gradually increased to 
2 or 3 <Trs. It is very poisonous. 

EXTRACT OF OAK BARK. Syn. Ext. 
QuERCUs. Ext. Corticis Quercus, (P. D.) Es- 

TRATTO DELLA QuERCIA, (Ital.) ExTRAIT d'- 

EcoRCE DE Cheyne, (Fr.) Prep. By evaporating 
an aqueous decoction. Astringent. Dose. 3ss to 
3ij. Seldom used. 

EXTRACT OF OPIUM. Syn. Ext Opii, 



EXT 



296 



EXT 



(P. E.) Ext. Opii Aquosum, (P. D.) Opium 
CoLATUM. Ext. Thebaicum, (P. L. 1720-1745.) 
Opium purificatum, (P. L. 1788.) Ext. Opii, 
(P. L. 1809-1824.) Ext. Opii purificatum, (P. 
L. 1836.) ExTRAiT d'Opium, {Fr.) Opiums-ex- 
TRAKT, (Ger.) EsTRATTo d'Oppio, (Ital) Prep. 
(P. L.) Opium, sliced, 'f XX ; water (temperate) 1 
gallon ; macerate in a little of the water for 12 
hours, triturate with the rest added gradually, un- 
til perfectly mixed, allow it to repose to deposite 
impurities, decant, strain, and evaporate. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh formula is similar, 
but the Dublin College orders boiling water, and 
the exposure of the infusion for two days to the air 
before evaporation. Good opium yields from 60 to 
70§ of its weight of extract, but much depends 
upon the variety of opium. Dose. ^ gr. to 3 grs., 
as an anodyne, sedative, and hypnotic. It is less 
stimulant than ordinary opium. It is kept both in 
the hard and soft state. A solution of the former, 
in distilled water, with the addition of a little spirit 
to keep it, forms Battley's liquor opii sedativus. 

EXTRACT OF OPIUM, EXHAUSTED OF 
NARCOTINE. Syn. Extractum Opii absque 
Narcotina. Prep. (P. Cod.) Reduce the last 
extract with hot water to the consistence of a 
sirup, cool, and agitate with repeated portions of 
ether, then evaporate to a proper consistence. 

Remarks. The above form was first proposed 
by M. Robiquet, in 1821. It is said that the ex- 
tract so prepared consists entirely of impure meco- 
niate of morphia, gum, and extractive. It is less 
exciting than the last. 

EXTRACT OF OX-GALL. Syn. Ext. Fel- 
Lis BoviNi. Prep. (P. Cod.) Strain fresh ox^-gall, 
and evaporate i a water-bath. 

EXTRACT OF f AREIRA. Syn. Ext. Pa- 
reir^, (P. L. and E.) Ext. Pareir^e Brav^e. 
Prep. As Extract of Dandelion, from the root. 
Dose. 10 to 30 grs. In vesical catarrh, and ob- 
structions of the urinary organs. 

EXTRACT OF PEACH BLOSSOMS. Prep. 
Essence of lemon 1 oz. ; pure balsam of Peru and 
essence of bitter almonds, of each 1 dr. ; bitter al- 
monds 1^ lb.; rectified spirit of wine 3 pints; 
spirits of orange flowers 1 pint ; spirit of jasmine \ 
pint ; macerate. Very odorous. 

EXTRACT OF PEPPER. Syn. Ext. Piperis 
NiGRi. Prep. From bruised black pepper by decoc- 
tion and evaporation. Stimulant. Stronger tasted 
than pepper. Sometimes given in ague. 

EXTRACT OF POPPIES. Syn. Ext. of 
White Poppies. Ext. Papaveris, (P. L. and E.) 
Ext. Papaveris albi. Ext. Capitum Papaveris 
SoMNiFERi. ExTRAiT DE Pavot, (Fr.) Prep. 
From the bruised ripe capsules of the papaversom- 
niferum, (white poppy heads,) without the seeds, 
as Extract of Dandelion. 

Remarks. The medicinal action of this extract 
resembles opium, but in a considerably weaker de- 
gree. It is less prone to produce headache and de- 
lirium. Dose. 2 grs. to 9j. It is usually prepared 
by the large manufacturers, by exhausting the 
capsules, by coction with water ; hence the infe- 
rior quality of the extract of the shops. 

EXTRACT OF PYROLA. Syn. Ext. Py- 
ROLi« Umbkllat^. Prep. From tlio leaves, as 
Extract of Dandelion. It is strongly diuretic. 

EXTRACT OF QUASSIA. Syn. Ext. 



Quassia, (P. E.) Ext. Quassi^e Ligni. Prep 
From the wood, (chips,) as Extract of Dandelion. 

Remarks. This extract is usually prepared by 
decoction, and is principally consumed by tlie 
brewers, who employ it as a substitute for hops 
The wood yields about 5 or 6g of it*- weight of ex- 
tract. The bark is frequently substituted for the 
wood, but is considerably less bitter. Dose. 5 to 
15 grs. 

EXTRACT OF QUINCE SEEDS Syn. 
Ext. Cydoni^. Ext. Cydoni^ Seminum. Prep 
As Extract of Dandelion. 

EXTRACT OF RHATANY. Syn. Ext. 
Rhatani^. Ext. Krameri^e, (P. E. and D.) 
Prep. From rhatany root, like Extract of Dande- 
lion. 

Remarks. This extract is astringent and tonic. 
Dose. 10 grs. to 3ij. A large quantity of this ex- 
tract, of very inferioi r;uality, is imported from 
Brazil, &c. It is kept in two states, hard and 
soft : the former resembles kino, and is often sold 
for it ; the latter is chiefly consumed by the manu- 
facturers and improvers of port wine. The Edin- 
burgh College evaporates a cold infusion, obtained 
by percolation. 

EXTRACT OF RHUBARB. Syn. Ext. 
Rh^i. Extrait de Rhubarbe, (Fr.) Rhabar- 
BER-EXTRAKT, (Ger.) Prep. (P. L.) Rhubarb 
(bruised or sliced) §xv ; proof spirit 1 pint ; water 
7 pints ; macerate for 4 days, with a gentle heat, 
strain, and evaporate. The Dublin form is simi- 
lar, but the Edinburgh omits the spirit. 

Remarks. This extract is usually prepared by 
decoction from inferior and damaged rhubarb, 
picked out from the chest on purpose ; hence the 
inferior quality of the extract of the shops. When 
made of good Turkey, or even East India rhu- 
barb, it is a very valuable preparation. It should 
be evaporated as rapidly as possible, at a low heat 
in vacuo, or by means of a current of dry air. 
Dose. As a stomachic 5 to 10 grs. ; as a purgative 
10 grs. to 3ss. It is seldom exhibited alone. By 
the London process, good rhubarb yields about 
half its weight of extract. 

EXTRACT OF RHUBARB, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Ext. Rh^i compositum. JPrejo. (Prus. Ph.) 
Extract of rhubarb 3iij ; extract of aloes, and soap 
of jalap, of each 3j ; mix. 

EXTRACT OF RUE. Syn. Ext. Rut^s. 
Ext. FoLiORUM Rut^, (P. D.) Ext. Foliorum 
RuTiE Graveolentis. Prep. From rue leaves, 
like Extract of Dandelion. It is stomachic, car- 
minative, and emmenagogue. Dose. 10 to 20 grs. 
twice a day. It is usual to add a little of the es- 
sential oil to the extract, just before taking it out 
of the evaporating-pan, and when nearly cold. 

EXTRACT OF SABADILLA, (ALCO- 
HOLIC.) Syn. ExT. of Cebadilla, Ext. Sab- 
ADiLL^ Alcoholicum. Prep. Evaporate a satu- 
rated tincture of the seeds. Dose. ^ of a grain in 
rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Poisonous. 

EXTRACT OF SAFFRON. Syn. Ext. 
Croci. Polychroite. Prep. Infuse hay-saftron 
in hot water, strain, and repeat the process until 
it ceases to give color. Used princijially as a col- 
oring and flavoring substance by cooks, confec- 
tioners, wine and cordial brewers, &,c. 

EXTRACT OF SAMBUCUS NIGRA 
Stjn. Elder Rob. Ext. Sambuci. Prep. I. (P 



EXT 



297 



EXT 



I* 1788.; Tlie expressed and depurated juice of 
elder berries, evaporated to the consistence of 
honey. 

II. (P. E. 1744.) Add to the above i of su- 
gar. 

EXTRACT OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. 
Ext. Sarsaparill^, (P. D. & P. L. 1809 & 1824.) 
Ext. Sarz^, (P. L. 1836.) Extrait de Salse- 
PAREiLLE, (Fr.) Prep. (P. L.) From sarsaparilla 
root, sliced, as Extract of Dandelion. The direc- 
tions of the Dublin Ph. are the same as for the 
other simple extracts. For the method of man- 
aging tliis process on the large scale, see Decoc- 
tion OF Sarsaparilla. Dose. 10 grs. to 3j, in 
pill, or dissolved in water, or decoction of sarsa- 
parilla. 

EXTRACT OF SARSAPARILLA, (FLU- 
ID.) St/n. ExT. Sarz^e fluidum, (P. E.) Ext. 
SARSAPARiLLiE FLUIDUM, (P. D.) Piep. Sarsapa- 
rilla root Ib.j ; water 9 or 10 pints. Boil for 1 
'lour, express the liquor, and repeat the process 
with fresh water; mix the decoctions, and after 
defecation, strain, and evaporate to the consistence 
Df a thin sirup, (P. E. ; " to §xxx"' P. D.,) and 
when cold add enough spirit to make f o^vj, (P. 
E. ; " §ij of rectified spirit" P. D.) See Sarsa- 
parilla. 

EXTRACT OF SARSAPARILLA, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Ext. Sarz^ comp. Ext. Sar- 
saparill.« comp. There is no form for this 
preparation in the Pharmacopoeias, but it is nev- 
ertheless in immense demand in the wholesale 
trade, from its great convenience in dispensing. 
3vj, dissolved in a pint of water, form a similar 
preparation to the Compound Decoction of Sarsa- 
parilla of the London College. The dose, in sub- 
stance, is the same as that of the simple extract. 
The following formulae are employed by one of the 
wholesale houses that does largest in this prepara- 
tion. 

I. Guaiacum shavings, from which the small 
has been sifted, 30 lbs. ; Italian juice 24 lbs. ; me- 
zereon root 6 lbs. Boil with water for 1 hour, 
strain, and repeat the process with fresh water a 
second and a third time; mix the decoctions, and 
allow them to deposite for 12 or 15 hours, then de- 
cant the clear, strain through flannel, evaporate, 
and when the consistence of treacle is reached, 
add extract of sarsaparilla 9 lbs. ; continue the 
evaporation, and just before removing the extract 
from the pan, and when nearly cold, add essential 
oil of sassafras 2 drs., dissolved in rectified spirit 
1 qnart. Prod. About 45 lbs., depending on the 
quality of the juice employed. This produces a 
very showy article if well managed. It is labelled 
Ext. Sarz^ comp. The product of the following 
formula is labelled and sent out as Ext. Sarz^ 
comp. Opt. 

II. As the last, but only using 15 lbs. of juice, 
and that Solazzi. Prod. About 35 lbs. 

Remarks. Each of the above extracts of sarsa- 
parilla, (simple, fluid, and compound.) when of 
good quality, dissolves in water, forming a deep 
reddish-brown solution, perfectly transparent, and 
der^Dsiting but little sediment, even by standing 
B©me davs. See Sarsaparilla. 

EXTRACT OF SAVINE. Syn. Ext. Sa- 
bine. Ext. Foliorum Sabine. Prep. (P. L. 
1788.) From the plant, as Extract of Dandelion. 
38 



Sometimes prepared in small quantities, but it ii 
very seldom a.sked for. It is usual to add a little 
essential oil of savine in " finishing it off," to give 
it an odor of the recent herb. 

EXTRACT OF SCAiMMONY. Syn. Rebw 

OF SCAM.MONV. ExT. ScAMMOMI. ExT. SlVE Re- 

siNA ScAMMO.Nii, (P. E.) Prep. Boil finely-pow- 
dered scamniony, in successive portions of proof 
spirit, till all the soluble matter is dissolved, filter, 
and distil the liquid until little but water parses 
over ; then pour otF the remaining water from the 
resin at the bottom of the vessel, and wash it with 
successive portions of boiling water ; leistly, dry at 
a temperature under 240° F. (P. E.) 

Retnarks. As thus prepared it is translucent, 
brownish, fusible, and combustible ; soluble in al- 
cohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It may be 
rendered white by means of animal charcoal. It 
is a drastic purgative. Dose. 8 to 12 grs. " When 
pure or virgin scamrnony can be procured, it is 
an unnecessar}^ preparation." (Pereira.) 

EXTRACT OF SENNA. Syn. Ext. Sex- 
N.E. Ext. Foliorum Cassi^e Senn^. Prep. (P. 
Cod.) By percolation with temperate water, eis 
Extract of Rhatany, P. E. It is principally used 
as a balls for purgative pills. When prepared by 
decoction it is nearlv inert. 

EXTRACT OF SMOKE, (AQUEOUS.) 
Syn. Ext. Fuliginis. Ext. Fuliginis Aquosum. 
Prep. Wood-soot f ij ; water 1 pint. Boil to f Jxvj, 
filter, and evaporate. 

EXTRACT OF SMOKE, (ACETIC.) Syn. 
Ext. Flligims Aceticum. Prep. Wood-soot ^ij ; 
water and distilled vinegar, of each, ^ pint. As 
last. 

EXTRACT OF SPRUCE. See Essence of 
Spruce. 

EXTRACT OF SQUIU.S. Syn. Ext. Scil- 
L^. Prep. (P. Cod.) Squill root, dried, Ib.j ; proof 
spirit lb. iv. Digest for some days, express the spi- 
rit, add proof spirit lb. ij, again macerate, mix the 
two tinctures, filter, distil off the spirit, and evap- 
orate to an extract. 

EXTRACT OF STRAMONIUM. Syn. 
Ext. of Thornapple. Ext. Stramonii, (P., L. 
E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Stramonium seeds ^xv ; 
boiling distilled water 1 gallon. Macerate for 4 
hours in a lightly-covered vessel, then take out 
the seeds, bruise them in a stone mortar, return 
them to the liquor and boil to one half, strain 
while hot, and evaporate. The Dublin form is 
similar. Prod. About 12§. (Barker.) 

II. (P. E.) Rub stramonium seeds (ground in a 
coffee-mill) to a thick mass with proof spirit, put 
the pulp into a percolator, and exhaust it of solu- 
ble matter by transmitting proof spirit through it ; 
filter the tincture thus obtained, and evaporate. 
The Paris form is similar. 1 U). avoirdupois of 
seeds yields about 2^ oz. of this extract. (Recluz.) 

Re?narks. On the large scale, this extract is 
prepared by expressing the juice of the fresh 
herb, boiling the remainder in water, mixing the 
juice and decoction, filtering and evaporating, 
li cwt. of stramonium yielded 37 lbs. of juice, and 
this, with the decoction, gave 31 lbs. of extract. 
(Gray.) Stramonium has been used in neuralgia, 
mania, epilepsy, &.c. Dose. Of the extract 4 gr., 
cautiously and gradually increased to 2 or 3 gra- 
It is inferior to the tincture. 



EXT 



298 



FAR 



EXTRACT OF STYRAX. Syn. Ext. op 
Storax. Ext. Styracis, (P. E.) Prep. Boil 
powdered storax in successive portions of rectified 
spirit till exhausted, filter the mixed tinctures, dis- 
til off the greater part of the spirit^ and evaporate 
the remainder to the consistence of a thin extract. 
(P. E) 

EXTRACT OF TANZY. Syn. Ext. Tana- 
ceti. Prep. From the herb, as Extract of Dan- 
delion. It is said to be tonic, stomachic, anthel- 
mintic, emmenagogue, and febrifuge. Dr. Clark 
says that in Scotland it was found to be service- 
able in various cases of gout. The infusion is 
preferable. 

EXTRACT OF TEA. Syn. Ext. The^. 
Prep. Evaporate an infusion of any of the rough- 
er kinds of black tea. Astringent. Has been 
recommended in diarrhoea, formed into pills. A 
hard black-looking substance, smelling and tasting 
faintly of tea, is imported under the same name 
from China. 

EXTRACT OF VALERIAN. Syn. Ext. 
Valeriana. Prep. From valerian root, as Ex- 
tract of Dandelion, but in a covered vessel. It is 
usual to add to this extract a little of the essential 
oil of valerian, dissolved in a small quantity of 
rectified spirit, just before removing it from the 
evaporating pan, and when nearly cold. Dose. 
10 grs. to ^ dr. Antispasmodic. Valerian yields 
about 40§ of soft extract. 

EXTRACT OF WALNUTS. Sijn. Ext. 

JUGLANDI^ IMMATURI. RoB DIACARYON SINE MeL- 

LE. Prep. Evaporate the expressed juice of un- 
ripe walnuts to a soft extract. Vermifuge. Ta- 
ken in cinnamon water. 

EXTRACT OF WHITE BRYONY. Syn. 
ExT. Radicis Bryonia alb^. Prep. From the 
bruised root, as Extract of Dandelion. Dose. 9j 
to 3j, as a purgative, diuretic, and emmenagogue. 
Once a common remedy in asthma, dropsy, epi- 
lepsy, &c. 

EXTRACT OF WHITE HELLEBORE. 
Syn. ExT. Hellebori albi. Prep. As Extract 
of Dandelion ; from the root. Emetic and pur- 
gative. 

EXTRACT OF WHORTLEBERRY. Syn. 
ExT. OF Bear's Whortleberry. Ext. of Bear- 
berry. Ext. Uv^ Ursi, (P. L.) From the leaves, 
as Extract of Dandelion. Dose. 5 to 15 grs., 
twice or thrice a day, in ch->nic diseases of the 
bladder and kidneys, attended with increased se- 
cretion of mucus, without inflammation. 
^ EXl RACT OF WILD LETTUCE. Syn. 
Ext. Lactuce Viros^. Succus spissatus Lac- 
TUCiE ViRos^. Prep. From strong-scented wild 
lettuce, as the last. It is laxative and diuretic. 
T)ose. .3 to 15 grs., in dropsies. 

EXTRACT OF WORMWOOD. Sijn. Ext. 
Absinthii. Ext. Cacuminum Absinthii. Ext. 
Artkmisi^. AnsiNrmi, (P. D.) Extrait d'Ab- 
sintiie, {Fr.] Estratto Assenso, (Ital.) Wer- 
mutii-kxtkakt, {(ier.) Prep. As the other simple 
extracts of the Dublin Pliarmacopceia. (See page 
288.) Bitter and stomachic. Dose. 10 grs. to 9j, 
2 or 3 times daily. It is usual to add a few drops 
of oil of wormwood to the extract before taking it 
from I lie |)an. 

EXTRACTS. (In Perfumery.) These are 
mostly spirituous solutions of the essential oils, or 



odorous principles of plants, andof'other i.«»fuin<i«. 
They are generally termed Extraits by the por- 
fumers, in imitation of the French, who commonly 
called their concentrated perfumed spirits by that 
name. See Extract of Nosegay. Ext. of Peach- 
EspRiTS. Essences. Spirits, &c. 



FALLTRANCK. {Ger., from fall, a fall, and 
tranck, drink.) Syn. Vulneraire Suisse. Espece8 
VuLNERAiRE. The Suisse. An iiifusion, or tea, 
prepared with a mixture of the herbs alchemilla, 
creeping bugloss, betony, periwinkle, philosella, 
golden rod, vervain, artemisia, mint, and veronica, 
gathered among the Alps. It is believed to be of 
great efficacy for removing the effects of falls and 
blows. 

FARM. (In Agriculture.) A portion of land, 
with suitable buildings, fences, hedges, and other 
arrangements necessary for its cultivation, and the 
rearing of live stock, let or leased to the occupier 
for a valuable consideration termed rent. 

FARMERY. (In Agriculture.) The build- 
ings and yards necessary for carrying on the trade 
or occupation of the farmer. Among the first are 
the barns, stables, &c. ; and among the second the 
principal are the rick yard, yard for watering live 
stock, and for poultry, &c. The spot and build- 
ings constituting the farmery, should be conve- 
niently and centrally situated, for the purpose of 
abridging, as much as possible, the labor of cart- 
age to and from the more remote portions of the 
farm. 

FARMING. (In Agriculture.) The busi- 
ness of the farmer. The cultivation of lands held 
on lease, or for a valuable consideration. Under 
the head Agriculture the reader has been pre- 
sented with a compendious general outline of the 
history, principles, and practice of cultivating the 
soil, and rearing live stock, which constitute the 
operations of farming ; the present article will 
therefore be confined to a short notice of some of 
the details. Our remarks may be conveniently 
distributed under the divisions of — Implements — 
Preparation of Lands — Fertilization of the 
Soil — Cultivation of Vegetables — Rearing of 
Animals — and the Rotation of Crops. 

I. On the perfection of agricultural implements 
and machines depends much of the improvement 
of which this art is susceptible. Among the prin- 
cipal of these are the cart, wagon, and icheel- 
harrow, employed for the purposes of transportation; 
the axe and saw, employed for felling and cutting 
trees ; the shears for clipping hedges ; the plough 
for turning up the ground, as an economical and 
expeditious substitute for the spade ; the harrow 
for pulverizing the soil and smoothing its surface ; 
the hoe and spade for planting, weeding, and dig- 
ging ; the shovel, for removing earth and other 
loose substances, as in carting, clearing, &.c ; the 
drill, a machine for sowing seed ; and the culti- 
vator, a similar machine employed for weeding, 
harrowing, &c. Most of the preceding are used 
in the clearing and tilling of land, and preserving 
it in a proper state ; the following are principally 
used in the immediate colleclJon of the produce or 
harvest, and its preparation for the niarke''. The 
scythe and rake are employed in liay-mak-^ff. iho 
sickle and cradle in harvesting corn ; the '«tv' for 
thrashing, ant ihe fan for winnowing gruii " Ve 



FAR 



299 



FAR 



horse-rake and moioing, reaping, loinnowing, and 
thrashing machines, are mostly worked by horse- 
power, and are intended as substitutes for manual 
labor. 

II. The preparation of the land for tillage 
consists principally in clearing it of superfluous 
trees ; in fencing and hedging it into convenient 
portions, or, when this has already been done, in 
keeping the fences and hedges in a state of repair ; 
in draining it of water when too wet ; and in irri- 
gating it when too dry, and water is accessible for 
that purpose. Clearing forms the first and one of 
the most important operations of the farmer in 
newly-settled and thickly-wooded countries, but in 
those that have been long under cultivation is sel- 
dom required : it is intended to permit the free ac- 
cess of air and sunlight to the soil. The object of 
fencing and hedging is either to prevent the en- 
croachment of the larger animals, or to confine 
them within given limits ; and boundary fences and 
hedges are also intended to prevent trespassing, 
and to preserve the land to the use of the owner or 
occupier. The object of draining is the removal 
«f superfluous water, which lessens the fertility of 
the soil ; and of irrigation to supply plants and 
vegetables with sufficient water to promote their 
growth. The draining of marshy or wet land is 
commonly effected by blind drains, or such as are 
beneath the soil, and filled with loose stones ; or 
box drains, which are covered drains, having a 
free passage, and surrounded with permeable ma- 
terials ; or by open drains, or mere troughs or 
trenches, ploughed or dug along the surface of the 
ground. On sloping lands, drains should run 
obliquely along the sides, that their descent may 
not be too rapid. 

III. The fertilization of soils is suggested 
partly by chemical analysis, practical experience, 
and geological observations. The soil is the up- 
permost stratum of the earth's surface, and con- 
sists principally of pulverulent earthy matter, re- 
sulting from the decomposition of the under strata, 
mingled with organic substances chiefly derived 
from the vegetable kingdom. Gravel, sand, clay, 
silica, chalk, and oxide of iron, are the principal 
mineral constituents of soils. The most fertile soils 
are those which consist of an admixture of clay 
and sand, with a due proportion of chalk and other 
mineral ingredients, along with a large supply of 
decomposed animal and vegetable matter. Such 
soils are commonly termed " loam." 

Soils are classified by agriculturists according to 
their chief ingredients ; as loamy, clayey, sandy, 
chalky, and peaty soils. Of these the first is the 
best, but the others may be improved by the addi- 
tion of the mineral constituents of which they are 
deficient. Sand and lime, or chalk, are the proper 
additions to clayey soils, and clay, gypsum, or 
loam, to sandy and gravelly ones. Clayey soils 
are expensive to bring into a fertile state, but when 
this is ouce effected, and they are well manured, 
they yield immense crops of wheat, oats, beans, 
clover, most kinds of fruits and flowers of the 
rosaceous kinds. The most fertile soils in Great 
Britain and on the Continent, especially for wheat, 
are calcareous clays. The fertility of the soil is 
also powerfully promoted by comminution and 
iabor, and by the addition of manure. Among 
the first may be meni ioned ploughing, rolling, 



harrowing, &c., all of which render the soil more 
porous, and easily permeable to the r.-)ots of plants, 
and more susceptible of the action of the atmo- 
sphere. Of manures it may be remaikod that 
their nature varies with the constitution of the soil. 
Lime and sand are the best manures for clayey 
soils, gypsum and marl for sandy ones. Besides, 
every kind of soil requires a proper quantity of 
vegetable or animal manure, without which it will 
soon become exhausted and infertile. Among 
manures of this class the principal are rotten dung 
and other organic matter, bone dust, nitrate of 
soda, and sulphate of ammonia. The first is ap- 
plicable to all soils, the second is especially valua- 
ble for wheat, and the third and fourth have been 
used in various cases with apparent advantage, but 
require further experiments to establish their pre- 
cise value. In the application of manures, refer- 
ence must be always had to the intended crop, as 
certain plants are found to require nourishment of 
a different description to what is fitted for others, 
and will grow feebly or not at all, when this is 
absent. Wheat, for example, will not produce a 
full kernel on soils destitute of lime. 

IV. The cultivation of vegetables consists in 
sowing or planting the seed in properly prepared 
ground, and in fostering its growth, and that of the 
resulting young plants, hy hoeingy weeding, &lc.; 
and finally, in the collection and preservation of 
the mature plants, seeds, or fruits. The plants 
mostly cultivated by farmers, are the cereal grasses, 
or such as produce bread corn, esculent roots, 
grasses for the food of domestic animals, and flax, 
hemp, and other plants employed in the arts, or 
used as food, or in pharmacy. Wheat, rye, bar- 
ley, and oats, which constitute the most important 
of the cereals, are cultivated by ploughing, mow- 
ing, and harrowing the land ; then scattering the 
seed over the whole surface, and lightly covering 
it with the soil by harrowing. When ripe it is 
harvested by cutting with the sickle, tying in bun- 
dles, drying, and storing in barns or stacks. Among 
the esculent roots the potato and turnip are the 
most useful and generally cultivated. The former 
is cultivated by setting the buds or eyes of the tu- 
bers, a short distance apart in rows, in holes made 
by a small stick, or in furrows. The seed of the 
turnip is commonly set by merely scattering it 
•ver the surface of well-tilled ground, and cover- 
ing it over. In the cultivation of grasses, the sort 
chosen must be adapted to the nature of the soil 
and its situation. Grass is harvested by mowing 
with a scythe, drying by spreading it out so as to 
expose it to the joint action of the sun and air, 
and storing it in ricks or barns. In this state it is 
called " Hay." Flax and hemp are generally 
sown " broadcast," and without further tillage are 
left to mature, when the plants are pulled up by 
the roots, and allowed to undergo a species of rot- 
ting, previously to being handed over to the man- 
ufacturer. 

V. The rearing of live-stock, or domestic ani- 
mals, is chiefly confined to horses, cattle, sheep, 
and swine. Among the first, the Arabian may be 
mentiou'jd as the fleetest, and the Dutch and 
Scotch as the hardiest and most suited to draught. 
Among cattle, the Dutch, or short-horned, the 
Lancashire, or long-horned, the Galloxoay, or 
hornless, and the Highland breed, may be named 



FEB 



300 



^ER 



as the most useful. Among horned cattle those 
should be preferred that produce the most milk, 
and that fatten well and produce the best beef, 
and that are suited to the climate and situation of 
the land. Among sheep the two grand divisions 
are short-wooled and long-wooled, both of which 
include numerous other breeds. The Merino 
breed, introduced into England from Spain in 1787, 
have the finest wool and are most valued. Sheep 
are sheared in the spring when the weather is 
settled and warm. Both sheep and cattle do best 
and fatten quickest when well sheltered from the 
weather, provided there be a proper amount of 
ventilation. Of swine a preference should be 
given to those breeds which fatten best, and pro- 
duce the finest flavored pork. The common prac- 
tice of confining pigs in dirty sties cannot be too 
much avoided ; they should be kept clean, and 
permitted to take sufficient exercise to promote 
their health, without allowing them to run at large, 
as in the latter case they are difficult to fatten. In 
some farms the rearing of poultry constitutes a 
most profitable object of attention. The Spanish 
fowls, commonly called Minor cas, are the largest 
and hardiest, and are good layers. To promote 
their power in this respect, they should be supplied 
with a proper quantity of azotized food, as grain, 
&c., and should be kept dry and well sheltered 
from the weather. The management of cows has 
been already noticed. 

VI. The rotation or succession of crops is abso- 
lutely necessary for the successful and economical 
cultivation of the soil. Crops have been divided 
by agriculturists into exhausting ci ops — restoring 
crops — and cleaning crops. The most exhaust- 
ing crops are usually considered to be those of 
corn, but all those that are allowed to ripen their 
seed, and which are carried off the ground, are also 
exhausting, but in different degrees. Even clover, 
tares, and grass cut green, are considered as ex- 
hausting, but in a less degree than those that are 
allowed to ripen. Restoring crops are such as are 
allowed to decay upon the ground, or are con- 
sumed upon it by domestic animals. Cleaning 
crops are such as are grown in drills, and undergo 
the usual operations of weeding, hoeing, &c. ; the 
majority of these may also be regarded as exhaust- 
ing crops. An exhausting crop should always be 
followed by a restoring or a cleaning crop ; or 
where possible, by both combined. Crops should 
also succeed each other in such a way that the 
soil may not be exhausted of any one particular 
kind of nutriment. This is best effected by so ro- 
tating the crops that plants which are nearly allied 
should not succeed each other, as the same or 
similar kinds of plants cultivated successively on 
the same soil, soon become sickly. This may, 
however, be obviated by supplying such plants 
~ff\i\i a proper quantity of the substances which 
enter into their composition, by applying it to the 
soil in the shape of manure ; but the expense of so 
doing so greatly exceeds that of the ordinary 
method of manuring with the proper rotation of 
crops, as to preclude the introduction of this plan 
on the largo scale. See Agriculture, Cows, 
Dmrv, Butter, Cheese, Cream, Manures, &c. 

FAT, CURRIERS'. Fat or tallow boiled until 
it is very hard and blackish -when cold. 

FEBRIFUGE. Syn. Fi brifugus. {Lat.,hom 



febris, a fever, and fugo, I drive away.) Thai 
which possesses the power of -juring or alleviatinff 
fever. The term is principally applied to medi- 
cines used against the ague, as bark, arsenicus 
acid, and their preparations. 

FEET, THE. To preserve the feet in a proper 
condition, they should be frequently soaked, and 
well washed in warm or tepid water. The nails 
of the toes should be pared to prevent their be- 
coming inconveniently long, and from growing 
into the flesh. Many persons suffer severely from 
tender feet. This generally arises from the use 
of thin cotton or silk stockings, and tight boots or 
shoes, that are not sufficiently porous to permit of 
the escape of the perspiration. The best treat- 
ment is the immediate adoption of worsted stock- 
ings or socks, and light easy shoes of buckskin, 
goatskin, or some other equally soft kind of leather. 
It is highly necessary, for the preservation of health, 
to preserve the feet dry ; persons who are, there- 
fore, exposed to the wet, or who are frequently 
passengers through the public streets in bad 
weather, should regard sound and good boots ?nd 
shoes as the most essential portion of their clothing. 
In fact, in a hygienic point of view, a wet back 
should be less shunned than wet feet. Many per- 
sons frequently experience extreme coldness and 
numbness of the feet ; the best remedies for such 
are exercise and friction. In these cases stockings 
of flannel or worsted alone should be worn, and 
should be kept on throughout the night if required. 
The peculiar and disagreeable odor which is 
evolved by the feet of some individuals in hot 
weather, may be removed by the observance of ex- 
treme cleanliness, and by occasionally soaking the 
feet in warm water, to which a small quantity of 
chloride of lime has been added. 

FERMENTATION. Syn. Fermentation, 
(Fr. ) Gahrung, (Ger.) Fermentatio, {Lat., from 
fermento, to ferment.) The spontaneous decom- 
position of the proximate principles of organic sub- 
stances, under the joint influence of warmth, air, 
and moisture, and the reunion of their elements 
forming new compounds. Fermentation, accord- 
ing to Liebig, is nothing else but the putrefaction 
of a substance containing no nitrogen ; or a meta- 
morphosis, by which the elements of a complex 
molecule group themselves so as to form more in- 
timate and stable compounds. It is excited by the 
contact of all bodies, the elements of which are in 
a state of active decomposition or fermentation. 
" In nitrogenized substances of a very complex 
constitution, putrefaction or fermentation is spon- 
taneously established when water is present, and 
the temperature sufficiently high, and it continues 
till the origiiial compounds are wholly destroyed. 
Substances destitute of nitrogen, on the contrary, 
require, in order to their undergoing this metamor- 
phosis, the presence of a nitrogenized substance, 
already in a state of putrefaction, (fermentation.") 
The substances which promote this change are 
termed /ermc;i/s; and among these, the principal 
are gliadine, gluten, vegetable albumen, and all 
substances in a state of spontaneous decomposition 
on fermentation. Yeast, the ferment most com- 
monly employed for inducing the vinous ferroenta- 
tion, is such a substance in an active state of pu- 
trefaction, and whose atoms are in continual mo- 
tion. Putrefying animal substances are equally 



FER 



301 



FER 



capable of exciting the same action. It is only in 
complex organic molecules of a higher order that 
fermentation or putrefaction takes place. The 
immediate cause of fermentation in such bodies as 
are not sufficiently complicated to undergo this 
change by the mere action of water and caloric, is 
most rationally presumed to arise from innnediate 
contact with the atoms of these bodies, which are 
undergoing this change. Thus, the motion, or 
conflict of the elements of the body in a state of 
decomposition, as those of yeeist, when employed 
to excite the vinous fermentation, destroys the 
equilibrium of the atoms of the sugar, and these, 
grouping themselves according to their special at- 
tractions, enter into new combinations, and form 
new compounds. The charcoal (carbon) of the 
sugar partly unites itself to the oxygen, forming 
carbonic acid, and partly to the hydrogen, forming 
alcohol. A similar kind of decomposition and in- 
terchange of elements takes place in all organic 
substances during the state of fermentation ; the 
proportions of the b'»ments liberated, and the com- 
pounds formed by their reunion, varying, of course, 
according to the precise composition of such sub- 
stances. 

Chemists have distinguished fermentation into 
five kinds, viz. : 1. The saccharine fermentation, 
by which starch and gum are converted into sugar. 
2. The alcoholic or vinous fermentation, by which 
sugar is 'converted into flZco/ioZ. 3. l^he viscous or 
mucilaginous fermentation, which converts sugar 
into slime or mucilage, instead of alcohol. 4. The 
acetous fermentation, by which alcohol is convert- 
ed into vinegar. 5. The putrid fermentation, or 
putrefaction, which is exhibited in its most marked 
form in the putrefaction of animal substances. 

1. The saccharine fermentation occurs during 
the germination and kiln-drying of grain in the 
operations of malting, and in the mashing of malt 
in brewing, and the sweetening of bread during its 
exposure to heat in tb ^ oven. The substance which 
most powerfully exciter, the sugar fermentation has 
been discovered by Payen and Persoz to be a pe- 
culiar principle, to which they have given the name 
of diastase. It forms about one per cent, of good 
barley malt, and possesses the singular property of 
converting starch into gum (dextrine) or sugar, at 
the tempez-ature of from 149° to 168° Fahr. When 
in a state of absolute purity, 1 part of diastase 
will, in a few hours, effect the conversion of 2000 
parts of starch into sugar, provided the temperature 
be not higher than 156° F. During the action of 
this substance on starch, it is itself decomposed ; 
and when the sugar fermentation ceases, it has 
entirely disappeared. It is the presence of diastase 
in malt, which alone converts the starch of the 
grain into sugar during the operation of mashing 
with hot water ; and hence will be seen the neces- 
sity of employing water of a proper temperature, 
as on this depend the strength and sweetness of 
the wort, and consequently its fitness for undergo- 
ing the vinous fermentation, and for making beer. 
Vegetable albumen and gluten also possess the 
property of exciting the saccharine fermentation, 
bu in a considerably inferior degree to diastase. 
A decoction of 2 parts of potato starch in 20 of 
w iter, mixed with I part of wheat gluten, and set 
aside for 8 or 9 hours at a temperature of about 
150°, wi'^ be fouiid to have become thin, trans- 



parent, and sweet, and to consist of sugar, guiC; 
and some unchanged starch, and sour gluten which 
has lost the power of acting on fresh starch. A 
decoction of 1 oz. of starch in 1 lb. of water ex- 
hibits like phenomena by mere exposure to llie air 
for G or 8 weeks in warm weather, provided fresh 
water be occasionally stirred in to supply the loss 
occasioned by evaporation. In all these cases, the 
starch is first transformed into gum before its con- 
version into sugar ; and if the process be stopped at 
the proper point, a solution of that substance may 
be obtained. For this purpose 10 to 25 parls of 
starch should be mixed with about 400 parts of 
water u 77^ to 86° F., and the temperature raised 
to 140°, when 100 parts of starch must be added, 
and the heat increased to 158°, and kept about 
that point for 20 or 30 minutes, or until the turbid 
fluid becomes limpid and transparent. The starch 
is now converted into mucilage, and by rapidly 
raising the heat to the boiling point, any further 
change will be prevented. A solution of gum or 
dextrine will be thus obtained. 

The sugar formed during the germination of 
seeds containing starch results from the action of 
diastase, and disappears as soon as the woody fibre, 
(lignine,) which has a similar constitution, is de- 
veloped, forming the skeleton of the young plant. 
(Liebig.) See Diastase, Dextrine, &,c. 

2. The alcoholic or vinous fermentation is the 
peculiar decomposition which sugar in solution un- 
dergoes, under certain circumstances, and by which 
carbonic acid is eliminated, and alcohol obtained. 
The presence of a ferment is essential to excite 
this fermentation, as a solution of perfectly pure 
sugar will remain unaltered, even though exposed 
to a temperature of from 70° to 75° F., which is 
that most favorable for its production. But if a 
small portion of yeast, or of a similar saccharine 
solution, whose molecules are in a state of motion, 
be added, the usual symptoms if fermentation will 
rapidly occur, and will continue until nearly the 
whole of the sugar is decomposed, when the liquid 
will become clear, and will be found to consist of 
diluted alcohol, while the yeast will have precipi- 
tated to the bottom of the vessel, and have lost its 
power of exciting fermentation in fresh sirup. 

In the juices of sweet fruits, and in those vegeta- 
ble solutions that spontaneously run into the state 
of fermentation, the ferment is supplied by nature, 
and is intimately associated with the saccharine 
matter. In such cases, the nitrogenous matters 
present are the first to suffer decomposition or fer- 
mentation, and this peculiar motion of their atoms 
is communicated to the sugar, and continues till 
the latter has entirely disappeared from the liquid, 
or the former are wholly precipitated in the shape 
of decomposed yeast or ferment. In those vegeta ■■ 
ble solutions which scarcely pass into the state of 
fermentation, or among whose molecules such 
changes progress slowly and irregularly, there is a 
deficiency of nitrogenized matters, or exciters of 
fermentation, and it becomes necessary to add a 
ferment. Recently-expressed grape-juice (^Iust) 
offers a lively instance of the former class of sub- 
stances, and infusion of malt (Wort) of the lattei 
When grapes are squeezed in the air, the limpid 
juice soon manifests the usual symptoms of fer- 
mentation, the liquid becomes turbid, carbonic acid 
gas is evolved, and the nitrogenized principles 



FER 



302 



FER 



which the juice previously contained are decom- 
posed and precipitated under the form of a ferment, 
(yeast,) which immediately induces the decompo- 
sition of the sugar ; and this state continues until 
either the whole of the yeast is precipitated in an 
hisoluble and inert form, or the whole of the sugar 
is decomposed. In the juice of those grapes that 
produce the more perfect wines, the relative pro- 
portions of the exciters of fermentation and the 
sugar, are so accurately apportioned by nature, 
that the whole of the former are decomposed, and 
nearly the whole of the latter converted into alco- 
hol ; so that the liquid (wine) is left in a state not 
liable to future change. When an infusion of malt 
is exposed to the atmosphere at a temperature 
suitable for fermentation, no such a change takes 
place in its constitution as that just described. 
Here the nitrogenized matters (gluten, ghadine, 
vegetable albumen, &c.) are absent, or at least 
present in too small quantities to excite the vinous 
fermentation ; the result is, that this infusion ulti- 
mately undergoes a mixed species of fermentation 
or decomposition, with the nroduction of products 
widely different from those that result from the 
true vinous fermentation ; or, in other words, the 
liquid becomes spoiled. But if a ferment (yeast) 
be added to this infusion of malt under the above 
circumstances, and in the proper proportion to the 
sugar present, the true vinous fermentation will 
speedily commence, and the liquid will become 
converted into beer. This is what actually takes 
place in the process of brewing ; and the scientific 
brewer endeavors to employ a proper quantity of 
ferment to decompose the whole of the saccharine 
matter of his wort, but, at the same time, as 
equally endeavors to avoid the use of an excess. 

The chief product of the vinous fermentation is 
alcohol, but there are other substances simultane- 
ously produced, and which remain associated with 
the fermented liquor. Among the principal of these 
are cenanthic acid, cenanthic ether, oil of potato 
spirit, oil of grain, &c. ; none of which exist previ- 
ously to fermentation, and are generally supposed 
to result from tht action of the nitrogenized matters 
of the solution on the sugar. Under certain cir- 
cumstances these extraneous products are formed 
in much larger quantities than under others ; and 
as these substances injure the value of the alcohol 
with which they are associated, a knowledge of 
the peculiar circumstances favorable and unfavor- 
able to their production, is a desideratum to the 
brewer and distil/ '•r. 

It has been Si*. vn, by the researches of MM. 
Colin and Thenard, and more recently by those of 
Boutron-Chalard, Fremy, and Rousseau, that the 
peculiar condition of the nitrogenous matter con- 
stituting the ferment, materially influences the 
nature of the fermentation. The essential condi- 
tion ol a ferment, to be able to excite the vinous 
fermentation, is to be sufficiently acidulous to act 
on colored papers ; and this acidity should arise 
from the presence of certain vegetable acids and 
salts, capable of conversion into carbonic acid and 
carbonates by their spontaneous decomposition. 
Those acids and salts which are found to pre-exist 
in fermentable fruits and iiqtiors, as the tartaric, 
citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their salts, should 
be chosen ; and of these the preference sliould be 
given to the bitartral e ot potassa, from its presence 



in the grape. The addition of any of thef»6 sub- 
stances to a saccharine solution renders its fer- 
mentation both more active and complete. Th« 
favorable influence of cream of tartar on fermenta- 
tion was first pointed out by Thenard and Colin ; 
and the addition of a little of this article has oeei: 
adopted in practice, with manifest advantaffe, by 
the manufacturers of British wine. When the 
acidity caused by these acids, or their acidulous 
salts, in a ferment, is considerable, the animal and 
mineral poisons, the essential oils, and various other 
substances, cease to modify the fermentation ; 
while, at the same time, the resulting alcohol is 
obtained in a purer state, as the extraneous pro- 
ducts which we have just mentioned are either not 
formed at all, or only in small and unimportant 
quantities : but the contrary takes place if the fer- 
ment be rendered neutral by washinnf with water. 

When the ferment has partially undergone spon- 
taneous decomposition, and exerr«ses an alkaline 
reaction on test paper, it ceases to excite the alec 
liolic fermentation in solutions of cane-sugar, but 
instead thereof, induces the de^/elopment of lactine 
(sugar of milk) and lactic acid, and in this respect 
exercises a similar action on solutions of sugar to 
that of caseine, diastase, and animal membrane. 
This difference of action has been shown by MM, 
Rousseau, to be nothing more than rational, for 
when yeast has become alkaline, it is converted 
into a substance presenting all the properties of 
caseine. 

I have stated that sugar is alone capable of di- 
rect conversion into alcohol by fermentation ; it 
may be therefore proper to state that there are 
several varieties of sugar, all of which possess simi- 
lar properties in this respect. In a late classifica- 
tion of the sugars, Liebig has included lactine 
(sugar of milk) among these bodies, because this 
substance disappears in milk exposed to a proper 
temperature, with the same phenomena that ac- 
company the fermentation of the other sugars, car- 
bonic acid being disengaged, and alcohol left in 
the liquid. Araka, which is an alcoholic liquor, 
distilled in Tartary from fermented mare's milk, 
and arika, a similar liquor, distilled from fermented 
cow's milk, in Iceland, are practical instances of 
the conversion of lactine into alcohol by fermenta- 
tion. There is good reason for supposing that each 
variety of sugar is first converted into grape sugar, 
by contact with the ferment, and that this variety 
of sugar is alone capable of yielding carbonic acid 
and alcohol by fermentation. (Liebig.) For this 
conversion of grape sugar, it is presumed that one 
of its atoms, (represented, in the crystallized state, 
by Ci2 H,4 Oil.) loses two atoms of water, and 
yields (according to theory) 44'84§ of carbonic 
acid, 47-12§ (49-38, Thenard) of alcohol, and 
9-04§ of water, which nearly agrees with the ex- 
periments of Guerin-Varry. According to Gay 
Lussac, 45 lbs. of sugar are converted into 23 lbs. 
of alcohol, and 22 lbs. of carbonic acid. This ex- 
planation will be simplified by reference to the fol- 
lowing diagram : 

4 atoms of carbonic acid contain - C4 . Og 

2 atoms of alcohol contain - - C^^ H,2 O4 

1 atom of grape-sugar, dried at ) r^ ti .-^ 
212°, contains - - - .{<--"" ^» 



FER 



303 



FER 



From the above it will be readily seen, that by 
a new groupincr of the elements of grape-sugar, 
alcohol and carbonic acid are produced, without 
the elements of the body which excites the fer- 
mentation taking any part in the conversion. 

In the practical production and proper regulation 
of the vinous fermentation consists the art of the 
brewer, wine maker, and distiller. The circum- 
stances most favorable to this fermentation, are — 
a certain degree of warmth and a sufficient quan- 
tity of active ferment, and its due distribution 
through the liquor. The temperature of from 68° 
to 77° is usually regarded as most propitious for 
the commencement and progress of fermentation, 
but it has been ably shown by Liebig, that, at this 
temperature, the newly formed alcohol slowly un- 
dergoes the acetous fermentation, forming vinegar, 
by which the value of the liquor is lessened. This 
conversion of alcohol into vinegar proceeds most 
rapidly at a temperature of 95° Fahr., and grad- 
ually becomes more languid, until, at about 46° 
to 50° Fahr., (8 to 10 C.,) it ceases altogether, 
while the tendency of the nitrogenous svibstances to 
absorb oxygen at this low temperature is scarcely 
diminished in a perceptible degree. " It is there- 
fore evident, that if wort (or any other saccharine 
solution) is fermented in wide, open, shallow ves- 
sels, as is done in Bavaria, which afford free and 
unlimited access to the atmospheric oxygen, and 
this in a situation where the temperature does not 
exceed 46° to 50° Fahr., (8° to 10° C.,) a separ- 
ation of the nitrogenous constituents, i. e., the ex- 
citers of acidification, takes place simultaneously 
on the surface, and within the whole body of the 
liquid." (Liebig.) By this method wine or beer 
is obtained, which is invariably far superior in qual- 
ity to that fermented in the usual manner. 

The quantity of the ferment, equally with the 
temperature at which the fermentation is con- 
ducted, materially influences the quality of the 
resulting liquor. We have already noticed, that 
the most perfect wines are produced from " must," 
which contains the proper proportions of nitrogen- 
ized matter and sugar to occasion mutual decom- 
position during fermentation, so that no nitroge- 
nous constituents, or exciters of fermentation, re- 
main in the liquor, to occasion the acidification of 
the newly-formed alcohol. When, however, either 
the one or the other is in excess, a large portion of 
the sugar remains undecomposed, or the remain- 
ing undecomposed nitrogenous matters continue to 
operate the same effect upon the alcohol as they 
previously did upon the sugar, but, in this case, 
with the production of acetic acid instead of spirit. 

" So long as sugar and a nitrogenous substance, 
in a state of continuing decomposition, exist side 
by side in a fluid, fermentation proceeds. While 
oxygen is excluded both these processes of trans- 
formation, namely, that of the sugar and that of 
the nitrogenous substance, or ferment, complete 
themselves side by side and limit each other mu- 
tually ; so that if the transformation of the sugar 
is completed before that of the ferment, as hap- 
pens, for example, in the juice of grapes poor in 
sugar, there remains, after the completion of the 
process of fermentation, that is, after the resolution 
of the sugar into carbonic acid and alcohol, a con- 
siderable amount of nitrogenous constituents, re- 
taining the same properties which they possessed 



in the juice previous to fermentation. This doei 
not happen with the juice of the grapes of southern 
climates. These grapes are rich in sugar, and a 
considerable amount of this substance remains un- 
decomposed after all nitrogenous matters have 
completely separated in an insoluble state, as yea.st 
Such wines alter very little when exposed to the 
air ; the red wines of this kind, however, acidify, 
because their coloring matter is of ready mutability, 
and performs, when in contact with the air, the 
part of the nitrogenous constituents. 

" The nitrogenous constituents of the grape-juice, 
which remain in wine after fermentation, or those 
ferments or exciters of fermentation in the sugar, 
of which I have already spoken, after the complete 
transformation of the sugar, are the exciting causes 
c^ the ensuing process of the acidification of the 
alcunol." (Liebig's Lectures.) 

Ij is obvious that the vinous fermentation is con- 
ducted with the greatest success, when the whole, 
or nearly the whole of the saccharine matter is 
converted into alcohol, and all those substances 
that tend to excite acidification are thrown down 
in an insoluble form. When this is the case, the 
liquor may be preserved for an unlimited period, 
and will rapidly acquire a degree of maturity, 
which, under the usual circumstances, occupies 
some years. To produce this effect in practice, 
we have only to obser\'e that the ferment and su- 
gar are present in the jyoper proportions, and to 
supply the deficiency of the one or the other when 
this is not the case. The nitrogenized matters 
constituting the ferments in gi-ape-juice, and vege- 
table juices generally, have a similar composition 
to that of the blood, or to the caseine of milk ; and 
the proportions in which they are present appear 
to depend not only upon the climate, but also upon 
the nature of the soil in which the vine grows, 
" The amount of these constituents of blood pro- 
duced in plants, as in the vine, for instance, may 
be increased by supplying them with animal ma- 
nures. Cow-dung is rich in alkalis, which exercise 
a certain influence upon the increase of the amount 
of saccharine matter produced by plants ; it is poor 
in nitrogen and the phosphates ; that is to say, in 
substances which minister to the formation of the 
constituents of blood. The excrements of man 
contain but a small amount of alkalis, but they 
act especially and favorably upon the production 
of the blood constituents ; or, if you like the phra- 
seology better, in producing ferments, — agents 
capable of exciting fermentation in the juices of 
plants. 

" It may therefore be easily understood, that we 
can exercise a most decided influence upon the 
quality of the juice of the grape by our manner of 
cultivation — by a judicious choice of manure. We 
may rationally improve a must,' rich in ferment, 
i. e. blood constituents, by the addition of sugar, 
and it is a matter of perfect indifference that 
this sugar has been produced in the organism oj 
some other species of plant; or we may add to 
the expressed juice of our unripe grapes, the 
dried ripe grapes of southern clirnes. In a scien- 
tific point of view, these are real improvements 
which have nothing in them very recondite, very 
difficult of comprehension, or objectionable " (Lie- 
big's Lectures.) 

The preceding remarks of the illustrious chemist 



FER 



304 



FER 



of G lessen, though specially alluding to the juice 
of grapes, and to wines, are equally applicable to 
every other vegetable juice or solution employed 
in the production of fermented liquors. The Brit- 
ish wine-maker, who employs the juice of fruits 
.less saccharine, and I'ess abundant in natural fer- 
ment than the grape, may easily supply a sufficient 
quantity of sugar to produce a liquor equal in 
strength to the strongest foreign wine ; while, at 
the same time, he may add such a proportion of 
ferment, if any is required, as will convert the 
whole of this sugar into alcohol, which he may 
preserve in the liquor undecomposed, by carrying 
on the fermentation at a temperature that will 
oppose its acetitication or transformation into vine- 
gar. But perhaps no kind of liquor in general use 
would be more improved by the practical applica- 
tion of these principles than cider. We have al- 
ready noticed the careless and imperfect waj- in 
which the fermentation of apple-juice is usually 
conducted, and the superiority of the cider of one 
county over that of another ; it is by a partial 
application of this knowledge in the one case, and 
its neglect in the other, that this difference exists. 

In the fermentation of malt wort, the application 
of these principles has been productive of the great- 
est advantages. The superiority of Bavarian 
beer, which is brewed on the above plan, over 
other beer, has been already noticed ; and, in this 
country, the superior q^iality of the Scotch and 
Burton ales {East India) over those of our ordi- 
nary brewers may be mainly referred to the low 
heat of the fermentation, and the employment of 
a proper proportion of ferment, (yeast.) 

The exact quantity of yeast required to produce 
the entire decomposition of the sugar in wort of 
any given gravity, is a problem which can scarce- 
ly be correctly solved, from the varying powers of 
exciting fermentation possessed by different sam- 
ples, dependent upon age, &c., and also upon the 
temperature of the liquor with which they are to be 
mixed. It has been stated that a quantity of yeast, 
whose moleculf-s are in a state of active motion, 
equivalent to 1^ parts of dried yeast, are suffi- 
cient to effect the perfect fermentation of 100 parts 
of sugar ; but this assertion requires confirmation. 
The Scotch ale brewer usually employs but 1 gal- 
lon of yeast to every 240 gallons of wort, of the 
average gravity of about 40 lbs. per barrel, and 
never adds more during the subsequent parts of the 
process, unless absolutely required. In England 
about 1 per cent, of yeast is the usual dose for 
worts of the ordinary strength. For a wort of 
about 30 lbs. per barrel, 2 to 3 lbs. of yeast are 
usually employed. An excess of yeast should be 
avoided, as it not only makes the fermentation 
proceed too rapidly for the production of good li- 
quor, but also greatly increases the temperature of 
the wort, and renders the process less easily con- 
trolled. 

In the brewing of beer, the complete conversion 
of the sugar into alcohol is not permitted by the 
brewer ; but as soon as the daily attenuation of 
the liquor becomes but trifling, it is " cleansed" to 
prevent the head of the bann mixing with the 
beer, which would (hen become " yrast-hitten." 
In worts that are formentod for the purpose of 
distillation, this plan is not adopted ; but the fer- 
mentation is allowed to proceed until the whole of 



the matter capable of conversion into alcohol haa 
disappeared from the liquor, when it is submitted 
to the still. 

The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of malt 
wort have been thus described by a writer on 
brewing. — 1. A cream-like substance forms round 
the edges of the gyle tun, which gradually extends 
itself, and ultimately covers the whole surface of 
the liquor. 2. A fine curly, or cauliflower-head, 
in a similar way extends itself over the surface, 
and indicates to the experienced brewer the proba- 
ble quality of the fermentation. 3. The " stomach," 
or vinous odor, is next evolved, and continues to 
increase with the attenuation of the wort. The 
peculiar nature of this odor is also an indication of 
the state of the fermentation. 4. The cauliflower- 
head changes or rises to a fine " rocky'' or " yeaS' 
ty" head, and ultimately falls down. 5. In this 
stage the head assumes a peculiar yeasty appear- 
ance, called by brewers " close-yeasty," and the 
gas is evolved in sufficient quantity to blow up lit- 
tle " bells" or " bladders," which immediately 
burst, and are followed by others, at intervals de- 
pending on the activity and forwardness of the 
fermentation. These bells should be bright and 
clear ; as, if they appear opaque or dirty, there is 
something the matter with the wort. (Black.) 

The maturation or ripening of beer and wine 
by age depends upon the slow conversion of the 
sugar into alcohol which escaped decomposition in 
the gyle tun, or fermenting vessel. This conver- 
sion proceeds most perfectly in vessels which en- 
tirely exclude the air, as in the case of wine in 
bottles ; but when air is present, it is usually ac- 
companied by slow acetification. This is the case 
of wine in casks ; the porosity of the wood allow- 
ing the very gradual permeation of the air. Hence 
the superiority of bottled wine over draught wine, 
or that which has matured in wood. Good wine, 
or well-fermented beer, is vastly improved by age, 
when properly preserved ; but inferior liquor, or 
even superior liquor, when preserved in improper 
vessels and situations, becomes acidulous, from the 
conversion of its alcohol into vinegar. Tartness or 
acidity is consequently very generally, though 
wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a sign of age 
in liquor. The peculiar change by which fer- 
mented liquors become mature or ripe by age, is 
termed the " insensible fermentation." It is the 
alcoholic fermentation impeded by the presence of 
the already-formed spirit in the liquor, and by the 
lowness of the temperature. 

We have seen that other products besides alco- 
hol are formed, under certain circumstances, du- 
ring the fermentation of the saccharine solutions of 
vegetables, and that these substKUCes lessen the 
value of the alcohol with which they are associa- 
ted. The principal of these are the oils which pass 
over in distillation from fermented potato and grain 
worts. The first has been called potato spirit oil 
fuselol, &c. ; the second corn- spirit oil, oil of 
grain, &c. According to Messrs. Bowerbank, 
the distillers, quoted by Dr. Poreira. 500 gallons 
of corn-spirit yield about one gallon of oil. Both 
the above oils are limpid and colorless, and possess 
a nauseous odor and taste, and are soluble in dilute 
alcohol in sufficient quantity to render it disagree- 
able, and unfit for the purposes of a beverage. 
Tliese peculiar substances abound in all grain spirit. 



FER 



305 



FER 



but occur in greater quantity when damajnred giain 
js employed to make the meish. It has been pro- 
posed to prevent, or at least to lessen the produc- 
tion of this oil, by not pushing tbe attenuation of 
the wort too far, or by the addition of a certain 
quantity of tartaric acid or bitartrate of potassa to 
the wort before submitting it to fermentation. The 
best means of depriving spirits of these, or other 
substances of a similar nature, is to largely dilute 
them with water, and to draw them over at a 
gentle heat. Agitation with olive oil, decantation, 
dilution with a large quantity of water, and re- 
distillation at a moderate heat, have also been re- 
commended. An e.vcellent method, frequently 
adopted to purify nauseous whiskey distilled from 
corn-spirit, is filtration through a series of 6 or 8 
vessels, filled with newly-burnt and coarsely-pow- 
dered charcoal. This plan succeeds perfectly with 
moderately diluted spirits. 

On Che Continent the peculiar taste which grain 
and potato oils impart to spirit is termed "/wseZ." 
To remove this, about 10. per cent, of common vin- 
egar, and a very tittle sulphuric acid are added, 
and well mixed by agitation. The spirit is next 
allowed to repose for a few days, and then distilled. 
A solution of chloride of lime is also employed for 
the same purpose, and in the same way. In both 
the above cases, a species of ether is formed which 
possesses a very agreeable odor. In the first case, 
ioeiate of o.xide of amylol is produced, which has 
so p.easant a taste and smell of fruit, that " it~may 
be employed for perfuming apartments and making 
ratifias." The chloride of amylol has also a pleas- 
ant ethereal smell and taste. The affinity of the 
hydrated oxide of amylol (fuselol) for acetic acid 
is so great, that they readily unite without the 
intervention of a mineral acid. (Doebereiner.) 
Thus, the oil of vitriol mentioned above, though 
always used in practice, might be omitted without 
any disadvantage. 

It is often of the utmost importance to brew- 
ers, wine-merchants, sugar-refiners, ^c, to be 
able to lessen the activity of the vinous fermenta- 
tion, or to stop it altogether, or to prevent its ac- 
cession to sii'Ups or sacc-harine and vegetable 
solutions. The nature of the animalized matter 
forming ferment, the presence of which is neces- 
sary to fermentation, will readily suggest the proper 
means to be employed in such cases. Whatever 
will still the motion of the molecules of the nitro- 
genous matter forming the ferment, will render 
them inoperative as exciters of fermentation. 
Among the simplest means of effecting this object, 
and such as admit of easy practical application, 
may be mentioned exposure to either cold or heat. 
At a temperature below about 50° F., the acetous 
fermentation ceases altogether, and the alcoholic 
fermentation proceeds with diminished activity as 
he temperature falls, until at about 38° F. it en- 
tirely ceases. In like manner, the rapid increase 
of the temperature of a fermenting liquid will ar- 
rest its fermentation, and is preferable to the action 
of cold, as it is of easier application, and perfectly 
precipitates the ferment in an inert state. For this 
purpose, a temperature of about 180 or 200° is 
preferable, or even that of boiling water may be 
employed with advantage. In practice, fluids are 
commonly raised to their boiling point for this pur- 
pose, or are submitted to the heat of a water-bath, 
39 



(207i° F.) In this way the fermentation of sirupt 
and vegetable solutions and juices is usually ar- 
rested in the pharmaceutical laboratory. 

Among substances that may be added to 
liquids to arrest fermentation, the most active 
are — the volatile oil of mustard, coarsely-powdered 
mustard seeds or pure flour of mustard, .sulphurous 
acid or the fumes of burning sulphur, sulphuric 
acid, sulphite of lime, tinctuie of catechu, alcohol, 
strong acetic acid, chlorate of potassa, bruised 
horseradish, garlic, and cloves, and their essential 
oils, and all the other volatile oils that contain sul- 
phur, and most of the salts that readily part with 
their oxygen. All the above arrest fermentation, 
and render yeast inoperative, and they possess this 
power nearly in the order in which they stand 
above. In practice, mustard, the fumes of burn- 
ing sulphur, and sulphite of lime, are those most 
adapted for beer, cider, wines, sirups, &.C. ; but 
some of the others are occasionally used, though 
less active. For arresting or preventing the fer- 
mentation of the vegetable juices and solutions, 
and the medicated sirups employed iu pharmacy, 
mustard seed, or this with a little bruised cloves, 
should alone be used, as the addition of acids oi 
salts would lead to the decomposition of their ac- 
tive principles. For this reason such liquids should 
be kept in i sufficiently low temperature to pre- 
vent fermei tation, and should they pass into that 
state, it sho dd be preferably arrested by the appli- 
cation of htat or cold, as above explained. (See 
Bread, Brewing, Yeast, &c.) 

3. The viscous or mucilaginous fermentation, 
is that peculiar change which produces the " ropi- 
ness" of wine, beer, and other liquors. This spe- 
cies of decomposition is exhibited in the most com- 
plete state, when the juices of carrots, onions, 
beet roots, &-c., are ferxnented at a temperature 
of from 100° to 120° Fahr. At ordinary temper- 
atures alcohol is formed, but in this case the sugar 
is converted into maunite, lactic acid, and a pecu- 
liar substance which is precipitated as a species of 
slimy mucilage on the addition of alcohol. Weak 
solutions of sugar (1 to 20) boiled with yeast ox 
gluten, and kept at a temperature of from 85° 
to 105° Fahr., readily pass into this kind of fer- 
mentation. The best means of arresting this dis- 
position in fermented liquors, is the addition of a 
little alum or catechu, dissolved in water, or an in- 
fusion or decoction of nut galls. A small quantity 
of sulphurous or sulphuric acid will produce a like 
effect. When weak sirups are attacked in this 
way, the best remedy is to heat them to the boil- 
ing point. 

4. The acetous fermentation, or the production 
of vinegar by the oxidation of alcohol, has been 
already brieffy touched on, under the head Ace- 
TiFiCATioN. It may be here remarked, that this 
species of fermentation differs from those previously 
noticed ; for whereas they are capable of continu- 
ing in vessels xoithout access of air, when once 
excited, this is immediately stopped when the air 
is excluded, and under ordinary circumstances 
proceeds with a degree of rapidity proportionate to 
the amount of surface exposed to the action of at- 
mospheric oxygen. It also diiFers from the alco- 
holic fermentation by the products being formed, 
not only by a new grouping of the elements of the 
substance undergoing dpcomp/>sition. but by mean* 



FER 



30G 



FER 



of oxygen not previously' contained in that sub- 
stance. 

Pure alcohol diluted with water does not acidify 
by mere exposure to the atmosphere, but when 
mixed with organic matters, as in the state it ex- 
ists in fermented liquors, it readily absorbs oxygen, 
and passes into vinegar. This change takes place 
most rapidly at a temperature of 95° Fahr., and 
gradually lessens in activity as the temperature 
falls, until at about 50° it ceases altogether. The 
acetous fermentation spontaneously follows the 
vinous fermentation, when the fermented liquor is 
left exposed at ordhiary temperatures, and in some 
cases the two fermentations simultaneously occur 
in the same liquid ; the newly formed alcohol pass- 
ing slowly into vinegar, while the undecomposed 
sugar is being converted into alcohol. From the 
simultaneous existence of the two !"ermentations in 
the same liquid, some persons who have only im- 
perfectly investigated the subject, have been led to 
suppose that the saccharine matter is capable of 
direct conversion into vinegar ; but the falseness 
of this supposition is fully demonstrated by careful 
observation. 

According to the researches of Doebereiner and 
E. Davy, 1 equivalent, or 46 parts of alcohol, ab- 
sorb 4 equivalents, or 32 parts of atmospheric oxy- 
gen during the process of acetification, and hence 
are formed 1 eq. or 51 parts of dry acetic acid, and 
3 eq. or 27 parts of water ; or, which is the same 
thing, 1 eq. or 60 parts of glacial acetic acid, and 
2 eq. or 18 parts of water. This will be rendered 
familiar by reference to the following diagram : — 

1 eq. of dry acetic acid . . . =0411303 

3 eq of water = Hg O3 

1 eq. of alcohol C4 He O2 \ n vi n 

4 eq. of oxygen . . O4 \ ' - ^* ^^ U^ 

This transformation has been lately shown to 
result from the oxidation of a. portion of the hydro- 
gen of the alcohol, forming water and aldehyde, 
and from the absorption of atmospheric ogygen by 
the latter, by which it becomes converted into 
acetic acid. (Liebig.; See Acetification, Acetic 
Acid, and Vinegar, and the preceding article on 
the Vinous Fermentation. 

5. Putrefactive fermentation. (See Putrefac- 
tion.) 

To the preceding it may be added, that if a little 
white cheese curd be mixed with a solution of su- 
gar, and the mixture be preserved at from 76° to 
86° Fahr., and kept neutral with chalk, the sugar 
will entirely disappear, hydrogen and carbonic 
j,cid will be given ofF, and a considerable amount 
of butyric acid will be found in the fluid. This has 
fteen called the "butyric fermentation," and is 
-lighly interesting and important, from the explana- 
tion it aflbrds of the production of fat in animals. 

FERRIC ACID. This acid has only been ob- 
tained combined with potassa, forming a ferrate 
or perferrate of that alkali. Fremy, the discov- 
erer of this new compound, prepared it by calci- 
ning a mixture of the |)eroxides of iron and potas- 
siutn, or by igniting a mixture of potassa and oxide 
of iron, or by injecting nitre on iron in fine powder, 
and healed to redncKS in a crucible. The follow- 
ing form, published by TromnisdorlF, will, however, 
be found more convenient and c(^rtain : — Finely- 
pulverizmd iron filings 2 dr. ; pulverized saltpetre 4 



dr. ; mix, place it in an 8 or 10 oz. crucible, heated 
to a glowing red, still standing on red-hot coals, and 
when combination takes place en one side, shown 
by the evolution of light and white fumes, remove 
it from the fire. As soon as the deflagration of the 
mixture has ceased, scrape out the mass on to a 
cold plate, by means of an iron spatula. Thk 
product is a dark reddish-black mass, forming 3. 
superb cherry-red solution with water, which 
quickly undergoes decomposition, depositing ses- 
quioxide of iron, and evolving pure oxygen. It is 
the substance employed by Dr. Pa'yerne to keep 
up the vitality of the air in diving-bells, uncon- 
nected with the atmosphere. For this purpose, it 
is only necessary to drbp a piece occasionally into 
a vessel of water. ' 

FERRIDCYANIDE OF IRON. Syn. Hy- 

DRO-FERRIDCYANATE OF IrON. TuRNBULl's Bi.UE. 

Prep. Precipitate a solution of pr ''to -sulphate jf 
iron by another of red prussiate of j. oiash. (Fer- 
ridcyanide of potassium.) 

Remarks. This is a variety of Prussian blue, of 
remarkably beautiful color, and may be distin- 
guished from the ordinary Prussian blue of com- 
merce by its action on the yellow prussiate of pot- 
ash. When boiled in a solution of the latter it is 
decomposed, a portion is dissolved, and a gray res- 
idue remains. 

FERRIDCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
Syn. Red Prussiate of Potash. Hydro-ferrid- 

CYANATE OF PoTASSA. ReD FerROCYANIDE OF PO- 
TASSIUM. Prep. Pass chlorine gas through a very 
dilute solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, evapor- 
ate it when the oxidation is complete, and add to 
the boiling liquor, when it is near its crystallizing 
point, a few drops of solution of potash ; the green 
substance is then decomposed, and flocks of perox- 
ide of iron separate. It is very easy to observe the 
moment at which the object is attained, and care 
must be taken not to add too much potash, because 
an excess of it would convert the ferridcyanide of 
potassium into ferrocyanide. The solution is to be 
filtered hot to separate the peroxide of iron ; it pos- 
sesses a deep purplish red color, is to be cooled very 
slowly, and then fine crystals of the salt are ob- 
tained. (M. Posselt.) 

FERRID-CYANOGEN. A compound formed 
by treating ferrocyanide of potassium with chlo- 
rine. It unites with 3 eq. of hydrogen, forming a 
tribasic acid, termed hydro-ferrid cyanic acid. 

FERROCYANIC ACID. Syn. Ferrochyazic 
Acid. Hydro-ferrocyanic Acid. Prep. I. Dis- 
solve yellow prussiate of potash in water, and add 
a solution of hydrosulphuret of baryta, as long as 
a precipitate falls, filler, wash the powder with 
cold water, dry, dissolve 100 parts in cold water, 
add 30 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, mix 
well, and after repose decant the clear. (M. Por- 
rett.) 

II. Diffuse recently precipitated ferrocyenide 
of lead or copper through water, decompose it by 
passing a stream of sulphureted hydrogen through 
the liquid, and filler. (Berzelius.) 

III. Agitate with ether a coucentrat^'d aqueou/' 
solution of ferrocyanic acid as obtained by tlie de- 
composition of ferrocyanide of lead by means of 
sulphuric or hydrosulphuric acid ; the acid separ- 
ates innnedialely, and may bo obtained by filtra- 

I tion ; this remarkable separation of the acid from 



FER 



307 



FEV 



the water which holds it in sokition, requires but 
litt e ether. If the solution is moderately concen- 
trated, th^i whole forms a thick mass by agitation, 
and after some time the ferrocyanic acid suspend- 
ed in the ether separates from the water saturated 
with ether, and swims on the surface. The water 
is to be removed by a pipette ; the thick mass is to 
be put on a filter and washed repeatedly with a mix- 
ture of alcohol and ether, containing a considera- 
ble portion of the latter; it is then to be pressed 
between the folds of absorbent paper to remove the 
moisture, and afterwards to be perfectly dried over 
sulphuric acid in the air-pump. — 

Or prepare concentrated solution of ferrocyanide 
of potassium with boiled water, cool without con- 
tact with the air, add an excess of hydrochloric 
acid, also deprived of air, and agitate with ether as 
before ; dissolve the separated acid in alcohol, to 
which a little sulphuric acid has been added, filter 
if not clear, and agitate with ether ; the separated 
acid is to be. dried as before described. (M. Pos- 
selt.) 

Remarks. The lemon-colored solutions obtained 
by the first two processes, should be cautiously 
evaporated 'over sulphuric acid, in vacuo, when 
ferrocyanic acid will be obtained under the form 
of a crystalline mass. By the last method it is 
procured in the state of a white powder, frequently 
with a slight blue or yellow tint. This acid is de- 
composed by heat and moisture, when in contact 
with the air. With the metallic oxides it foritTs the 
compounds termed ferrocyanides, ferrocyanates, 
hydroferrocyanates, or prussiates. The insolubles, 
ferrocyanides, may all be formed by the mixture 
of a soluble salt of the metal with a solution of the 
prussiate of potash. (See Prussian Blue and 
Prussiate of Potash.) 

FERROCYANIDE OF AMMONIUM. Syn. 
Hydro-ferrocyanate of Ammonia. Ferro- 
CYANATE of DO. Prussiate OF DO. Prep. Digest 
ferrocyanide of lead in a solution of sesquicarbon- 
ate of ammonia at a gentle heat, filter, evaporate, 
and cr}-stallize. 

FERROCYANIDE OF BARIUM. Prep. 
Digest pure Prussian blue in powder, in bar}^ta wa- 
ter. It forms efflorescent prismatic crystals by 
evaporation. Soluble in 4^ parts of water. 

FERROCYANIDE OF COPPER. Syn. 
Prussiate of Copper, «fcc. Prep. Precipitate a 
solution of a salt of copper with another of prus- 
siate of potash ; collect the powder, wash it with 
water and dry. Has a beautiful reddish brown 
color. 

FERROCYANIDE OF IRON is only known 
in the double ferrocyanides of iron. 

FERROCYANIDE OF LEAD. Syn. Prus- 
siATE OF Lead. &c. Prep. From a soluble salt 
of lead by the addition of a solution of prussiate of 
potash. A yellowish white powder. 

FERROCYANIDE OF MERCURY. Prep. 
From a salt of mercury, as the last. A white 
powder, which undergoes decomposition as soon as 
precipitated. 

FERROCYANIDE OF ZINC. A white 
powder precipiiated from a solution of a soluble salt 
of zinc, by adding ferrocyanic acid, or a solution of 
prussiate of potash. The latter solution also pre- 
cipitates tchite ferrocyanides from solutions of 
the salts of silver and bismuth, a greenish white 



one from those of nickel, a green one turning red 
from the salts of cobalt, and a white one, chang- 
ing to a peach-color, from the salts of the pro- 
toxide of manganese. 

FEVER. Syn. Fievre, (Fr.) Febris ; Py- 
rexia, {Lat. ; the former from ferveo, I burn, 
whence the English word ; the latter from irvp,Jire.) 
The name of an extensive and important class of 
diseases, one of the most general symptoms of 
which is an increased heat of the body. Fevers 
have been divided by nosologists into intermittents, 
(intermittentes,) and continued fevers, {conUmxw.) 
The first of these are generally known by the 
name of agues, and the latter have been divided into 
synocha, or inflammatory fever ; typhus, putrid or 
low fever ; and synochus, or the common continued 
or mixed fever, which commences with symptoms 
allied to the former, but terminates with those of 
typhus. The terms hectic, nervous, bilious, in- 
jlanunatory, (Sec, have also been applied to partic- 
ular varieties of fever, and names indicative of 
certain cutaneous appearances connected with 
them have been given to others ; as scarlet fever, 
yellow fever, &lc., from the color of the skin in 
those diseases. 

The usual symptoms of incipient fever are chiUi- 
ness, quick pulse, hot and dry skin, languor, de- 
pression of spirits, alternate fits of shivering and 
heat, hurried and uneasy respiration, flying pains 
in various parts of the body, as the head, back, 
and loins ; loss of appetite, nausea or vomiting ; 
dry mouth, furred tongue, costiveness, urine small 
in quantity, and usually of a deep color, &,c. 
When any of these symptoms appear, their pro- 
gress may often- be arrested by the timely exhibi- 
tion of an emetic, followed by a saline purgative, 
and diaphoretics ; at the same time promoting the 
action of these remedies by a low diet and drink- 
ing copiously of diluents, and carefully avoiding 
animal food, spirits, fermented liquors, or any thing 
at all stimulant. Whenever symptoms of fever be- 
come established, medical advice should be sought 
and implicitly foUovt'ed. 

In visiting or attending persons laboring under 
fevers, it is advisable to avoid immediate contact 
with themselves or clothing, or standing near them 
in such a position as to inhale their breath, or the 
effluvia evolved (in some cases) by their bodies ; 
and when remaining for some time in the apart- 
ment, it is preferable to sit or stand near the fire- 
place, or between the window and door, as in such 
parts ventilation is most perfect. The greatest 
purifier of the atmosphere of a room is a good fire, 
because it occasions a continual current of the im- 
pure air up the chimney, and a corresponding in- 
flux of fresh air from without. Chloride of lime, 
or its solution, is also a good purifier of the atmo- 
sphere of a sick chamber, but should not be used in 
quantity, as the evolved chlorine might, in that 
case, impede the respiration of the patient. A small 
quantity of the powder spread on a flat dish or 
plate, and placed on the chimney piece, and a like 
quantity in an opposite part of the room, will con- 
tinue to evolve sufficient chlorine to disinfect the 
air of an apartment for a week or longer. The 
evolution of chlorine is promoted by occasionally 
renewing the exposed surface, by stirring it with 
a piece of stick, and after it becomes scentless, 
by the addition of a httle acid, as strong vjnegar, 



FIL 



308 



FIL 



or spirits of salts or oil of vitriol, largely diluted 
with water. It is advisable to avoid entering the 
room of a patient laboring under contagious dis- 
eases, when the stomach is empty, or the spirits 
depressed ; and it has been recommended to clear 
the mouth of the saliva immediately after quitting 
the chamber. 

FI BRINE. A peculiar proteine substance, 
forming the coagulable portion of fresh-drawn 
blood, and the principal constituent of the mus- 
cular or f eshy parts of animals. It also occurs 
m vegetable juices, the gluten of wheat, and in 
the seeds of the cereals generally. It is eminently 
nutritious, and capable of yielding in the animal 
body, albumen, caseine, and the tissues derived 
from them. (Liebig.) It is a modification of pro- 
teine, and as 'luch contains in itself the elements 
of ail the softer portions of animals, and is hence 
capable of supporting life without the addition of 
any other aliment. This is what no other sub- 
stances but albumen and caseine (also modifica- 
tions of proteine) can do. 

FILICINA. Syn. Filicia. A peculiar sub- 
stance, possessing alkaline properties, discovered 
by Batso in the rhizomes of the male shieM-fern, 
(Aspidium filix mas.) 

FILTER. Syn. Filtrum, (Lat.) Filtre, 
(Fr.) An instrument for filtering or straining. 

FILTRATION. Syn. Filtriren, (Ger.) 
Filtration, (Fr.) Filtratio, (Lat., from fil- 
trum, a filter.) The separation of liquids from 
substances mechanically suspended in them, by 
passing them through the pores of media sufii- 
ciently fine to retain or keep back the solid mat- 
ter. Filtration is one of the most common and 
useful chemico-mechanical operations of the arts, 
but under some circumstances, requires consider- 
able address for its successful performance. It is 
usually resorted to for the purpose of freeing fluids 
from feculence, dirt, and other foreign matter, and 
for obtaining them in a clear or transparent state ; 
but, in some cases, it has for its object the collec- 
tion of the suspended substances, as precipitates, 
&c., and in others both these intentions are com- 
bined. The word filtration is absolutely synony- 
mous with straining, but, in the language of the 
laboratory, the former is usually applied to the 
operation of rendering liquids transparent, or near- 
ly so, by passing them through fine media, as fil- 
tering paper, for instance ; the latter to the mere 
separation of the grosser portion, by running them 
through coarse media, as flannel, horse-hair cloth, 
&c., through which they flow with considerable 
rapidity. Filtration is distinguished from clarifi- 
cation, by the former removing the solid matter, 
or cause of opacity or foulness, by mere mechani- 
cal means, whereas the latter consists in the clear- 
ing of a liquid by depuration, or the subsidence of 
the suspended substances or foeces, arising from 
their gravity being naturally greater than the fluid 
with which they are mixed, or being rendered so 
by the application of heat, or the addition of some 
foreign substance. 

The apparatus, vessels, or media, emi>loyed for 
filtration, are called filters, and are commonly 
distinginshcd from strainers by the superior fine- 
ness of their pores, as above noticed. 

Both Btrainers and filters act on the same prin- 
ciplcH oi the common sieve on powders ; they all, 




in like manner, retain or hold back the coarser 
matter, but permit the liquid, or smaller and more 
attenuated particles to pass through. The terra 
medium has been applied to the substance thiough 
the pores of which the liquid percolates. 

The forms of filters, and the substances of which 
they are composed, are various, and depend upon 
the nature of the liquids for which they are in- 
tended. On the small scale, funnels of tin, zinc, 
copper, Wedgewood ware, earthenware, glass, or 
porcelain, are commonly employed 
as the containing vessels. (See en- 
graving.) The filtering medium 
may be any substance of a suffi- 
ciently spongy or porous nature to 
allow of the free percolation of the 
hquid, and whose pores are, at the 
same time, sufficiently fine to ren- 
der it limpid or transparent. Un- 
sized paper, flannel, linen, calico, cotton-wool, felt, 
sand, coarsely-powdered charcoal, porous stori'? or 
earthenware, and numerous other substances of a 
similar kind, are employed for this purpose. 

For many liquids that easily filter, and whose 
suspended matter is of a coarse and porous na- 
ture, it is suflScient merely to place a little cotton 
wool or tow, or a small piece of sponge in the 
neck of a funnel, as at (a) in the above engra- 
ving ; but such materials, from the small extent 
of the filtering surface, soon get choked up. Fil- 
ters of unsized paper are well suited for all liquids 
that are not of a corrosive or viscid 
nature, and are universally employed 
for filtering small quantities of liquids 
in the laboratory. A piece of the 
paper is taken of a size proportionate 
to the quantity of the substance to 
be filtered, and is first doubled from 
corner to corner into a triangle, (see 
eng.,) which is again doubled into 
a smaller triangle, and the angular 
portion of the margin being rounded 
off" with a pair of scissors, constitutes 
a paper cone, which is placed on a 
funnel, and nearly filled with the li- 
quid. A piece of paper so cut, when 
laid flat upon a table, should be near- 
ly circular. Another method of form- 
ing a paper filter, preferred by some 
persons, is to double the paper once, as above, (see 
fig. 2,) and then to fold it in a similar 
way to a fan, observing so to open it 
and lay it on the funnel, that a suffi- 
cient interval be left between the two, 
to permit of the free percolation of the 
liquid. (See eng.) 

To promote the same object, a funnel should be 
deeply ribbed inside, or small rods of wood or 
glass, or pieces of straw, or quills, should be placed 
between it and the paper. The neck of a funnel 
should also be deeply ribbed or fluted outside, to 
permit of the free passage of the air, when it i* 
placed in a narrow-mouthed bottle or receiv >*. 
Without this is the case, the filtration will proceed 
but slowly, and the filtered liquid will be driven up 
the outside of the neck of the funnel by the cou- 
lined air, and will be continually hissititr and flow- 
ing over the mouth of the vessel. The breadth 
of a funnel, to filter well, should be about thre< 





FIL 



309 



IL 




fourths of its height, reckoning fiom the throat a. 
When deeper, the paper is liable to be continually 
ruptured from the pressure of the fluid ; and when 
shalloicer, filtration proceeds slowly, and an un- 
necessarily large surface of the liquid is exposed 
to evaporation. To lessen this as much as possi- 
ble, the upper edge of the glass is frequently 
ground perfectly smooth, and a piece of smooth 
plate-glass is laid thereon. When paper filters are 
of large dimensions, or for aqueous fluids that 
Boften the texture of the paper, or for collecting 
heavy powders, or metallic precipitates, it is usual 
to support them on linen or calico, to prevent their 
breaking." This is best done by folding the cloth 
up with the paper, and cutting the filter out of the 
two, in the same way as would be done with 
doubled paper, observing so to place it in the fun- 
nel that the paper and calico may remain close 
together, especially towards the bottom. 

The filtration of small quantities of liquids, as 
in chemical experiments, may often 
be conveniently performed by mere- 
ly placing the paper on the circular 
top of a recipient, as in the engra- 
ving ; or on a ring of glass or earth- 
enware laid on the top of any suit- 
able vessel. A filter of this kind 
that will hold one fluid ounce, will 
filter many ounces of some liquids 
in an hour. 
Good filtering paper should contain no soluble 
matter, and should not give more than -^l-^ to -j-i^ 
of its weight of ashes. The soluble matter may 
be removed by washing it, first, with vej-y dilute 
muriatic acid, and secondly, with distilled watf r. 

For filtering a larger quantity of a liquid than 
can be conveniently managed with a funnel, and 
also for substances that are either too 
viscid or too much loaded with fecu- 
lence to allow them to pass freely 
through paper, conical bags made of 
flannel, felt, twilled cotton cloth or 
Canton flannel, linen, or calico, and 
suspended to iron hooks by rings or 
tapes, are commonly employed. The 
first two of the above substances are 
preferable for saccharine, mucilagi- 
nous, and acidulous liquids ; the third 
for oily ones ; and the remainder for 
tinctures, weak alkaline lyes, and similar solu- 
tions. These bags have the disadvantage of suck- 
ing up a considerable quantity of the fluid poured 
into them, and are therefore objectionable, except 
for large quantities, or when continued in actual 
use as filters for some time. On the large scale, 
a number of them are usually worked together, 
and are generally enclosed in cases to prevent 
evaporation, and to exclude dirt from the filtered 
liquor that trickles down their outsides ; some of 
these arrangements will be noticed farther on. 

A very simple mode of filtering aqueous fluids, 
which are not injured by exposure to the air, is to 
draw them ofi" from one vessel to an- 
other, by means of a number of threads 
cf loosely twisted cotton or worsted, ar- 
ranged in the form of a-syphon. (See 
the figure in the margin.) The little 
cotton rope at once performs the oper- 
ations of decantation and filtration. This method 





is often convenient for sucking off* the water from 
small quantities of precipitates. 

When solid substances, as porous stone or farth- 
enware, are used as the media for filtration. \es- 
sels of metal, wood, or stoneware, are employed to 
contain them and the supernatant liquid. In thesfl 
cases, the filtering medium is usually arranged as 
a shelf or diaphragm, and divides the vessel into 
two compartments ; the upper one being intended 
to contain the dirty liquid, and the under one tc 
receive the same when filtered. Such an appara- 
tus is set in operation by merely filling the upper 
chamber, and may at any time be readily cleaned 
out by reversing it, and passing clean water tlirough 
it in an opposite direction. When pulverulent sub- 
stances, as sand, coarsely -powdered charcoal, &.C., 
are employed, a similar arrangement is followed ; 
but in this case, the shelf or diaphragm must con- 
sist of any convenient substance pierced with nu- 
merous holes, over which must be placed, first a 
stratum of coarse pebbles, next some cf a finer 
description, and on this a proper quantity of the 
sand, charcoal, or other medium. Over the whole 
should be placed another layer of pebbles, or a 
board or plate of metal or earthenware, pierced 
with a number of holes, to allow the liquid to be 
poured into the filter without disturbing its arrange- 
ment. Apparatus of this kind of a permanent de- 
scription, and arranged for filtering large quantities 
of liquids, are properly denominated "filtering 
machines.'^ 

Among the liquids usually submitted to filtration, 
the following may be mentioned as the principal : 
water, oils, sirups, tinctures, vegetable juices, 
infusions, and decoctions. 

The icater of our wells is presented by nature 
ready filtered to the hand of man, and often ex- 
hibits a desirable degree of transparency and pu- 
rity. It acquires this state by percolating through 
the mineral strata of the earth, which deprive it 
of the organic matter it derives from the soil and 
subsoil, but, at the same time, it dissolves a por- 
tion of the saline and earthy media through which 
it passes, and hence acquires that peculiar " hard- 
ness" which is constantly found in spring water. 
On the large scale, this natural system of filtra- 
tion has been imitated by some of the commercial 
companies that supply our cities and towns with 
water. Extensive beds of sand and gravel have 
been employed, with variable success, as the filter- 
ing media, and were it not that filters gradually 
lose their porosity by the accumulation of the re- 
tained matter in their pores, such a method would 
be excellent. But the great expense of such fil- 
ters precludes the possibility of frequently cleaning 
or renewing them, by which means they can alone 
be kept in an efficient state. A filter that appears 
to possess the advantages of being easily and 
cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which filters wa- 
ter in the most perfect manner, and with immense 
rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum or 
sponge between two perforated metallic plates, 
united by a central screw, and arranged iu such a 
manner as to permit of the spcnge being com- 
pressed to any required degree. Water, under 
gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through 
the pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that 
a few square feet of this substance will perfectly 
filter several millions of gallons of water per day 



FIL 



310 



FIL 




This method of filtration has been made the sub- 
ject of a patent, and has been favorably noticed 
by the legislature. 

A few barrels or hogsheads of water may be 
easily filtered daily, by the arrangement repre- 
sented in the engraving. 



A, A common water-pipe, or cask. 

b, A false bottom, fitting in perfect- 
ly water-tight. 

c, A perforated wooden or metallic 
vessel or box, covered with a bag of 
felt, or other filtering substance, (not 
shown in the engraving.) d, A small 
tube, fitting water-tight into the false 
bottom, and uniting the interior of the 
filter with the lower portion of the 
cask. 



It is evident that when water is poured into the 
upper portion B, of a vessel so arranged, it will 
sink through the filter c, and pipe d, into the lower 
chamber C, and this filtration will go on as long 
as the supply continues, and water is drawn from 
the cock e. By uniting the cock e with a tank 
or casks, and by keeping the upper portion B al- 
ways full by means of a ballcock, a considerable 
quantity of water may be thus filtered. The ad- 
vantage of this plan is, that the filter c can be 
always readily got at, and easily cleaned or re- 
newed. For filtering water on the small scale, or 
for domestic use, alcarrhazas or porous earthen- 
ware, filtering-stone, and layers of sand and char- 
coal, are commonly employed as the filtering me- 
dium. The filtering power of 
the first two may be greatly in- 
creased by adopting the arrange- 
ment represented in the margin, 
which consists in making the 
diaphragm of the shape of a 
disc, (d,) supporting plates of 
the same material, the whole 
forming but one piece. The platylithic water-fil- 
ters, which are formed of porous stone cut on this 
plan, present 200 to 300 square inches of filtering 
surface, and may be purchased at from 95. to 13s. 
6d. each. They are perhaps the best portable fil- 
ters made ; they impart great brilliancy to the 
water, and filter rapidly. The portable artificial 
filters, set up in stone-ware, that are commonly 
sold in the shops, contain a stratum of sand, or 
coarsely-powdered charcoal ; before, however, hav- 
ing access to this, the water has to pass through a 
sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the im- 
purities. 

Oils are filtered, on the 
'I? ^^-^ small scflie, through cotton- 
Is wool, or unsized paper, ar- 
u"^ ranged in a funnel; and on 
'X the large scale, through long 
|| bags, made of twilled cotton- 
I J cloth, (Canton flannel.) These 
= I* bags are usually made about 
I'l 12 or 15 inches in diameter, 
to- and from 4 to 8 feet long, (see 
I ? engraving,) and are enclosed 
« S in bottomless casings, or bags, 
I = of coarse canvass, about 5 or 
o G inches in diatncter, for the 
purjoso of condensing a great extent of filtering 
vurl'ace into the smallest possible space. A num- 





ber of these double bags (from 1 to 50 or 60) are 
connected, with corresponding holes, in the bottom 
of a block-tin, or tinned-copper cistern, into which 
the oil to be filtered is poured. The mode in which 
these bags are fastened to the cistern is of the ut- 
most importance, as on the joint being close and 
secure depends the integrity of the apparatus. 
Three methods of doing this are figured in the 
engraving, which, with the references, will explain 
themselves, the same letters referring to .he same 
parts of each. 




a, Bottom of cisiern. 

b, Filtering bng. 

c, Screw of the conical nozzle fitting into the cistern. 

d, Binding cord connecting the bag and nozzle. 

e, Binding cord connecting bag and lower nozzle. 

/, Bayonet-catch, connecting the lower portion of the 

nozzle fastened to the bag with the upper and fixed part,^. 

i, The thick hem at the top of the bag, (purposely made 

large by enclosing a piece of thick cord therein,) resting 

on the shoulders, k. 

I, A metallic cylinder, loosely fitting the hole in the cis- 
tern, and over which the top of the bag is drawn, before 
being put into its place ; when fitted, as in the engraving, 
it retains the hem i securely in its place above the shoul- 
der A. 

The second is the least expensive, and certainly 
the most convenient method, and when the cylin- 
der I fits the hole closely, (allowing for the bag,) e 
as safe, or safer, than an ordinary screw. 

The bags are surrounded by a wooden scrren 
furnished with doors for the purpose of keeping -ttf 
the dust, and the bottom of the apartment is fur- 
nished with large steam-pipes, by which a proper 
temperature may be kept up in cold weather. In 
practice it is more convenient to have a number 
of small cisterns at work, (say 50 or 100 gallons 
each,) than one or two larger ones ; as any acci- 
dent that may occur is more easily remedied, and 
that without stopping the whole operation. 

When cotton cloth bags are employed without 
being creased, or enclosed in others of canvass, 
they should not be longer than about 3 or 4 feet, 
and not wider than about 5 or 6 inches when filled. 
When larger they are dangerous. 

A convenient method of filtering a single cask 
of oil is to insert the pipe of 
©ne of Beart's patent filters 
into the cork-hole, by which 
means the whole will be fil- 
tered as drawn off, without 
any troiible on the part of the 
operator. The filter consists 
of a porous bag stretched over 
a perforated metallic vessel, 
nearly the shape and size of 
the exterior casing, and its 
edge is tightly screwed be- 
Iween the sides and bottom of the latter, so as to 
be quite water-tight. The cock communicates 
with the interior of the perforated plate and filter, 
and the supply.-pipe and the exterior. By this 
means the interior chamber, which occupies five- 
sixths of the vessel, rapidly fills with filtered oil, 
and continues full as long as any liquor remains in 




FIL 



311 



FIL 



the cask. This arrangement is also well adapted 
to the filtration of wines, beer, cordials, porter, 
and various other liquors. It is unequalled in sim- 
plicily 

Tlit filtration of sirups is now generally effect- 
ed on the large scale by passing thorn through the 
" creased hag filter''^ just described. On the small 
scale, as by confectioners and druggists, they are 
usually .passed through conical flannel bags. The 
filtration of thick sirups is, however, attended with 
some difliculty, and it is therefore a good plan to 
filter them in a somewhat dilute state, and after- 
wards to reduce them to a proper consistence by 
evaporation in clean vessels of tinned copper, by 
Bteam heat. Sirups, when filtered in a heated 
state, run well for a time, but the pores of the bag 
rapidly get choked, from the thickening of the 
sirup and partial crystallization of the sugar, occa- 
sioned by the evaporation of the aqueous portion 
from the surface of the bag. This may be par- 
tially prevented by enclosing the bag in a metallic 
casing. On the whole, clarification is preferable 
for sirups to filtration, on the small scale. They 
need only to be well beaten up while cold with a 
tittle white of Qgg, and then heated ; a. scum rises 
which must be removed as soon as it becomes cou- 
eistent, and the skimming continued until the 
liquid becomes clear. Any floating portions of 
scum that may have escaped notice are easily re- 
moved by running the shup through a coarse flan- 
nel strainer, while hot. The most extensive- ap- 
plication of the process of filtration in the arts is in 
the refining of sugars. ^ 

Tirctures and dilute spirits are usually filtered 
through bibulous paper placed on a funnel, or 
through thin and fine cotton bags. In general, 
tinctures clarify themselves by the subsidence of 
the suspended matter, when allowed to repose for 
a few days. Hence it is the bottoms alone that 
require filtering ; the supernatant clear portion 
need only be run thiough a small hair sieve, a 
piece of tow or cotton placed in the throat of a 
funnel, or some other coarse medium, to remove 
any floating substances, as pieces of straw, (Sec. 
(Syjirj^s largely loaded with essential oil, as those 
of '■iiiseed, &,c., run rapidly through paper or cali- 
co '^ut usually require the addition of a spoonful or 
hwo .f magnesia before they will flow quite clear. 
When possible, tinctures, spirits, and all similar 
volatile fluids, are better cleared by subsidence or 
clarification than by filtration, as, in the latter 
way, a portion is lost by evaporation. 

Vegetable juices should be allowed to deposite 
their feculous portion before filtration. The su- 
pernatant liquid will then be often quite clear, but 
if not so, may be readily filtered. If the quantity 
be small, paper supported on a piece of coarse cali- 
co placed on a funnel is the best medium : if large, 
one of the conical bags before described. The 
bottoms from which the clear portion has been 
decanted, should be placed on a separate filter, or 
else added after the whole of the latter has drain- 
ed through. Vegetable juices are often rendered 
clear by simply heating them to about 180° or 200° 
Fahr., by which their albumen is coagulated ; they 
are also frequently clarified by the addition of a 
little white of egg and heat, in the same way as 
sirups ; but many of them (as those of hemlock, 
henbane, aconite, &c.) are injured by heat, and 



cases they 
possible, ai 




must consequently be filtered In i 
should be exposed to the air as little 
they rapidly suffer decomposition. 

Vegetable infusions and decoctions may be 
cleared by defecation followed by filtration. The 
conical bags of flannel before described are usually 
employed for this purpose. When the liquid is to 
be evaporated to an extract, they are commonly 
suspended by a hook over the evaporating pan. A 
convenient method of straining these fluids is to 
stretch the square of flannel on 
a frame or ' horse,' securing it 
at the corners by pieces of 
string, (see eng.) Such a frame 
may be laid across the mouth 
of a pan, and is more easily fed 
with fresh liquid than a bag, 
whose mouth is 30 or 40 inches higher. The 
same purpose is effected by laying the flannel 
across the mouth of a coarse hair sieve. The con- 
centrated infusions and decoctions, being usually 
weak tinctures, may be filtered in the same way 
as the latter. (See tinctures, above.) Many 
vegetable solutions, that from the viscidity of the 
suspended matter can scarcely be filtered, may be 
readily clarified with white of egg in the cold, or 
pass the filter rapidly, if a very small quantity of 
sulphuric, or other strong acid, be previously add- 
ed. (See the latter part of the article Brewing.) 

Corrosive liquids, as strong acids, are filtered 
through powdered glass, or silicious sand, sup- 
ported on pebbles in the throat of a glass funnel, 
or through asbestos placed in the same manner. 
Charcoal has also been employed for the same 
purpose, but is not fit for some acids. Strong 
caustic alkaline lyes are also filtered through pow- 
dered glass or sand. Weak alkaline lyes may be 
filtered through fine calico, stretched across the 
mouth of a funnel. Many corrosive liquids, as 
liquor of potassa, &c., require to be excluded from 
the air during filtration. The simplest 
apparatus that can be employed for 
this purpose is that figured in the 
margin : a is a globular bottle fitted 
with the ground stopper d, and hav- 
ing a perforated neck/ ground to the 
bottle b ; c is a small tube, wrapped 
round with as much asbestos, linen, 
or calico as is required to make it fit 
the under-neck of the bottle through 
which it passes. The tube c may 
also be fixed by placing pebbles and 
powdered glass or sand round it, as 
before described. For use, the solu- 
tion to be filtered is poured into the bottle a nearly 
as high as the top of the tube c, and the stopper 
placed in. The liquid then descends into b, and a 
similar quantity of air passes up" the tube into a. 
The liquor potassae P. L. may be always obtained 
fine by depuration and filtering ine sed ment of 
lime through calico fixed across the mouth of a 
funnel. 

When precipitates, or the suspended, matter, is 
the obj> ct of the filtration, the filter should be of 
such a nature that the powder may be easily separ- 
ated from it when dry, and that without much 
loss. Linen filters are for this reason preferable 
for large quantities, and smooth bibulous paper far 
small ones. The powder should be washed down. 




FIL 



312 



FIL 



the sides of the filter, and collected, by means of 
a small stream of water, in one spot at the bottom, 
and, when dry, should be sw^ept off the paper or 
cloth with a camel-hair brush, and not removed 
by a knife, as is commonly done, unless it be of a 
very adherent kind. 

The first portion of liquid that runs through a 
filter is commonly foul, and should be pumped 
back or returned until it runs clear, when it may 
be caught in a proper receiver. In many cases, 
the liquid will not readily become transparent by 
simply passing through the filter ; hence has arisen 
the use of filtering powders, substances which rap- 
idly choke up the pores of the media in a suffi- 
cient degree to make the fluid pass clear. See 
Powder. These powders should not be in too 
fine a state of division, nor used in large quantities, 
as they then wholly choke up the filter, and absorb 
a large quantity of the liquid. For some liquids, 
these substances are employed for the purpose of 
decoloring or whitening them. In such cases, it 
is preferable, first to pass the fluid through a layer 
of the substance in coarse powder, from which it 
will run but slightly contaminated into the filters ; 
or, if the substance be mixed with the whole body 
of the liquid, to pass it through some coarser me- 
dium, to remove the cruder portion before allowing 
it to run into the filter. Granulated animal char- 
coal is used, according to the first method, to de- 
color sirups, oils, &lc. ; and filtering powder by the 
second, to remove a portion of the color, and to 
clarify castor oil. The common plan of mixing 
large quantities of filtering powder with this oil, 
and throwing the whole into the filter, as adopted 
by the druggists, is injudicious. When simple 
filtration is required, it is better to use but little 
or no powder, and to continue returning the oil 
that runs through until it filters quite clear. By 
this plan the same filters may be used for a long 
period of time, and will continue to work well ; 
but by the usual method, they rapidly decline in 
power, and soon scarcely deliver their contents at 
all. 

It is often of great advantage to render a filter 
self-acting, or to construct it in such a way that 
it may feed itself, so that it may continue full and 
at work without the constant attention of the oper- 
ator. On the small scale, this 
may be readily effected on the 
principle of the common fountain 
lamp, (see ^ng. ;) and on the 
large scale, by placing the ves- 
sel containing the unfiltered li- 
quid on a higher level than the 
filter, and by having the end of 
the supply-pipe fitted with a 
ballcock, to keep the liquid in 
the filter constantly at the same 
height. 

The rapidity of filtration depends upon the po- 
rosity of the filtering medium — the extent of fil- 
tering surface — the relative viscidity or limpid- 
ness of the filtering liquid, and the porosity and 
fineness of the substances it holds in suspension. 
The most efficient filter is produced, when the 
first two are so graduated to the latter, that the 
liquid filters rapidly, and is rendered perfectly 
transparent. 

To the prbvjcding causes that influence filtration 




may be added the pressure or force by which the 
liquid is impelled through the pores of the filter 
In the common method of filtration no pressure is 
exerted bfeyond that of the weight of the column 0/ 
the liquid resting on the filtering medium, but in 
same cases additional pressure is employed. This 
is done for the purpose of producing more rapid 
filtration, or for filtering liquids that, from their 
viscidity, will scarcely pass through the pores of 
substances sufficiently fine to remove their foul- 
ness in the ordinary way. One of the easiest 
means of employing pressure in filtration is to in- 
crease the height of the column of the filtering 
liquid. From the peculiar properties of fluids, by 
which they transmit pressure in all directions, this 
column need not be of equal diameter throughout, 
but may be conveniently contracted to the size of 
a small pipe, as in the accompanying engraving, 
which represents a small filter on this construction 
at work, a is the funnel or reservoir of foul liquid; 
b a small pipe conveying the liquid 
to the filter ; c c a chamber, of which 
the upper portion d is filled with the 
descending liquid, and the lower por- 
tion e with the filtering media ; i i 
are screws by which the bottom plate 
is fastened on ; which plate is re- 
moved to clean out or renew the fil- 
ter. For use, the cocks k and I are 
closed, and the liquid poured into the 
funnel a; the cock k is next opened, 
and, in a few minutes after, the cock 
I, when an uninterrupted flow of 
filtered Uquor will be obtained as 
long as any fluid remains in the fun- 
nel a, and the tube b. The length 
of the latter determines the degree 
of pressure. Care must be taken to 
pass the foul liquid through a hair 
sieve, or some other strainer, to remove any sub- 
stance that might choke up the pipe b. Another 
mode of employing pressure in filtration is the with- 
drawal of the air from the receiving vessel, as in 
the vacuum filter, by which a pressure of about 
14^ lbs. to the inch becomes exerted on the surface 
of the liquid by the atmosphere. The vacuum in 
the receiving vessel may be produced by the air- 
pump or by steam. t^See Congelation.) A com- 
moner method of applying pressure than the last 
is to condense the air over the surface of the liquid 
by means of a forcing-pump, or by steam. On 
the small scale, pressure may be applied to filtra- 
tion, by employing a syphon, whose shorter leg 
has its mouth blown into the shape of a bell or 
funnel, over which filtering paper or fine calico 
may be stretched. 

The application of pressure to filtration is not 
always advantageous, and beyond a certain limit, 
becomes objectionable. It is found in practice 
that fluids under pressure take a longer period to 
run clear than without pressure, and that ruptures 
of the media more frequently take place with the 
former than the latter. Great pressure is in no 
case advantageous. 

The filters already noticed are those that act by 
the fluid descending through the nu dia ; but in 
some cases, the reverse method is employed, and 
the liquid filters upwards, instead of downwards. 
These are called ascending filters, and are often 




FIR 



313 



FIR 




jcTii: 



preferable to those on the descending principle, 
because tlie suspended matters that require removal 
by filtration usually sink, and thus a portion es- 
capes being forced into the pores of the filter. 
They are also more convenient, when pressure is 
employed. Their construction depends upon the 
same principles as the common filter, and merely 
requires that the feeding vessel should be higher 
than the upper surface of the filtering media. 
Oils are conveniently filtered in this way, because 
of their little specific gravity. By 
fixing a small filter on this principle 
mto the head of a cask, and pouring 
in water through a funnel, whose 
neck reaches nearly to the bottom 
of the cask, the oil will float up and 
pass the filter, leaving the sediment 
behind. In cold weather, hot wa- 
ter may be employed. 
a. Cask of oil. b, Stand, c. Funnel for water, d. Filter. 

In some cases, the upward and downward sys- 
tems of filtration are united in the same apparatus, 
and this method is advantageous where room is 
an object. For this purpose, it is merely necessa- 
ry to connect the bottom of an ascending filter 
with the top of a descending one, or the reverse ; 
the proper pressure being in either case applied. 
(See Cl.vrific.\tion, Defecation, &.c.) 

FILINGS. A solution of gelatin, used to clar- 
ify beer, wine, «Sl:c. ^ 

Prep. Isinglass (ordinan,0 1 lb. ; stale Seer, 
cider, or vinegar. 3 or 4 piuts. Mix, and macerate 
until the former becomes gelatinous, then reduce 
it to a proper consistence with weak, mild beer, 
cider, or any other liquid that the finings are in- 
tended for. 

Remarks. A pint, or more, is the usual dose 
for a barrel of beer or porter, and a quart for a 
hogshead of wine. (See the latter part of the 
article Brewing.) 

FIRE EATING.' The power of resisting the 
action of fire is given to the skin, by frequently 
washing it with diluted sulphuric . acid, until the 
part becomes sufficiently callous. It is said that 
the following mixture is very efficacious: — dilute 
sulphuric acid 3 parts ; sal ammoniac 1 part ; 
juice of onions 2 parts ; mix. It is the acid, how- 
ever, that produces the effect. 

FIREPROOF STUCCO. Prep. Moist grav- 
elly earth, (previously washed,) made into stucco 
with the following composition: — pearlashes 2 
parts ; water 5 parts ; common clay 1 part ; 
mix. 

Remarks. This is said to cost about Is. 6d. per 
hundred square feet. It has been tried on a large 
scale and found to answer well. It is used for 
wood, &:c. 

FIRES. Our notic3 of this subject must ne- 
cessarily be limited, for want of space. Fires are 
but toe frequently said to arise by accident, which 
is meiely a condensed phrase, equivalent to care- 
lessTuss and recklessness. There are few fires 
that might not have been prevented by the exer- 
cise of common ptudence, and a vast number that 
have been caused by negligence, arising from sheer 
laziness. As familiar instances may be men- 
tioned, the pennitting of sparks to fall on the 
ground and remain there, without extinguishing 
40 



them ; carrying a naked candle into rooms con- 
taining inflammable substances, <Scc. 

Prev. 1. Avoid leaving your candle burning at 
the side of your bed, but place it on a table or th« 
floor, at a respectable distance from any article of 
linen, or other equally inflammable substances. 
Rush, wax, or floating lights are the safest for 
night burning. The practice of reading in bed 
cannot be too much censured ; it is a common 
cause of fires. 2. Never set aside a bucket or 
box containing hot ashes, or cinders, in a closet- 
3. Never throw a piece of lighted paper, cigar, or 
other ignited substance, on the floor ; and should 
such fall by accident, immediately extinguish then 
by treadmg on them. 4. Never blow gas-lightji 
out, but always extinguish them by turning off 
the supply. 5. Should the smell of gas be strong- 
ly perceived, immediately turn off" the cock at the 
meter, and avoid carrying a lighted candle into 
the part where the escape has taken place, before 
the gas has been removed by thorough ventilation ; 
attenLion to this point will prevent the possibility 
of an explosion. 6. Have your chimneys kept in 
a clean state by frequent sweeping. 

Fires might often be readily extinguished 
when first discovered by the timely apphcation of 
a few buckets of water. When an apartment is 
discovered on fire, the door, chimnej^, and win- 
dows should be immediately closed, if possible, 
and only opened for the purpose of projecting wa- 
ter on the flames. By this means the supply of 
air will be cut off, and rapid combustion prevent- 
ed. The neglect of this precaution has often 
caused a mere smouldering fire, that might have 
been easily put out, to burst into an inextinguish- 
able mass of flame. It has been proposed to add 
common salt or pearlash to the water thrown on 
fires, as even a weak solution of those substances 
speedily stops combustion. Such a plan is very 
plausible, and may easily be applied, by adding 
the saline matter to the buckets of water used to 
feed the engine for the first few minutes of its 
Avorking ; but when a fire has acquired any ex- 
tent, the action of such substances becomes scarce- 
ly perceptible. 

Fires on board ships. The extinction of fires 
at sea, by means of carbonic acid gas, has been 
suggested to the Admiralty by Mr. J. R. Han- 
corn, surgeon. He says — " The antidotal effects 
of carbonic acid gas upon combustion are well 
known to every experienced chemist ; and I am 
convinced, by practical experiments, that a simple 
and economical apparatus might be attached with- 
out inconvenience to even,^ decked vessel. Car- 
bonic acid gas is a well-known non-supporter of 
combustion, and will extinguish fire at the very 
instant of coming in contact with burning mat- 
ter. Chalk will yield, with sulphuric acid, (vine- 
gar, or any other acid will do,) 44 per cent, of the 
gas : hence, a ton of chalk, and a fourth part of 
that quantity of sulphuric acid, will be found suf- 
ficient to extinguish any fire on board a ship. 
The plan is peculiarly adapted to a ship, be- 
cause she can be battened doicn so as to exclude 
the atmosphere. A small leaden gasometer is all 
the apparatus required, having a curved tube, and 
which, being portable, may be placed over the 
burning part, while a hole may be cut in the deck 
sufficiently large to admit the tube. Carbonic 



FIR 



314 



PIS 



acid gas expands with heat, and bemg heavier 
than the atmosphere or smoke, immediately de- 
scends, by its own gravity, upon the burning 
mass. 1 may further mention the utility of the 
apparatus in destroying vermin in ships, s>»ch as 
rats and cockroaches, being more easily applied, 
and more effectual, than the usual method," 
(Chemist, iii. 279.) This plan has been rejected 
by the Admiralty because of the destructive ac- 
tion of the gas on human life, as well as on fire. 
But " it surely is possible by mechanical means to 
expel the gas before again entering the ship's hold. 
At any rate, the grand point would be obtained of 
extinguishing the fire — though the crew might 
have only the deck to stand on. The frequency 
of these disasters has become distressing." (Ed. 
of the Chem.) 

Escape from apartments on fire may generally 
be readily effected by creeping on the hands and 
knees. In this way the window or door may be 
reached. It is found that the atmosphere of a 
room so full of smoke as to produce suffocation to 
a person standing upright, may generally be safe- 
ly breathed, on nearly a level with the floor. 
Should descent by the staircase be found impos- 
sible, then the window should be immediately 
sought. Here presence of mind is of the utmost 
importance. If a ladder or fire-escape be not pro- 
vided by those without, a rope should be made by 
tying the sheets and blankets of the bed together, 
one end of which should be firmly secured to a 
chair, table, or preferably one of the bedposts, and 
with this apparatus descent should be cautiously 
attempted. Jumping out of the window should be 
avoided, as persons who have not been brought up 
as clowns or harlequins, run just as much danger 
in performing such an exploit as they do by re- 
maining in the burning building. Persons have 
frequently lost their lives by hastily throwing 
themselves out of window, under the dread of 
being burnt alive, vdio would have been rescued 
by those without, haJ they waited but a few mo- 
ments longer. When it is impossible to escape 
from a burning building by the stairs or windows, 
retreat may be sometimes secured by a trapdoor 
opening on to the roof, or by a skylight, when, 
unless it be an isolated house, the roof of one of 
the adjoining buildings may probably be gained 
with safety, provided common caution be ob- 
served. 

Fire-escapes of various kinds have been in- 
vented of late years, and employed with indiffer- 
ent success at many fires in the metropolis. Of 
these, the one that has been most generally ap- 
proved of, is that invented by Captain Manby, 
consisting of a stout rope furnished with nooses, 
distended by flat rests for the feet, at convenient 
distances for stepping from one to the other. The 
one end of this rope is provided with a stout hook, 
or grappling-iron, by which it may be fastened to 
the sill of a window, post of the bedstead, or any 
othei convenient object. By means of this ap- 
paratus a descent may bo safely made from a 
considerable height. To avoid the risk of this 
escape catching fire, it has been proposed to make 
it of iron chain : but it thus becomes heavy and 
inconvenient. The best plan is to imbue the rope 
with some Biibstanco that will render it incombus- 
tible : mere water would be sufficient. 



It is said that there is no instancse on record of 
a person being burnt to death in dwelling-house* 
in Edinburgh, where the houses are usually high ; 
yet in London, where fire-engines and fire-escapes 
are provided in greater numbers, deaths are fre- 
quent from this cause. The reason of this differ- 
ence is, that in the former city, the stairs are all 
of stone, by which means a road of escape is M- 
cured. 

The clothes of females and children, when on 
fire, may be most readily extinguished by rolling 
the sufferer in the carpet, hearth-rug, table-cover, 
a great-coat, cloak, or any other woollen article 
at hand. If this be expertly done, the flames will 
be rapidly put out. Should assistance not be at 
hand, the person whose clothes are on fire should 
throw herself on the ground, and roll the carpet 
round her, as before described ; or if such a thing 
is not in the room, she should endeavor to extin- 
guish the flames with her hands, and by rapidly 
rolling round and round on the floor. In this way 
the fire will be stifled, or at least the combustion 
will proceed so slowly that less personal injury 
will be experienced before assistance arrives. But 
if, on the contrary, the party whose clothes are on 
fire remains in an upright position, the flames will 
naturally ascend, and scorch the face, and other 
unprotected parts of the body. The advantage 
of assuming the horizontal position is also mani- 
fest from the fact, that nine times out of ten it is 
the lower parts of the dresses of females that first 
catch fire. A lady's muslin dress taking fire at 
the skirt would burn from bottom to top, and pro- 
duce a fatal density of flame in half a minute, 
while she is standing upright ; but when lying 
down, even though she took no pains leisurely to 
extinguish the flames, ten minutes would probably 
elapse before it would be consumed, and the flame 
might at any instant be extinguished by the thumb 
and fingers. It merely requires the exercise of 
ordinary presence of mind. (See Accidents.) 

The addition of ^ oz. or 1 oz. of alum or sal 
ammoniac to the last water used to rinse a lady's 
dress, or a less quantity added to the starch used 
to stiffen it, would render it uninflammable, or at 
least so little combustible that it would not readily 
take fire ; and if it did, would be slowly consumed 
without flame. Had this precaution been adopt- 
ed, the late lamentable accident at one of our 
national theatres might have been avoided. (See 
Cloth, incombustible.) 

It is often difficult to get horses out of build- 
ings on fire, but it is said that they will readily 
come out if the saddle and bridle, or harness to 
which they are accustomed, be thrown over them 
as usual. 

FISH. %/?. Piscis, (Lat.) Poisson, (Ft.) 
Fish are a wholesome species of food, but are less 
nutritious than the flesh of animals, or the grains 
of the cereals. Of all the various substances used 
as aliments by man, fish are the most liable to run 
into a state of putrefaction, and should therefore be 
only eaten when perfectly fresh. Those that are 
the whitest and most flaky when coo'c'd, as whi- 
titig, cod, flounders, soles, haddock, turbof, hake, 
&LC., are the most easily digestible ; and those 
abounding in oily matter, as salmun, eels, /irrringSf 
&LC., are most nutritious, though more likely to of- 
fend the stomach. Salt-water fish has been said 



FiS 



315 



FIS 



to be more wholesome than river fish, but without 
sufficient reason. Salted fish is very hard of di- 
gestion, unless well cooked. The frequent use of 
fish us an aliment is said to promote the sexual 
feelincrs, but not the increase of population, unless 
a sufficiency of other food (animal) be taken at the 
same time. Skin diseases are also said to be more 
common among those who live continually on fish, 
but this probably arises from t.'ieir use not being 
accompanied by a proper quantity of fresh vegeta- 
bles. Fish consist of about 8U§ of water, 14g of 
albumen and fibrine, and 6§ of gelatin, making 
about 20§ of nutritive matter. (Brande.) Acid 
sauces and pickles are the proper additions to fish, 
from their power of retarding the progress of putre- 
faction, and of correcting the relaxing tendency of 
large quantities of oil and butter. 

Caution. It sometimes happens that a fish-bone 
accidentally swallowed will remain in the oesopha- 
gus, and occasion serious inconvenience ; in fact, 
instances have been known where so much irrita- 
tion has arisen that death has followed. In such 
cases it is advisable, as soon as possible, to take 
four grains of tartar emetic, dissolved in ^ pint of 
warm water, and immediately afterwards the 
white of six eggs. The coagulated mass will not 
remain in the stomach more than two or three 
minuteii, and the remedy has been known to " re- 
move no less than 24 pins at once." 

Choice, dressing, ^c. " The flesh of any fish 
is always in the highest perfection, or in season, 
as it is called, during the period of the ripening of 
the milt and roe. After the fish has deposited the 
spawn, the flesh becomes soft, and loses a great 
deal of its peculiar flavor. This is owing to the 
disappearance of the oil or fat from the flesh, it 
having been expended in the function of reproduc- 
tion." (Fleming's Phil, of Zoology.) Fish should 
be dressed as soon after being caught as possible, as 
much of their peculiar delicacy and flavor is lost by 
keeping, even for a few hours. Turbot and salmon 
are said by the fishmongers to be improved in fla- 
vor when two or three days old, but this is surely 
a mistake, as the former, when dressed immedi- 
ately after being caught, possesses a fine creamy 
taste which it afterwards loses ; while the latter, 
by the loss of a single tide, loses a portion of the 
fine white curd which intervenes between the 
flakes, and by longer keeping, this curd and the 
larger flakes disappear altogether. In the eyes of 
some epicures, the richness is, however, increased 
by this change. Mackerel and some other fish 
suffer so much from keeping only a few hours, that 
they become quite unwholesome. On this account 
the former are permitted to be publicly vended on 
Sundays. Herrings offer a remarkable example 
of the advantage of dressing fish as fresh as 
possible. When cooked soon after being caught, 
they possess considerable delicacy and flavor, but 
by keeping for only a few hours, the oil separates 
from the flesh, and they become soft, greeisy, and 
strong-flavored. 

In the choice of every kind offish, stiffness, 
ftrightness of the eyes, and redness of the gills may 
be regarded as invariable signs of freshness. A 
peculiar elasticity will also be perceived in fish re- 
cently caught ; little or no permanent impression 
being made by the ordinary pressure of the fingers, 
from the flesh immediately rising when the pres- 



sure is withdrawn. Fresh fish also lie in a partly 
curled position, and never quite straight, as is the 
case when they have been kept for some time 
Thickness and fleshiness are deemed marks of th« 
good condition of all fish. , 

On the proper cleaning of fish preparatory to 
dressing it, depends much of its delicacy and fla- 
vor. Ordinary cooks seldom do this well, from 
not slitting the fish sufficiently open to permit the 
inside to be thoroushly washed, and seldom using 
sufficient water. The superior flavor of fish .cleaned 
by the fishmongers arises from their performing 
the operation more completely, and from the large 
quantity of water they employ about them. The 
flavor of all fish is improved by adding a little salt 
or vinegar to the last water in which they are 
washed. The sound, milt, and roe should be care- 
fully cleaned and preserved. 

Fish is preferably cooked by simple hailing, 
broiling, ov frying ; in fact, the finer kinds of fish 
are ot'ten injured by the excessive interference of 
the cook. When boiled, the fish should be put on 
the fire in cold water, and as soon as a scum rises 
from boiling, it should be removed by the skimmer. 
The addition of a little salt or vinegar to the water 
improves the flavor of most fish, and renders the 
flesh firmer. Fish is known to be sufficiently 
dressed by the flesh in the thicker parts separating 
easily from the bone. When this is the case, it 
should be removed from the kettle, as by soaking 
in the water it loses its firmness. Sole, skate, and 
mackerel are usually put into boiling water. Fish 
for broiling should be well washed in strong vine- 
gar, wiped dry with a towel, and floured before 
placing them on the gridiron ; and the bars of the 
latter should be hot, and well buttered. Fish for 
frying should be prepared as for broiling ; and the 
butter, oil, or lard should be allowed to boil for a 
minute or two before putting them into the frying- 
pan. The latter should be perfectly smooth and 
bright, and the butter or oil in abundance, to pre- 
vent the fish sticking to it and burning. When 
removed from the pan, the superfluous fat should be 
drained from them, preparatory to serving. When 
fish is divided into fillets or cutlets before being 
cooked, it is usual to take out the bones, and to 
dress it with forced meat, &lc. 

In serving fish of the finer kinds, no other ad- 
ditions are required than melted butter and the or- 
dinary fish sauces and pickles. The dish should 
be garnished with raw parsley for the sake of ap- 
pearance, but boiled parsley, chopped small, should 
accompany it. All kinds of fish should be served 
on a napkin. 

Pres. Fish may be preserved in several ways : — 

I. By either wet or dry salting. 

II. By simply drying after cleaning them. 
Ill By salting them and then drying them. 

IV. By placing them in jars, pouring salad oil 
over them, and tying them over air-tight. 

V. By dipping them into, or brushing them over 
with pyroligneous acid, and then drying them. 
This gives a smoky flavor, but if pure acetic acid 
(P. L.) be used, no taste will be imparted. It may 
be applied by means of a clean painter's brush, or 
even a stiff feather. A tablespoonful is sufficient 
to brush over a large surface. Fish and flesh so 
prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies and 
back uninjured. 



FLA 



316 



FLA 



VT, Fish may be preserved in a living state for 
14 days or longer without water, by stopping their 
mouths with crumb of bread steeped in brandy, 
pouring a little brandy into them, and then placing 
them in straw in a moderately cool situation. 
(Prechtl. Encycl. Techn.) 

VII. Immersion of the cleaned fish in water 
holding in solution ^1^ or ^1^- part of creosote, and 
then drying them. 

VII. Fish may be preserved in a dry state, and 
perfectly fresh, by means of sugar alone. Fresh 
fish may be thus kept for some days, so as to be 
as good when boiled as if just caught. If dried 
and kept free from mouldiness, there seems no 
limit to their preservation ; and they are much 
better in this way than when salted. The sugar 
gives no disagreeable taste. This process is par- 
ticularly valuable in making what is called kip- 
pered salmon ; and the fish preserved in this man- 
ner are far superior in quality and flavor to those 
which are salted or smoked. A few tablespoonfuls 
of brown sugar are sufficient for a salmon of five 
or six pounds weight ; and if salt be desired, a tea- 
spoonful may be added. Saltpetre may be used 
instead, in the same proportion, if it be wished to 
make the kipper hard. (See Animal Substances 
USED as Food.) 

FIXATEUR. Syn. Bandoline. Prep. Soak 
Iceland moss in cold water for an hour or two, 
drain and dissolve in boiling water. 

Remarks. A solution of gum arabic in water is 
also commonly called by the same name. It is 
used by ladies to make their hair curl firmly, and 
remain in any required position. It is applied by 
moistening the fingers, and passing the hair through 
them. Beer has a similar effect. 

FLANNEL. It has been shown by the ex- 
periments of Count Rumford that the conducting 
power .' ' the different materials employed for 
clothing aries considerably. A thermometer, 
surrounded with cotton-wool, and heated by im- 
mersion in boiling water, took 1046 seconds to 
lose 135°, when plunged into a bath of melting 
ice ; but, under the same circumstances, when 
sheeps' wool was employed, 1118 seconds elapsed 
before a like sinking of the thermometer took place, 
(Phil. Trans. 1792 ;) thus showing the greater 
conducting power of the former, and consequently 
the superiority of the latter substance for the man- 
ufacture of warm clothing. But the chief advan- 
tage of wool as an article for under-clothing de- 
pends less upon its actual power of conducting heat 
than its peculiar texture. Flannel acts as a gentle 
stimulus on the skin, and exercises the most bene- 
ficial action, by keeping the pores clean, and in a 
state most favorable to perspiration. It has also 
the advantage of absorbing the perspiration as 
soon as emitted, and allowing its watery portion 
to pass off" into the atmosphere almost as soon as 
formed, but this is not the case with coiton and 
linen fabrics. The different effects of flannel and 
linen are particularly perceptible during brisk ex- 
ercise. When the body is covered with the for- 
mer, though perspiration bo necessarily increased, 
the perspired matter freely passes off" through the 
flannel, and the skin remains dry and warm. If 
the same exercise be taken in linen shirts, perspi- 
rution, us in the former case, is indeed also in- 
creased, but the perspired matter, instead of being 



dispersed into the atmosphere, remains upon the 
linen, and not only clogs the pores of the skin, but 
gives a disagreeable sensation. From this property 
of flannel, persons who wear it next the skin sel- 
dom catch cold from changes of temperature, even 
though perspiring profusely ; but in similar cases, 
when linen or calico shirts are worn, chilliness im- 
mediately comes on, followed by " sniffling, sneez- 
ing, and cough," and all the other symptoms of 
severe catarrh. 

The common objections raised against the use 
of flannel are founded on vulgar prejudices, arising 
from ignorance, obstinacy, or bravado, and are 
undeserving of the notice of sensible people. In a 
fickle and moist climate like that of England, eve- 
ry person should wear a robe of flannel next the 
skin, or at all events a waistcoat of flannel reach- 
ing below the loins ; and this should not be dis- 
carded as soon as the cold weather has passed, but 
its use should be continued all the year round ; for 
in reality, flannel is, if possible, even more required 
in summer than in. winter, because persons pw 
spire more freely in hot than in cold weather, and 
are consequently more susceptible of cold, while at 
that period of the year their clothing is less capa- 
ble of protecting them from the effects of sudden 
changes of temperature, and draughts of cold air, 
moisture, &c. Females, children, persons of deli- 
cate constitutions, and all others, who, from their 
habits of body or life, perspire freely, or are much 
exposed, should wear flannel. 

In washing flannels, it is said they should be 
always put into scalding hot water, by which meth- 
od their color will be preserved, and they will be 
prevented from shrinking. 

FLASH. Prep. Burnt-sugar coloring 1 gall. ; 
fluid extract of capsicum, or es.'='en?e o*^ cayenne, 
i pint, or enough to give a strong fiery taste. 

Use. It is employed to color spirits, and to give 
them a false strength. It is made by the brewers' 
druggists, and vended under the name of " isin- 
glass and burnt sugar." 

FLATULENCY. (Prom flatus, a blast.) A 
morbid collection of gas in the stcmach and bow- 
els. The most common cause of flatulency is 
indigestion. When the natural fluids of the stom- 
ach are secreted in a healthy state, they exercise 
an antiseptic and digestive action on the food, by 
which it is speedily reduced to a magma that is 
little liable to spontaneous change while in the body; 
but when the reverse is the case, fermentation rap- 
idly commences, and the stomach and associated 
viscera become distended with gas, giving rise to 
frequent eructation and crepitation. The quantity 
of gas thus accumulated is often enormous. It is 
asserted that an ordinary apple during fermenta- 
tion yields about 600 times its bulk of gas, and 
many vegetables much more. (Dr. Hales.) It is, 
therefore, not at all surprising that so much incon- 
venience should be felt from flatulency. 

Treat. The treatment of flatulency consists 
mainly in the selection of proper articles of food. 
Oleraceous vegetables, peas, beans, and indigestble 
fruits, should be especially avoided, as well as the 
use of large quantities of washy liquids. The diet 
should consist principally of animal food, well cook- 
ed, with a sufficient quantity of good potatoes and 
wheaten bread, moderately seasoned with spices ; 
Jind the most suitable beverages are toast and wa- 



FLO 



317 



FLO 



ter, and good brandy largely diluted with water. 
The healthy tone of the stomach may bo re-estab- 
lished by the proper use of tonics, bitters, and mild 
aperients. (See Dyspepsia.) 

To relieve the Jit of flatulency, carminatives and 
aromatics, as peppermint, ginger, cinnamon, lav- 
ender, and the peppers, may be had recourse to. 
A glass of peppermint cordial, or brandy strongly 
flavored with essence of peppermint, or mixed with 
a spoonful of powdered ginger, is a popular and 
efficient remedy. 

FLIES often cause considerable annoyance to 
the person in hot weather, and frequently do con- 
siderable damage to handsome furniture, especially 
picture-frames, gilding, &c., by alighting on them. 
The best way to remove them is to expose in a 
plate a mixture of 1 teaspoonful of black pepper, 
2 teaspoonfuls of brown sugar, and 1 tablespoonful 
of cream ; or a solution of sugar in a strong decoc- 
tion of quassia, may be used instead. It is said 
that either of these mixtures will cause them rap- 
idly to disappear. 

Flies and other insects may be kept from at- 
tacking meat by dusting it over with pepper, pow- 
dered ginger, or any other spice, or by skewering 
a piece of paper to it on which a drop of creosote 
has been poured. The spices may be readily wash- 
ed off with water before dressing the meat. 

FLOUNDERS are a wholesome species of fish. 
They are both a sea and river fish ; the latter are, 
however, preferred. They should be chosen by 
their thickness and firmness, and the brightness 
of their eyes. They are in season from January 
to March, and from July to S^tember. They are 
nicest when dressed by frying m oil. 

FLOUR. Syn. Fleur de Farine, {Fr.) Y\- 
RjN\,(Lat.) The meal of bread corn. Of farinas 
the principal is wheat flour, or the ground seed of 
the Triticum hybernum vel vulgare, of which there 
are several varieties, chiefly depending on the 
=anount of bran they contain, and the fineness of 
the sieves through which they are passed. 

Fine wheat flour. (Ador, Farina, F. tritici, 
F. seminis tritici.) The finest flour obtained by 
sifting the meal produced in the first grinding of 
wheat between sharp stones, by a sieve of 64 wires 
to the inch ; used for pastry. — Middlings. The 
remainder of the flour of the first grinding that will 
pass through a coarser sieve ; used for making 
household bread, but is mostly reground. — Seconds. 
The finest part of the flour, obtained by grinding 
middlings over again, between blunt stones ; used 
for making bakers' fine wheaten bread. — Pollard. 
The coarse flour, from whence the seconds has 
been sifted ; used for making sea biscuits and gin- 
gerbread, and to fatten poultry and hogs. — Coun- 
try household flour. Is usually ground only once, 
and sifted to four-fifths of the weight of the wheat. 
— Ammunition flour. Is required to be ground and 
sifted to \%'l^, orvery nearly five -sixths the weight 
of the wheat Thirty-two pecks of wheat in the 
London mills yield 38^ of flour, 8 of pollard, and 
12 of bran, {furfur tritici ;) the bulk of the wheat 
being doubled by grinding. (Accum.) 

Pur. This article of food is very fre quently adul- 
terated both by the miller and the 1 aker, as has 
been before alluded to in the article on Bread. 
This fraud may, however, be readily detected by 
the foUowmg tests, which refer to wheat flour. 



1. Wheat flour is distinguished by its cohesive- « 
ness, whicli is so great, that on being squeezed m 

the hand, the lump will be some time btifore it 
loses its shape. 

2. Plaster of Paris, ground hones, chalk, tnd 
potato flour, when added to wheaten flour, may 
be detected by the specific gravity of the sample 
being considerably greater than that of pure flour. 
This may be readily ascertained by any person, by 
filling a small vessel with some pure flour, and 
then with the given sample. " A vessel which will 
contain 1 lb. of wlieat flour will contain 1^ lbs. of 
fecula," (potato flour ;) and hence " the propor- 
tion of this adulteration may be easily estimated." 
(Ure.) 

3. Liquid ammonia (aqua ammoniae piurae) turns 
wheat flour yellow ; and if any other corn has 
been ground with it, pale brown ; or if peas or 
beans have been ground with it, a darker brown. 

4. Nitric acid turns wheat flour of an orange 
yellow color, but forms a stiff and tenacious jelly 
with potato fecula, the color of which it does not 
alter. (See Arrow-root, British.) 

5. Pure muriatic acid, when poured on potato 
flour, develops a smell of rushes ; it also dissolves 
starch, but changes the color of wheat flour to a 
deep violet. 

6. Bean and pea flour may be detected by 
pouring boiling water on the sample, or by making 
it into bread and toasting it, when the pecuUar 
odor of those subsfances will be evolved. 

7. The value of wheat flour as an aliment de- 
pends upon the quantity of gluten, sugar, starchj 
and phosphate of lime it contains ; and its superi- 
ority over the flour of the grains of the other ce- 
reals, depends on its containing a larger proportion 
of the first and last of these substances. The 
qualitative analysis of flour is very simple, and 
may be easily made by persons unacquainted with 
chemistry. The following plan will be found to be 
a ready method of determining the proportion of 
the principal ingredients just named ; — 

a. Make 1000 grs. of flour into a dough with a 
little water, let it rest an hour, and then gently 
knead it in successive waters, until the starchy 
particles are perfectly removed. Collect the por- 
tion (gluten) left in the hand, drain off the water, 
place it on a piece of filtering or blotting paper, 
several times doubled, and set it aside. 

b. Mix the several waters employed in the pre- 
ceding process, and set them aside in a tall vessel, 
to deposite the suspended portion, (starch.) After a 
sufficient time, pour off the clear liquid, a ad throw 
the whole of the sediment on a weighed paper fil- 
ter, placed in a funnel, observing to remove the 
portion adhering to the bottom of the v^essel by 
means of a little clean water, tJiat none maybe lost. 

c. Evaporate the decanted liquid, as well as 
what runs from the filter, until it becoines curdy, 
then filter through a piece of weighed blotting pa- 
per, and preserve the sediment, (albumen ;) next 
evaporate to the consistence of a sirup, agitate with 
10 times its weight of alcohol, and filter, observing 
to wash the paper clean with a little alcohol, after 
the solution has passed through it. The substance 
on the paper is phosphate of lime and gum,* and 
must be set aside. 

* By digestion in water, filtration, and evaporation, the 
two may be obtained separately. 



FLO 



318 



FLO 



• d. Evaporate or distil off the spirit from the so- 

lution and washings as above ; the residuum is 
Bugar. 

e. Dry the substances educed by the preceding 
operations by a gentle heat, and weigh them. The 
weight of the albumen may be taken with that of 
the gluten, as it possesses about the same nutritive 
value, and also because it has been asserted by 
some persons that the former substance is in reality 
gluten, and not albumen. By dividing the given 
weights by 10, the percentage value of the sample 
will be obtained. The pieces of filtering paper 
employed should be dried and weighed before using 
them ; and the same degree of heat should be em- 
ployee! for this purpose, as that to which they will 
be afterwards exposed in the drying of the sub- 
stances resulting from the operation. 

Remarks. This method of ascertaining the actual 
value of any sample of flour as an article of food, 
though not strictly accurate, approximates suffi- 
ciently to the truth for all practical purposes, and 
is well adapted to the wants of the baker and large 
purchaser. In many cases it will only be neces- 
sary to perform the first part of the process, a, 
which will give the amount of the most important 
constituent of the flour ; the rest being of minor 
consequence. 

According to Vauquelin, French wheat flour 
contains about 10§ of water, 11§ of gluten, 71§ of 
starch, 5§ of sugar, and 3§ of gum ; and the water 
of the dough amounts to 5Q'3§. 

FLOUR, BAKED. Syn. Farina tosta. F. 
Tritici Tosta. Astringent ; used to make food 
for infants troubled with diarrhcea. 

FLOWERS. Syn. Flores, (Lat.) Fleurs, 
(Fr.) Blumen, (Ger.) These beautiful and fra- 
grant ornaments of our gardens, our sitting-rooms, 
and our chambers, are too well known to require 
description ; but some remarks on their preserva- 
tion, &-C., may not be out of place here. 

^Flowers may be preserved in a fresh state for 
a considerable time, by keeping them in a moist 
atmosphere. When growing on the parent stem, 
the large amount of evaporation from the surface 
of their leaves, is compensated for by an equivalent 
proportion of moisture supplied by the roots ; but 
when they are plucked, the evaporation from the 
surface continues, while the supply of moisture is 
cut off. Hence t'^=^y fade, and that with a degree 
of rapidity exactly p. •^portionate to the dryness of 
the air that surrounds them. It is on this account 
that recently-plucked flowers fade more rapidly in- 
doors than in the open garden ; for the air of a 
sitting-room is considerably drier and warmer than 
the external atmosphere. This is perfectly natu- 
ral ; for with diminished sources of nourishment, 
they are exposed to an augmented perspiration, 
and the water which forms the larger portion of 
their bodies is lost. In fact, they fade from tiie 
volatilization of one of their component parts, which 
is an essential constituent of every living flower. 
The flowers of plants also feed on the viewless 
oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid with 
great rapidity. Thus those of the passijiora ser- 
ratifoiia consume of oxygen in this way 18^ times 
their bulk in 24 hours, when sheltered from the 
direct rays of the sun, at a temperature between 
18° and 25° C. ; the male flowers of the cucum- 
ber, ]2 times theii bulk ; the female only 3^ ; the 



single red gilliflower (cheirantJius incanus) 11 ; 
the single tuberose 9 ; and the typha latifolia 9-8. 
(T. de Saussure, Ann. de Chim. xxi. 279.) To 
supply in part the loss of moisture by evaporation, 
has arisen the universal practice of placing them 
in water ; but the mutilated stems possess a far 
inferior power of sucking up fluids to that of the 
roots, and though their decay may thus be slightly 
impeded, yet, as the balance of gain on the one 
hand by the roots, and loss on the other hand by 
evaporation from their whole surface, cannot be 
maintained, they fade as a natural consequence. 
To preserve them, or at least to render their exist- 
ence less ephemeral, we have therefore only to 
restore this balance- *o surround them with a me- 
dium that will rob them of no water ; or, in other 
words, to place them in a moist atmosphere. " It 
is now eighteen years ago since we first saw, in 
the drawing-room of a gentleman, in the hot dry 
weather of the dog-days, flowers preserved day 
after day in all their freshness by the following 
simple contrivance : — A flat dish of porcelain had 
water poured into it. In the water a vase of 
flowers was set ; over the whole a bell-glass was 
placed with its rim in the water. This was a 
' Ward's case' in principle, although different in its 
construction. The air that surrounded the flowers 
being confined beneath the bell-glass, was con- 
stantly moist with the water that rose into it in the 
form of vapor. As fast as the water was con- 
densed, it ran down the sides of the bell-glass back 
into the dish ; and if means had been taken to en- 
close the water on the outside of the bell-glass, so 
as to prevent its evaporating into the aii of the 
sitting-room, the atmosphere around the flowers 
would have remained continually damp. The only 
difference between plants in a ' Ward's case' and 
flowers in the little apparatus just described is this 
— that the former is intended for plants to grow ia 
for a considerable spa^p of time, while the latter is 
merely for their preservation for a few days ; and 
that the air which surrounds the flowers is always 
charged with the same quantity of vapor, and will 
not vary with the circumstances, and at the will 
of him who has the management of it. We 
recommend those who love to see plenty of Iresh 
flowers in their sitting-rooms in dry weather, to 
procure it. "The experiment can be tried by im-ert- 
ing a tumbler over a rose-bud in a saucer of waler." 
(Gardener's Chronicle.) 

Faded flowers may be generally restored by 
immersing them half-way up their stems in ^'ery 
hot water, and allowing them to remain in it until 
it cools, or they have recovered. They must then 
be removed, the ' coddled' portion of the stems cut 
off, and placed in clean cold water. In this way 
a great number of faded flowers may be restored, 
but there are some of the more fugacious kinds on 
which it proves useless. 

To hasten the blowing of flowers the folio ving 
liquid has been used with great advantage : — Snl- 
l)luite or nitrate of ammonia 4 oz. ; nitrate of pot- 
ash 2 oz. ; sugar 1 oz. ; hot water 1 pint ; dis.solve 
and keep it in a well-corked bottle. For use, put 
8 or 10 drops of this liquid into the water of a liya 
cinth-glass or jar for bulbous-rooted plants, chang- 
ing the water every 10 or 12 days. For tloworing 
plants in pots a few drops must be added to the 
water employed to moisten them. The profereuc* 



FLO 



319 



FLU 



should be given to rain water for this purpose. A 
similar fluid, sold by Mr. Potter under the name of 
" liquid guano," is an excellent article to promote 
the growth and early flowering of plants. 

Flowers may he produced in winter by taking 
up the plants, trees, or shrubs in the spring, at the 
time when they are about to bud, with some of 
their own soil carefully preserved among the roots, 
placing them upright in a cellar till Michaelmas ; 
wlien, with the aildition of fresh earth, they are to 
be put into proper tubs or vessels, and placed in a 
stove or hothouse, where they must every morning 
be moistened or refreshed with rain-water, to which 
a little of the solution above mentioned has been 
added. Thus in the month of February, fruits or 
roses will appear, and with respect to flowers in 
general, if they are sown in pots, at or before 
Michaelmas, and watered in a similar manner, 
they will blow at Christmas. 

Flowers for medicinal purposes should be ga- 
thered as soon as unfolded, and dried as speedily 
as possible, at a gentle heat, the chlices, claws, 
&c., being previously taken off; when the flowers 
are small the calix may be left on, or even the 
whole flowering spike dried without mutilation. 
Labiate flowers are usually dried in the latter 
state. Blue flowers, as those of violets, bugloss, 
&c., should be dipped for a moment into boiling wa- 
ter, before drying them, to prevent their becoming 
yellow or discolored. The color of the petals of 
red roses is best preserved by quick drying, after 
which the yellow anthers may be removed by sift- 
ing. The odor of roses and pinks is improved by 
this treatment. Compound flowers, with pappous 
seeds, ought to be gathered before they are entirely 
opened, and should be dried very high, to prevent 
the moisture developing the pappi, which by keep- 
mg would unfit them for medical use. 

The best method of drying flowers is to spread 
them thinly on paper t~ays and place them in a 
stove-room, or a current oi' dry air, (preferably the 
latter,) or in the sun. For odorless flowers the 
temperature may be between 75° and 120° F., 
observing, however, not to employ. sufficient heat 
to destroy their color. For fragrant and aromatic 
flowers the heat should not exceed 75°. The 
flowering tops of plants, as those of lavender, 
wormwood, melilot, &cc., are usually tied in small 
parcels or bundles, loosely wrapped in paper, and 
then hung up, that they may not gt-t discolored or 
broken. The succulent petals of some plants, 
whose odor is very fugacious, as some of the lilia- 
ceous kinds, cannot be well dried, as their fra- 
grance is lost, and at the same time they rot and 
become discolored. (See Vegetables.) 

FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. The beauty and 
value of these pleasing imitations of the vegetable 
kingdom mainly depend upon the taste and inge- 
nuity of the maker. The delicate fingers of woman 
and her ready powers of imitation and invention, 
combined with her natural affection for the floral 
world, and her ready perception of the true and 
beautiful in nature and art, have enabled her es- 
pecially to excel in this manufacture. At the pres- 
ent time, this art is carried to the greatest perfec- 
tion by the female artificial florists of the French 
capital. 

The French employ velvet, kid, and fine cam- 
bric for the petals, and taffeta for the leaves. Very 



recently thin plates of bleached whalebone have 
been used with great success for some portions of 
artificial flowers. 

As colors and stains, the following are employ- 
ed in Paris : — Red, carmine dissolved in a solution 
of salts of tartar, or in spirits of hartshorn ; yclloWy 
tincture of turmeric ; green, a solution of distilled 
verdigris ; blue, indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, 
and the acid partly neutralized with salt of tartar 
or whiting ; violet, liquid archil, mixed with a 
little salts of tartar ; lilac, liquid archil. These 
colors are usually applied to the petals with the 
finger. 

FLOWERS, (In Chemistry.) Pulverulent or 
flower-like substances obtained by sublimation, as 
flowers of benzoin, zinc, sulphur, &c. The term 
has been discarded from modern chemical nomen- 
clature, but is still commonly employed in famihar 
language. 

FLOWERS OF CALOMEL. Calomel re- 
sublimed from a retort, with a very short, wide 
neck, kept too hot for it to condense on. into a re- 
ceiver half filled with water, and sufficiently hot 
to steam. A fine white powder, possessing the 
same properties as ordinary calonicl. 

FLOWERS OF ZINC. Syn. Flores Zinci. 
ZiNCUM Calcinatum. Zinci Oxidum. (P. L. be- 
fore 1824.) Oxide of zinc obtained by the rapid 
combustion of metallic zinc in a deep crucible, 
placed sideways in a furnace, so that the flowers 
may be collected as they form. Antispasmodic. 
Dose. 5 to 10 grs. in epilepsy, &c. Also us^d as 
a white pigment, but dries badly. 

FLUID, ETCHING. I. (For copper.) Prep 
a. Aquafortis 2 oz. ; water 5 oz. ; mix. 

b. To the last add verdigris 1 oz., and water 3 
oz. ; dissolve. 

c. Verdigris, common salt, and sal ammoniac, 
of each 4 oz. ; alum 1 oz., (all in powder ;) strong 
vinegar 8 oz. ; water 1 lb. ; dissolve by boiling for 
a moment, cool, and decant the clear. This is the 
eau forte of Callot and Piranesi. 

II. (For steel.) a. Iodine 1 oz. ; iron filings ^ 
dr. ; water 4 oz. ; mix and dissolve. 

b. Pyrol igneous acid 4 oz. ; alcohol 1 oz. ; mix 
and add nitric acid 1 oz. ; all by measure. This 
Menstruum was employed and recommended by 
Mr. Turrel. For the method of using the above 
fluids, see Etching. 

FLUID MAGNESIA. Prep. Place recently 
precipitated carbonate of magnesia m a bottle or 
other suitable vessel, and fill it by means of a so- 
da-water apparatus with water fully charged with 
carbonic acid gas. With slight and cautious agita- 
tion the aerated water will become saturated with 
magnesia. A scruple of carbonate of magnesia 
put into a bottle, and thus treated, will be all taken 
up in from 20 minutes to half an hour, and the 
beverage left beautifully clear. (Geo. Raistrick. 
Chem. V. 42.) 

FLUMMERY, (In Cookery.) A species of 
thick hasty-pudding, made with oatmeal or rice, 
flavored with milk, cream, almonds, orange- flowers, 
lemons, &lc., according to fancy. French flum- 
mery is made with equa^ parts of blanc-mange and 
cream, sweetened and flavored. Dutch flummery 
is blanc-mange and eggs, flavored with lemon raid 
sweetened. All these are poured into forms and 
served cold, to eat with wine, spirits, cider, &.c. 



FLU 



320 



FOI 



FLUOBORATES. Syn. Fluoborides Boro- 
FLuo RIDES. Hydrofluorborates. Conipounds of 
fluoboric acid, with the salifiable bases. See the 
next article. 

FLUOBORIC ACID. Syn. Terfluoride of 
BoROJN'. A peculiar gaseous compound of fluorine 
and boron, discovered by Gay Lussac and The- 
nard. 

Prep. Vitrified boracic acid 1 part ; fluor spar 2 
parts ; mix, and expose the mixture to heat in a 
leaden retort. A colorless gas is evolved, which 
is rapidly absorbed by water, forming liquid fluo- 
boric acid, (Gay Lussac, Thenard, Dr. Davy,) or 
boro-hydrofluoric acid, (Berzelius.) It does not 
attack glass, but rapidly destroys organic sub- 
stances. Water absorbs 700 times its volume of 
this gas. (Davy.) See Borofluoride of Hy- 
drogen. 

FLUORIDES. Compounds of fluorine with 
the metals. (See Fluorine.) 

FLUORIDES OF CHROMIUM. I. (Sesqui- 
fluoride.) Prep. Dissolve hydrated oxide of chro- 
mium in hydrofluoric acid and evaporate. A 
crystalline green mass. 

IT. {Perfluoride. Fluochromic Acid.) Fluor 
spar 3 parts ; chromate of lead 4 parts ; fuming 
(or the strongest) sulphuric acid 5 parts ; mix cau- 
tiously in a silver or leaden retort. A red colored 
gas is evolved, which acts rapidly on gas, forming 
fluosilicic acid gas, and upon water, forming hy- 
drofluoric acid and chromic acid. The moisture 
of the atmosphere is sufficient to effect this decom- 
position, the former substance escaping under the 
form of gas, and the latter being deposited in small 
crystals. (See Chromic Acid.) 

FLUORINE. The electro-negative elements 
of hydrofluoric acid and the fluorides. This sub- 
stance, though long known in combination, has 
only been lately obtained in a separate state. The 
honor of having first obtained it in an insulated 
form is due to Baudrimont, who procured it by 
passing fluoride of boron over minium heated to 
redness, and receiving the gas in a dry vessel. As 
thus obtained, it is not absolutely pure, being con- 
taminated with small quantities of hydrofluoric and 
silico-fluoric acids. It has a yellowish color, and 
an odor between that of chlorine and burnt sugan 
In this state it does not act on glass, but combines 
directly with gold. With hydrogen it forms hydro- 
jluoric acid, and with the rcvQiaXs fluorides. The 
word fluorive was given to this substance from its 
existing in fluor or Derbyshire spar. The adjecti- 
tious term fluor, {homfluo, I flow,) was a|)plied to 
tills spar or mineral from lis ready fusibility, and 
being sometimes used as a flux to promote the fu- 
sion of certain refractory minerals. 

FLUOSILICIC ACID. Prep. Powdered fluor 
spar and silicious sand, or powdered glass, 1 part ; 
concentrated sulphuric acid 2 parts ; mix in a glass 
retort, apply a gentle heat, and collect the evolved 
gas over mercury. 

Remarks. A colorless incombustible gas, highly 
oorrosive, and poisonous, but does not act on glass 
vessels, when they are quite dry. Water absorbs 
365 times its volume of this gas, (Dr. Davy ;) but 
decomposition ensues, pure hydrated silicic acid 
being deposited in a gelatinous state, and a solu- 
tion of hydrofluoric acid, containing only two-thirds 
of tlie silicic acid originally present in the gas, be- 



ing formed. (Berzelius.) This solution is called 
silicated fluoric acid, or silico-hydrofluoric acid. 
It is acid and corrosive. By the action of water 
of ammonia fluosilicic acid gas is completely de- 
composed, depositing its silica. In this way Dr. 
Davy obtained —wwo °^ '^^^ weight of the .'atter 
substance. 

FLUX. Syn. Fluss, {Ge^.) Flux, {Fr.) FioOR 
(Lat., iromfluo, I flow.) In Pathology, this term 
is occasionally applied to diarrhoea, cholera, and 
dysentery, but is nearly obsolete. In Chemistry, 
fluxes are substances of easy fusibility, which are 
added to others more refractory, to promote their 
fusion. The principal fluxes are the following : — 

L (Black flux.) Cream of tartar 2 parts ; nitrd 
1 part ; powder, mix, and deflagrate, by small 
quantities at a time, in a red hot crucible. This 
is merely carbonate of potash, mixed with char- 
coal in a finely-divided state. It is used for smelt- 
ing metallic ores, and exercises a reducing action, 
as well as promoting the fusion. 

2. (White flux. Cornish refining flux.) Cream 
of tartar and nitre, equal parts ; deflagrate as last. 

3. (Morveau's reducing flux.) Powdered glass 
(containing no lead) 1 lb. ; calcined borax 2 oz. ; 
powdered charcoal 1 oz. ; mix. Used for the same 
purposes as black flux. 

4. (Cornish reducing flux.) Cream of tartar 
10 oz. ; nitre 4 oz. ; borax 3 oz. ; mix. 

5. (Crude flux.) Nitre mixed with twice its 
weight of tartar, without deflagration. Reducing. 

6. Borax, tartar, nitre, sal ammoniac, common 
salt, limestone, glass, fluor spar, and several other 
substances are used as fluxes in metallurgy. 

Remarks. On the large scale crude tartar is 
employed. 

FOILS. (From feuille, Fr., or folium, Lat., a 
leaf.) Thin leaves of polished metal, put under 
stones or. pastes, to heighten the effect. Foils 
were formerly made of copper, tinned copper, tin, 
and silvered copper, but the latter is that wholly 
used for superior work at the present day. There 
are two descriptions of foils employed, viz., white, 
for diamonds and mock diamonds, and color ed^ 
for the colored gems. The latter are prepared by 
varnishing the former. By their judicious use the 
color of a stone may be often modified. Thus, 
by placing a yellow foil under a green stone that 
turns too much on the blue, or a red one turning 
too much on the crimson, the hues will be bright- 
ened. 

Prep. I. (White or common foil.) This is made 
by coating a plate of copper with a layer of silver, 
and then rolling it into sheets hi the flatting mill. 
The foil is then highly polished or varnished. 

II. (Colored foils.) These are made by color- 
ing the preceding foil, highly polished, with certain 
transparent solutions or varnishes. The following 
produce beautiful colored effects, when judiciously 
employed : — 

a. (Blue.) Prussian blue, (preferably Turnbull's,) 
ground with pale, quick-drying oil. Used to deep- 
en the color of sapphires. It may be diluted with 
oil. 

h. (Green.) 1. Pale shellac, dissolved in alco- 
hol, (lacker,) and tinged green by dissolving verdi- 
gris or acetate of copper in it. 2. " Sesquiferro- 
cyanuret of iron" and bichromate of potassa, of 
each i oz. ; grind them with a stone ai^f* viuUer to 



FOI 



321 



FOR 



a fine powder, add gum mastich (clean and also in 
fine powder) 2 oz. ; grind again, add a little pyrox- 
ilic spirit, and again grind until the mass becomes 
homogeneous and of a fine transparent green ; the 
beauty increases with tlie length of the grinding. 
The predominance of the bichromate turns it on 
the yellowish green ; that of the salt of iron, on 
the bluish green. For use it is to be thinned with 
pyroxilic spirit." (Chemist, iii. 238.) This is used 
for emeralds. It may be brightened by adding a 
httle yellow varnish. 

c. {Yellnui.) 1. Various shades of yellow may 
be produced by tinging a weak alcoholic solution 
of shellac or mastich, by digesting turmeric, an- 
natto, saffron, or socotrine aloes therein. The 
former is the brightest and most fit for topazes. 
2. Digest hay saiFron in 5 or 6 times its weight of 
boiling water, until the latter becomes sufficiently 
colored, filter, and add a little solution of gum or 
isinglass. When dry, a coating of spirit varnish 
should be applied. 

d. (Red.) Carmine dissolved in spirits of harts- 
horn, or a weak solution of salt of tartar, and gum 
added as above. 

e. (Garnet.) Dragon's blood dissolved in recti- 
fied spirit of wine. 

/. (Vinegar garnet.) Orange lake finely tem- 
pered with shellac varnish. 

g. (Amethyst.) Lake and prussian blue, finely 
ground in pale drying oil. 

h. (Eagle marine.) Verdigris tempered in^shel- 
lac varnish, (alcoholic,) with a little prussian 
blue. 

i. (Ruhy.) 1. Lake or carmine, ground in isin- 
glass. 2, Lake ground in shellac varnish. Used 
when the color turns on the purple. 3. Bright 
lake ground in oil ; used when the color turns on 
the scarlet or orange. . 

k. (Diamond.) 1. Cover the inside of the socket 
in which the stone or paste is to be set with tin 
foil, by means of a little stiff gum or size ; when 
dry, polish the surface, heat the socket, fill it with 
warm quicksilver, let it rest for two or three min- 
utes, then pour it out and gently. fit in the stone ; 
lastly, well close the work round the stone, to pre- 
vent the alloy being shaken out. 2. Coat the bot- 
tom of the stone v/ith a film of real silver, by 
precipitating it from a solution of the nitrate in 
spirits of ammonia, by means of the oils of cassia 
and cloves. (See Silvering.) Both these meth- 
ods vastly increase the brilliancy both of real and 
factitious gems. 

Reinarks. By the skilful use of the above var- 
nishes, good imitations of the gems may be cheap- 
ly made from transparent white glass or paste, and 
when applied to foils set under colored pastes, 
(factitious gems,) a superior effect may be produ- 
ced. The colors must be reduced to the finest 
state possible by patient grinding, as without this 
precaution, transparent and beautiful shades can- 
not be formed. The palest and cleanest mastich, 
and lac dissolved in alcohol, and also the palest 
and quickest drying oil should alone be employed, 
when these substances are ordered. In every case 
the colors must be laid on the foils with a broad 
Boft brush, and the operation should be performed, 
if possible, at once, as no part should be crossed, 
or twice gone over while wet. If the oolor be not 
deep enough, a second coat may be given when 
41 



the first one has become quite dry, but this prac« 
tice is not to be recommended. 

FOMENTATION. Syn. Fomentum, Fcmen- 
TATio, FoTus, (Lat.) Fomentation, (Fr.) I. Lo- 
cal bathing, with heated water, simple or medi- 
cated. 

II. The liquid used for the above purpo.se. Fo- 
mentations are chiefly employed to allay pain and 
irritation, and to promote suppuration and the 
healthy action of the parts. 

FOMENTATION. Syn. Common Fomenta- 
tion. FoTus COMMUNIS, (P. L. 1746.) Compound 
decoction of mallows. 

FOMENTATION, ANODYNE. Syn. Fotus 
ANODYNus. Prep. (E. H.) Poppies 1 oz. ; elder 
flowers i oz. ; water 2^ pints ; boil to 1^ pints. To 
relieve pain. 

FOMENTATION, ANTISEPTIC. Syn. 
FoTus antisepticus. Prep. (Ger. H.) Decoction 
of bark lb. ij ; infusion of chamomile Ib.j ; spirits 
of camphor ffij ; muriatic acid f3j ; mix. 

FOMENTATION, AROMATIC. .S-^tz. Fo- 
tus aromaticus. Prep. Sea wormwood, abrota- 
num and chamomiles, of each 1 oz. ; laurel leaves 
i oz. ; water 5 pints ; boil to J gallon. 

FOMENTATION, ASTRINGENT. Syn. 
Fotus astringens. F. roborans. Prep. (P. H.) 
Bistort and pomegranate peel, of each 2 oz. ; sal 
ammoniac \ oz. ; red wine 1 pint; infuse at a 
gentle heat. 

FOMENTATION FOR WORMS. Syn. Fo- 
tus anthelminticus. Prep. (P. Cod.) Leaves 
and flowers of tansy, wormwood, and chamomile, 
of each ^iij ; water lb. iij ; boil to ib. ij. 

FOMENTATION OF DIGITALIS. Syn.' 
Fomentum Digitalis. Prep. (Guy's H.) Leaves 
of deadly nightshade, ^j ; boiling water lb. ij ; in- 
fuse. 

FOMENTATION OF HEMLOCK. Syn. 
Fomentum Cicut^. F. Conii. Prep. (St. B. H.) 
Fresh hemlock leaves, §ij ; (or dried leaves, ^j ;) 
water 1^ pints ; boil to a pint. 

FOMENTATION OF ELDER FLOWERS. 
Syn. FoTus sambuci. Prep. (P. Cod.) Elder 
flowers 3iij ; boiling water 1 quart ; macerate 1 
hour. 

FOMENTATION OF SAL AMMONIAC. 
Syn. Fomentum Ammonia Muriatis. Prep. (P. 
C.) Compound decoction of mallows §xxxij ; sal 
ammoniac ^j ; dissolve, and add spirit of camphor 

ipOMENTATION, RESOLVENT. Syn. 
Fotus resolvens. Prep. (Richard.) Fomenta- 
tion of elder flowers ^viij ; hquor of diacetate of 
lead 3ss ; mix. 

FOMENTATION, VINOUS. Syn. Fotus 
ViNosus. Prep. (P. Cod.) Red wine 1 quart ; 
honey §ivss ; dissolve. 

FORCEMEAT. Syn. Farce. (In Cooke- 
ry.) A species of sausage meat, either served up 
alone, or employed as an ingredient in other dishes 
Our notice of this article must be confined to the 
following extracts from a popular System of Cook' 
ery : — 

" According to *, hat ft is wanted for should be 
the selection from the following list, observing that 
of the most pungent articles, least must be used 
No one flavor should predominate greatly : yet if 
several dishes be served the same day, there should 



FOR 



322 



FOR 



be a marked variety in the tastes of the force- 
meats, as well as of the gravies. A general fault 
is, that the tastes of lemon-peel and thyme over- 
come all others ; therefore they should only be used 
n small quantities. They should be consistent 
enough to cut with a knife, but not dry and 
heavy. Herbs are a very essential ingredient ; 
and it is the copious and judicious use of them that 
chiefly gives the cookery of the French its supe- 
rior flavor. To force fowls, meat, &:.c., is to stuflf 
them." (Mrs. Rundel.) 

" Forcemeat ingredients. Cold fowl, veal, or 
mutton ; scraped ham or gammon ; fat bacon, or 
the fat of ham ; beef-suet ; veal-suet ; butter ; 
marrow ; crumbs of bread ; parsley ; white pep- 
per ; salt ; nutmeg ; yelk and white of eggs, well 
beaten to bind the mixture. 

" Cold sole ; oysters ; anchovy ; lobsters ; tar- 
ragon ; savory ; pennyroyal ; knotted marjoram ; 
thyme and lemon-thyme ; basil ; sage ; lemon- 
peel ; yelks of hard eggs ; mace and cloves ; 
cayenne ; garlic ; shalot ; onion ; chives ; chervil ; 
Jamaica pepper in fine powder, or two or three 
cloves." 

The first paragraph contains the articles of which 
the forcemeat may be made, without any striking 
flavor ; and to these may be added some of the 
different ingredients in the second paragraph, to 
vary the taste. 

I. {For fowls or meat.) Shred a little ham or 
gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some beef-suet, 
a small quantity of onion, some parsley, very little 
lemon-peel, salt, nutmeg, or pounded mace, and 
either white pepper or cayenne, and bread-crumbs : 
pound it in a mortar, and bind it with one or two 
eggs, beaten or strained. For forcemeat patties, 
the mixture as above. 

II. (For hare, or any thing in imitation of it.) 
The scalded liver, an anchovy, some fat bacon, a 
little suet, some parsley, thyme, knotted marjoram, 
a little shalot, and either onion or chives, all chop- 
ped fine ; crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg, 
beat in a mortar with an egg. 

III. (For fish soups, or fish stewed on maigre 
days.) Beat the flesh and soft parts of a middling 
lobster, half an anchovy, a large piece of boiled 
celery, the yelk of a hard egg, a little cayenne, 
mace, salt, and white pepper, with two table- 
spoonfuls of bread-crumbs, one ditto of oyster li- 
quor, two ounces of butter, warmed, and two eggs 
long beaten : make into balls, and fry of a fine 
brown in butter 

IV. {For fish.) Chop, and afterwards pound in 
a mortar, any kind of fish, adding an ancho\'y or 
two, or a teaspoonful of the essence of anchovies, 
(but do not allow the taste to prevail,) and the 
yelk of a hard-boiled egg : if for the maigre, pound 
butter with it ; but otherwise, the fat of bacon 
pounded separately, and then mixed: add a third 
portion of bread, prepared by previously pounding 
and soaking, and mix the whole up with raw eggs. 

V. {Ci)inmon veal-stuffing.) Take equal quan- 
tities of beef-suet and crumbs of bread, chop the 
suet very finely : chop together a bundle of sweet 
herbs ; add to them a tea or salt spoonful of grated 
lemon-peel, and popper and salt. Ude, who is 
good authority, observes that "it would not bo 
amiss to add a piece of butter, and pound the 
whole in a mortar ;" mix it up with eggs. 



Obs. Grated ham or tongue may be added te 

this stuffing. 

By mixing with any potted meat or game an 
equal proportion of soaked bread, (which will al- 
ways be lighter than bread-crumbs.) the cook will 
have at once a very fine species of farce, to ')e em- 
ployed in stuffing olives, fillets of fowl. Sec. Bacon 
or butter must always be substituted for suet when 
the forcemeat is to be eaten cold. 

At many tables, where every thing else is well 
done, it is common to find very bad stuffing. 

FORMIC ACID. (From Formica, an ant.) 
The sour liquid ejected by ants when irritated. It 
was formo'-ly solely obtained from these insects by 
distilhng ihem along with water. This acid was 
discovered by Gehlen, but first prepared artificially 
by Doebereiner. 

Prep. I. (Doebereiner.) Tartaric acid 2 parts j 
peroxide of manganese and concentrated sulphuric 
acid, of each 3 parts ; water 5 parts ; distil in a 
capacious retort into a well-cooled receiver. 

II. (Ure.) Tartaric acid 10 parts ; concentrated 
sulphuric acid 15 parts ; black oxide of manganese 
14 parts ; water 20 to 30 parts ; distil as last. 

III. (Mr. C. Watt, jun.) Coal naphtha (or py- 
roxilic spirit) 1 part; bichromate of.potassa and 
sulphuric acid, of each 3 parts ; place the naphtha 
in a flask fitted with a funnel tube ; the bichro- 
mate of potassa is then to be added, and the sul- 
phuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, 
gradually poured down the funnel ; while the acid 
is being added> heat is to be applied, when the 
formic acid will distil over, and may be condensed 
in a vessel kept cool. A portion of naphtha will 
distil over with the formic acid, which may be 
again treated with bichromate of potassa and sul- 
phuric acid, when a fresh portion of formic acid 
will be produced. If this acid be required perfectly 
pure, it must be saturated with pure carbonate of 
soda or potassa, and subjected to a gentle heat to 
volatilize any small portion of naphtha with which 
it may be contaminated. The formic acid is then 
to be liberated from the salt by means of dilute 
sulphuric acid, and subjected to distillation, when 
the acid will be obtained perfectly pure. This 
process yields a large product. (Chemist, iii. 233.) 

IV. (Liebig.) a. Starch 1 part ; peroxide of 
manganese, in fine powder, 4 parts ; water 4 parts ; 
mix in an alembic, or retort; heat to 104° F. ; 
then add 4 parts of oil of vitriol, by degrees, and 
after the frothing is over, apply heat and distil off 
4^ parts of liquid. The retort should have a capa- 
city equal to 10 times the bulk of the ingredients. 

b. {On the small scale.) Starch 10 parts ; per- 
oxide of manganese 37 parts ; oil of vitriol and 
water, of each, 30 parts ; as last. Product. 3*35 
parts of an acid capable of neutralizing 15^ of dry 
carbonate of soda. 

c. {Pure hydrated formic acid.) I. Introduce 
formiate of lead, in fine powder, into a long glass 
tube, connect one end with an apparatus evolving 
sulphureted hydrogen, and the other with a re-- 
C(Mver. When the salt is entirely decomposed 
(blackened) apply a very gentle heat, and collect 
the distilled li(}uid ; lastly, boil the product for a 
minute or less, lo expel any adhering sulphureted 
gas. This hydrate contains 1 atom or 2(lg of wa- 
ter. 2. Dry formiate of lead, 18 parts ; oil of 
vitriol 6 parts ; water 1 part ; distil in a muriate of 



FRE 



323 



FRI 



lime bath. This hydrate contains 2 atoms .of 
water. 

d. Formiate of lime 10 parts ; oil of vitriol 8 
parts ; water 4 parts ; distil. Product. Nino parts 
of pure but dilute acid ; sp. gr. 1-075. 

Remarks. The processes c. 1 and 2, yield per- 
fectly pure hydrated formic acid, the others, mere 
solutions of this acid in water. They are all limpid 
and colorless. The first hydrate (IV, c,) boils at 
212°, crystallizes in brilliant scales below 32°, and 
has the sp. gr. 1*2353. The second hydrate (IV, 
c, 2,) boils at 223°, does not solidify at —5°, and 
has the sp. gr. Ml. Both the above are extreme- 
ly corrosive, and rapidly destroy the texture of liv- 
ing organic substances. The products of the other 
processes are very dilute. 

Formic acid reduces the salts of mercury and 
silver, and forms salts with the bases termed for- 
?niates. Most of these may be formed by either 
saturating the acid with the hydrate, carbonate, or 
oxide of the base, or by double decomposition, by 
adding a solution of a soluble salt of the base to 
another of an alkaline formiate. They are all 
soluble in water. 

FORMIC ETHER. Syn. Formiate of Ox- 
ide OF Ethule. Prep. Dry formiate of soda 7 
parts ; oil of vitriol 10 parts ; alcohol of 90§, 6 
parts ; mix in a retort connected with a well-cool- 
ed receiver. The greater part will distil over by 
the heat spontaneously developed. Purify by 
agitation, first with milk of lime, and afterwards 
with chloride of calcium. It is limpid, smells 
aromatic, is lighter than water, soluble in 10 parts 
of that fluid, and boils at 128° F. (See Ether, 
AND Ethers, organic.) 

FORMO-BENZOIC ACID. Syn. Formiate 
OB HvDRURET OF Benzule. A peculiar acid dis- 
co\ ered by Winkler, and obtained by dissolving oil 
of bitter almonds in water, adding muriatic acid, 
evaporating, and treating the dry mass with ether, 
which dissolves out the new acid: it may be de- 
colored by animal charcoal, and obtained in crys- 
tals by evaporation. It readily combines with the 
bases, forming salts CQ-Wod formobenzoates. 

FORMOMETHYLAL. Syn. Formiate of 
Methule, (tribasic.) A very volatile liquid, ob- 
tained by Kane, by distilling a mixture of 2 parts 
each of pyroxilic spirit and peroxide of manganese, 
and 3 parts each of oil of vi^'^riol and water. Sev- 
eral products first distil over, and after the boiling 
point of the distilled liquor reaches 177°, the for- 
miate of methule begins to collect in the receiver. 

FORMULE. A hypothetical organic radical, 
supposed to consist of 2 eq. of carbon and 1 eq. of 
hydrogen, of which formic acid is the oxide. Its 
existence is inferred from the constitution of cer- 
tain known compounds. (Liebig.) Iodide, bro- 
mide, chloride, and sulphuret of formule, have been 
obtained, but are only interesting in a scientific 
point of view. 

FOXING. The spontaneous souring of worts 
or beer during fermentation or ripening. It is gen- 
erally occasioned by want of proper attention or 
ekill on the part of the brewer. (See Brewing.) 

FRAXININE. A peculiar, soluble, bitter, neu- 
tral, and crystallizable substance, extracted from 
the bark of fraxinus excelsior. 

FRECKLES may be removed by the frequent 
application of dilute spirits, acids, or alkaline solu- 



tions ; the latter two just strong enough to prick 
the tongue. (See Cosmetics.) 

FREEMAN'S BATHING SPIRITS. Opo- 

deldoc, colored with Daffy's elixir. 

FREEZING. Syn. Congelation, (Fr.) Con- 
GELATio, (Lat.) Gefrierung, {Ger.) The con- 
version of a liquid into the solid state, by the ab- 
straction of a portion of its caloric. (See Congb- 

LATION.) 

FRENCH BERRIES. Syn. Persian Ber- 
ries. Avignon do. Graines d' Avignon. The 
berries or fi-uit of the rhamnus infectorius. They 
are imported from France and Persia ; those from 
the latter country being esteemed the best. Their 
decoction dyes cloth, mordanted with alum, tartar, 
or protomuriate of tin, of a yellow color ; with sul- 
phate of copper, an olive, and with red sulphate of 
iron, an olive-green color. 

FRENCH POLISH. Prep. I. A solution of 
shellac in wood naphtha, (pyroxilic spirit.) 

II. Pale shellac 3 lbs. ; mastich 6 oz. ; alcohol 
of 90§, 3 quarts. 

III. Shellac 2 lbs. ; mastich and sandaric, (both 
in powder,) of each 1 oz. ; copal varnish 12 oz. ; 
alcohol 1 gallon. 

Remarks. All the above are made in the cold 
by frequently stirring or shaking the ingredients 
together in a well-closed bottle or other vessel. 
French polish is used without filtering. (See the 
next article.) 

FRENCH POLISH, (TO.) The varnish be- 
ing prepared, (shellac,) the article to be polished 
being finished ofi'as smoothly as possible with glass 
paper, and your rubber being made as directed be- 
low, proceed to the operation as follows : — The 
varnish, in a narrow-necked bottle, is to be applied 
to the middle of the flat face of the rubber, by 
laying the rubber on the mouth of the bottle and 
shaking up the varnish once, as by this means the 
rubber will imbibe the proper quantity to varnish a 
considerable^; extent of surface. The rubber is then 
to be enclosed in a soft linen cloth, doubled, the 
rest of the cloth being gathered up at the back ol 
the rubber to form a handle. Moisten the face of 
the linen with a little raw linseed oil, applied with 
the finger to the middle of it. Place your work 
opposite the light, pass your rubber quickly and 
lightly over its surface until the varnish becomes 
dry, or nearly so ; again charge your rubber as 
before with varnish, (omitting the oil,) and repeat 
the rubbing, until three coats are laid on, when a 
little oil may be applied to the rubber, and two 
coats more given to it. Proceed in this way until 
the varnish has acquired some thickness ; then 
wet the inside of the linen cloth, before applying 
the varnish, with alcohol, or wood naphtha, and 
rub quickly, lightly, and uniformly the whole sur- 
face. Lastly, wet the linen cloth with a little oil 
and alcohol without varnish, and rub as before till 
dry. 

To make the rubber, roll up a strip of thick 
woollen cloth which has been torn off, so as to 
form a soft elastic edge. It should form a coil, 
from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, according to the 
size of the work 

FRICTION. (From frico, I rub.) In Me- 
chanics, the resistance produced by the rubbing 
together of the surfaces of solid bodies. The 
amount of friction is proportionate to the rough' 



FRU 



324 



FRU 



ness of the surfaces. Bodies absolutely smooth ; 
offer no resistance to each other of this kind ; but 
perfect smootliness is unattainable by the most I 
careful polishing. Even the brilliant surface of | 
the diamond possesses asperities which exercise a 
similar effect, but in an immensely less degree to 
the rougher surfaces of the metals employed for 
machinery. To lessen the amount of resistance, 
various unctuous substances, as oil, tallow., soap, 
blacklead, &lc., are used by engineers. Each of 
these acts by imparting smoothness to the points of 
contact, and thus lessens the amount of friction. 
(See Anti-Attrition.) 

FRICANDEAU. {Fr.) In Cookery, a ragout, 
or fricassee of veal. The same term is sometimes 
(improperly) applied by cooks to stewed beef, high- 
ly seasoned. 

FRICASSEE. (Fr.) In Cookery, a ragout, or 
fricassee. Any stew, highly flavored with herbs, 
spices, or sauce. Small things, as chickens, lamb, 
&c., and cold meat, are usually formed into fri- 
cassees. 

FRITT. The pulverent materials of glass, 
heated until they coalesce without melting. (See 
Enamels, Glass, and Pastes.) 

FRITTERS. (In Cookery.) Fried batter. A 
species of pancake containing fruit or sweetmeats. 
Spanish fritters are made of slices of French 
rolls soaked in a mixture of cream, eggs, sugar, 
and spices, and fried brown. French fritters are 
made by beating up common pancakes with eggs, 
rimonds, and flavoring, (sugar, orange-flower wa- 
ter, and nutmeg,) and dropping the paste into a 
stew or frying-pan half full of boiling lard, so as to 
form cakes the size of large nuts, which are cooked 
till brown. Curd fritters are made of dried curd, 
beaten with yelk of egg and a iittle flour, and fla- 
vored with nutmeg. Souffle fritters are nothing 
but rich pancakes, flavored with lemon. Apple 
and other fruit fritters are made by mixing up 
the sliced fruits with rich batter, and £(^ing. Buck- 
wheat fritters, or bockings, are made by beating 
up buckwheat flour to a batter with some warm 
milk, adding a little yeast, letting it rise before the 
fire for 30 or 40 minutes, then beating in some 
eggs and milk or warm water, as required, and 
frying them like pancakes. Buckwheat fritters, 
when well prepared, are exceilent. 

FROST-BITES. When those parts of the 
body in which the circulation of the blood is most 
languid are exposed to extreme cold, they become 
frozen, or as it is called, frost-bitten. The fingers, 
toes, ears, and nose are most liable to this attack. 
The remedy is long-crntinued friction with the 
hands or cold flannel, avoiding the fire, or even a 
heated apartment. 

FRUIT. Syn. FnucTus, (Lot.) Fruit, (Fr.) 
In Botany, the ovarium or tbe pistillUm arrived at 
a state of maturity. In common language the 
term fruit is applied to any product of a plant con- 
taining the K.ecd, more especially those that are 
eaten. Tho inula of some plants are improperly 
called seeds, as those of the cereals, caraway, 
parsley, «S6c. 

Fruit's are extensively employed as articles of 
die ;•' uuni, both as luxuries and nutritives. The 
acidulous fruits are antiseptic, aperient, atteiuj- 
ant, diuretic, and refrigerant. As articles of diet, 
Uiey afford but little nourishment, and promote di- 



arrhoea and flatulency. They are, however, occa- 
sionally exhibited medicinally, in putrid affections, 
and are often advantageous in bilious and dyspep- 
tic complaints. The saccharine fruits, c those 
abounding in sugar, are nutritious and laxative, 
but are apt to ferment and disagree with delicate 
stomachs when eaten in quantity Stone fruits 
are the most difficult of digestion, and are apt to 
disorder the stomach and bowels. Fruit should 
never be eaten in large quantities at a tirne, and 
only when quite ripe. It then appears to be 
wholesome, and to be a suitable corrective to the 
grossness of animal food ; and to exercise a power- 
ful action on the skin. Many cutaneous diseases 
may be removed by the daily use of a moderate 
quantity of fruit, or other fresh vegetable food. It 
is said to be a specific in scurvy. 

Fruits shy. kid be gathered in dry weather, and 
preferably about noon, because the dew and mois- 
ture deposited on them during the night and earlier 
part of the morning will have evaporated. They 
should be quite ripe when gathered, but the sooner 
they are removed from the tree, after this point is 
arrived at, the better. Immature fruit never keeps 
so well as that which has ripened on the tree ; and 
over-ripe fruit is liable to be bruised and to lose fla- 
vor. Plums may be known to be ripe, by parting 
readily from the twigs, — Apricots when the side 
next the sun feels soft to the finger, — Peaches and 
nectarines by readily parting from the twig when 
lifted up and allowed to descend with a slight jerk, 
— Figs when the small end of the fruit acquires 
the same color as the larger one, — Grapes by 
their transparency, and — Apples and pears when 
they begin to fall from the trees. The less fruit is 
handled in gathering the better. Peaches and nec- 
tarines should be received as they fall, in a small 
tin funnel lined with velvet, held beneath them, to 
avoid their being rubbed or bruised, or even touch- 
ed by the fingers. Plu7ns should also be handled 
as little as possible, to avoid rubbing off the bloom 
on them. 

Ripe fruits are preserved in the fresh state 
by placing them in a cool, dry situation on shelves, 
so that they do not touch each other ; or by pack- 
ing them in clean dry sand, sawdust, straw, bran, 
or any similar substance, so as to prevent them 
touching, and to preserve them from the action of 
air and moisture. (See Apples and Pears, page 
71.) 

Green fruits arc usually preserved by salting 
or pickling, or by bottling them. The latter is 
performed by filling bottles with them, either alone, 
or with the addition of a little sugar. The bottles 
are placed on some straw, in a kettle of cold wa- 
ter, and heat applied until the water boils, when, 
after about 5 minutes, they are taken out one by 
one, and immediately corked down, perfectly air- 
tight, and tied over with wet bladder, and, as soon 
as they are sufficiently cool, sealed over, by dip- 
ping their mouths into bottle wax or cement, melt- 
ed in an iron ladle. They are next stowed away 
in a cool place. The confectioners commonly em- 
ploy the heat of the oven, instead of that of boiling 
water. 

Fruits are preserved in sugar by simply pack- 
ing them in it, previously reduced to a state of 
powder, and keeping them in a very cool situation. 
Tiie more succulent varieties are commonly first 



FUE 



325 



FUL 



soaked in weak alum-water for a few hours to 
harden them, then drained, and dried. 

Fruits are preserved in sirup, by pouring sirup, 
boiled to a weak candy height, upon them, so as 
just to cover them. The next day the sirup is 
ooured off, reboiied to a weak candy height, and 
again poured on the fruit ; and this operation is 
repeated r •i.ird and a fourth time, if the fruit be 
very ju'.jy, and continue to weaken the sirup. 
When the sirup does not appear to become sensibly 
weakened, the fruit must be taken out, and placed 
in a sieve to drain and dry. Such fruit is said to 
be candied. It may be left in the sirup if prefer- 
red, when the vessel must be stored in a cool place. 

The beautiful white efflorescent appearance of 
the candied fruits and peels of the confectioners, 
is given by sifting over them ^neZy-powdered loaf 
sugar, after they have draiiued and become almost 
dry, or have acquired such a state that the powder 
will adhere to them without running. (See Su- 
gar.) 

Fruits are preserved in brandy or other spirits 
by simply placing them in bottles, and pouring it 
over them. It is advantageous to dissolve about 
i lb. of sugar in every quart of spirit employed. 
The latter should not be underproof, (sp. gr. -920,) 
as the juice of the fruit contributes to weaken it : 
spirit 40 u. p. will, however, preser\'e some varie- 
ties. Juicy fruits, as plums, apricots, peaches, 
cherries, «fec., are usually soaked for some hours in 
weak alum-water before immersion in the spirit. 

Fruits are also preserved by drying them in 
the sun or in a stove, either without preparation, 
or by first dipping them into a lye of wood ashes, 
oil, and water, or a weak solution of common salt. 
The imported prunes, plums, raisins, and currants, 
are all sun-dried. 

FRUMENTY. Wheat boiled in water unti 
quite soft, then taken out, drained, thinned with 
milk, sweetened with sugar, and flavored with 
nutmeg. When currants and eggs are added, it is 
called " Somersetshire frumenty." 

FUEL. (From fuayl, N. Fr.) fi-yn. Combus- 
tible, {Fr.) Brennstoff, (Ger.) Any substance 
used for the production of heat by burning. The 
following table by Dr. Ure presents at one view 
the relative heating powers of different fuels : — 





^-a 




V, I. d 




sis . 


u >» 


2-sS 


BPECIKS OF 
COHBUSTIBLE. 


ds of wa 
ch a pou 
heat fro 
)212deg 








= :5 c- 


^^ K^ 


g ss'^ 




o,go 


M% 


^^1 


Perfectly dry wood 


35-00 


6-36 


5-96 


Ordinary wood . 


26-00 


4-72 


4-47 


Wood charcoal . 


73-00 


13-27 


11-46 


Pit coal .... 


60-00 


10-90 


9-26 


Coke .... 


65-00 


11-81 


11-46 


Turf .... 


30-00 


5-45 


4-60 


Turf charcoal 


64-00 


11-63 


14-58 


Oil, wax, and tallow 


78-00 


14-18 


15-00 


Alcohol of the shops 


52-60 


9-56 


11-60 



1 he above results can never be obtained in prac- 
tice, as a large portion of the heat (probably -^ to 
i) passes up the chimney, and is wasted. 1 2^ 



of coal is usually reckoned sufficient to convert 7| 
lbs. (9 lbs. Watt.) of boiling water into steam, or 
to beat 41i lbs. of water from 32° to 212°. 1 lb. 
of fir wood will evaporate 4 lbs. of water, or heat 
22 lbs. to 212°. 

FUEL, ECONOMICAL. Prep. I. Mix coal, 
charcoal, or sawdust, 1 part ; sand, of any kind, 2 
parts ; marl or clay, 1 part, in quantity as tiioiight 
proper. Make the mass up wet into balls of a con- 
venient size ; and when the fire is sufficiently 
strong, place these balls according to its size a lit- 
tle above the top bar, and they will produce a heat 
considerably more intense than common fuel, and 
ensure a saving of one-half the quantity of coals. 
A fire thus made up will require no stirring, nor 
fresh fuel for ten hours. 

II. In places where coal is scarce and dear, a 
tolerably good fuel may be madft by mixing the 
culm or refuse dross of coal with t i^y, and moist- 
ening the whole with water ; masses in the form 
of bricks or balls may be made, which, when dry, 
will burn with an intense heat. Where peat pre- 
vails, that article may be easily charred by burn- 
ing in a covered pit or stove ; and this charred peat 
will be found to give a great heat when used in an 
open fire ; the Dutch make much use of their turf 
in this manner. Another economical fuel, easily 
procurable where thciv are woods of Scotch firs, 
consists of fir cones or tops, which contain a great 
quantity of solid woody matter, in addition to the 
resinous, and are excellently adapted for domestic 
fires. 

FUEL. (Dominic Frick Albert's Patent.) 
Materials : — bituminous schist, which is a slate 
or dark-colored stone, partaking of the nature of 
both coal and charcoal ; aluminous clay — a refuse, 
or the bottoms of the acetate of alumina, in red- 
liquor works ; ground coal — a refuse from coal- 
pits, which should be quite free from sulphur ; 
vegetable gelatin, or tar — a refuse from pyroligne- 
ous acid works, or wood distilleries ; mineral gela- 
tin or tar — a refuse from coal-tar distillation ; and 
mineral oil — a refuse from naphtha distillation. 

In manufacturing fuels from these materials, the 
patentee proceeds as follows : — 5 parts of the vege- 
table gelatin, and the like quantity of mineral gel- 
atin, are heated in a pan until they are brought to 
a proper consistence ; and then 10 parts of schist, 
ground to a powder ; 10 parts of ground coal, and 
5 parts of aluminous clay, well dried, and mixed 
with 4 per cent, of mineral oil, are added to the 
gelatin. The ingredients are worked into a paste, 
which is depositee^ in a hole in the ground, near 
the pan, and, when cold, forms a cake or flag, 
without the employment of a press or mould. (Lon- 
don Journ. & Repert. of Arts, April, 1843.) 

FULIGOKALI. A preparation of soot and 
potassa, invented by Dr. Poly a. 

Prep. Caustic potassa 20 grammes ; soot 100 
grammes ; boil with a little water for 1 hour, di- 
lute with more water, filter, evaporate to dryness, 
and put the product into warm, dry bottles. 

FULIGOKALI, SULPHURETED Prep. 
Fuligokali 60 grammes ; caustic potassa 14 
grammes ; sulphur 4 grammes ; heat the last two 
with a little water, and when combined, add the 
fuligokali, evaporate to dryness, and preserve it in 
dr}% well-corked bottles. 

Remarks. M. Gibert has tried fuligokali on hw 



FUM 



326 



FUN 



patients at the hospital S^int-Louis, both internal- 
ly and externally. Ho made a pommade of 30 
grammes of lead ointir.snt, and 1 or 2 grammes of 
fuligokali, in which he recognised resolutive, de- 
tersive, and stimulant properties. (Gaz. des H6- 
pitaux, June, 1842.) See Anthrakokali. 

FULMINATING POWDER. Prep. Nitre 
3 parts ; carbonate of potash 2 parts ; flowers of 
sulphur 1 part ; dry, and reduce them separately 
to fine powder, then carefully mix them. About 
20 or 25 grs., slowly heated on a shovel over the 
fire, first fuses and becomes brown, and then ex- 
plodes with a deafening report. 

FULMINATION. Syn. Fulminatio, (Lat) 
FuLMiNATioN, {Fr., from fulmen, a thunderbolt.) 
Detonation. The term is applied in chemistry to 
the violent explosion of ^fulminate. 

FLUMINIC ACID. A peculiar acid known 
only in a state of dombination, composed of 2 eq. 
or 32 parts of cyanogen, and 2 eq. or 16 parts of 
oxygen ; thus having exactly the same ultimate 
composition as cyanic acid. Its existence- was 
first pointed out by Gay-Lussac and Liebig. Its 
salts are the metallic fulminates. (See Gold, 
Silver, Mercury, and Zinc.) 

FULMINATE OF COPPER. Prep. Digest 
fulminate of mercury or silver with metallic cop- 
per. It forms soluble green crystals, that ex- 
plode with a green flame. 

FULTON'S DECORTICATED PEPPER. 
Black pepper deprived of its husks by mechanical 
trituration, or bleached with chlorine. 

FUMARIC ACID. A peculiar acid produced 
by the action of heat on malic acid. It was dis- 
covered by Lassaigne. Malic acid is kept heated 
a little higher than its melting point for some time 
until it forms a crystalline mass, which is then 
powdered, and washed with cold water, to remove 
any undecomposed malic acid. It forms salts 
with the bases termed fumarates. 

FUMIGATION. Syn. Fumigation, (Fr.) 
SuFFUMiGATio ; FuMiGATio, {Lut., ixom fumigo, I 
smoke.0 !• The diff'usion of gaseous matter or 
vapors through the atmosphere, for +he purpose of 
destroying contagion and infection. 2. The ex- 
posure of solid bodies to such fumes or vapors to 
remove the miasm of contagion from their pores. 
3. The substances employed for fumigation. Chlo- 
rine is the most powerful and certain agent for 
the destruction of miasmata, both in the atmo- 
sphere and the pores of solid bodies, and admits of 
ready and easy application. The hypochlorites 
(chlorides of lime, soda, and potassa) are the 
most convenient forms of employing it in in- 
habited apartments, as they evolve the gas slowly, 
and in quantity insufficient to affect the organs of 
respiration, unless large quantities of them are 
employed. Chloride of lime is the most com- 
monly used of the hypochlorites, and is either 
sprinkled about the floor, or exposed in shallow 
vessels, as earthen dishes or plates, in various 
parts of the apartment. It is used both in the 
state of powder and solution in water. Gaseous 
chlorine, evolved from a vessel containing the 
materials for its production, is generally formed 
too fast to admit of its application to inhabited 
apartments, but is the most efficient fumigation 
that can be employed, either for disinfecting the 
atmofeohere, walls, and floors of rooms, or goods 



and furniture placed in them. It will alsio destioy 
every species of vermin contained therein. I'or 
this purpose, the chimney, door, and windowa 
should be closed up, to prevent the escape of the * 
gas. The vapors of nitric acid and muriatic acid, 
and the fumes of burning sulphur, are also em- 
ployed as disinfectants in the same way as chlorine, 
but are less to be depended on. The smoke of 
gunpowder, and the fumes of vinegar, camphor, 
benzoin, «&c., are popular disinfectants, but de- 
serve little confidence. Of all common diseases, 
scarlet fever appears to be the one most requiring 
fumigation. For this purpose, chlorine gas or heat 
should be employed. The infectious matters of 
certain diseases, especially scarlet fever, are either 
dissipated, or destroyed, at a heat about that of 
boiling water. (Dr. Henry.) Contagious dis- 
eases are very commonly propagated in the me- 
tropolis by persons having their linen washed by 
laundresses who perform their operations in the 
same sinks of dirt and misery in which they live. 
(See Chlorine, Disinfectants, Muriatic and 
Nitric Acids, Pastilles, and the following ar- 

FUMIGATION, BALSAMIC. Syn. Fumi- 
GATio Balsamica. Pvep. (Dr. Dohm.) Gum 
olibanum lb. ij ; gum benzoin and storax, of each 
lb. ss ; flowers of roses and lavender, of each ^vj ; 
mix. Used in hooping-cough. 

FUMIGATION, CHLORINE. Syn. Disin- 
fecting Fumigation. Guytonmorveau's do. Fu- 
migatio oxymuriatica. suffumigatio guyton- 
lANA. Prep. (P. Cod.) Common salt 3 parts ; 
water and oil of vitriol, of each 2 parts ; black 
oxide of manganese 1 part ; mix in a shallow 
vessel, placed in the centre of the Epartmeut 
This must only be used for unoccupied rooms. 

FUMIGATION, NITROUS. Syn. Nitric 
Fumigation. Nitric Acid do. Fumigatio Ni 

TROSA. SUFFUMIGATIO CUM AciDO NlTRICO. Prep 

(P. Cod.) Put sulphuric acid diluted with ar 
equal weight of water into a porcelain cup, (any 
shallow vessel of glass or earthenware will do,) 
and add to it from time to time small quantities oi 
powdered nitre. 

Remarks. Heat causes the gas to be evolved 
more rapidly, and thus renders the fumes more 
offensive, without increasing their efficacy. \ oz. 
of nitre is said to be sufficient for a small room. 
(Dr. Bateman.) The vessel containing the in- 
gredients should be placed in the centre of the 
apartment. 

FUMIGATION, TAR. Syn. Suffumigatic 
Picea. Prep. (Sir A. Crichton.) Norway tar I 
lb. ; powdered carbonate of potash i oz. or 1 oz. : 
mix, and heat it by a spirit lamp. The potash is 
added to neutralize the acid. (See Inhalation.) 

FUNGIC ACID. A peculiar acid obtained by 
Braconnot from certain fungi — the boletus juglan- 
dis, boletus pseudoigniarius, phallus impudicus, 
merulius cantharellus, peziza nigra. It may be 
prepared by boiling the expressed juice, filtering, 
evaporating to the consistence of sirup, and di- 
gesting in alcohol. The residuum must be dis- 
solved in water, and precipitated with acetate of 
lead ; and the precipitate, after being washed; 
must be decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid at 
a gentle heat ; the remaining solution must be 
filtered and evaporated. It is a sour deliquescent 



FUS 



327 



GAL 



mass, forming salts with the bases, tefmed fun- 
gates. The f ungate of ammonia crystallizes in 
prisms. 

FUNGIN. (From fungus, a mushroom.) The 
fleshy portion of mushrooms, deprived of soluble 
matter by digestion iii both water and alcohol. 

FIJRNISHING. " When you design to furnish 
a house, take care to set out on a right principle 
in the selection of articles. It is essential, for the 
sake of neatness, and for a pleasing effect to the 
eye, that there should be a harmony of colors, 
and also a similarity of style in the main articles 
of furniture. Therefore, if you do not exercise a 
little taste and judgment in your first selections, 
you may find that you have committed a blunder 
which will cost you much subsequent annoyance. 
For example, let the tints of the carpet, of the 
paper or paint of the walls, and of the window 
curtains, be all in harmony in each room, that is, 
either possess a general resemblance of color, or 
various colors in pleasing contrast and harmony 
with each other. If the color of your curtains be 
scarlet, and the color of your walls or carpet blue, 
a most inharmonious and unpleasing effect will be 
produced ; but brown and green, or green and 
gold, will be in harmony, and may therefore be 
placed together. ' Carpets being the most ex- 
pensive articles, it is safest to buy them first, and 
then to let their color lead the tone and style of 
curtains, paper-hangings, chair-covers, hearth- 
rugs, and all other articles. It is also a ^ood 
economical plan to buy carpets of the same pat- 
tern for several rooms, because, in the event of 
removal to a house with different sized apart- 
ments, a piece of one carpet may be taken to eke 
out arother." 

FURNITURE, VARNISHED. This may 
be finished off so as to look equal to the best French 
polished wood, in the following manner, which is 
also suitable to other varnished surfaces. — Take 
two ounces of tripoli powdered, put it into an 
earthen pot, with just enough water to cover it ; 
then take a piece of white flannel, lay it ovei a 
piece of cork or rubber, and proceed to polish the 
varnish, always wetting it with the tripoli and 
water. It will be known when the process is 
finished by wiping a part of the work with a 
sponge, and observing whether there is a fair 
even gloss. When this is the case, take a bit of 
mutton suet and fine flour, and clean the work. 

FURS may be preserved from moths and in- 
sects by placing a little colocynth pulp, (bitter 
apples.) or spices, as cloves, pimento, &,c., wrapped 
in muslin among them ; or they may be washed 
in a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate in 
warm water, (10 or 15 grs. to the pint,) and after- 
wards carefully dried. Furs, as well as every 
other species of clothing, should be kept in a clean, 
dry place. 

FUSIBLE METAL. Prep. I. Bismuth 8 
parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 3 parts ; melt together. 
Melts below 212° Fahr. 

II. Bismuth 2 parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 3 parts. 
Melts in boiling water. 

Ill {Oniorrs.) Lead 3 parts ; tin 2 parts ; bis- 
muth 5 parts ; mix. Melts at 197° F. 

Remarks. The above are used to make toy- 
spoons, to surprise children by their melting in hot j 
liquors ; and to form pencils for writing on asses' ' 



skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt hartshorn 
into it. 

FUSION. Syn. Fusion, (Fr.) Fusio, (Lat, 
irom fun do, I pour out.) In Cjie.mistky, the liqu©* 
faction of solid bodies by the action of heal. The 
term aqueous fusion has been applied to the melt- 
ing of salts in their combined water when healed • 
and the term igneous fusion to the liquefaction of 
bodies by heat alone. 

The vessels in which substances are fused are 
formed of various materials and shapes, according 
to the properties of the solid operated on, and prii\- 
cipally with reference to the lieat required for its 
fusion. In every case the containing vessel should 
be capable of sustaining the proper degree of heat 
without melting or cracking, and should also be 
capable of resisting the action of the substances 
melted in them. Crucibles, made of very refrac- 
tory clay, are employed for high temperatures, 
and metallic or earthenware vessels for lower ones. 

FUSTIC. Syn. Old Fustic. Lignum Mori 
TiNCTORi^, {Lat.) Gelbholz, {Ger.) Bois 
JAUNE, {Fr.) The wood of the "^wrus tinctoria. 
Its decoction dyes woollens yel. ow of different 
shades, according to the mordant. Alum, tartar, 
and spirits of tin brighten the tint ; acetate and 
sulphate of iron and common salt darken it ; with 
sulphate of iron it gives olives and browns ; with 
the indigo vat and sulphate of indigo green. These 
colors are very permanent. Its yellow turns on 
the lemon when pale, and orange when darker. 
1 lb. of fustic will dye 3 to 5 lbs. of wool. The 
fustet, or yellow fustic of the dyers, does not give 
permanent colors. 



GALL. Syn. Bile. Bilis ; Fel ; (Lat.) 
FiEL ; Bile ; (Fr.) A bitter fluid secreted by the 
liver ; in part flowing into the intestines, and in 
part regurgitating into the gall-bladder. Ox Gall 
If el bovis) is largely employed in the arts. White 
Bear Gall (fell ursi) has been occasionally ex- 
hibited as an anti-epileptic ; Hare's Gall, (fel 
leporis,) and the Gall of the Siluris, have been 
used as collyria in cataract ; the Gall of Eels 
(fel anguillarum) has been given to facilitate 
labor. The virtues ascribed to the above are chief- 
ly imaginative. Crude ox-gall is largely employed 
by the scourers of cloth, &-c. 

GALL, REFINED, (0X-.) Syn. Fel Bovib 
PURIFICATUM. Prep. I. Allow fresh ox-gall to 
repose for 12 or 15 hours, decant the clear, and 
evaporate to the consistence of a thick sirup, in a 
water-bath ; then spread it thinly on a dish, and 
expose it before the fire, or to a current of dry air, 
until nearly dry. It will then keep for years in 
wide-mouthed bottles or pots, covered over with 
bladder. For use, a little is dissolved in water. 

II. Fresh gall 1 pint ; boil, skfm, add pounded 
alum 1 oz. ; boil again, until the alum is dissolved, 
and when sufficiently cool, pour it into a bottle, 
and loosely cork it down ; in a similar manner boil 
and skim another pint of gall, and add to it 1 oz. 
of common salt, boil till dissolved, and cool and 
bottle as above. In three months decant the clear 
from both bottles, and mix them in equal quanti- 
ties ; the clear portion must then be separated from 
the coagulum by subsidence or filtration. Use. It 
is employed by artists to fix chalk and pencil draw- 
ings before tinting them, and to remove tiie greasi 



GAL 



328 



GAR 



ness from ivory, tracing paper, &c. It is also used 
to extract grease and oil from clothes : for the latter 
purpose it answers admirably. 

GALLATES. Salts formed of the gallic acid 
with the bases. 

GALLIC ACID. Syn. Acidum Gallicum. 
{Lat., from gallcz, galls.) Prep. I. Bruised galls 
1 oz. ; water 1 lb. ; boil to 8 oz. and strain ; dis- 
solve 2 oz. of alum in water, precipitate the alumina 
with carbonate of potassa, and after edulcoration, 
mix it with the decoction, frequently agitate with 
a glass rod, and the next day filter ; then wash 
the precipitate with water, until the latter ceases 
to blacken sulphate of iron ; mix the washings 
with the filtered liquor and evaporate, when gallic 
acid, in fine needles, will be obtained. 

II. Expose a filtered decoction of galls in an 
open vessel ; it will grow mouldy, and become 
covered with a thick glutinous pellicle, and glutin- 
ous flocks will fall down. In two or three months, 
the sides of the vessel and the under portion of the 
pellicle will be covered with small yellow crystals 
of gallic acid. 

III. Add a strong aqueous solution of tannic 
acid (tannin) to sulphuric acid, as long as a pre- 
cipitate falls ; collect the powder, wash, and dis- 
solve it by the aid of heat in diluted sulphuric 
acid ; boil for a few minutes, cool, and collect the 
crystals of gallic acid which will form in consid- 
erable quantity. (Liebig.) 

Remarks. Gallic acid, as obtained by either of 
the above forms, is never quite pure ; but it may 
be purified by combining it with oxide of lead, and 
decomposing the compound {gallate of lead) by 
sulphureted hydrogen. The sulphuret of lead acts 
like animal charcoal in removing the color. (Liebig.) 
The principal use of pure gallic acid is in the art 
of photography. 

Props., ^c. Brilliant prismatic crystals, of a 
pale yellow color, soluble in both water and alco- 
hol. Its aqueous solution decomposes by exposure 
to the air. It blackens the salts of iron. Dis- 
solved in hot oil of vitriol, it forms a deep, rich, 
red solution, which when thrown into water, 
drops the gallic acid, deprived of some of its water. 
(Cy Hj O 4 , Robiquet.) This substance is soluble 
in the alkalis, and dyes cloth like madder. When 
strongly heated, gallic acid is converted into meta- 
gallic acid, pyrogallic acid, ^c. 

With the basei, gallic acid forms salts, called 
gallates : — Super-gallate of Ammonia is made 
by neutralizing 1 part of gallic acid with ammonia, 
then adding 1 part of acid more, and crystallizing ; 
Gallate of Lead is obtained by either adding 
acetate of lead to a warm solution of gallic acid 
in excess, or by adding the former to the latter at 
the boiling point. The first is a supergallate, the 
latter a basic salt. The alkaline gallates, and 
those of cobalt, iron, manganese, nickle, and zinc, 
are soluble, the rest insoluble. 

The following summary of some recent and 
valuable researches on gallic acid may prove in- 
teresting to the reader : — 

" L Tannin may be converted into gallic acid 
under several influences ; first, as M. Pelouze ob- 
served, under that of oxygen, and under that of a 
ferment. 

" 2. Certain chemical bodies prevent, for a cer- 
tain time, tho conversion of tannin into gallic acid. 



" 3. It is not to the phenomenon of eremacausit 
that this conversion must be attributed. 

" 4. The ferment of nutgalls converts sugar 
into alcohol and carbonic acid, as does that of 
beer. 

" 5. Beer, yeast, muscular flesh, and caseous 
matter, change tannin into gallic acid. 

" 6. Finally, in the conversion of tannin into 
gallic acid, the quantity of gas disengaged is 
scarcely perceptible." (M. Antoine Larocque, 
Chem. ii. 195.) 

GALLS. Syn. Gallnuts. Gall^, (Lat.) 
Gallapfel, (Ger.) Noix de Galle, (Fr.) The 
best galls are those imported from Aleppo, known 
in commerce as black or blue galls, {GalltB ni- 
gra seu coerulecB,) and after them Green Galls, 
{Gall(Bvirides.) Both these are gathered before 
the insect has escaped, are styj^tic and powerfully 
astringent. White Galls (GaU<£ albce) are 
lighter, less astringent, and inferior. Galls are ex- 
tensively used in the art of dyeing, as they consti- 
tute one of the principal ingredients in all the 
shades of blacks, and are also employed to fix or 
improve several other colors. A decoction of galls, 
to which a little green copperas and gum arable 
has been added, forms common writing ink. 

GALLSTONE. Syn. Calculus cysticus bo- 
viNus. Formed in the gall-bladder of neat cattle 
in winter, when they are fed upon dry food. Used 
as a yellow pigment, and in medicine. Dose, 1 
gr. in dyspepsia and flatulency. 

GAMBOGE. Syn. Cambogia. Gambogia, 
(Lat.) Gomme Gutte, (Fr.) Gutti, (Ger.) This 
drug is a drastic purgative, and in quantity a vio- 
lent poison. " The deaths which have occurred 
from the use of enormous quantities of Morrison's 
pills, are mainly ascribable to the gamboge con- 
tained in those medicines." (Pereira.) It is hence 
of much importance, in medico-legal researches, to 
be able readily to recognise the presence of this 
drug. This may be done in the way described 
under the head. Extract of Colocyinth, (comp.) 

GAMBOGIC ACID. Syn. Gambodic Acid. 
Gamboge Resin. Prep. Digest gamboge in ether 
and evaporate. An orange or red-colored resin, 
very soluble in ether and alcohol, giving an ap- 
preciable yellowness to 10,000 times its weight 
of the latter. With the caustic alkalis it forms 
dark red solutions, which are alkaline gambogi- 
ates, from which the acid is precipitated unchanged 
by alkalis. Added to a solution of acetate of lead, 
it throws down a yellow gambogiate of lead, and 
from solutions of the salts of iron and copper, gani' 
bogiates of those metals. 

GARGLE. Syn. Gargarism. Gargarisme, 
(Fr.) Gargarisma, Gargarismus, Gargarismum, 
{Lat., from yapyapt^civ, to gargle.) A gargle, or wash 
for the throat. Gargles are applied by allowing a 
small mouthful to run as much as possible over 
the affected parts, by holding the head backwards, 
and breathing through it, by which means the 
liquid is agitated and its action promoted. They 
should not be swallowed. 

GARGLE, ANTISCORBUTIC. Syn. Gar- 
garisma Antiscorbuticum. Prep. (P. Cod.) Bit- 
ter species 3j ; boiling water 5viij ; macerate I 
hour, strain, and add sirup of honey 5"j > antiscor- 
butic tincture 5J- 

GARGLE, ANTISEPTIC. Syn. G. Antibep- 



GAR 



329 



GAS 



TicuM. Prep. (Ft. H.) Decoction of bark ^vj ; 
camphor 20 grs. ; sal ammoniac 5 to 15 grs. ; mix. 
For putrid sore throat, 6lc. 

GARGLE, ASTRINGENT. Si/n. G. As- 
TRiNGENs. Prep. I. (Collier.) a. Tincture of 
galls f 3ij ; honey ^ss ; water f ^vj ; mix. In re- 
laxation of the uvula and fauces. 

b. Honey 3iv ; tincture of myrrh 3iij ; powder- 
ed alum 9ij ; injusion of roses (co.) f §vss ; mix. 
Antiseptic and astringent. As last. 

II. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of roses fvij ; 
dilute sulphuric acid f 3j ; tincture of catechu f 3vj ; 
laudanum f 5iss ; mix. For relaxation of the 
uvula. 

III. (Sir A. Cooper.) Alum 3ij ; decoction of 
bark fxij : honey of roses §iss ; mix. 

IV. (U! C. H.") To the last add alum 3j 
GARGLE, COMMON. Syn. G. commune. 

Prep. I. (E. H.) Water f vj -, nitre 3j ; honey of 
roses 5J ; mix. For ordinar^^ sore throat. 

II. Instead of nitre use borax 3ij. 

GARGLE, DETERGENT. Syn. G. Deter- 
GENs. Prep. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Nitre 3ij ; 
honey of roses f 3iv ; infusion of roses f §vss ; mix. 
In inflammatory sore throat. 

GARGLE, EMOLLIENT. Syn. G. emol- 
liiENs. Prep. (Buchan.) Althaea root 1 oz. ; figs 
2 oz. ; water 1 quart ; boil to a pint and strain. 
Demulcent ; soothing. 

GARGLE, MERCURIAL. Syn. G. Hy- 

DRARGYRI. G. HvDRARGYRI BiCHLORIDI. G. SuB- 

limati Corrosivi. Prep. (P. C.) Corrosive sub- 
limate 2 grs. ; barley water 1 pint ; honey of roses 
^ij ; mix. For syphilitic ulcers in the throat. 

GARGLE OF ALUM. Syn. G. Alumixis. 
Prep. I. (P. C.) Alum 3ij ; infusion of roses ^vj ; 
honey of roses ^j ; mix. 

II. (Grant.) Alum f j ; tincture of myrrh f ss ; 
peppermint water f §vij ; mix. Both the above are 
£istringent, and used in relaxation of the uvula, 

GARGLE OF BORAX. Syn. G. Boracis. 
Prep. (Fr. H.) Borax 3ij ; rose water f ^vij ; ho- 
^^y IJ- I^ thrush, &.Q. 

GARGLE OF CAPSICUM. Syn. G. Cap- 
sici. Prep. I. (St. B. H.) Capsicum 3iij ; com- 
mon salt §j ; boiling water 1 pint; macerate for 
12 hours, strain, and add distilled vinegar 1 pint. 

II. (U. C. H.) Tincture of capsicum f 5j ; wa- 
ter f§vj; vinegar f ^j ; mix. Used in ulcerated 
sore throat and scarlet fever. 

GARGLE OF CHLORIDE OF SODA. Syn. 
G. SoD.E Chlori\at.«. Prep. (Copland.) Liquor 
of chloride of soda fSxij ; honey ^ss ; water f ^vj ; 
mix. In putrid sore throat and scarlet fever. 

GARGLE OF CHLORINE. Syn. G. Chlo- 
RiNii. Prep. (Fr. H.) Chlorine water ^ss ; sirup 
5J ; water f §iv to f ^vj ; mix. Used as the last. 

GARGLE OF CINCHONA BARK. Syn. 
G. CiNCHOx.E. (For. H.) Decoction of cinchona 
f ^vij ; simple oxymel 3J ; mix. Antiseptic and 
astringent. 

GARGLE OF CYANURET OF MERCU- 
RY. Syn. G. Hydrargyri Cyanureti. Prep. 
(Cullerier.) Cyanuret of mercury 10 grs. ; linseed 
tea f S-xx ; mix In the same cases as mercurial 
gargle, above. 

GARGLE OF HORSERADISH. Syn. G. 
ARMoaACi^. Prep. (Collier.) Compound spirit 
42 



of horseradish f fj ; honey 3!] ; water f^iv ; mix. 
A good gargle for scurvy of the fauces and pha- 
r)-nx, vulgarly called the inicard scurvy. 

GARGLE OF MURIATIC ACID. Syn. G 
AciDi MuRiATici. G. AciDi Hydrociilorici. G. 
Spiritus Salis. Prep. I. (Guy's H.) Muriatic 
acid 30 drops ; honey of roses |ij ; barley water 
f§vj ; mix. 

II. (St. B. H.) Red rose leaves 3ij ; boiling wa- 
ter 1 pint ; muriatic acid f 3iss ; digest for 1 hour. 
In inflammatory sore throat. 

GARGLE OF MYRRH Syn. G Myrrha 
Prep. (P. C.) Tincture of myrrh ^ss ; honey of 
roses §iss ; lime water f ^vj ; mix. 

GARGLE OF NITRE. Syn. G. Salis Ni- 
TRi. G. Nitri. G. Potass^ Nitratis. Prep. 
Nitre 5ij ; honey or sirup 3iv or 3v ; rose-vrater 
f §vj : mix. In inflammatory sore throat. 

GARGLE OF OAK BARK. Syn. G. Quer- 
cus. G. CoRTicis QuERCus. Prep. I. Oak bark 
3ij ; boiling water f ^vj ; macerate 1 hour and 
strain. 

II. To the last add alum 9ss, and oil of vitriol 
15 to 30 drops. Both are used in relaxation of the 
uvula. 

GARGLE OF PELLITORY OF SPAIN. 
Syn. G. Pyrethri. Prep. I. (P. C.) Pellitory 
root 3iv ; water f x\^ ; boil to f^viij, and add liquor 
of ammonia 3ij. 

II. (Swediaur.) Infusion of pellitory 1 pint ; 
vinegar ^iij : sal ammoniac §iij ; mix. 

GARGLE OF ROSES. Syn. G. Rosje. G. 
RosARUM. Prep. (Kendrick.) Conserve of roses 
§iij ; boiling water ^xvj ; infuse 1 hour ; add di- 
lute sulphuric acid 3ij, and strain. Antiseptic ; 
astringent. 

GARGLE OF VERDIGRIS. Syn. G. Mkv- 
GiNis. Prep. (Guy's H.) Oxymel of verdigris 3iv ; 
honey of roses §ij ; barley water f §iiiss ; mix. 
Used as a detergent for ulcers in the throat. If 
swallowed it will produce violent vomiting. The 
addition of 2^ oz. of water to the above, forms a 
gargle suflficiently strong for most cases. 

GARGLE OF VINEGAR. Syn. Oxymel 
Gargle. G. Acetl G. Acidi acetici. Prep. 
(St. B. H.) Barley water f^-xij ; acetic acid f^iss; 
honey 3vj ; mix. Antiseptic. For ordinary' sore 
throat. 

GASCOIGNE'S POWDER. Syn. Pulvis 
Gascoigni. Prep. Powdered crabs' claws 1 lb. ; 
oriental bezoar 1 oz. ; mix. When made into balls 
it forms Gascoigne's Balls. This powder was 
once held in great repute as an absorbent, &c. ; it 
is, however, no better than the less costly prepared 
chalk of modern pharmacy. 

GARNET. Syn. Granat, (Ger.) Grenat, 
(Fr.) The finest specimens of noble garnet are 
brought from Pegu, and according to chemical 
analysis consist of 42§ of silica, 20§ of alumina, 34§ 
of lime, and 4§ of protoxide of iron. 

GARNET, FACTITIOUS. Prep. Purest 
white glass or paste 2 oz. : glass of antimony 1 oz. ; 
powder of cassius and black oxide of manganese, 
of each 1 gr. ; mix and fuse. (See Gems, Fac- 
titious ; Paste, Enamels, and Foils.) 

GAS. Syn. Gas ; Gaz, (Fr.) Gaz, {Ger., from 
Geist, Teutonic, air or spirit.) Any aeriform or 
permanently elastic fluid, excepting tiie compound 
of oxygen and nitrogen, constituting atmospheric 



GEL 



330 



GEL 



air. The principal gases are oxygen, hydrogen, 
nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, carbureted 
hydrogen, ammonia, and sulphureted hydrogen. 
All of these are noticed in their alphabetical order, 
as well as several others of less importance. (See 
Index.) 

GAS, OAL. Syn. Light Gas. Obtained from 
coal ':_, uistiUation in iron cylinders or retorts. This 
gdfl IS a compound of carbureted and bicarburet- 
ed hydrogen, more or less pure ; its value for the 
production of light depending on the latter. Good 
coal gas ought to contain 13§ by measure of bicar- 
bureted hydrogen, and have a sp. grav. of "650, 
air being 1 ; but, as prepared at the gasworks, it 
varies from about -550 to -420. The poorest gas 
made in England is that of the metropolis, which 
has the sp. grav. -412, and the best is that made 
by the " Liverpool New Gas Company," which 
has the sp. grav. '580. (Hedley.) It has been pro- 
posed to increase the illuminating power of ordi- 
nary coal gas, by passing it through sponges, or 
over trays containing mineral naphtha ; and a pat- 
ent has been taken out for this purpose. It thus 
imbibes a portion of the liquid, and burns with in- 
creased brilliancy. The method of saturating the 
gas with the liquid hydrocarbon is as follows : — 
" The apparatus consists of a brass reservoir or 
chamber attached to the end of the gas-pipe, near 
the burner. This reservoir may be in the shape 
of an oil-flask, made air-tight, with a screw-joint, 
or other means of supplying any highly volatile 
oil, turpentine, or mineral naphtha, and should be 
kept about half full. Into this reservoir the gas- 
pipe ascends a little above the surface of the oil ; a 
very small jet-pipe of gas, regulated by a stopcock, 
is branched off below this chamber, to supply a mi- 
nute flame, so as to cause a sufficient evaporation 
from the oil to unite with the gas in the flask re- 
ceiver. The whole is of course surmounted with 
the usual burner and lamp glass." (W. T. Nay- 
lor.) 

GELATIN. Syn. Gelatina, (Lat.) Gal- 
LERT, Leim, (Ger.) Gelatine, (Fr.) Animal 
jelly or gelly. When the organic tissue of the 
bones, tendons, and ligaments, the cellular tissue, 
the skin, and the serous membranes are boiled in 
water, they are converted into gelatin. 

Glue and size are coarse varieties of this sub- 
stance, prepared from hoofs, hides, skins, &c. ; and 
isinglass is a purer kind, prepared from the air- 
bladders and some other membranes of fish. Gel- 
atin is soluble in water, and its solution, on cooling, 
forms a tremulous and transparent jelly ; hence 
the name, from gelu, ice. With tannin it forms 
leather, and when acted on by sulphuric acid, 
it yields glycicoll, or gelatin sugar, and when 
treated with alkalis it yields glycicoll and leu- 
cine. 

As an article of diet, gelatin is highly nutritious 
when combined with other food abounding in pro- 
teine matter, but alone, it appears that, notwith- 
standing the opinion of ages to the contrary, it is 
incapable of svpporting life. The commenda- 
tion of it as an alimentary substance has been too 
genera! and lavish, and has led to its employment 
as an article of diet for the sick, in cases in which 
it is manifestly improper. " Gelatin may be con- 
sidered as the least perfect kind of albuminous (?) 
matter existing in animal bodies ; intermediate, 



as it were, between the saccharine principles of 
plants, and thoroughly developed albumen. In- 
deed, gelatin in animals may be said to be the 
counterpart of the saccharine principle of plants ; 
it being distinguished from all other animal sub- 
stances by its ready conversion into a sort of su- 
gar, by a process similar to that oy which starch 
may be so converted." (Prout.) The ultimate 
composition of gelatin is 47-88§ of carbon, 7-9 1§ 
of hydrogen, 27-2l§ of oxygen, and 16-90^ of ni- 
trcgen, (Gay Lussac and Thenard :) that of sugai 
is 43-265§ of carbon, 6-875§ hydrogen, and 49-&56£ 
of oxygen, (Berzelius ;) that of albmnen 51-61§ 
of carbon, 7-530§ of hydrogen, 25-8l§ of oxygen, 
and 15.05§ of nitrogen, (Brande.) The similarity 
of composition between the first and third of the 
above substances, will be readily recognised by 
the reader, but this similarity does not convey like 
properties ; gelatin, in reality, more nearly resem- 
bling sugar than albumen. It has none of the 
properties of a compound of proteine. It neither 
yields proteine, when acted on by potassa, nor 
does it produce a purple color with hydrochloric 
acid. It therefore does not contain proteine. (Lie- 
big.) Animals fed exclusively on gelatin die of 
starvation. For as gelatin contains no proteine, it 
cannot yield albumen, fibrine, or caseine, sub- 
stances necessary to the composition and support 
of animal bodies. Blood cannot be produced from 
gelatin alone ; for it does not contain its most es- 
sential ingredient. But when mixed with other 
food, especially compounds of proteine, or sub- 
stances abounding in albumen, caseine, or fibrine, 
gelatin may be useful as an aliment, and serve 
directly to nourish the gelatinous tissues. (Liebig, 
Animal Chem.) Hence gelatin is a fitting sub- 
stance to form part of the diet of convalescents, 
as it conveys nutrition directly to these tissues, 
without tasking the diminished powers of life for 
its conversion ; but its use should be accompanied 
by a proper quantity of azotized animal food, to 
supply the elerrients to the blood, for the support 
and increase of the muscular tissu^ or fleshy por- 
tion of the body. In France the gelatin of bones 
is extracted and employed as a part of the diet in 
hospitals with the best effect, materially abridg- 
ing the period of convalescence ; but when given 
alone all animals soon become disgusted with it, 
and die if not supplied with other food. (D'Ar- 
cet.) 

Tests. Gelatin is easily recognised by its solu- 
tion when moderately strong, gelatinizing as it 
cools, and by tannin (infusion or decoction of 
galls) precipitating it from its dilute solutions in 
an insoluble form, which, when dried, assumes the 
appearance of over-tanned leather. 

GELATIN, ANIMAL. The substance sold 
under this name is made of the inferior k nds of 
isinglass, the gelatin of bones, or that obtained 
from the skins of animals. 

GELATIN, BONE. Obtained from bones 
by coction with water, under pressure ; or from 
crushed bones, by macerating them in miuiatic 
acid to extract the phosphate of lime, washing 
the remaining gelatinous mass in cold water, and 
solution in water by boiling. Very excellent. 
" Gelatin has even been extracted from fossil 
bones. A soup was prepared from one of the 
bones of the great mastouon, by the prClet of one 



GEM 



331 



GEM 



of the departments of France." (Pereira, Mat. 
Med., ii. 1863.) 

GELATIN, FRENCH. Syn. Cake Gela- 
tin. Gelatin done up into small thin cakes, like 
the finer sorts of glue. The red is colored with 
the juice of beet-root, the green with the juice of 
spinage, and the blue with sulphate of indigo or 
the juice of blue berries. 

GELATIN, PATENT, (NELSON'S.) Ac- 
cording to Mr. Nelson's specification, this article 
is obtained from glue-pieces, freed from hair, wool, 
flesh, and fat ; but from the large quantities of 
inferior isinglass which that gentleman buys, it 
is a natural conclusion that it is principally, if not 
wholly formed of the latter substance. There are 
two qualities of this article manufactured by Mr. 
Nelson, viz., first quality, or opAauE gelatin, 
and a second quality, or transparent gelatin. 

GELATIN BRUT. From the skulls of oxen, 
the spongy insides of the horns and ribs, and from 
several other soft bony parts, by washing them in 
water, digesting in an equal weight of muriatic 
acid of 6° Baume, in cold weather, and 4 or 5° 
in summer, for 10 days, then in acid of only 1° B. 
for 24 hours longer ; afterwards soaking and wash- 
ing in successive portions of cold water until all 
the acid is washed out, adding an ounce of carbon- 
ate of soda to the last water. Product. 25 to 
27§ of gelatin brut. Used to make glue, and 
when prepared by solution in water, clarification, 
and skimming, for soup. Any kind of bones may 
be treated in the same way. 

GELATIN BRUT FIN. From the skulls, 
blade-bones, and shank-bones of sheep, (the ends 
being cut oflf, and the bones cut down the middle 
to remove the fat,) by steeping them in muriatic 
acid, as above, (see Gelatin Brut,) then in boiling 
water for a few minutes, wiping them carefully, 
drying them, shaking them together in a bag to 
remove the internal pellicle, cutting them across 
or into dice to disguise them, and finally dipping 
them in a hot solution of gelatin to varnish them. 
Used to make soup, keeps better than the cakes 
of portable soup ; and when less carefully pre- 
pared, used also to make carpenters' glue for fine 
work. The muriatic acid obtained by distilling 
salt with oil of vitriol in iron cylinders is less fit 
for this purpose than that of the manufacturers of 
carbonate of soda, as being apt to give it a bad 
taste. 

GEMS. Syn. Jewels. Gemmes, (JFr.) Gem- 
M^, {Lat.) " Gems are precious stones, which, 
by their color, limpidity, lustre, brilliant polish, 
purity, and rarity, are sought after as objects of 
dress and decoration. They form the principal 
part of the crown jewels of kings, not only from 
their beauty, but because they are supposed to 
comprise the greatest value in the smallest bulk ; 
for a diamond, no larger than a nut, or an acorn, 
may be the representative sign of the territorial 
value of a whole country, the equivalent in com- 
mercial exchange for a hundred fortunes, acquired 
by severe toils and privations. Among these beau- 
tiful minerals mankind have agreed in forming a 
ftslect class, to which the title of gems or jewels 
hais been appropriated ; while the term precious 
stone is more particularly given to substances 
which often occur under a more considerable vol- 
ume t#an fine stones ever do. Diamonds, sap- 



phires, emeralds, rubies, topazes, hyacinths, and 
chrysoberyls, are reckoned the most valuable 
gems; crystalline quartz, pellucid, opalescent, o» 
of various hues, amethyst, lapis lazuli, malachite 
jasper, agate, ^c, are ranked in the much more 
numerous and inferior class of ornamental stones.* 
(Ure's Diet, of Arts, &c.) 

Tests. I. {By electricity.) The diamond, when 
rubbed either in the rough or polished state, ex- 
hibits positive electricity ; quartz, the only sub- 
stitute that possesses much hardness, on the con- 
trary, becomes negative. When exposed to the 
sun or the electric spark, the diamond becomes 
phosphorescent. The topaz also acquires positive 
electricity by friction. 

II. {By the hardness.) From the difficulty of 
applying this test it is of less value to ordinary 
persons than appears at first sight. Paste or fac- 
titious gems may however be readily distinguished 
in this way. (See the table below.) 

III. {By the specific gravity.) This is the only 
simple method of testing gems that may be termed 
accurate, but it is inapplicable to them when 
mounted. As, however, most of them are dis- 
mounted when ofifered for sale, or are so set that 
they may be readily dismounted, it should be al- 
ways had recourse to before making a considerable 
purchase. For this purpose, it is only necessary to 
take the weight, first in air and then in water, by 
means of a small and accurate hydrostatic balance. 
(See Specific Gravity.) 

Table of the relative Hardness and Sp. Gr. of the 
principal Gems and Precious Stones, as well as 
some other Minerals. 



Substances. 



Diamond from Ormus . . . 

" (pink) 

(bluish) 

" (yellowish) .... 

" (cubic) 

Ruby 

" (pale, from Brazil). 
Sapphire (deep blue) . . . . 

" (paler) 

Topaz 

" (whitish) 

" (Bohemian) 

Ruby (spinelle) 

Emerald 

Garnet 

Aiiate 

Onyx 

Sardonyx 

Amethyst (occidental) . . 

Crystal 

Cornelian 

Jasper (green) 

" (reddish yellow). . 

Schoerl 

Tourmahne 

Quartz 

Opal 

Chrvsolite 

Zeolite 

Fluor 

Calcareous spar 

Gypsum 

Chalk 

Glass 

" (plate) 

" (crystal or flint) 



Hard. 


Specific 


nes3. 


gravity. 


20 


3-7 


19 


3-4 


19 


3-3 


19 


3-3 


18 


3-2 


17 


4-2 


16 


3-5 


16 


3-8 


17 


3-8 


15 


4-2 


14 


3-5 


11 


2-8 


13 


3-4 


12 


2-8 


12 


4-4 


12 


2-6 


12 


2-6 


12 


2-6 


11 


2-7 


11 


2-6 


11 


2-7 


11 


2-7 


9 


2-6 


10 


3-6 


10 


3 


10 


2-7 


10 


2-6 


10 


3-7 


8 


2-1 


7 


3' 5 


6 


2-7 


5 


2-3 


3 


2-7 


1 


2-3 : 3-62 




2M : 2-6 




3-0:3 616 



This table is taken from Dr. Ure's ' Dictionary 
of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines.' The relative 



GIL 



332 



GIL 



hardness of the different substances is measured by 
the power they possess of cutting or scratching 
other substances. 

GEMS, FACTITIOUS. These are made of 
very pure, fusible, transparent and dense glass, 
usually termed paste or strass, which is mostly 
formed of oxide of lead, potassa and silica, with 
small quantities of other ingredients to increase 
the brilliancy and clearness. The tints are im- 
parted by the addition of metallic oxides. The 
beauty of artificial stones and gems, depends upon 
the tint of the real stones being exactly imitated, 
and upon proper care and skill being exercised in 
the cutting, polishing, and setting of them in their 
cases. All the colored glasses, and enamels, may 
be worked up into artificial gems. (See Enamels, 
Foils, Pastes, «fec.) 

GENEVA. (From genievre, juniper.) Hol- 
lands gin. (See Hollands.) 

GENTIANINE. A peculiar substance ob- 
tained by MM. Henry and Caventou from the root 
of the common officinal gentian, (gentiana lutea.) 

Pri/). I. Digest powdered gentian root in ether 
for 2 or 3 days with agitation, filter, evaporate, 
dissolve in alcohol, filter, and again evaporate ; re- 
dissolve in alcohol or ether, filter, and crystallize. 

II. Digest gentian root (in powder) in ether for 
two days and nights, filter, evaporate nearly to 
dryness ; add alcohol to the yellow crystalline 
mass thus obtained until it no longer becomes 
colored ; evaporate to dryness, redissolve in weak 
alcohol, filter, evaporate again to dryness ; dissolve 
in water, add some calcined magnesia, boil, filter, 
digest the sediment in ether, and evaporate. 

Remarks. Gentianine forms golden yellow crys- 
tals, scarcely soluble in water, very soluble in al- 
cohol and ether. It is a strong aromatic bitter, in 
doses of gr. ij ; the tincture is mostly used. Ac- 
cording to the researches of TrommsdorfF and Le- 
conte, the above substance is composed of gentisin, 
gentianite, and sugar. 

GEJNTIANITE. The bitter principle of 
Gentian. It has not been obtained in a state of 
purity. It may be procured combined with a por- 
tion of sugar, by digesting the alcoholic extract of 
gentian in water, throwing down the gentisin with 
lead, passing sulphureted hydrogen through the 
liquid to remove any traces of lead, filtering and 
evaporating. It may be further purified by diges- 
tion in ether. 

GENTISIN. Syn. Gentisic Acid. This is 
obtained from the alcoholic extract of gentian by 
digestion in water, and in alcohol, evaporating the 
tincture, and treating the residuum with ether. 
By repeated re-solutions in alcohol it may be ob- 
tained under the form of pale yellow needles. It 
forms salts with the bases. 

GILDING. Syn. Dorure, (Fr.) Vergoldung, 
(Germ.) The art of covering the surfaces of 
bodies with a thin film of gold, for the purpose of 
increasing their durability or improving their ap- 
pearance. 

GILDING, BOOK. The gilt letters and 
figures on the leather, cloth, and silk covers of 
books, are formed by sprinkling or dusting finely 
powdered gum maslich over the surface to be gild- 
ed ; an U'on or brass tool bearing the design upon 
its face is then heated to a proper temperature, 
and pressed upon a piece of leaf gold, which slight- 



ly adheres to it ; the two are then transferred to 
the cover, and the tool is gently pressed on it, by 
which means the mastich softens, and retains the 
gold. The loose gold and powdered mastich are 
then dusted off with a brush. The gold will ad- 
here to leather without the use of mastich, but the 
gilding is conceived to be more durable when it is 
employed. 

The edges of the leaves of books and reams of 
paper are first cut perfectly smooth in the cutting 
press, and then thinly washed with a solution of 
isinglass in weak spirit, or with a varnish made of 
4 parts of Armenian bole and 1 part of powdered 
sugar-candy, mixed up to a proper consistence 
with white of egg. The coating is allowed to dry, 
and is then smoothed with a wet rag, after which 
the gold leaf is applied and polished with the bur- 
nisher. 

GILDING, BUTTON. This species of gild- 
ing has been already noticed. (See p. 149.) I 
shall, therefore, only remark here, that when the 
process is properly conducted, 12 dozen (1 gross; 
of buttons, of one inch in diameter, may be per- 
fectly gilded on both sides with only 5 grains of 
gold. By an Act of Parliament, which I believe 
is still unrepealed, this is the smallest portion of 
gold permitted to be used for a gross of buttons of 
the above size, but a less quantity than 5 grains is 
frequently employed. The mass of the finest kind 
of buttons, and other small articles, have, however, 
during the last few years been gilded by means of 
a solution of chloride of gold in bicarbonate of po- 
tassa. (See Elkington's Patent Gilding.) 

GILDING, BURNISHED. This is princi- 
pally applied to the frames of pictures and mirrors, 
and to similar objects. It is performed by giving 
the wood, first, a coating of good size, and next, 
several successive coats of size thickened with 
finely-powdered whiting, Spanish white, or plaster 
of Paris, until a good face is produced ; observing 
to let each coat become quite dry, and to rub it 
perfectly smooth with fine glass-paper, before the 
application of the following one. When the proper 
' face' is obtained, the surface is thinly and evenly 
gone over with gold size, and when this is nearly 
dry, the gold leaf is applied and afterwards bur- 
nished. 

GILDING, CHEMICAL. This term is ap 
plied to those methods of gilding in which the gold 
adheres to the surface from chemical affinity, and 
not from the intervention of some glutinous sub- 
stance. The latter method is called, by way of 
distinction, " mechanical gilding." 

GILDING, COLD. This is performed by 
softening, annealing, and polishing the articles 
(copper or brass) to be gilded, and then applying 
the following powder by friction with a piece of 
cork moistened with a solution of salt in water ; 
after which the work is burnished with a piece of 
hematite or polished steel. — Powder : Pure gold 5 
drs. ; pure copper 1 dr. ; nitro-muriatic acid 10 oz. ; 
dissolve, imbue clean linen rags with the solution, 
dry, burn them and carefully collect the ashes, 
which contain the gold in a state of hiinute division. 

GILDING, DISTEMPER. This is a method 
practised by the French, that resembles Burnished 
Gilding, excepting in being vastly more compli- 
cated. This, as well as Burnished Gilding, is ap. 
plied to wood, plaster, and marble. 



GIL 



333 



GIL 



GILDING, ELKINGTON'S PATENT. Syn. 
Bonnet's Process. Anglo-German Gilding. 
Proc. 1. (The Gilding liquid.) Fine gold 5 oz. 
(troy ;) nitro-muriatic acid 52 oz. (avoirdupois ;) 
dissolve by heat, and continue the heat until red 
or yellow vapors cease to be evolved ; decant the 
clear liquid into a suitable vessel ; add distilled 
water 4 gallons ; pure bicarbonate of potassa 20 
lbs. ; and boil for two hours. *^^* The nitro-mu- 
riatic acid is made with pure nitric acid (sp. gr. 
1-45) 21 oz. ; pure muriatic acid (sp. gr. 1-15) 17 
oz. ; and distilled water 14 oz. 

2. ( The Gilding.) The articles, after being per- 
fectly cleaned from scale or grease, and receiving 
a proper /ace, are to be suspended on wires, dipped 
into the liquid boiling hot and moved about there- 
in, when, in from a few seconds to a minute, de- 
pending on the newness and strength of the liquid, 
the requisite coating of gold will be deposited on 
them. By a little practice the time to withdraw 
the articles is readily known ; the duration of the 
immersion required to produce any given effect 
gradually increases as the liquid weakens by use. 
When properly gilded, the articles are withdrawn 
from the solution of gold, washed in clean water, 
and dried ; after which they undergo the usual 
operation of coloring, «Slc. (See Gilding, wash.) 
A dead appearance is produced by the application 
to the articles of a weak solution of nitrate of mer- 
cury previously to the immersion ; or the deaden- 
ing may be given by applying a solution of the 
nitrate to the gilded surface and then expelling 
the mercury by heat. (This process, though pat- 
ented by Mr. Elkington in England, and claimed 
as his own invention, was in reality discovered 
and first practised by M. Bonnet, a foreigner.) 
Articles thus gilded do not bear friction and the 
operations of being put in color, (mise en couleur,) 
BO well as those gilded by the mercurial process, or 
even by electricity. 

GILDING, FRICTION. This consists in the 
application, by friction, of gold in a minutely di- 
vided state, to the surface of the copper or brass, 
previously cleaned and brightened.. (See Gilding, 
Cold.) 

GILDING, GRECIAN. Proc. Sal ammoniac 
and corrosive sublimate, equal parts, are dissolved 
in nitric acid, and a solution of gold made with 
this menstruum ; after slight concentration the 
liquid is applied to the surface of silver, which im- 
mediately becomes black, but on being heated ex- 
hibits a gilded surface. 

GILDING, JAPANNER'S. This is done by 
covering the surface with oil size thinned with 
spirits of turpentine, and then gently daubing on 
gold powder with a puff of wash-leather. This 
gives the appearance of frosted gold. (See Gild- 
ing Powder.) 

GILDING, LEAF. This term is applied to 
the gilding of paper, vellum, &c., by applying 
leaf gold to the surface, previously prepared with 
a coating of gum-water, size, or white of egg. It 
is usiiallv finished with an agate burnisher. 

GILDING, LETTER. The letters of sign- 
boards and similar ornamental gilding for outdoor 
work, is done by first covering the design with yel- 
low or gold-color paint, then with oil gold size, and 
when this is nearly dry applying the leaf-gold, 
observing to shield it properly from the wind, lest 



it be blown away or become crumpled before be- 
ing properly attached. This gilding is usually 
varnished. 

GILDING LIQUOR. Syn. Gilder's Pickle 
Prep. Alum and common salt, of each 1 oz. ; 
purified nitre 2 oz. ; water ^ pint ; used to impart 
a rich color to gold surfaces, principally trinketa. 
Its application should not be too long continued, 
as it dissolves a small portion of the gold. For 
common purposes it is best used diluted with water 

GILDING METAL. The metal employed 
for gilding is usually brass, or a mixture of brass 
and copper. The following alloys have been re- 
commended : — 

I. Copper 6 parts ; brass 1 part. 

II. Copper 4 parts ; Bristol brass 1 part. 

III. Copper 13 parts ; old Bristol brass 3 parts ; 
tin 14 parts. 

GILDING OF LEATHER. The finer clasa 
of leather gilding has been ah^ady noticed under 
Book Gilding. For common work, silver leaf is 
usually applied to the surface, previously covered 
with size or white of egg, and after being burnish- 
ed down and dried is covered with gold-colored 
lacquer. Tinfoil is frequently employed for in- 
ferior work, or such as is not required to be elastic. 

GILDING, OIL. This species of gilding may 
be divided into several operations. — 1. The surface 
is prepared by a coating of whitelead in drying oil. 
— 2. Another coat is given, made with calcined 
whitelead or masiscot ground in linseed oil and tur- 
pentine ; 3 or 4 coats of this mixture are often 
given, observing to carefully smooth off each coat 
with pumice or shave grass before the application 
of the following ones. — 3. The Gold Color, or 
paint, is next applied. It is usually very adhesive 
gold size, or the bottom of the pot or dish in which 
painters wash their brushes. For this purpose it 
is thoroughly ground and strained. — 4. When the 
gold color becomes partially dry and sufficiently 
tenacious, the gold-leaf is applied and pressed on 
with a wad of cotton, wood, or a soft brush. — 5. 
A thin coat of spirit varnish is now given, and the 
object is cautiously passed over a chafing dish of 
charcoal, observing to avoid stopping the motion 
of the piece while doing so, as it would then be- 
come discolored and blistered. The work is usual- 
ly finished off with a coat of pale oil vdrnish. For 
outdoor gilding, the whole of the varnishing pro- 
cess is generally omitted. This species of gilding 
is applied to woodwork, plaster, metal, &c. 

GILDING OF POLISHED METALS. L 
Polished iron and steel may be readily gilded by 
applying an ethereal solution of gold to the surface 
with a camel-hair pencil. The ether flies off and 
leaves the surface coated with gold ; it must then 
be polished with a burnisher. In this way, any 
fancy device or writing may be executed on steel 
or iron. This species of gilding is not, however, so 
durable as the following: — 

II. Apply gold leaf to the surface of polished 
iron, steel, or copper, heated to a bluish tint, press 
it on gently with the burnisher, avoiding breaking 
or injuring the gold ; again expose it to a gentle 
heat, and repeat the process with fresh leaves of 
gold, until the gilding has acquired a proper thick- 
ness ; then let it cool and polish it with the bur 
nisher. (See Gold, Liquid.) 

GILDING OF PORCELAIN, GLASS, &c 



GIL 



334 



GIL 



This is performed by blending powdered gold with 
gum water and a little borax, and applying it by 
means of a camel-hair pencil ; the article is then 
heated sufficiently hot in an oven or furnace, by 
which means the gum is burnt, and the borax 
vitrifying cements the gold to the surface. When 
cold it is polished off with a burnisher. Names, 
dates, or any fancy device may thus be perma- 
nently and easily fixed on glass, china, earthen- 
ware, &.C. 

GILDING OF SILK, &c. Silks, satins, 
woollens, ivory, bone, ^c, may be readily gilded 
by immersing them in a solution of nitro-muriate 
(terchloride) of gold, (1 of the salt to 3 or 4 of wa- 
ter,) and then exposing them to the action of hydro- 
gen gas. The latter part of the process may read- 
ily be performed by pouring some diluted sul- 
pKuric acid, or zinc or iron filings, in a bottle, and 
placing it under a jar or similar vessel, inverted, 
at the top of which the articles to be gilded are to 
be suspended. 

The foregoing experiment may be very prettily 
and advantageously varied as follows : — Paint 
flowers or other ornaments with a very fine camel- 
hair pencil, dipped in the above-mentioned solution 
of gold, on pieces of silk, satin, &lc., and hold them 
over a Florence flask, from which hydrogen gas is 
evolved, duruag the decomposition of the water by 
sulphuric acid and iron filings. The painted flow- 
ers, &c. in a few minutes will shine with all the 
splendor of the purest gold. A coating of this 
kind will not tarnish on exposure to the air, or in 
washing. 

GILDING OF SILVER. Silver is usually 
gilded by brushing it evenly over with an amalgam 
of gold, submitting it to heat and burnishing. (See 
Gilding, Wash.) 

GILDING POWDER. Syn. Gold Powder. 
Gold Bronze. Prep. I. Heat an amalgam of 
gold until the mercury be all volatilized. If the 
quantity be considerable, the process should be so 
conducted as to save the mercury. 

II. Dissolve gold in nitro-muriatic acid, then 
precipitate it with a solution of pure protosulphate 
of iron ; wash and dry the powder. A good pro- 
cess. 

III. Grind gold leaf with honey by means of a 
stone and muller, until reduced to an impalpable 
powder, then wash away the honey and dry the 
gold. 

Uses, ^c. Powdered gold is employed in gilding 
by the japanners and by artists. It is either sold 
in powder or made up into shells. (See Gold 
Powder.) 

GOLD SHELLS. The previous article ground 
up with gum water, and spread upon the insides of 
shells. Used by artists. 

GILDING SIZE. Syn. Gilder's Size. Gold 
Size. Gold Coloii. Prep. I. (Oil size.) Drying or 
boiled oil thickened with yellow ochre, or calcined 
red ochre, and carefully reduced to the utmost 
smoothness by grinding. It may bo thinned with 
oil of turpentine. Improves by age. Used for oil 
gilding 

11. {Water size.) Parchment or isinglass size, 
mixed with finely-ground yellow ochre. Used in 
hwiiislicd or distemper gilding. 

GILDING, TALBOT'S PATENT. By this 
process, gilding, silvering, and platinizing are per- 



formed by adding a solution of gallic acid in water 
ether, or alcohol, to a solution of gold, silver or 
platina, and immersing therein the metallic sub- 
stances to be gilded, which must be allowed to re- 
main immersed until sufficiently coated. The ar- 
ticles must be well cleaned and polished before 
being placed in the solution. 

GILDING, THREAD. Gold thread is mere- 
ly a thread of yellow silk covered with a very thin 
flatted wire of gold, by means of a properly ar- 
ranged revolving wheel. 

GILDING, VARNISH. This is oil gilding 
applied to equipages, picture-frames, furniture, &c., 
the surface being highly varnished and polished 
before it receives the size or gold color ; and after 
the gilding has become quite dry, a coat of spirit 
varnish, fumed with the chafing-dish as above, is ap- 
plied, followed by 2 or 3 coats of the best copal var- 
nish, after which the work is carefully polished with 
tripoli and water. (See Furniture, Varnished.) 

GILDING VARNISH. Syn. Gilder's Var- 
nish. Gilder's Wax. Prep. Beeswax 4 oz. ; 
verdigris and sulphate of copper, <^.i ?ach 1 oz. ; mix. 

II. Beeswax 4 oz. ; verdigris, red ochre, and 
alum, of each 1 oz. ; mix. Used to give a red 
gold color to water-gilding. 

GILDING, VOLTAIC. Gilding by the moist 
way ; or by communicating a negative electric 
state, by means of a feeble hydro-electric current 
to the metal which is sought to be gilded, and which 
is immersed in a dilute solution of gold. 

Proc. 1. Pour a neutral solution of chloride of 
gold, containing not more than from ^ to 1§ of 
gold into a glass cylinder, whose lower extremity 
is hermetically closed with moistened gut-skin, and 
introduce the cylinder into a vessel which contains 
some water very slightly acidulated with a few 
drops of sulphuric acid. The cylinder should be 
supported so as to prevent its lower surface from 
resting immediately on the bottom of the larger 
vessel. It is necessary to carefully clean, or even 
polish, the surface of the metal, whether of silver 
or brass, that we desire to gild, lest a portion of it 
should be left ungilt. To attain this end, it is 
sometimes advisable to place the metal for a few 
moments in contact with zinc, in dilute sulphuric 
acid, so that hydrogen may be disengaged on its 
surface ; after which it must be well washed. In 
order to gild an object, it must be fixed or suspend- 
ed by a platina wire, to the other extremity of 
which is attached a plate of zinc ; this done, plunge 
the article to be gilt in the solution of gold, and the 
zinc plate into the acidulated water. The power 
of the electric current may be moderated at will, 
by immersing more or less of the zinc plate, so 
that no hydrogen may be disengaged, and in tliis 
case the chloride of gold is alone decomposed. 
After a minute, the article to be gilt is withdrawn, 
wiped dry with a fine linen cloth, rubbed a little, 
and again immersed. After two or three inun»=ir- 
sions the metal will be found to be sufficiently 
gilded. (M. de la Rive.) 

II. (Process of M. Louyet.) This consists in 
employing a strong solution of bisulphnret of gold 
in cyanuret of potassium and a powerful electric 
current. The bisulphnret is prepared by either 
passing sulphureted hydrogen through a solution 
of bichloride of gold, or by adding to a solution of 
the latter ano* .ar of hydrosulphuret of annnonia. 



GIL 



335 



GIL 



The precipitate is collected in a filter, washed 
eeveiaj times with warm water, and is then dis- 
solved in a concentrated solution of cyanuret of 
potassium, by passing the solution through it, 
spj nkled on a paper filter, until the whole is dis- 
solved, which is known by the paper becoming de- 
colored. The filter should then be washed with 
water to extract the adhering solution of gold, and 
this water may be kept for a future operation. The 
solution of gold should be kept in a well-closed 
vessel when not intended for immediate use. This 
solution is not decomposed by silver, copper, or 
brass, by simple contact. The electric current is 
produced by the use of voltaic couples, varying in 
dimensions according to the surface to be gilded. 
A plate of copper, 12 to 16 centimetres square, is 
bent into the form of one of the double plates of 
Wollaston's pile, in the central space of which is 
placed a plate of amalgamated zinc of only half the 
size of the copper plate, and entirely covered with 
a piece of coarse cloth, to prevent contact between 
the two metals. Two copper wires are soldered 
to the two superior angles of the zinc plate, and 
two similar wires are also soldered to the middle 
of each of the faces of the copper plate. The 
wires from the negative element (which are rather 
long) are connected with the copper, brass, bronze, 
or silver article, which it is desired to gild, placed 
in a glass or porcelain decomposition cell, in a sim- 
ilar manner to the connection at the other end, and 
the extremities of the positive wires are so ar- 
ranged as to make them alternate with the pre- 
ceding. The decomposition cell is then nearly 
filled with the solution of gold, and the battery ex- 
cited by water strongly acidulated with equal parts 
of nitric and sulphuric acids. At the end of 5, 10, 
20, or 30 minutes, the article is withdrawn, washed 
in pure water, and dried. It is then again im- 
mersed, and the withdrawal, washing, and reim- 
mersion repeated, until it has received a sufiiciently 
thick coating of gold. To increase the solidity of 
the gilding, the article when withdrawn the first 
time, and after being washed and dried, may be 
submitted to a heat of 250° to 300° C, and after 
having again become cold, reimmersed in the de- 
composition cell as before. 

According to M. Louyet, articles are more beau 
tifully gilded in this way, when the electricity is 
equally distributed over their surface. This he ef- 
fects by terminating the poles of the voltaic couple 
by several reophori, of which all those from the 
negative element are placed in contact with differ- 
ent points of the perimeter of the object to be gild- 
ed ; the positive reophori being equal in number, 
are at the same time arranged to correspond with 
the negative ones ; but a small interval is preserved 
between them. After the pieces are gilded they 
are " put in color," by which their lustre and beauty 
are brought out. This is done by either steeping 
them in the gilding liquor or pickle, before de- 
scribed, or by covering them with a layer of gild- 
er's wax and heating them. In the above way, 
copper, brass, bronze, silver, iron, lead, tin, steel, 
and platinum may be gilded. 

III. {Process of M. Ruolz.) This process con- 
sists in decomposing, by means of a constant bat- 
tery, a solution of cyanide, chloride, or potassio- 
chloride of gold in cyanide of potassium, or red or 
yellow prussiate of potash, a solution of soda-chlo- 



ride of gold in carbonate of soda, or of sulphuret of 
gold in neutral cyanide or sulphuret of potassium. 
M. Ruolz also silvers in the same way. 

IV. (Process of Mr. Elkington.) 31 grammes 
and 25 centigrammes of gold converted into oxide ; 
5 hectogrammes of cyanuret of potassium ; water 
4 litres ; boil for half an hour in glass or porcelain. 
This solution is used with a constant battery. It gilds 
very quickly, especially when boiling. (M. Dumas) 

V. (Process of Mr. Walker.) Gilding and sil- 
vering have been hitherto accomplished by the use 
of a single cell, and, therefore, at the expense of a 
salt of gold or silver. These salts are troublesome 
to prepare, and are expensive ; and therefore if the 
anions would combine with gold and silver anodes, 
the operations of plating and gilding might be ren- 
dered more simple, more sure, and more economi 
cal. This may be effected by dissolving the neu- 
tral oxides of silver and of gold, or the chloride of 
gold, each in a solution of cyanide of potassium, 
and electrolyzing the solutions respectively with a 
silver and a gold anode. After a few seconds of 
action deposites are obtained ; the articles are re- 
moved and polished, and reimmersed, according to 
the thickness required. The cyanogen, released 
at the anode, combines with it, whether it be silver 
or gold, and destroys a portion, equivalent to that 
deposited at the cathode ; and thus the strength of 
the solution is maintained, and the expense of the 
operation is reduced to a minimum. The deposi- 
tion is effected in glass cells, and thus the eye can 
detect the regularity of the process. The anodes 
are gold and silver wire, or plate, which are sus- 
pended in the decomposition cell, and connected 
with the positive element of the battery, like the 
pieces of copper, d d, in the engraving at p. 262 
(Proceedings of the Lond. Elect. Soc, Sept. 21, 
1841.) The solution of gold mentioned in the 
other processes, may also be employed with gold 
anodes, and will thus be rendered more constant 
and convenient. 

Remarks. It is necessary to carefully scour the 
surfaces of the articles to be gilded, as the slightest 
layer of oxide or grease would prevent the adhe- 
sion and equal distribution of the gold over the sur- 
face. M. Becquerel amalgamates the pieces for 
this purpose, by which the best effects of gilding, 
with respect to durability and solidity, are produced. 
The objects are simply immei-sed in a solution of 
protonitrate of mercury, and washed with a large 
quantity of water, then rubbed with leather, in or- 
der to diffuse the mercur}^ ; and the immersions 
are repeated until the metal is equally diffused over 
the surface. If it be slightly spread without rub- 
bing, the surface remains tarnished ; but if it be 
brushed it assumes a brilliant appearance. If the 
pieces thus prepared be steeped in the bath of cya- 
nide of gold and potassium, at a- temperature of 
77° to 86° F., and connected with a constant bat- 
tery in operation, in less than a quarter of an hour 
they will be gilded, either dead {matt) or shining, 
but of a matt equal to that of clocks, a quality dif- 
ficult to obtain by the ordinary process. If it be 
wished to give value to electro-chemical gilding, 
we must jointly employ both methods, and take 
mercury as a medium, but not in so great a quan- 
tity as in gilding by mercury. The temperature 
of the operation for bringing up the color is suffi- 
cient to drive off the mercury, so that the advan- 



GIL 



336 



GIL 



tages are united of the combination of the gold 
tvith the copper, and of an almost unlimited thick- 
ness of gold. (Comptes Rendus, July, 1843.) 

The decomposition cell should be made of glass 
or porcelain, and preferably of the former, be- 
cause it admits more easily of the inspection of 
the process. It should also, for economy's sake, be 
of such a form as to permit the objects to be 
gilded, to be covered with the smallest possible 
quantity of the solution of gold. In reference to 
the battery it may be remarked, that the feebler 
and more constant its action, the greater is the 
solidity of the gilding, and its degree of adhesion 
to the gilded surface. In many cases, however, 
comparatively powerful electro-currents are em- 
ployed, for the sake of expedition ; but the process 
thereby becomes more difficult to manage with 
success. (See Electrotype, &c.) 

GILDING, WASH. Syn. Water Gilding. 
Mercurial do. Amalgam do. This consists in 
the application of a thin coating of amalgam of 
gold to the metaUic surface to be gilded, and in 
the volatilization of the mercury by heat. It is 
the usual method of gilding articles of copper and 
its alloys, and possesses great beauty and durabili- 
ty, when properly executed. The process consists 
of several operations ; viz. — 

1. {The amalgam.) Put 1 part of fine gold 
into an iron crucible, apply heat, and when faintly 
red add 8 parts of mercury, agitate with an iron 
rod, and when the whole of the gold is dissolved, 
pour it (cautiously) into an earthen vessel, con- 
taining water. The amalgam must be next 
squeezed in chamois leather to separate the run- 
ning mercury, and the latter must be preserved 
for a future operation, as it contains a portion of 
gold. The solid or semi-solid amalgam is then 
preserved for use. 

2. (The mercurial solution.) Dissolve 10 parts 
of mercury in 11 parts of aquafortis, (sp. gr. 1'33,) 
and dilute the solution with 25 times its weight of 
water. 

3. (Annealing.) The article of bronze, copper, 
or brass is prepared by setting it among burning 
charcoal or peat, observing to heat it equally until 
it acquires a cherry red color in the dark, when it 
is allowed to cool slowly in the air. 

4. ( The decapage or scouring.) The article is 
next soaked in water, strongly soured with oil of 
vitriol, and to which a little salt has been added, 
until the film of oxide is dissolved off or loosened ; 
it is then rubbed bright with a stiff brush, washed 
in clear water, and rubbed dry with clean sawdust 
or bran, when a very smooth dull surface is ob- 
tained, if the process has been well conducted. 

5. (Application of the amalgam.) A fine brass 
wire brush (scratch-brush) is now dipped into the 
mercurial solution, next drawn siopingly over a 
lump of amalgam of gold, and then over the sur- 
face of the article to be gilded, and this process is 
repeated until a sufficient coating of the amalgam 
has been thus given to the alloy. 

G. (The firing.) The article is now gradu- 
ally heated by exposing it to burning charcoal, 
during which time it is kept turning about to 
distribute the heat equally. When the amalgam 
is properly fused on the surface, the piece is with- 
drawn from the fire and rapidly brushed and rub- 
bed over in every direction with a stiff long-haired 



brush, to equalize the surface ; it is then agam 
slowly heated as before, until the whole of the 
mercury is volatihzed. During this time should 
any defects be observed in the gilding, it is re- 
paired by additional applications of the amalgam 
to such parts, without removing the piece from 
the fire. When the whole of the mercury is driven 
off, the piece is washed in vinegar and water, and 
then in pure water. 

7. (Epargner.) The parts of the piece that are 
to be burnished are protected with a mixture of 
Spanish white, sugar-candy, and gum, mixed up 
with water ; it is next dried and heated to expel 
any remaining particles of mercury, and then 
plunged while hot into water, acidulated with 
sulphuric acid, washed, and dried. 

8. (Burnishing.) This is done with burnishers 
of bloodstone or hematite, dipped into vinegar and 
water, and skilfully rubbed backwards and for- 
wards, until a sufficient polish is produced. The 
piece is then washed in pure water, wiped with 
soft linen, and dried over a chafing-dish of charcoal. 

9. (Deadening.) The parts to be burnished 
are covered or protected as above, and then heat- 
ed until the protection becomes partially carbonized 
and brown ; the remaining surface is then covered 
over with a mixture of alum, salt, and nitre, and 
the piece is again heated until the latter mixture 
runs and becomes glassy ; it is then withdrawn^ 
plunged into water, and the coating cleaned off j 
it is next washed in very weak nitric acid, then in 
pure water, and lastly wiped, and dried in a stove 

10. (Coloring.) a. (Red gold color.) The 
article to be gilded, after being coated with the 
amalgam, as in the 5th operation, is to be gently 
heated, and while hot, covered with gilder's 
wax ; it is then " flamed" over a wood fire and 
strongly heated, during all which time it is kept in 
a state of continual motion, to equalize the action 
of the fire on the surface. When all the compo- 
sition has burned away the piece is plunged into 
water, next cleaned with the scratch -brush and 
vinegar, and then washed and burnished. To 
bring up the beauty of the color, the piece is some- 
times washed with a strong solution of verdigris in 
vinegar, next gently heated, plunged while hot 
into water, and then washed, first in vinegar, or 
water soured with nitric acid, and then in pure 
water ; it is lastly burnished, and again washed 
and dried. — h. (Or molu color.) This is given by 
covering the parts with a mixture of powdered 
hematite, alum, common salt, and vinegar, and 
applying heat until the coating blackens, when 
the piece is plunged into cold water, rubbed witn 
a brush dipped in vinegar, or water stronglv 
soured with nitric acid, again washed in pure 
water, and dried. During this process the parta 
not to be in " or molu color" should be protected 

Remarks. Great care should be taken by th»» 
workmen at mercurial gilding to avoid the fumes, 
as they exercise a most pernicious effect upon the 
health. By the adoption of the furnace invented 
by M. D'Arcet this evil is obviated, as the whoiB 
of the volatilized mercury is carried off* and agfun 
condensed for further use. In this way the occu- 
pation of the water-gilder is rendered as healthy 
as most other trades. It is to be regretted, how- 
ever, that owing to the prejudices of the workmen 
against these furnaces, and the indifference of the 



GIN 



337 



GIN 



masters on the subject, but few are employed, 
thougli their adoption offers considerable advan- 
tages as rej^ards economy and health. 

GILDING, WIRE. Rods of silver are covered 
with gold leaf, of a thickness proportionate to the 
quality of the intended wire, and the compound 
bar is tiien drawn into wire in the usual way. 
One hundred grains of gold was formerly the 
lowest legal quantity that could be employed for 
1 lb. (troy) of silver. The silver employed for 
gilding in this country is usually alloyed with 10 
to 12 pennyweights, and that in France with from 
5 to C pennyweights of copper. 

GIN. (From Genievre, juniper.) Gin is flavored 
corn spirit. This liquor was originally wholly im- 
ported from Holland, and hence received the 
name of Hollands, or Hollands Gin, and was a 
rich, smooth spirit, chiefly flavored with juniper 
berries : hence the term Geneva, frequently ap- 
plied to it, of which the English monosyllable gin 
appears lo be a corruption or diminutive. The 
liquor at present known by this name, of British 
manufacture, is, however, a very diiferent article 
to that imported, and consists of plain spirit, flavored 
with turpentine, and very small quantities of cer- 
tain aromatics. The thousand and one receipts 
for this article, which have from time to time 
been printed in books, produce a flavored spirit, 
bearing no resemblance to the most esteemed 
samples of English gin, and if possible, even more 
unlike ge/mine Hollands. Any person may easily 
satisfy himself of the truth of this assertion by 
actual experiment. The cause of this incongruity 
has arisen, chiefly from the writers not being prac- 
tically acquainted with the subject, and from the 
disinclination of well-informed practical men to 
divulge, gratuitously, what they conceived to be 
valuable secrets. Hence the utter failure of any 
attempts to produce either gin or Hollands from 
the receipts usually published. The authors ap- 
pear to have all imbibed a juniper-berry mania, 
probably from the imbibition of their favorite bev- 
erage. Oil of juniper, in the hands of these 
gentlemen, appears to be a perfect aqua mira- 
hilis; it readily converts whiskey into gin, and 
imparts the rich creamy flavor of Hollands to 
corn or molasses spirit. But theory and experi- 
ment sometimes disagree. In practice, it is found 
that the true flavor of foreign Geneva cannot be 
imparted to spirit by juniper alone, and that Eng- 
lish gin depends for its flavor on no such a sub- 
stance. The following formulae may be regarded 
as good specimens, but it is proper to remark, that 
every distiller has his own receipt ; hence the 
slightly different flavor of the gin of different dis- 
tillers. This arises from the use of more or less 
flavoring, or the addition of a small quantity of 
■ome aromatic, which exercises a modifying influ- 
ence on the chief flavoring ingredient. One point 
must be particularly observed, and that is, to avoid 
an excess of any flavoring. The most esteemed 
samples of gin are those that consist of very pure 
spirit, lightly flavored. A creaminess and 
SMOOTHNESS is givcu to gm by age, or the addition 
•f a little sugar ; and a small quantity of caustic 
potassa is sometimes added to it, to render it biting 

UPON THE PALATE. 

Prep. I. Clean com spirit, at proof, 80 gallons ; 
newly rectified oil of turpentine 1 pint ; mix well 
43 



by violent agitation, add culinary salt 7 or 8 Ibe^ 
dissolved in water, 30 or 40 gallons; again well 
agitate and distil over 100 gallons, or until tht 
''feints" begin to rise. Product, — 100 gallonai, 
22 u. p., besides 2 gallons contained in the feints. 
If 100 gallons, 17 u. p., be required, 85 gallons of 
proof spirit, or its equivalent at any other strength; 
should be employed. 

II. Proof spirit, as above, 8 gallons ; oil of tui. 
pontine 1 to IJj oz. ; salt 1 lb., dissolved in water 
3 or 4 gallons ; draw 10 gallons, as before. 22 
u. p. 

III. Clean corn spirit 80 gallons ; oil of turpen- 
tine I to 1 pint ; pure oil of juniper 1 oz. to 3 oz. ; 
salt 7 lbs.; water 35 gallons; draw 100 gallons, as 
above. 22 u. p. 

IV. To the last add oil of caraway ^ oz. ; oil of 
sweet fennel \ oz. ; distil as before. 

V. To No. III. add essential oil of almonds 1 
drachm, or less ; essence of lemon 3 or 4 drachms ; 
distil as before. 

VI. To No. I. add creosote 1 to 2 di-achms be- 
fore distillation. 

VII. To No. III. add creosote 1 to 2 drachms 
before distillation. 

VIII. Proof spirit 80 gallons ; oil of turpentine 
i pint ; oil of juniper 3 oz. ; creosote 2 drachms ; 
oranges and lemons, sliced, of each 9 in number; 
macerate for a week, and distil 100 gallons. 22 
u. p. 

Remarks. The oil of turpentine for this purpose 
should be of the best quality, and not that usually 
vended for painting, which contains resin and fixed 
oil. Juniper berries, bitter almonds, and the aro- 
matic seeds, may be used instead of the essential 
oils ; but the latter are most convenient. Tur- 
pentine conveys a plain gin flavor, — creosote im- 
parts a certain degree of smokiness, — lemon, and 
other aromatics, a creaminess, fulness, and rich- 
ness. Gin may also be prepared by simple solu- 
tion of the flavoring in the spirit, but is of course 
better for distillation. If made in the former way, 
no salt must be employed. The gin produced by 
the above formulae ks that denominated in the trade 
unsweetened gin, grog gin, &lc. ; but the gin as 
usually sold in the metropolis is a sweetened spirit, 
and hence is technically distinguished by the terms 
sweetened, or made up. In fact, the generality 
of gin-drinkers prefer the latter article, even though 
it be weaker and inferior, which it usually is ; as 
the addition of sugar permits adulteration and wa- 
tering with greater ease. Sweetened spirit can- 
not be easily tested for its strength, and is taken 
by the Excise at the strength which it is declared 
to possess by the dealer. To ascertain whether 
gin be sweetened or not, a little may be evaporated 
in a spoon, over a hot coal or a candle, when, if it 
be pure, it will fly off, and leave the spoon but little 
soiled ; but if, on the contrary, it has been sxoeet- 
ened, a small quantity of sirupy liquid, or sugar, 
will be obtained, the sweetness of which will be 
easily recognised by tasting it. 

The whole of the casks and utensils employed 
for gin should be perfectly clean, and properly pre- 
pared, so as not to give color ; as if this spxit 
merely acquires the palest colored tint, its value 
is lessened, and if much colored, it is rendered un- 
saleable. (See Casks.) When gin has, jnce be- 
come much stained, the only remedy is to redistil 



GIN 



338 



GIN 



it ; when it is only slightly stained, the addition of 
a few lbs. of acetic acid (P. L.) to a pipe, a spoon- 
ful or two to a gallon, or a few drops to a decan- 
terful, will usually decolor it, either at once, or as 
soon as it is mixed with water to make grog. (See 
Alcoholometry, Distillation, Hollands.) 

GIN, CORDIAL. This is gin sweetened with 
sugar, and slightly aromatized. 

Prep. Good gin (22 u. p.) 90 gallons ; oil of 
almonds 1 drachm ; oils of cassia, nutmeg, and 
lemons, of each 2 drachms ; oils of juniper, cara- 
way, and coriander, of each 3 drachms ; essence 
of orris root 3 or 4 oz. ; orange-flower water 3 
pipits ; lump sugar 56 to 60 lbs. ; dissolved in wa- 
ter 3 or 4 gallons. The essences must be dissolved 
in a quart of spirit of wine, and added gradually to 
the gin, until the requisite flavor is produced, when 
the dissolved sugar must be mixed in, along with a 
sufficient quantity of soft water holding 4 oz. of 
alum in solution, to make up 100 gallons. When 
the whole is perfectly mixed, 2 oz. of salt of tartar, 
dissolved in 2 or 3 quarts of watei, must be added, 
and the liquor again well rummaged up, after 
which it must be bunged down, and allowed to re- 
pose. In a week or 10 days it will have become 
brilliant, and may be racked if required. Product. 
100 gallons, about 30 u. p. It is usually permitted 
in the trade as 22 or 24 u. p. 

GIN, SWEETENED. Prep. Unsweetened 
gin (22 u. p.) 95 gallons ; lump sugar 40 to 45 lbs., 
dissolved in clear water 3 gallons ; mix well ; ;idd 
alum ^ lb., dissolved in water 3 or 4 quarts ; rum- 
mage well for 15 minutes, then add salt of tartar 
2 oz., dissolved in water, 1 or 2 quarts: again rum- 
mage well, and bung down close. In a day or two 
it will be fine, and ready for sale or racking. Pro- 
duct. 100 gallons, at 26 u. p. This is usually 
" permitted" at 22 or 24 u. p., and this is also 
commonly done when the gin has been further 
lowered with water to 30 or 35ti. p. (See pp. 36 
and 37.) 

GINGER BEER. Prep. I. Lump sugar 1 lb. ; 
bruised ginger (from which the dust has been sift- 
ed) I to 1 oz. ; cream of tartar :| oz. ; 1 lemon, 
sliced ; pour on them boiling water 1 gallon ; cover 
up, and macerate until barely lukewarm, then 
strain, add yeast 2 oz. ; work for 2 to 4 days, ac- 
cording to the weather ; skim, strain through clean 
flannel, bottle, and wire down the corks. Excel- 
lent ; will keep well. 

II. As last ; but use moist instead of lump 
sugar. 

III. " For the following excellent formula for 
ginger beer I am indebted to Mr. Pollock, of Fen- 
church-street : — white sugar lb. xx ; lemon or lime 
juice f §xviij ; honey lb. j ; bruised ginger §xvij ; 
water 18 gallons. Boil the ginger in 3 gallons of 
the water for half an hour ; then add the sugar, 
the juice, and the honey, with the remainder of 
the water, and strain through a cloth. When cold, 
add the white of 1 eg^, and f fss of essence of 
lemon ; after standing 4 days, bottle. This yields 
a very superior beverage, and one which will keep 
for many months." (Pereira's Eletn. Mat. Med., 
2d Ed., ii 1018.) Used as a refreshing drink in 
urarm weather. 

GINGERBREAD. Prep. I. (Dr. Colquhoun.) 
Flour 1 lb. ; carbonate of magnesia ^ oz. ; mix ; 
add treacle i lb. ; moist sugar i lb. ; melted butter 



2 oz. ; tartaric acid, dissolved in a little water, 1 
drachm ; make a stiff dough, then add powdered 
ginger and cinnamon, (cassia,) of each 1 drachm ; 
grated nutmeg 1 oz. ; set it aside for half an hour 
or an hour, and p xi it in the oven. It should not 
be kept longer than two or three hours at the ut- 
most, before being baked. This receipt produces 
superior thin gingerbread. 

II. Flour and treacle, of each 1 lb. ; butter 1 
oz. ; carbonate of magnesia 1 oz. to IJ^ oz. ; add 
spices, (ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, Cay- 
enne, corianders, &c., to taste ;) mix as last. Fit 
for baking in from four to six hours. 

III. Flour 2 lbs. ; carbonate of magnesia ^ oz. ; 
mix ; treacle 1^ lb. ; butter 2 oz. ; spice to palate ; 
tartaric acid ^ oz. ; mix as above. Ripe for the 
oven in half an hour to one hour. 

IV. Instead of tartaric acid in the last form, use 
cream of tartar dissolved in water, 2 oz. ; mix as 
last. Ripens in 40 or 50 minutes. 

V. Flour or fine pollard 1 lb. ; treacle | lb. ; 
potash, dissolved in a httle water, ^ oz. ; butter 1 
oz. ; spice to palate ; mix as before. Takes sev- 
eral days to ripen; sometimes a fortnight. 

VI. To the last, after it has stood 1 or 2 days, 
add volatile salt, (carbonate of ammonia,} -^^ssolved 
in a little water, ^ oz. May be baked at once. 

VII. Flour 6 lbs. ; powdered ginger 2 oz. or 3 
oz. ; caraway seeds 1 oz. ; (and other spices to 
palate ;) candied lemon and orange peels, of each 
1 to 2 oz. ; moist sugar and melted butter, of each 
^ lb. ; treacle 4 lbs. ; volatile salt, dissolved in a 
little water, 1^ oz. to 2 oz. ; mix as above. May 
be baked at once. The upper surface of this bread 
is very dark and glossy. 

Remarks. The preceding may be either rolled 
out into thin sheets and cut into cakes or nuts 
(gingerbread nuts) with the top of a wine-glass or 
canister, or may be formed into thick cakes. They 
require a pretty brisk oven ; the thin varieties 
(nuts, &,c.) must be baked crisp, without being 
burnt. The varieties called lemon gingerbread, 
caraway do., &lc., have a perceptible predominance 
of those flavoring ingredients. The addition of a 
little alum, dissolved in water, makes the bread 
both lighter and crisper, as well as ripen quicker. 
This should not, however, be added until the whole 
of the other ingredients are made into a dough, 
when it may be well kneaded into the mass. 

GINGER CANDY. Prep. Coarsely powder- 
ed ginger 2 oz. ; boiling water 1^ pints ; macerate 
in a warm place for 2 hours, strain, and add it to 
lump and brown sugar, of each 7 lbs. 

Re?narks. Ginger Drops are made in the same 
way, only using all lump sugar. 

GINGER, MOCK, (Preserved.) Pre^ «ut 
off the stalks of lettuces just going to seed, and 
peel off the strings. Cut them in pieces 2 or 3 
inches long, and throw them into water. After 
washing them, put them into sugar and water, 
mixed in the proportion of 1 lb. of sugar to 5 pints 
of water; add to this quantity 2 large spoonfuls of 
pounded ginger. Boil the whole together for 20 
minutes, and set it by for 2 days. Then boil it 
again for half an hour, and renew this 5 or 6 times 
in the same sirup. Then drain the stalks upon a 
sieve and wipe them dry ; have ready a thick sirup 
boiled, and made strong with whole ginger. Pour 
it upon the sttiJcs boiling hot ; boil them in it twice 



GLA 



339 



GLA 



or thrice, or until they look clear and taste like the 
West India ginger. 

GLASS. Syn. Vitrum, (Lat.) Verre, (Fr.) 
Glas, {Ger.) A transparent, insoluble, and brittle 
substance, formed by the union of the silicic acid 
with a metallic oxide. 

Hist. The date of the invention and the early 
history of the manufacture of glass are involved in 
considerable obscurity. According to Pliny, it 
originated from the following accident: A mer- 
chant ship, laden with natron, being driven upon 
the coast of the mouth of the river Belus, in tem- 
pestuous weather, the crew were compelled to 
cook their victuals ashore ; and having placed 
lUmps of the natron on the sand, as supports to the 
kettles, found, to their surprise, masses of transpa- 
rent stone among the cinders. Considering the 
trifles that have led to the most important discov- 
eries, this anecdote is very probably founded in 
truth. The Phoenicians were the earliest manu- 
facturers of glass, and long held an exclusive com- 
merce of this article ; afterwards Alexandria and 
Sidou became celebrated for the same manufac- 
ture. (Pliny, Strabo.) Glass was employed by 
the Romans for windows, and for various other 
purposes, as specimens discovered among the ruins 
of Herculaneum amply testify. " The Phoenician 
processes seemed to have been learned by the 
Crusaders, and transferred to Venice in the 13th 
centur}', where they were long held secret, and 
formed a lucrative commercial monopoly." (Ure's 
Diet, of Arts, &c.) The manufacture of window 
glass was not introduced into England until the 
middle of the 16th century, and was soon followed 
by that o^ Flint Glass. During the ensuing 60 
or 90 years, this art acquired great perfection in 
this country ; and at the present day, the different 
varieties of glass of English manufacture are equal 
to any in the world. Even plate glass is now 
made in England that is fully equal to the best 
foreign. 

GLASS, BOTTLE. Prep. I. {Dark green.) 
Fused glauber salts 1 1 lbs. ; Soaper's salts 12 lbs. ; 
waste soap ashes ^ bushel ; silicious sand j^ cwt. ; 
glass skimmings 22 lbs. ; broken green glass 1 cwt. 
to li cwt. ; basalt 25 lbs. to \ cwt. 

II. (Pale green.) a. Pale sand 100 lbs. ; kelp 
35 lbs. ; lixiviated wood ashes 1^ cwt. ; fresh do. 
40 lbs. ; pipeclay | cwt. ; cullet or broken glass 1 
cwt. J 

b. Yellow or white sand 120 parts ; wood ashes 
80 parts; pearlaslies 20 parts; common salt 15 
parts ; white arsenic 1 part. Verv pale. 

GLASS, CROWN. Syn. White Window 
Glass. Prep. I. Sand 300 parts ; soda ash 200 
parts ; lime 30 to 35 parts ; 200 to 300 parts of 
broken glass. 

II. {Bohemian.) Pure silicious sand 63 parts ; 
potash 22 parts ; lime 12 parts ; oxide of manga- 
nese 1 part. 

III. (Professor Schweigger.) Pure sand 100 
parts ; dry sulphate of soda 50 parts ; dry quick- 
lime in powder 17 to 20 parts ; charcoal 4 parts. 
Product. White and good. 

IV. White sand 60 lbs. ; good pearlashes 30 lbs. ; 
saltpetre 15 lbs. ; borax 1 lb ; white arsenic ^ lb. ; 
if it is tinged at all, add a little manganese. 

GLASS, CRYSTAL. Prep. I. Refined pot- 
ashes 60 lbs. ; sand 120 lbs. ; chalk 24 lbs. ; nitre 



and white arsenic, of each 2 lbs. ; oxide of manga- 
nese 1 to 2 oz. 

II. Pure white sand 120 parts ; refined a.shes 70 
parts ; saltpetre 10 parts ; white arsenic ^ part ; 
oxide of manganese ^ part. 

III. Sand 120 parts ; red lead 50 parts ; puri- 
fied pearlash 40 parts ; nitre 20 parts ; manganese 
^ part. 

IV. White sand 15 parts; red lead 10 parts; 
refined ashes 4 parts ; nitre 1 part ; arsenious acid 
and manganese, of each a very little. 

GLASS, FLASK. {Of St. Etienne.) Pure 
silicious sand 61 parts ; potash 3^ parts ; lime 21 
parts ; heavy spar 2 parts ; oxide of manganese 
q. s. 

GLASS, FLINT. Syn. Crystal Glass. Prep. 
I. (Korner.) Quartz (first treated with muriatic 
acid) 100 parts ; litharge, or red lead, 80 parts ; 
cream of tartar 30 parts. Excellent. 

II. White sand 120 parts ; purified pearlash 40 
parts ; litharge, or red lead, 35 parts ; nitre 13 
parts ; oxide of manganese, a little, if required. 

III. Good Lynn sand 100 parts ; oxide of lead 
60 parts ; purified pearlashes 30 parts ; manganese, 
as before. 

IV. (Geddes.) White sand 300 parts ; red lead, 
or litharge, 200 parts ; refined pearlashes 80 parts ; 
nitre 20 parts ; arsenic and manganese, of each a 
little. 

V. (M. Payen.) Silicious sand 3 parts ; red lead 
2 to 2:^ parts ; carbonate of potash 1^ to If parts. 
Both this and the last contain too much lead. 

VI. (Guinand's.) Ground quartz and pure red 
lead, of each 100 parts ; refined potash 35 lbs. ; 
nitre 2 to 3 lbs. Heavy ; used by opticians. 

GLASS, PLATE. Prep. I. Pure sand 40 parts ; 
dry carbonate of soda 26 J parts; lime 4 parts; 
nitre 1^ part; broken plate-glass 25 parts. 

II. (Vienna.) Sand 100 parts; calcined sul- 
phate of soda 50 parts ; lime 20 parts ; charcoal 
2| parts. 

III. (Kim.) Sand 61 parts; calcined sulphate 
of soda 27 parts ; lime 10| parts ; charcoal 2^ 
parts. 

IV. (Ure.) Quartz sand 100 parts ; calcined 
sulphate of soda 24 parts ; lime 20 parts ; cullet of 
soda glass 12 parts. 

V. (Kirn.) Quartz sand 60 to 65 parts ; calcined 
carbonate of potash 18 parts ; common salt 9 parts ; 
lime 13 to 13^ parts. 

VI. {French.) White quartz sand and cullet, of 
each 300 parts ; dry carbonate of soda 100 parts ; 
slaked lime 43 parts. 

VII. Pure sand 72 parts ; refined soda 45 parts \ 
quicklime 8 parts ; nitre 2^ parts ; cullet 45 parts. 

GLASS, WINDOW. Syn. Broad Glass. 
Prep. I. Dried sulphate of sod^ 11 lbs.; Soaper 
salts 10 lbs. ; lixiviated soap waste ^ bushel ; sand 
50 to 56 lbs. ; glass pot skimmings 22 lbs. ; broken 
pale green glass 1 cwt. 

II. {Paler.) White sand 60 lbs. ; pearlashes 30 
lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ; arsenic 2 lbs. ; oxide of 
mansranesfe 2 to 4 oz. 

III. (Very pale.) White sand 60 lbs. ; good pot- 
ashes 25 lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ; nitre 5 lbs. ; 
arsenic 2 lbs. ; manganese 2 to 4 oz., as required ; 
broken pale window glass 14 lbs. 

Remarks. The limits of this work will not per- 
mit of the operations of glass-making being enter- 



GLA 



340 



ed into The method of employing the preceding 
formulae will, however, be evident to every person 
practically acquainted with this branch of the 
manufactures ; and by such alone is information 
of this kind required. 

The quality of glass is denoted by its trans- 
, parency, strength, and power of resisting the action 
of water, air, light, and the strong acids and alka- 
lis. Those glasses which contain a predominance 
of alkali are acted on by water, and when this is 
in great excess, are perfectly soluble in that fluid. 
Hence ordinary crystal glass is affected by long 
coction in water, while crown glass, which con- 
tains less alkali, is unaltered by that trial. Glasses 
that contain any considerable quantity of lead, are 
acted on by sulphureted hydrogen ; this is the 
cause of the surface of flint glass, under certain 
circumstances, becoming o'(iaque and iridescent. 
It is also said that glasses made of silica and alkalis 
alone, are incapable of resisting the action of wa- 
ter, but that the addition of lime or oxide of lead 
is necessary for that purpose. The power of glass 
to resist the action of menstrua is readily tried by 
exposing it to boiling oil of vitriol, and hot, but di- 
lute solution of caustic potassa. Neither of these 
tests should cause the glass to lose its transparency, 
or to become dim. Glasses that have a slight 
greenish or bluish tint, may be often whitened, or 
rendered colorless, by exposure to light and air ; 
" in consequence, undoubtedly, of the peroxidize- 
ment of the iron, to whose protoxide they owe their 
'Jnt ; other glasses become purpled from the pe- 
-oxidizement of the manganese." (Ure.) 

The extreme hrittleness of glass arises from its 
not having been annealed. This defect may be 
remedied on the small scale, by immersing such 
glass in a bath of oil, or a concentrated solution of 
chloride of calcium, or common salt, and heating 
the whole gradually and cautiously to the boil- 
ing point, and letting it cool very gradually ; the 
slower the better. By this treatment, the glass 
will be enabled to bear any alternations of tem- 
perature between the two extremes to which it has 
been exposed. 

GLASS-CLEANING. Glass Windows, Look- 
ing-Glasses, &c., may be cleaned as follows : — 
Dip a moistened rag or flannel into indigo, fuller's 
earth, ashes, or rotten-stone, in impalpable powder, 
with which smear the glass, and wipe it off with a 
dry soft cloth. Powder-blue or whitening, tied up 
in muslin and dusted upon the glass, and cleaned 
off with chamois-leather, also gives glass a fine 
polish. The spots in the silvering of old looking- 
glasses are caused by damp at the back. The 
Vauxhall plates are no longer prized, for the glass 
« made in the present day is whiter and better. 
Window-panes may be made to resemble ground 
glass by daubing them with putty, or a brush with 
a little thin paste. 

GLASS-CUTTING, «&c. A description of the 
various operations of glass-cutting and grinding 
belongs entirely to a wo.k on the mechanical arts ; 
but it may not be out of place iiere to mention, 
that glass may be easily cut with a common well- 
hardened steel file, provided it be moistened with 
turpentine, or plunged under water. It may also 
be perforated with a connnon steel brad-a>vl in the 
samf way. Glass vessels, as bottles and tubes, 
may be readily cut or shortened, by placing a 



heated iron ring over the spot, or a piece of loos^ 
string or cotton dipped in turpentine and set on 
fire, and immediately on the withdrawal of either, 
applying cold water to the part. Glass vessels or 
tubes thus treated will crack round, and may bg 
readily divided into two parts. 

GLASS, GROUND. The frosted appearance 
of ground glass may be very nearly imitated by 
gently dabbing the glass over with a piece of gla- 
zier's putty, stuc^ on the ends of the fingers. 
When applied with a light and even touch, the 
resemblance is considerable. Another method is 
to dab the glass over with thin white paint, or flour 
paste, by means of a brush ; but this is much infe- 
rior to the former. Used for windows. 

GLASS, POWDERED. Syn. Vitrum pul- 
VERisATUM. Prep. Heat the glass red hot, throw 
it into cold water, dry and powder. Used to filter 
acids ; also glued upon paper as a polishing pow- 
der, and to wear down corns upon the feet, after 
the feet have been well soaked and dried ; like- 
wise to blow into the eyes to wear down excres- 
cences. 

GLASS. (In Chemistry.) This term was for- 
merly very commonly applied to preparations to 
which a vitreous appearance is given by heat. It 
is now obsolete. 

GLASS OF ANTIMONY. Syn. Vitrum 
Antimonii. Antimonium vitrificatum. Oxydum 
Antimonii vitrificatum. Oxydum Antimonii cum 
SuLPHURE vitrificatum. Prep. Roast powdered 
common antimony in a shallow vessel over a gen- 
tle fire, until it turns whitish gray, and ceases to 
emit fumes at a red heat ; then heat it in a cruci- 
ble until it fuses into a clean brov/nish red glass. 
If calcined too much, a little more common anti- 
mony must be added to make it run well. It is a 
crude oxysulphuret, (Liebig,) and violently emetic 
in doses of 1 to 2 grs. : it is now but seldom used. 

GLASS, STORM. Prep. Camphor 3ij ; ni 
tre 3iss ; sal ammoniac 3ss ; rectified spirit of wine 
§ij ; dissolve, and keep it in a long bottle or glass 
tube covered with bladder. Used to foretell changes 
of the weather. 

GLAUCIC ACID. A peculiar acid discovered 
by Dr. Runge in several species of dipsacus and 
scahiosa. It is obtained by adding ether to the 
tincture of the dry plant, dissolving the precipitated 
flocculi in water, treating the solution with acetate 
of lead, decomposing the precipitated glaucate of 
lead with sulphureted hydrogen, and evaporating 
to expel the water and acetic acid. A brittle yel- 
low mass, forming salts with the bases. 

GLAUCINE. Syn. A peculiar substance 
forming pearly scales, soluble in hot water, alco- 
hol, and ether ; discovered by Probst in glauceum 
luteuni. It forms neutral salts with the acids. 

GLAUCOPICRINE. White scales, soluble in 
hot water, alcohol, and ether, and having a bitter 
taste ; also discovered by Probst in glauceum lu- 
teum. It forms neutral crystallizable salts with 
the acids. 

GLAZE. (In Cooking.) Gravy or soup boiled 
until it becomes gelatinous on cooling. It is used 
as a species of varnish to cover various dishes lor 
the table. It may be spiced and fla\'ored accord- 
ing to the fancy of the cook. (See Soup, Porta- 
ble.) 

GLIADINE, (from y\ta, erluf.) A peculiai 



GLU 



341 



GLU 



substance contained in the gluten of wheat, and so 
named by M. Taddei, an Italian chemist. Prep. 
Rub fresh-made gUiten of wheat flour with alcohol, 
and evaporate to dryness ; the gliadine thus ob- 
tained may be purified by extracting the coloring 
matter by means of sulphuric ether, which does 
not dissolve the gliadine. Used to form a test 
liquor. 

GLOBULINE. A species of albumen consti- 
tuting the principal portion of the blood-globules. 
It e.xists in the clot, in combmation with h(Bmato- 
sine. 

GLUCIC ACID. Prep. Saturate grape sugar 
with lime or baryta, and set it aside. After some 
weeks, precipitate the solution with acetate of lead, 
filter, wash the precipitate with water, diff'use it 
in water, and decompose it by sulphureted hydro- 
gen. 

GLOVES, TO CLEAN. L {Dry cleaning.) 
Lay them out flat ; then rub into them a mixture 
of finely-powdered fuller's earth and alum ; sweep 
it off with a brush, sprinkle them with dry bran and 
whiting ; lastly, dust them well. This will not do 
if they are very dirty. 

II. Wash them with soap and water ; then 
stretch them on wooden hands, or pull them into 
shape tcithout xcringing them; next rub them 
with pipe-clay, or yellow ochre, or a mixture of the 
two in any required shade, made into a paste with 
beer ; let them dry gradually, and when about 
half dry, rub them well, so as to smooth them and 
put them into shape ; then dry them, brush out the 
superfluous color, cover them with paper, and 
smooth them with a warm iron. Other colors may 
be employed to mix with the pipe-clay beside yel- 
low ochre. 

GLOVES, TO DYE. Leather gloves, if not 
greasy, may be dyed with any of the ordinary dyes 
by brushing the latter over the gloves stretched out 
smooth. The surface alone should be wetted, and 
a second or third coat may be given after the for- 
mer one has become dry. When the last coat has 
become thoroughly dry, the superfluous color 
should be well rubbed out, a smooth surface given 
them by rubbing with a polished stick or piece of 
ivon,', and the whole gone over with a sponge 
dipped in white of egg. 

GLUCINA. Syn. Glucine, (Fr.) Beryll- 
ERDE, {Ger.) Oxide of Glucinum. (From 
yXv»cvf, sweet, because the salts it forms with the 
acids have a sweet taste.) A pulverulent white 
substance, discovered by M. Vauquelui in 1798, in 
the aqua marina and the emerald. It is classed 
with the earths. 

Prep. Finely pulverize the beryl, and expose it 
to a strong red heat for half an hour along with 3 
times its weight of carbonate of potassa, dissolve in 
muriatic acid, evaporate to dr^'uess, redissolve in 
very dilute muriatic acid, and precipitate with 
pure ammonia ; wash the precipitate well, digest 
with a large quantity of carbonate of ammonia, fil- 
ter, and boil ; carbonate of glucina subsides. By 
exposure to a red heat the carbonic acid may be 
expelled. 

Prep., tf-c. 1. It forms salts with the acids. 2. 
Caustic potassa and soda precipitate it from the 
solutions of its salts, and rediSsolve it when added 
in excess. 3. Pure ammonia throws it down as a 
hydrate, and the carbonates of potassa and soda 



as a carbonate ; neither of which redissolve in ex- 
cess of the precipitant. 4. Carbonate of ammonia 
water dissolves it when cold, and from this solu- 
tion it is precipitated by boiling. In this respect it 
differs from alumina, and hence these earths may 
be readily separated. The beryl contains 14 per 
cent, of glucina, combined with silicic acid and 
alumina. 

GLUCINIUM. The metallic base of the earth 
glucina. It was first obtained by Wohler in 1828, 
by a similar process to that adopted for Aluminium. 
It forms a grayish black powder, which acquires a 
metallic gloss under the burnisher. It is but little 
known. Its oxide is Glucina. See Aluminium. 

GLUE. Syn. Colle forte, (Fr.) Leim ; 
TiscHLERLEiM, (Ger.) Gluten; Glutinum, {Lat., 
from yAta, glue.) Inspissated animal jelly or gela- 
tin. Glue is principally prepared from the parings 
and waste-pieces of hides and skins, the refuse of 
tanneries, and the tendons and other ofi^al of slaugh- 
ter-houses. All these should be preferably obtain- 
ed and kept in the dr^^ state, to prevent decomposi- 
tion. For use, they are first steeped for 14 or 15 
days in milk of lime, then drained and dried ; this 
constitutes the " cleaning,^' or the ^'preparation." 
Before conversion into glue, they are usually again 
steeped in weak milk of lime, well washed in wa- 
ter, and exposed to the air for 24 hours. They Eire 
then placed in a copper boiler f filled with water, 
and furnished with a perforated false bottom, to 
prevent them from buraing, and as much h . 'Jed 
on as will fill the vessel and rest on the top of it. 
Heat is next applied, and gentle boiling continued 
until the liquor on cooling forms a firm gelatinous 
mass. The clear portion is then run off into an- 
other vessel, where it is kept hot by a water-bath, 
and allowed to repose for some hours to deposite, 
when it is run into the congealing boxes, and 
placed in a cool situation. The next morning the 
cold gelatinous masses are turned out upon boards 
wetted with water, and are cut horizontally into 
thin cakes with a stretched piece of brass wire, 
and then into smaller cakes with a moistened flat 
knife. These cakes are next placed upon nettings 
to dry, after which they are dipped one by one in- 
to hot water, and slightly rubbed with a brush 
wetted with boiling water, to give them a gloss ; 
they are lastly stove-dried for sale. During this 
time the undissolved portion of skins, &c., left in 
the copper is treated with fresh water, and the 
whole operation is repeated again and again, as 
long as any gelatinous matter is extracted. The 
first runnings produce the palest and best glue. 
The refuse matter from the tanners and leather 
dressers yields on the average, when dried, 50§ of 
its weight of glue. The following are varieties: — 

1. {Cake glue, Colle forte, Gluten commune.) 
Prepared from the skins of animals, by soaking 
them for two or three weeks in lime water, boiling 
them with water (sometimes adding a little alum) 
down to a thick jelly, as before described. Used 
as a cement by carpenters, &c. 

2. {Flemish glue, Dutch glue.) The skins are y 
rinsed in several waters, and left to soak for some 
time, that they may require less boiling to be dis- 
solved ; cakes very thin, transparent ; used by cab 
inet-makers for fine work. 

3. {French glue.) Simmered for a long time 
with a small fire, until the skins are dissolved ; then 



GLY 



342 



GOL 



made to boll, and alum, gr. ij to the pint added, to 
elear it for moulding ; transparent and very brittle. 

4. (Hatmaker's glue.) From the tendons of the 
legs of neat cattle and horses ; brown, opaque, 
soft ; grows moist in damp weather, but it does not 
render the felt brittle. 

5. (Fish glue, Colle de poisson.) Is made in 
like manner from various membranous and solid 
parts of cetaceous animals. 

6. [Parchment glue.) Shreds or shavings of 
parchment, vellum, white leather, &c., dissolved 
by boiling in water, forming a nearly colorless 
glue. 

GLUE, PORTABLE. Prep. Best glue 1 lb. ; 
water sufficient ; boil it in a double gluepot, and 
strain ; add fine brown sugar ^ lb., and boil it 
pretty thick ; then pour it into moulds ; when cold 
cut into small pieces and dry them. This glue is 
very useful to draughtsmen, architects, &c., as it 
immediately dilutes in warm water, and fastens 
the paper, without the process of damping, and 
may be softened for many purposes with the 
tongue. 

GLUTEN. Syn. Colle Vegetable, (Fr.) 
Kleber, (Ger.) Vegetable Gluten. (From gflo, 
to congeal, and gluten, glue.) A peculiar sub- 
stance found in bread corn ; and principally in 
wheat. M. Taddei has divided this substance into 
two others, differing from each other in their prop- 
erties. One of these is Gliadine, which has 
been already noticed ; the other, Zimome, will be 
found in its alphabetical situation. By more re- 
cent analysis it appears that wheat gluten consists 
of albumen, m,ucin, (a substance soluble in alcohol 
while boiling,) and gluten. 

Gluten is believed to be highly nutritive, and to 
impart to wheat its superiority as an aliment over 
the grains of the other cereals. " It is the pres- 
ence of gluten in wheaten flour that renders it pre- 
eminently nutritious, and its viscidity or tenacity 
confers upon that species of flour its peculiar ex- 
cellence for the manufacture of macaroni, vermi- 
celli, and similar pastes, which are made by a 
kind of wire-drawing, and for which the wheat of 
the south of Europe (more abundant in gluten than 
our own) is particularly adapted. The superiority 
of wheaten over other bread depends upon the 
greater tenacity of its dough, which in panary fer- 
mentation is puffed up by the evolved carbonic 
acid, and retained in its vesicular texture, so as to 
form a very light loaf." (Brande.) 

Prep. Mix flour with a little water into a stiff 
paste, as for pastry, and knead this paste in water, 
until the starch and saccharine matter are washed 
out. Gray, extensible while fresh and moist, like 
elastic gum : turns blue when mixed with guaia- 
cum. 

GLYCERINE. (From y\vkvs, sweet.) A 
Bweet substance formed in the process of saponify- 
ing oils and fats. It is the hydrated oxide of the 
theoretical organic radical glycerule. (Liebig.) 

Prep. Digest equal parts of ground litharge and 
olive oil, along with a little water at the boiling 
temperature, constantly stirring and replacing the 
water as it evaporates. When the compound has 
acquired the consistence of a plaster, wash it well 
with hot water, decant the latter and filter ; then 
pass sulphureted hydngen through it, to throw 
down the lead ; again h'ler and evaporate to a si- 



rup, in a water-bath. It may be decolored witii 
animal charcoal. The product much resembles 
sirup in taste and appearance. 

Remarks. This substance may now be procured 
in solution, by hogsheads at a time, from the 
stearine makers, who obtain it by the saponification 
of tallow. It is evaporated and largely employed to 
adulterate moist sugar. 

GLYCYRRHIZIN. Syn. Glycion. Licor- 
ice Sugars. An uncrystallizable sugar, unsuscep- 
tible of vinous fermentation, contained in liquorice 
root. (Glycyrrhiza glabra.) It is soluble both in 
water and alcohol, and possesses basic properties. 

GOLD. Syn. Aurum, (Lat.) Or, (Fr.) Gold, 
(Ger.) This metal appears to have been known 
to the remotest ages of antiquity, and to have been 
then as much esteemed as at the present day. 
According to the writings of Moses, the art of work- 
ing both in gold and silver must have reached a 
considerable degree of advancement at that peri- 
od ; for these metals were commonly worked up 
into ornaments to decorate the person. " Speak 
now in the ears of the people, and let every man 
borrow of his neighbor, and every woman borrow 
of her neighbor, jewels of silver and jewels of gold." 
(Exodus, xi. 2.) The date of this injunction, ac- 
cording to the best authorities, must have been 
about 1500 years before Christ, or fully 3300 years 
ago. A description of the uses of gold in the arts, 
and its influence on society in all ages, as a sym- 
bol of wealth and an article of ornament and utili- 
ty, would embrace the whole history of mankind. 
At the present day it alike contributes to the con- 
veniences, comforts, and luxuries of life ; — as often 
exciting the baser passions of the human heart as 
promoting the cause of benevolence and virtue. 

Prep. The preparation of gold consists merely in 
its purification. It is usually found alloyed with 
silver. The latter metal is removed by the pro- 
cess termed " parting," either in the dry way, by 
fusion along with sulphur or sulphuret of antimo- 
ny, or in the wet way, by quartation. (See As- 
saying and Ores.) 

Prop. The most marked properties of gold are 
its ductility, malleability, and insolubility in all 
menstrua, except aqua regia and aqueous chlorine, 
and its slight affinity for oxygen. It is the only 
simple metal that possesses a yellow color. Ita 
sp. gr. is 19-2 to 19-4. 

Tests. Gold is characterized by its yellow color^ 
its insolubility in nitric acid, and ready solution in 
nitromuriatic acid, forming a yellow liquid that 
stains the skin purple. Frotosulphato of iron throws 
down metallic gold from this solution, and pro- 
tochloride of tin and protonitrate of mercury, dark 
or black precipitates. 

Uses. In medicine, has been given in the form 
of powder, in scrofula and syphilis, by Chrestien, 
Niel, and others, with apparent advantage, \ gr. 
to 1 gr., 3 or 4 times a day, in pills. An ointment 
made of 1 gr. of powdered gold and 30 grs. of lard, 
has been applied by Niel to the skin deprived of 
the epidermis, (endermically.) 

GOLD-BEATER'S SKIN, is prepared from 
the peritoneal membrane of the cteciun, which, as 
soon as it is detached, is pulled out to the extent 
of 2 feet or upwards, then dried. The dried mem- 
brane, which has the appearance of a piece of 
packthread, is then soaked in a very weak sola- 



GOL 



343 



GOL 



tion of potash, and spread out flat on a frame ; 
another membrane is then taken and applied to 
the other, so that the two surfaces \vl)ich adiiered 
to the muscular membrane of the intestine may 
adhere together ; they unite perfectly, and soon 
dry. The skins are then glued on a hollow frame, 
washed with alum water, dried, washed with a 
solution of isinglass in white wine, to which spices, 
such as cloves, nutmegs, ginger, or camphire, have 
been added, and varnished with white of egg. Used 
to separate the leaves of gold while being beat 
thinner, and as a defensive for cuts. 

GOLD, CHLORIDE OJS. Syn. Terciiloride 
OF Gold. Muriate of Gold. Chloride d'Or. 

AURI ChLORIDUM. AuRJ TERCHLORIDUM. AuRI 
CHLORURETUM. AURI MURIAS, &.C. Prep. (P. 

Cod.) Gold 1 part ; nitromuriatic acid 3 parts ; 
dissolve ; evaporate till vapors of chlorine begin 
to be disengaged, then set the solution aside to 
crystallize. 

Prop., Uses, i^c. Orange red crystalline nee- 
dles, or ruby red prismatic crystals ; deliquescent, 
soluble in water, ether, and alcohol ; at the heat 
of 400° it is decomposed. Protosulphate of iron, 
oxalic, sulphurous, and phosphorous acids, and 
most of the metals, decompose its solution with 
the precipitation of metallic gold. It has been 
employed by Duportal, Ghrestien, Niel, Cullerier, 
Legrand, and others, as a substitute for mercury, 
in scrofula, bronchocele, chronic skin diseases, &c. 
It has also been employed as a caustic. JDose. 
one-twentieth gr., dissolved in distilled water, or 
made into a pill with starch. 

There is also a yellow insoluble protochloride 
of gold, which is formed by heating the terchlo- 
ride to about 600° F. At a red heat, both these 
chlorides give up their chlorine, and pure gold re- 
mains behind. 

GOLD. CHLORINE OF, (SOLUTION.) 
Syn. Solution of Muriate of Gold. Hydro- 
chlorate d'Or en Solution. A weak solution 
of chloride of gold in distilled water. Used to dis- 
cover the presence of oils in distilled waters and 
alcohol. 

GOLD, CYANIDE OF. Syn. Tercyanide 
OF Gold. Cyanuret of Gold. Tercyanuret 
OF Gold. Auri tercyanidum. Auri cyanure- 
tum, &c. Prep. (P. Cod.) Add a solution of 
pure cyanide of potassium to a neutral solution of 
pure chloride of gold, as long as a precipitate 
forms ; carefully wash and dry. A yellow, inso- 
luble powder. It has been used in medicine in 
the same cases as the last. Duse. One-lifteenth 
to one-tenth of a gr., made into a pill. 

GOLD DETERGENT, PARISIAN, (UP- 
TON AND COS.) Prep. Quicklime 1 oz. ; 
sprinkle with a little water to slake it, then gradu- 
ally add water 1 pint, so as to form a milk ; dis- 
solve pearlash 2 oz. in water 1 quart ; mix the 
two solutions, cover up, agitate occasionally for an 
hour, allow it to settle, decant the clear, put it into 
flat half-pint bottles, and well cork them down. 
Use. To clean gilding, &-c., either alone or diluted 
with water. It is applied with a soft sponge, and 
then washed off with clean water. (See Gilding 

LlQ(!OK.) 

GOLD, FACTITIOUS. Prep. Zinc 1 part ; 

platinum 7 parts ; copper 16 parts ; fuse together. 

Remarks. This alloy resembles gold of 16 car- 



ats fine, or f, and will resist the action of nitri* 
acid, unless veiy concentrated and boiling. 

GOLD, FULMINATING. Syn. Aurate oi 
Ammonia. Ammoniuret of teroxide of Gold. 

AURUM FULMINANS. AuRI OxiDUM AMM0.51ATUM. 

Prep. I. Digest recently precipitated peroxide of 
gold in strong liquor of ammonia for 24 hours ; dry 
in the open air or at a low temperature, ^below 
212°,) and avoid the slightest friction lest it should 
explode. A deep olive-colored powder. 

II. Digest terchloride of gold, in ammonia ia 
excess. Brownish yellow. 

III. Dissolve gold in aqua regia, (made by dis- 
solving 4 oz. of sal ammoniac in 12 or 16 oz. of 
nitric acid,) and precipitate with a solution of car- 
bonate of potassa. 

Remarks. Fulminating gold should be made in 
very small quantities at a time, to avoid risk, as 
without great care it explodes with extreme vio- 
lence. This is caused by the slightest friction or 
sudden increase of heat. Its fulminating property 
may be destroyed by boiling it in pearlash lye, or 
oil of vitriol ; and by heating the powder after 
washing it " ' water, pure gold will be obtained. 
Fulminating ^ ild is said to be sedati^ve, antispas- 
modic, and carminative. It has been given in 
doses of 1 to 5 grs., in fevers, nervous diseases, 
colic, and in similar cases to those mentioned un- 
der Chloride of Gold. Its use has, however, " in 
some cases produced very serious, and even fatal 
results." (Pereira.) 

GOLD, GRAIN. Syn. Aurum granulatum. 
Cupelled gold 1 part, silver 3 parts, melt and pour 
in a small stream into water, dissolve out the silver 
with nitric acid, and heat the grains to redness. 
Used to make preparations of gold. 

GOLD, IODIDE OF. Syn. Auri Iodidum. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) To a solution of terchloride of 
gold, add another of iodide of potassium, (in excess ; 
Johnston ;) wash the precipitate in alcohol, and 
dry it. 

Remarks. This is the protiodide of gold, 
(Johnston, Liebig.) It is a greenish yellow pow- 
der, soluble in dilute hot solution of iodide of potas- 
sium, from which it crystallizes on cooling in golden 
yellow scales. M. Meillet recommends the use 
of hydriodate of ammonia as the precipitant, in 
preference to the iodide of potassium, as thereby 
the whole of the chloride of gold is decomposed, 
which is not the case when the latter is used. 
Iodide of gold loses iodine at common temperatures, 
and should therefore be kept in a cold place, and 
in well-stopped vials. Dose. One-fifteenth to one- 
tenth of a grain in pills. It is also made into an 
ointment. 

The teriodide of gold is formed when the 
previous process is reversed, and the terchloride of 
gold is added to a solution of iodide of potassium. 
(Johnston.) It is a dark-green powder, soluble in 
solutions of hydriodic acid, and the iodides of po- 
tassium and sodium. From the latter, dark-brown- 
ish red crystals of auroiodide of potassium are- 
deposited by standing. 

GOLD LEAF. Syn. Aurum foliatum. Au- 
rum IN LiBELLis. Gold rcduced to leaves by ham- 
mering between goldbeaters' skin. These leaves 
are only 1.282,000th of an inch thick. Gilt silver 
is hammered in the same way, but the leaves are 
thicker. The latter is called ' party goldJ Used 



GOL 



344 



GOV 



in gilding by artists and gilders, and by druggists 
to gild pills, &c. 

GOLD, LIQUID. Syn. Potable Gold. 
AuRUM poTABiLE. Prep. Agitate ether with a 
solution of terchloride of gold for some time, allow 
it to repose, and decant the supernatant portion. 

Remarks. Naphtha and essential oils possess 
the same property as ether of taking gold from its 
solutions. This liquid was formerly held in great 
esteem as a cordial medicine. It is now only em- 
ployed for writing on steel, gilding, &lc. As it 
dries, it leaves a coating of pure gold. 

GOLD, OXIDES OF. Prep. I. {Protoxide 
of gold.) Precipitate a solution of terchloride of 
gold with a cold solution of pure potassa. A green 
powder, partially soluble in liquor of potassa, and 
spontaneously changing into metallic gold and 
peroxide of gold. 

II. {Binoxide of gold.) This is supposed to be 
the purple powder formed by the combustion of 
gold. 

III. (Peroxide of gold. Oxide of do. Ter- 
oxide of do. Auric acid. Auri oxydum. Auri 
teroxydum. Crocus of gold. Crocus solis.) a. 
(P. Cod.) Calcined magnesia 4 parts ; terchloride 
of gold 1 part ; water 40 parts ; mix, boil ; wash 
the precipitate first with water, next with dilute 
nitric acid, and lastly again with water. Dry in 
the shade. 

|3. (Pesth.) Neutral chloride of gold, containing 
1 part of gold ; water 12 parts ; carbonate of 
potassa I part, dissolved in water 2 parts ; digest 
at 170°, well wash the precipitate with water, 
dissolve in colorless nitric acid sp. gr. 1*400, and 
decompose the solution by admixture with water. 
The precipitate is the pure hydrated peroxide of 
gold ; it may be rendered anhydrous by drying it 
at a heat of 212°. (Liebig. ) 

Remarks. In the state of hydrate, teroxide of 
gold is yellow, but dark-brown or black, when 
free from water. It is insoluble in water, and 
completely decomposed by solar light and a red 
heat. It dissolves in muriatic acid, forming ter- 
chloride of gold, and also in some of the oxygen 
acids, but is again precipitated on the addition of 
water. It unites with the alkalis and earths 
forming salts, which have been termed aurates, 
from the oxide playing the part of an acid in 
their composition. It has been given as a medi- 
cine in scrofula, &c., in doses of one -tenth to 
1 gr., made into a pill with extract of mezereon. 

GOLD POWDER. Syn. PulvisAuri. Aurum 
PoLVERATUM. Prep. (P. Cod.) Triturate leaf 
gold with sulphate of potassa, (in crystals,) |ind 
wash out the latter with boiling water. Used in 
medicine, painting, gilding, &,c. (See Gilding 
Powder.) 

GOLD, RING. Prep. I. Spanish copper 6i 
pennyweights ; fine silver 3^ do. ; gold coin 29 do. ; 
fuse together. Worth about 31. per oz. 

II. Spanish copper 8 oz. 8 pennyweights ; fine 
silver 10 pts. ; gold coin 1 oz. ; fuse. Worth 35s. 
to 40.9. an ounce. 

GOLD, SODA-CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Soda 
Muriate of Gold. Chloride of Gold and 
Soda. Auro-terchloride of Sodium. Sodii 
auro-ciiloridom. Sodii auro-terchloridum. 
Auri et Sodii chloruretum. Aurum muriaticum 
1U.TRONATUM. Prep. (P. Cod.) Terchloride of 



gold 85 parts ; chloride of sodium 16 parts ; dis^ 
solve in a little distilled water, evaporate till % 
pellicle forms, then put it aside to crystallize. 
Dose. One-twentieth to one-tent.h gr,, made into 
a pill with starch or lycopodium, iu the same cases 
in which the terchloride is ordered. Mixed with 2 
or 3 times its weight of orris powder, it is used in 
frictions on the tongue and gums ; and an ointment 
is made with 1 gr. mixed with 36 grs. of lard. 
The latter is applied to the skin, deprived of thp 
epidermis by a blister. 

GOLD SOLDER. Prep. Pure gold 12 penny- 
weights ; silver 2 do.^^ copper 4 do. ; fuse together. 
Used by jewellers to solder gold. 

GOLD, SULPHURET OF. Prep. Transmit 
a current of sulphureted hydrogen gas through a 
solution of chloride of gold in water ; or add a so- 
lution of hydro-sulphuret of ammonia to the same 
solution ; collect the precipitate, wash with cold 
distilled water, and dry in the shade. 

GOOSEBERRIES. Ripe gooseberries are 
wholesome, but the skins and seeds should not be 
eaten, as they are very indigestible. They may 
be preserved by bottling. (See Fruit.) 

GOOSEBERRY CHEESE. Prep. Gather 
the rough red gooseberries when qviite ripe ; bake 
them until they are a perfect mash ; pass them 
through a hair-sieve, then put them into a preserv- 
ing-pan, and boil them gently. To every pound 
of gooseberries put three ounces of sugar, which 
should be strewed in every now and then, a little 
at a time. It will take several hours to boil, ia 
order to obtain the proper thickness. 

GOOSEBERRY FOOL. Prep. Put the 
fruit into a stone jar, with some good Lisbon 
sugar ; set the jar on a stove, or in a saucepan of 
water over the fire ; if the former, a large spoon- 
ful of water should be added to the fruit. When 
it is done enough to pulp, press it through a colan- 
der : have ready a sufficient quantity of new milk, 
and a teacupful of raw cream boiled together, or 
an egg instead of the latter, and leave it to cool : 
then sweeten pretty well with fine Lisbon sugar, 
added to the pulp by degrees. 

GOOSE GREASE. Syn. Adeps Anseris. 
From roasted goose. Yellowish white, strong 
scented, emollient, used in clysters, and when 
scented, as a pommade to make the hair grow, 
for which purpose it is said to be superior to bear's 
grease. In quantity it is an emetic of very easy 
action. 

GOUT. (From goute, Fr. -the origin of 
which is uncertain. Dr. Good.; A painful dis- 
ease that chiefly attacks the male sex, particularly 
those of a corpulent habit and robust frame. 
Persons who live temperately and take much ex- 
ercise are seldom troubled with gout. Indolence, 
inactivity, luxurious habits of life, and free living, 
are the chief exciting causes of this disease, but 
excessive study, grief, watchfulness, exposure to 
cold, and the too free use of acidulous liquors, 
also occasionally bring it on. In some persons, 
gout is an hereditary disease. 

Symp. Gout is generally preceded by unusval 
chilliness of the feet and legs, and a numbness, or 
a sensation of prickling along the lower extremi- 
ties; the appetite fails, flatulency, indigestion, 
torpor, and languor ensue, and extreme lassitude 
and fatigue follow the least bodily exercise ; the 



GOU 



345 



GRA 



bowels become costive and the urine pallid. The 
fits usually come on in the night ; the patient is 
awaked by the severity of the pain, generally in 
the first joint of the great toe, or occasionally in 
the heel, whole foot, or calf of the leg. The pain 
resembles that of a dislocated joint, accompanied 
by a seusation resembling the affusion of cold 
water ; the pain increases, rigors and febrile 
symptoms ensue, accompanied with local throb- 
bing and inflammation. Sometimes both feet or 
legs are attacked: at others, only one.* Towards 
morning the patient generally falls asleep, and 
sinks into a state of copious perspiration, from 
which he awakes comparatively recovered. This 
constitutes what is called a Jit of gout. These 
fits or paroxysms are apt to return at intervals, 
commonly every evening, with more or less vio- 
lence, and when frequent, the disease usually ex- 
tends its action, the joints become affected, and 
concretions of a chalky nature (gout-stones) are 
formed upon them, and they become stiff and 
nearly immoveable. 

Treat. A plain or vegetable diet, moderate ex- 
ercise, and the use of warm laxatives, gentle tonics, 
diaphoretics, and diuretics, are among the best 
preventives. The moderate use of alkaline rem- 
edies has also been recommended. To remove 
the Jit of gout, or to check it at its commence- 
ment, the affusion of cold water will be usually 
found effective. The use of the eau medicixale, 
or the viNC.M colchici of the Pharmacopoeia, 
should also be had recourse to ; a due dose of 
which taken at bedtime will frequently carry off 
the paroxysm, and nearly always mitigate the 
sjTnptoms. The effects of the above remedies do 
not greatly differ from each other ; for " after 
taking about 60 drops of" either, the pulse be- 
comes slower, and at length sinks in about 12 
hours, from 10 to 20 strokes per minute below its 
natural number, at which time the inflammation 
subsides. The action of both medicines is accom- 
panied with great languor, and a deadly nausea or 
sickness, which terminates in vomiting or a dis- 
charge from the bowels, or both." These symp- 
toms have often reached an alarming extent, and 
in some constitutions follow even a moderate dose. 
This method of cure should not therefore be un- 
advisedly and incautiously adopted. It must, 
however, be confessed, that colchicum properly 
administered, will almost always alleviate the 
symptoms, and lessen the frequency of the at- 
tacks ; and numerous instances are on record, 
where the inroads on the constitution were in- 
creasing to an alarming extent, and that at an 
advanced period of life, in which colchicum, care- 
fully administered, seems at least to have lessened 
the severity of the disease, if not to have been the 
active a^rent in its removal. (See Colchicum, 
Eau medicixale, &c.) 

GOUT PILLS, LARTIGUES. Prep. Com- 
pound extract of colocynth 20 gr. ; alcoholic ex- 
tract of colchicum seeds, and alcoholic extract of 
digitalis, of each 1 gr. ; mix and divide into pills 
weighing 15 centigrammes each. The compound 
extract of colocrj'nth used above, is to be made as 
follows : — Pulp of colocynth 185 grammes : ex- 
tract of aloes 370 do. ; bruised scaramony 125 do. ; 
cardamom seeds 30 do. ; hard soap 90 do. ; spirit, 
at 25° or sp. gr. "906, 4 quarts ; macerate the 
44 



colocynth in the spirit for 3 days, strain, add the 
aloes, scammony, and soap, evaporate to a proper 
consistence, then add the caraamoms in fine 
powder. (Bouchardat.) 

GOUTTES AMERES, (Fr.) Bitter Drops, 
Prep. Nux vomica, rasped, lb. j ; liquor of poteissa 
f ss ; bistre 5j ; compound spirit of wormwood 
§xxxij ; digest for 10 days. Stomachic. Dose. 
1 to 8 drops in water, or any bitter infusion. 

GRAINS OF PARADISE Syn. Guinea 
Grains. Malaguetta Pepper. The seeds of the 
amomum grana-paradisi. Grains of paradise pos- 
sess similar aromatic properties to the other pep 
pers. In some parts of the world they are used 
as a condiment. They are principally employed 
in England to impart a false strength to wine, 
beer, spirits, and vinegar. There is a penalty of 
200/. on the brewer for using them, and 500/. on 
anv drucrgist who sells them to a brewer. 

GRAXADINE. Si/n. Grenadine. A sweet 
substance found by Latoar de Trie in the bark of 
the pomegranate root. It has since been shown 
to be mannite. 

GRANULATION. The reduction of metals 
into grains or drops. This is done by pouring 
them, in the melted state, into water. In many 
cases they are allowed to run through the holes of 
a species of colander or sieve, to produce minute 
division ; and in order to render the drops spheri- 
cal, they are allowed to fall from a sufficient 
height to permit of their acquiring the solid state 
before striking the water. Lead shot is granulated 
in this way. Shot towers are often upwards of 
100 feet in height. 

GRAPE SUGAR. Obtained from the juice 
of grapes by saturating the acid with chalk, de- 
canting the clear liquid, evaporating to a sirup, 
clarifying with white of egg, or bullock's blood, 
and then carefully evaporating to drjTiess. It 
may be purified for chemical purposes, by solution 
in boiling alcohol. Like other sugar, it may be 
decolored by animal charcoal. Less sweet than 
cane sugar. It yields by refining, 75^ of a white 
granular sugar, and 24§ of a kind of treacle. 
(Gray.) 

GRAPES. Grapes may be kept by packing 
them in jars, (each bimch being first wrapped up 
in silver paper.) and covering every layer with 
bran, well dried, laying a little of it in the bottom 
of the jar ; then a layer of grapes, and so on, a 
layer of bran and of grapes alternately, till the 
jar is filled: then shake it gently, and fill it to the 
top with bran, laying some paper over it, and cov- 
ering the top with a bladder, tied firmly on to ex- 
clude the air ; then put on the top or cover of the 
jar, observing that it fits close. These jars should 
be kept in a dry situation. (See Apples, Fruit, 
and Fermentation.) 

GRAVES. Syn. Greaves. The sediment of 
melted tallow, consisting chiefly of animal mem- 
branes mixed with fat, made up into cakes. Used 
as a coarse food for dogs. 

GRAVY. (In Cookery.) Strong soup or the 
' juice of meat, spiced and flavored. (See Sauces.) 

GRAY DYE. Syn. Teinture grise, (7'V.) 
Graufarbe, (Ger.) Proc. I. Sumach 2 Ibe. ; 
log%vood 1 lb. ; make a decoction with water, pass 
the stuff through it, and afterwards through a 
weak iron water, (sulphate or acetate ;) lastly, add 



GRE 



346 



GUA 



a littlo iron liquor to the decoction, and again turn 

the stufT through it. This gives a pearl gray. 

II. Dissolve 1 lb. of tartar in 4 gals, of water, 
turn the stuff through the liquor for half an hour ; 
add a decoction of galls \ lb., and sumach 1^ lb. ; 
put in the stuff and boil for half an hour ; then 
take out the stuff, add sulphate of iron 1 lb., and 
when dissolved again, put it in, and work it well 
for half an hour longer. Ash gray. This, will 
dye 15 to 25 lbs. of wool. 

III. Galls bruised 2 lbs. ; winestone 1 lb. ; wa- 
ter 16 gallons ; boil for 30 minutes, then put in the 
stuff, and work it well for half an hour ; take it 
out, add 3 lbs. of green copperas, and when dis- 
solved again, put in the goods and work them 
well. Ash gray. This will dye 60 to 70 lbs. of 
wool. The addition of a little alum converts this 
into a mouse gray. 

IV. Pass the stuff through a weak fustic bath, 
and next through a Vicry weak decoction of galls, 
to which a little alum has been added ; then re- 
move the goods', refresh the bath with a little log- 
wood, boil half an hour, add some blue and green 
vitriol, and when dissolved, finish the stuff therein. 
Yellowish gray. 

V. Give the stuff a pale blue tint in the indigo 
rath, then pass it through a weak decoction of 
galls and sumach, take it out, add a little iron 
liquor to the bath, and work the stuff well through 
it. In this way may be given every shade of iron 
gray, slate gray, and the other shades that turn 
upon the blue. 

GREEK FIRE. This is supposed to have 
consisted of a mixture of asphaltum or pitch, nitre, 
and sulphur. 

GREEN DYES. Proc. First dye the stuff 
blue, observing to regulate the shade according to 
that of the intended green ; dry and rinse ; then 
give it a bath of yellow dye, until the desired 
shade is produced. (See Blue Dyes, Indigo, 
Yellow Dye.) 

GREEN PIGMENTS. Syn. Couleurs ver- 
TES, {Fr.) Grune Pigmente, (Ger.) Any shade 
of green may be produced by the mere mechan- 
ical admixture of blue and yellow pigments. The 
bright blues and yellows produce the liveliest 
greens ; orange, or red and blue, and the yellow- 
ish browns and blue, the more dingy greens. 
Among the green pigments of the shops, may be 
mentioned the following : 

Green bice, or mountain green, is the mineral 
substance called Malachite. It is a green carbon- 
ate of copper. It is also prepared artificially. 

Brunswick green, or Bremen green. Several 
preparations are sold under this name. When 
prepared according to the formula given at page 
218, it is an oxychloride of copper, but as com- 
monly made, it is a carbonate of copper, mixed 
with variable quantities of chalk, white lead, alu- 
mina, magnesia, or ammonia. The following is a 
good and cheap form for this article : — Dissolve 
blue vitriol and alum in a large quantity of water, 
and precipitate with a solution of carbonate of am- 
monia, or bone spirits ; collect the powder, wash 
it with water, and dry it. The clear liquor may 
be used to make sal ammoniac. Brunswick 
green, prepared as above, is a mixed carbonate of 
copper and alumina. The proportion of alum em- 
ployed modifies the shades of green, and also 



cheapens it. Bremen green is properly green ver* 
diter, but the names are usually confounded. Th» 
same may be said of Brunswick green, whloh i^ 
properly a crude oxychloride of copper, prepared 
according to the formula in page 218. 

Friese green, or Friesland green, is an oxy- 
chloride of copper. (See p. 218.) 

Iris green, prepared by grinding the juice of 
the petals of the blue flag (ins nostras) with quick- 
lime. This green is not generally kept, and is fu- 
gitive. 

Mittis green, or Scheele's, is an arsenite of cop- 
per, made by mixing a solution of sulphate of cop- 
per with arsenite of potassa. (See Scheele's 
Green.) 

Mineral green, the same as mountain green, or 
green bice, just noticed. (See page 217.) 

Prussian green, the sediment of the process of 
making prussian blue from bullock's blood or 
horns, before it has had the muriatic acid added to 
it. It is also prepared by pouring liquid chlorine 
upon freshly precipitated prussian blue. 

Sap green, prepared from the juice of buck- 
thorn berries. The berries are allowed to ferment 
for a week or eight days in a wooden tub. The 
juice is then pressed out, strained, a little dlum 
added, and the whole evaporated to a proper con- 
sistence ; it is then run into pigs' bladders, and 
hung up in a dry situation, to harden. An infe- 
rior article is also made from the juice of black 
alder, and of evergreen privet. It is a comrron 
practice to add | pint of lime-water and ^ oz. of 
gum arable, to every pint of either of the above 
juices. 

Schweinfurt green is a superior de&criplion of 
Scheele's green, or an arsenite of copper. (Sea 
Schweinfurt Green) 

Verditer (green,) is a mixture of oxide of cop- 
per and whiting. (See Verditer.) 

Verona green. The mineral called green 
earth. 

GREGORY'S SALT. The crude hydrochlo- 
rate of morphia, prepared by Gregory's process. 
It is a double hydrochlorate of morphia and co- 
de i a. 

GRINDSTONES, ARTIFICIAL. Prep. 
Washed silicious sand 3 parts ; shellac 1 part ; 
melt, and form it into the proper shape while 
warm. The fineness of the sand must depend on 
the work the stone is intended for. Powdered 
emery may be substituted for sand. The same 
composition is formed upon pieces of wood, for the 
purpose of sharpening knives, and cutting stones, 
shells, &CC. 

GRUEL. (In Cookery.) Oatmeal or groats 
boiled with water to a proper consistence, and 
strained. It is variously flavored to suit the palate; 
but the addition of a little white sugar, and finely 
powdered Jamaica ginger, with or without a glass 
of wine, is least likely to offend the stoniacli. 
Nutmegs, cinnamon, &i,c., frequently disagree 
with invalids. 

GUAIACINE. Syn. Guaiacic Acid. A pe- 
culiar substance, discovered by Tromiusdorff in the 
wood and bark of guaiacum oflicinjile. Prrp. 
Treat tincture of guaiacum with hydrate of lime, 
when a guaiacate of lime is formed, front which 
the acid mav be obtained by sulphuric acid. 

GUAIACUM. Syn. Gum Guaiacum. This 



GUT 



347 



HiEM 



gubstance is sometimes adalterated. The Edin- 
burgh College states that its " fresh fracture is 
red, slowly passing to green; the tincture slowly 
strikes a lively blue color on the inner surface of a 
tiiin paring of a raw potato." (P. E.) Adultera- 
tion with resin may be generally discovered by 
the odor evolved when the guaiacum is heated. 
An alcoholic tincture of guaiacum, rendered milky 
with water, recovers its transparency on the addi- 
tion of caustic polassa in excess ; but this is not 
the case when resin is present. 

One of the most marked properties of guaiacum 
is iis turning blue by contact with gluten, and 
several other substances in the air ; nitric acid 
and aqueous chlorine turn it successively green, 
blue, and brown. A delicate photogenic paper 
may be formed by first washing with an alcoholic 
solution of guaiacum resin, and afterwards with 
one of neutral acetate of lead. (Johnston.) 



GUM. Syn. Gummi, {Lat.) Gomme, {Fr.) 
GuMMi ; Pflanze.nsciileim, {Ger.) Inspissated 
vegetable mucilage. The purest substance of this 
kind is that called gum arable, or gum acacia. 
The gums are employed as demulcents in medi- 
cine, and are used as cements. 

GUM-RESINS. Syn. Gummi resins, (Lat) 

GOMME-RESINES, {Fr.) ScHLEIMHARZE, {Ger.) 

Inspissated vegetable juices, consisting of extrac- 
tive and resinous matter. They are partly soluble 
in water and in alcohol. The principal gum-resins 
are frankincense, scammony, asatoetida, aloes, 
euphorbium, gaibanum, myrrh, olibanum, opopo- 
nax, ammoniacum, and gamboge. 

GUx\ POWDER. Under this head will be 
given the proportions of the ingredients employed 
in the manufacture of the most celebrated pow- 
ders, reserving a description of their preparation 
for the article Pyrotechny.* 



Table showing the Relative Proportions of Charcoal, Nitre, and Sulphur, contained in some of the 

most celebrated Gunpowders : 



Authorities, or place of manufacture. 



English : 

Royal Mills, Waltham Abbey 
Sporting powder, (Marsh) . 

do. (Marsh) . -. 

tdo. Hall, Dartford, 



(Ure) 



Russia 

Prussia 

Austria 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

China 



do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 



e) 



tdo. Pigou & VVilks, (Ui 

tdo. Curtis & Harvey, (Ure) . 

tBattle powder, (Ure) .... 
Miners' do. (Marsh) . 
Common do. (Marsh) 
French : 

Government powder . 
Sporting do. ... 

Miners' do. . 

Gunpowder of B^le 

do. of Grenelle 
do. of M. Guyton Morveau 
do. do. 

do. of M. Riffault . 
United SS. Government powder . 



Theoretical proportion for the best gunpowder 



Nitre. 



75 

78 

65 

76 

76 

76 

77-33 

77-5 

75 

73-78 

75 

72 

76-47 

76 

76 

75 

75 



Charcoal 



12-5 

12 

15 

14 

12 

15 

13-44 

15 

12 5 

13-59 

13-5 

17 

10-78 

15 

14 

14-4 

13-23 



Sulphur. 



20 
12-5 

12-5 

10 

20 

10 

12 

9 

9 

7' 



24 
5 

12 5 
12-63 
11-5 
16 
12-75 

9 
10 

9-9 
11-77 



GUT, FISHING. Syn. Silkworm Gut. 
Prep. Steep silkworms, when just ready to spin, 
in strong vinegar for 12 hours, in warm weather, 
or 2 or 3 in cold ; then take them out, break them 
in half, stretch them out as far as possible on a 

* It is right to caution the reader of the danjierous na- 
ture of all compounds containing either gunpowder, or 
nitre, or chlorate of potash, in contact with conibu tble 
substances, as serious accidents have arisen from handling 
them carelessly The use of metallic implement* or uten- 
sils should be avoided, and the ingredients should be 
mixed and kept at a distance from a fire or candle. 

\ These powders also contained froir. -5 U, VI of wa.er. 



I board, furnished with slits or pegs' to hold them, 
and dry them in the sun. Used by anglers. The 
worms may be known to be going to spin by re- 
fusing food, and by having a fine silken thread 
hanging from their mouths. (Nobb's Art of TroU- 
Jng.) 

HiEMATOSINE. A species of albumen on 
which the color of the blood is supposed to depend. 
It may be obtained from blood, previously well 
stirred to separate the fibrine, by mixing it with 6 
times its volume of a saturated solution of sulph-dte 



HAI 



348 



HAN 



of soda, filtering, boiling the globules with alcohol 
acidulated with sulphuric acid, again filtering, 
adduig carbonate of magnesia to separate the sul- 
phuric acid, and after filtering, evaporating to dry- 
ness. A dark reddish-brown mass. 

HAEMOPTYSIS, (from ^ifxa, blood, and .Trruw, 
I spit.) Spitting of blood. It generally arises 
from extreme fulness of the blood-vessels of the 
lungs, or the lupture of blood-vessels, as a conse- 
quence of ulceration. Bleeding, aperients, acidu- 
lous and astringent drinks, and nauseants, are the 
usual remedies. Sugar of lead, in small doses, has 
been recommended for this affection. It should 
be accompanied with a sufficient quantity of free 
acetic acid, to prevent its being converted into the 
poisonous carbonate of lead in the system. 

HiEMORRHAGE. Syn. H^morrhagia, 
(from ai^a, blood, and paytj, rent.) A bleeding or 
flow of blood. Bleeding may be divided into ac- 
tive, passive, and accidental. Active hcemor- 
rhage is that arising from a full state of the 
vessels, or plethora ; passive hcBmorrhage from 
general debility of the system, and the blood-ves- 
sels in particular; accidental hemorrhage from 
external violence, as blows, wounds, «fec. The 
first generally requires depletion, and the second 
the usual treatment to establish the general health 
and vigor of the body. The bleeding from wounds, 
if extensive, should be arrested by tying the rup- 
tured blood-vessels, or where this cannot be done, 
and in less important cases, by the application of 
styptics, as creosote, sulphate of iron, infusion of 
galls, compound tincture of benzoin, &c. 

HAIR DYES. Prep. I. (Dr. Hanman.) Li- 
tharge 275 grs. ; quicklime 1875 grs. ; hair pow- 
der (starch) 930 grs. ; all iii fine powder ; mix. 
For use, this powder is made into a paste with 
warm water or milk, and immediately applied to 
the hair by means of the fingers, observing to rub 
it well into the roots. The whole must be then 
covered with a moist leaf of cotton wadding, sev- 
eral times doubled, and allowed to remain so for 3 
hours, or preferably all night. The powder may 
then be removed by rubbing it off with the fingers, 
and afterwards washing it with warm soap and 
water. A little pomatum or hair oil will restore 
the usual gloss to the hair. This is one of the 
most innocent preparations of the kind. Like all 
other hair dyes, it must be reapplied as soon as 
the hair by growing begins to expose an undyed 
surface underneath. A piece of oil skin, or even 
a cabbage leaf, may be used instead of cotton 
wadding. 

II. (Orfila's.) Litharge 6 parts ; quicklime 5 
parts ; starch 1 part. As last. 

III. (Delcroix's.) Acetate of lead 2 oz. ; pre- 
pared chalk 3 oz. ; quicklime 4 oz. As before. 

IV. (Spencer's.) Sap green ^ dr. ; nitrate of 
silver 1 dr. ; hot water 1 oz. ; dissolve. Applied 
to the hair by means of a comb moistened with it. 
Stainu the skin as well as the hair. 

V. (Hewlet's.) Similar to the last. 

VI. (Pomade dye.) Nitrate of silver 1 part ; 
nitric acid 2 parts ; iron filings 2 parts ; mix, and 
let them stand together for 4 or 5 hours, then pour 
them on oatmeal, 2 parts; next add lard 3 parts; 
and mix well together. Stains the skin without 
great care. 

VII. {Instantaneous.) Moisten the hair first 



with a solution of nitrate of silver in water, (1 to 
7 or P ) and then with a weak solution of hydro- 
sulphuret of ammonia. The color of the hair, 
before unaltered, instantly turns black. 

VIII. The juice of the bark of green walnuts. 
(Paulus -^gineta.) 

IX. Employ a leaden comb. 

Remarks. All the preceding are for dyeing living 
hair, (human ;) horse-hair and other dead hair 
may be colored by steeping them in any of the 
ordinary dyes. 

HAMS. (In Domestic Ecojuomy.) These are 
usually prepared from the legs of pigs, but those 
of the sheep are also sometimes used for the same 
purpose. Smoked ham is strong eating, and ra- 
ther fit for a relish than for diet. 

Choice. Stick a sharp knife under the bone, if 
it has a pleasant smell when withdrawn, the ham 
is good ; but if the contrary, it should be rejected. 
The recently cut fat should be hard and white, 
and the lean fine-grained, and of a lively red. 
Legs of pork short in the hock should alone be 
chosen for making into hams, as the lanky sort 
not only look less sightly, but are deficient in 
flavor. 

Curing. Hams are prepared in the usual way 
for salting, either by immersion in the pickle, or 
by rubbing the salt over them. A little powdered 
saltpetre should be well rubbed over them an hour 
before salting them: moist sugar is frequently 
mixed with the salt, or treacle is put into the 
brine to improve the flavor; a little spice (pow- 
dered allspice) and black pepper are also occa- 
sionally used for a like purpose. An ordinary 
sized ham will require nearly three weeks, if wet 
salted, and about a month if dry salted, to cure 
it perfectly. At the expiration of this time, they 
are ready for smoking. Mutton hams are pre- 
pared in a similar manner, but should not lie in 
pickle longer than 12 days or a fortnight. (See 
Animal Substances used as Food, and Salt- 
ing.) 

Cooking. Preparatory to the cooking of hams, 
they should be well soaked in water, to which a 
little vinegar or milk may be added. They are 
also preferably boiled in milk and water, or water 
alone, along with some heads of celery, 2 or 3 tur- 
nips, 5 or 6 onions, and a handful of sweet marjo- 
ram, thyme, and basil. Hams should be put into 
the water cold, and should be gradually heated. 
A ham of 16 lbs. will take 4^ hours, and one of 
20 lbs. 5^ hours to dress it properly. (See Baking.) 

HAMS, PRESERVATION OF. Most gro- 
cers, dealers in hams, and others, who are particu- 
lar in their meat, usually take the precaution to 
case each one, after it is smoked, in canvass, for 
the purpose of defending it from the attacks of the 
little insect, the dermestes lardarius, which, by 
laying its eggs in it, soon fills it with its larvse, or 
maggots. This troublesome and expensive process 
may be altogether superseded by the use of pyro- 
ligneous acid. With a painter's brush, dipped in 
the liquid, one man, in the course of a day. may 
effectually secure two hundred liams from all dan- 
ger. Care should be taken to insinuate the liquid 
into all the cracks, &.C., of the under surface. This 
method is especially adapted to the preservation of 
hams iiL not climates. 

HANDS. Dirty and coarse hands are no Jess 



HAR 



349 



HEA 



the marks of slothfulness and low breeding, than 
clean and delicate hands are those of cleanliness 
and gentility. To promote the softness and white- 
ness of the skin, mild emollient soaps, or tliose 
abounding in oil, should alone be used, by which 
means chaps and chilblains will generally be 
avoided. The coarse, strong kinds of soap, or 
those abounding in alkali, should for a like reason 
be rejected, as they tend to render the skin rough, 
dry, and brittle. The immersion of the hands in 
alkaline lyes, or strongly acidulated water, has a 
like efft>ct. When the hands are very dirty, a lit- 
tle good soft soap may be used with warm water, 
which will rapidly remove oily and greasy matter. 
Fruit and ink stains may be taken out by im- 
mersing the hands in water slightly acidulated with 
oxalic acid, or a few drops of oil of vitriol, or to 
which a little pearlash or chloride of lime has been 
added, observing afterwards to well rinse them in 
clean water, and not to touch them with soap for 
some hours, as any alkaline matter will bring back 
the stains, after their apparent removal by all the 
above substances, except the last. The use of a 
little chloride of lime and warm water, or Gow- 
land's Lotion, will impart a delicate whiteness to 
the skin ; but the former should be only occasion- 
ally used, and should be well washed off with a 
little clean water to remove its odor. The use of 
a little sand, or powdered pumice-stone, with the 
soap, will generally remove the roughness of the 
skin, frequently induced by exposure to cold. The 
hands may be preserved dry for delicate work, by 
rubbing a little club moss, (lycopodium,) in fine 
powder, over them. A small quantity of this sub- 
stance sprinkled over the surface of a basin of wa- 
ter, will permit the hand to be plunged to the bot- 
tom of the basin without becoming wet. (See 
Cosmetic, simple.) 

HANNAY'S LOTION. Syn. Hanxay's pre- 
ventive Wash. A solution of potash in water. 
Used to prevent infection. 

HARDNESS. Syn. Durete, (Fr.) Harte ; 
Festigkeit, {Ger.) Duritia : Durities, {Lat.) 
In Physics, the power possessed by bodies of re- 
sisting abrasion. Li AIineralogy, mineral sub- 
stances are frequently distinguished and identified 
by their relative hardness. This is ascertained by 
their power to scratch or be scratched by one an- 
other. A valuable table on this subject will be 
found under the article Gem, p. 331. 

HARMALINE. A basic substance, forming 
yellow-brown crystals, discovered by Gobel in the 
seeds of peganum harmala. It has a bitter astrin- 
gent and acrid taste, and forms yellow soluble 
salts with the acids. It has been proposed as a 
yellow dye. By oxidation it yields a magnificent- 
ly red dye-stufF, which is easily prepared and ap- 
plied. (Gobel.) The seeds are produced abundantly 
in Russia, so that it appears probable that, ere 
long, thev mav become an article of commerce. 

HARTSHORN, BURNT. Syn. Cornu Us- 
TUM, (P. L.) PuLvis Cornu Cervini Ustum, 
\P. D.) Cornu Ustum Album. Prep. (P. L.) 
Burn pieces of harts' horns until perfectly white, 
then grind and prepare them in the same way as 
directed for Prepared Chalk. 

Remarks. Finely-powdered bone-ash is usually 
sold for burnt hartshorn, and possesses exactly the 
same properties. Dose. 10 grs. to 3ss 2 or 3 



times a day, in rickets, &c. (See Phosphate of 
Lime.) 

HARTSHORN SHAVINGS. Syn. Harts 
HORN Raspings. Rasura Cornu Cervi. Ramenta 
Cornu Cervi. Obtained from the turners. By 
boiling in water they yield a nutritive jelly. Used 
by straw-plait workers to stifTen bonnets, &.c. 

HATS. In purchasing a hat, choose one pos- 
sessing a short, smooth, fine nap, and a good black 
color ; and that is light and sufficiently elastic t3 
resist ordinary wear and tear, without breaking or 
giving way. The hat brush for daily use should 
be made of long soft hairs, but a stiifer one should 
be employed occasionally, to lay the nap smooth 
and close. 

HEADACHE. S-yn. Cephalalgia, (Z-a^) The 
symptoms of this very general complaint are too 
well known to require any description. According 
to pathologists, headache arises, either from a sym- 
pathy with the stoi..ach and chylopoietic (chyle- 
forming) viscera, or from a weakness or exhaus- 
tion of the power of the encephalon. The former 
maybe called sympathetic, and the latter nervous 
headache. The treatment of the first should con- 
sist in restoring the healthy action of the stomach 
by the administration of aperients, and the use of 
proper food and exercise, or when that viscus is 
overloaded with undigested food, by the exhibition 
of an emetic. For this purpose \ to ^ an oz. of 
ipecacuanha wine may be taken in a cupful of 
warm water, w^hich will generally relieve the 
stomach, especially if its action be assisted by 
drinking copiously of warm water. (See Emet- 
ics.) Headache is a common accompaniment of 
indigestion and stomach diseases, and in general 
it will be found that whatever will remove the lat- 
ter will also cure the former. (See Dyspepsia.) 
Nervous headaches are relieved by nervous tonics 
and stimulants ; as bark, cascarilla, calumba, gen- 
tian, camphor, ammonia, ether, and wine ; the 
latter in a state of considerable dilution. A cup 
of strong coffee or strong green tea often acts like 
a charm in removing this species of headache. 
Small doses of tincture of henbane will also have 
a like effect. 20 or 30 drops of laudanum, or 
preferably, half that number of liquor opii seda- 
tivus, may be taken with advantage as an ano- 
dyne, and to induce sleep. Among popular rem.' 
edies may be mentioned " nasal stimulants," as 
snufF, (cephalic,) smelling salts, and aromatic 
vinegar, the use of which is familiar to every one ; 
and local applications, as very cold water, ether, 
vinegar, strong spirits, Cologne water, &c., all of 
which are rubbed over the part of the head af- 
fected, with the fingers ; or a linen rag dipped in 
them is laid thereon instead. Pressure on the head 
has also been used with advantage. Silence, 
darkness, and repose, are also powerful remedies, 
alike suitable to ever)^ variety of headache ; and 
change of air, scene, and occupation, are espe- 
cially beneficial to those resulting from excessive 
mental anxiety or exertion. Blisters are some- 
times applied behind the ears in cases of violent 
headache. 

Headache is often s^miptomatic of ot.ier diseases, 
especially those of the inflammatory and nervous 
kind, rheumatism, &.c. In all these cases, the 
primary disease should be sought out and attempt- 
ed to be cured. Headache, in pregnancy may 



HEM 



350 



HIE 



generally be removed by proper attention to the 
bowels ; observing to assist their action, should 
they require it, by the use of some mild aperient, 
as castor oil, lenitive electuary, seidlitz powders, 
&c. Where the constitution is very robust, blood 
may be taken. Headache in bed may frequently 
be relieved by washing the head with cold water, 
and discontinuing the use of a nightcap ; at the 
same time preserving the feet warm by wearing 
worsted socks or stockings. 

HEADING. Syn Beer Heading. Cauli- 
flower DO. Prep. I. Alum and green copperas 
equal parts, both in fine powder ; mix. 

II. Alum, copperas, and common salt, of each 
equal parts ; mix. 

Used by brewers to make their beer keep its 
head. 

HEARTBURN. Syn. Cardialgia ; Cordo- 
LiUM, (Lat.) Anxiety and pain about the region 
of the stomach, generally attended by a sense of 
gnawing and heat ; hence called heartburn. Faint- 
ness, nausea, and eructation of a thin, acidulous, 
watery liquid, especially in the morning, are com- 
mon symptoms of this complaint. The usual 
causes of heartburn are excess in eating or drink- 
ing, the use of improper food, and sedentary habits. 
A good remedy is a teaspoonful of carbonate of 
magnesia, or carbonate of soda, in a glass of pep- 
permint or cinnamon water, to which a little pow- 
dered ginger may be added with advantage. This 
dose may be taken 2 or 3 times daily until the 
disease is removed. Articles of food that easily 
undergo fermentation should at the same time be 
avoided, and a dry diet had recourse to as much 
as possible. Soda-water, toast and water, and 
weak spirits and water, are the most suitable bev- 
erages in this complaint. 

HELENINE. Syn. Elecampane Camphor. 
A peculiar substance obtained from the fresh root 
of inula Helenium, by digestion in hot alcohol or 
distillation along with water. It is crystalline, so- 
luble in alcohol, ether, and essential oils, melts at 
162°, and boils about 530° F. 

HEMATINE. Syn. H^matine. Hematox- 
ylin. A peculiar principle obtained by Chevreul 
from common logwood, (Haematoxylon campechi- 
anum,) and on which its color appears to depend. 

Prep. I. Infuse logwood chips in water, at a 
temperature of about 130° F., for 12 hours, filter, 
evaporate to dryness in a water-bath, digest in al- 
cohol of 0*835 for 24 hours, again filter and evapo- 
rate ; then add a little water, again gently evapo- 
rate and set aside the solution in a cold place that 
crystals may form ; these must be washed in alco- 
hol and dried. 

II. Digest powdered hard ex<^ract of logwood in 
alcohol of 0*835 and proceed as last. 

Prop., ^c. It forms brilliant reddish-white crys- 
tals, soluble in boiling water, forming an orange- 
red solution which turns yellow as it cools, but re- 
sumes its former color on being heated. Alkalis 
in excess change its color successively into purple, 
violet, and brown ; with the metallic oxides it forms 
comoonnds, having a blue, purple or violet color. 

HEMIDESMIC ACID. Syn. Smilasi'eric 
Acid. A volatile and crystallizable substance ob- 
tamed by Mr. Garden from the root of hemidesmus 
indicus. It possesses the taste and odor of the 
root. 



HEPAR, (Lat, from 'HTap, the liver.) A name 
given by the older chemists to various combina- 
tions of sulphur, from their brown color ; as hepar 
siilphuris, (sulphuret of potassium,) hepar antivw* 
nii, (crude oxysulphuret of antimony,) &.c. 

HERBS for medical purposes should be col^ 
lected as soon as they begin to flower, and on a 
dry day, after the dew and moisture deposited on 
them during the night have evaporated. The bien- 
nial narcotic plants should not be collected until 
the second year of their growth, as, during the 
first year, they are mucilaginous and nearly inert. 
The younger plants possess, however, the brightest 
green color, and make the most showy extracts, 
for which reason they are frequently purchased by 
the druggists of the herb collectors, without an ex- 
amination being made into their value as remedies- 
This is one of the causes of the general inferiority of 
the extracts of the shops which are prepared from 
the expressed juices of narcotic plants. Color alone 
is cared for. Chlorophyle, which constitutes the 
green portion of vegetables, is a resinous substance, 
which has been fully proved to be wholly destitute 
of medicinal virtue. 

Herbs are dried by spreading them thinly on 
trays, and exposing them to the heat of the sun, 
or a current of dry air, or by placing them in a 
stove-room ; observing in either case to turn them 
repeatedly. When dried in the sun they should be 
covered with thin paper to prevent their color being 
injured by the light. The quicker they are dried 
the better, as " heating" or " fermentation" will 
be thereby prevented. When sufficiently dried, 
they should be shaken in a coarse sieve to remove 
any sand or the eggs of insects that may be mixed 
with them. Aromatic herbs should be dried very 
quickly, and by a gentle heal, that their odor may 
be preserved. Tops and leaves are dried in the 
same way as whole plants. In every case discol- 
ored and rotten leaves and branches should be re- 
jected, and earth and dirt should be screened off 
before proceeding to dry them. 

HESPERIDIN. A peculiar substance obtained 
from the white portion of the rind of oranges, lem- 
ons, &c. It forms crystalline silky needles, is 
odorless, tasteless, fusible, soluble in alcohol, and 
reddened by oil of vitriol. 

HICCOUGH. Syn. Hiccup. Singultus, (Lat.) 
A convulsive motion of the diaphragm and parts 
adjacent. The common causes are flatulency, 
indigestion, acidity, and worms. It may usually 
be removed by the exhibition of warm carmina- 
tives, cordials, cold water, weak spirits, camphor 
julep, or spirits of sal volatile. A sudden fright or 
surprise will often produce the like effect. An in- 
stance is recorded of a delicate young lady that 
was troubled with hiccough for some months, and 
who was reduced to a state of extreme debility 
from the loss of sleep occasioned thereby, who was 
cured by a fright, after medicines and topical ap« 
plications had failed. A pinch of snulf, a glass of 
cold soda-water, or an ice-cream, will also fre- 
quently remove this complaint. 

HIERA PICRA. Syn. Powder of aloes 

AND CANELLA. PuLVIS ALOES CUM CANELLA. (Fl'Om 

kpos, holy, and niKpoi, bitter.) Holy bitter. This 
name was formerly applied to an aloetic electuary, 
made of honey. It is now kept in the form of a 
dry powder. 



HOL 



351 



HOL 



Prep Hepatic aloes 4 lbs. _: white canella 1 lb. ; 
reduce to fine powder. 

Remarks. Inferior aloes are confimoiily used for 
this preparation. It is cathartic in doses of 10 to 
20 grs. 

HIPPOCRAS. Prep. Lisbon and canary wine, 
of each 12 pints ; cinnamon 2 oz. ; white canella, 
^ oz. ; cloves, mace, nutmeg, ginger, and galgan- 
gal, of each 1 dr. ; bruise the spices, and digest 
them in the wine for 3 or 4 days ; strain, and add 
lump sugar 2^ lbs. An aromatic wine formerly 
much used in England. 

HIPP URIC ACID. (From J»nroj, a horse, and 
ovpov, urine.) A new acid, discovered by Liebig, 
in the urine of the horse, cow, and other gramini- 
vora. 

Prep. Concentrate the- urine by a gentle heat, 
acidulate with muriatic acid, and set it aside to 
crystallize. It may be decolored by re-solution in 
boiling water, and treating it with animal charcoal, 
or chloride of lime, along with a little muriatic 
acid, and recrystallizing. 

Remarks. This acid is soluble in 400 parts of 
cold water, but is easily dissolved by boiling water. 
When strongly heated, benzoic acid and benzoate 
of ammonia distil over in a liquid state, accompa- 
nied by a strong odor of Tonka beans, and after- 
wards by hydrocyanic acid. " The urine of horses 
or cows, left to itself for some time, or evaporated 
at a boiling temperature, yields not a trace of hip- 
puric acid, but only benzoic acid." Nitric acid 
converts hippuric into benzoic acid. (See Ben- 
zoic Acid.) 

HIRCIC ACID. A name given by Chevreul 
to an oily liquid, obtained by saponifying the fat 
of goats. It is prepared in the same way from goat 
fat, as capric, caproic, and butyric acids are from 
butter. It is soluble in alcohol, and possesses a 
mixed smell of vinegar and goats. With the bases, 
it forms salts called hircates. 

HIRCINE. (From hircus, a he-goat.) An 
oily fluid extracted by Chevreul from goat-fat, and 
which may also be obtained from mutton suet. It 
smells strongly of the male goat. By saponifica- 
tion it yields Hircic Acid. 

HOLLANDS. Syn. Hollands Gin. Geneva. 
Jennever Braniewyn, (6rer.) Spirit of Juni- 
per. SriRiTus JuNiPERi. Prep. I. The following 
description of the manufacture of hollands comes 
on the authority of Robert More, Esq., formerly 
of Underwood, distiller, " who, after studying the 
art at Schiedam, tried to introduce that spirit into 
general consumption in this country, but found the 
palates of our gin-drinkers too much corrupted to 
relish so pure a beverage." 

*' The materials employed in the distilleries of 
Schiedam are, two parts of urtmalted rye from 
Riga, weighing about 54 lbs. per bushel, and one 
part of malted bigg, weighing about 37 pounds per 
bushel. The mash tun, which serves also as the 
fermenting tun, has a capacity of nearly 700 gal- 
Ions, being about 5 feet in diameter at the mouth, 
rather narrower at the bottom, and 4^ feet deep ; 
the stirring apparatus is an oblong rectangular iron 
grid, made fast to the end of a wooden pole. About 
a barrel (36 gallons) of water, at a temperature of 
from 162° to 168°, (the former being the best heat 
for the most highly-dried rye,) is put into the mash 
tun for every IJ^ cwt. of meal, after which the malt 



is introduced and stirred, and lastly the rye ii 
added. Powerful agitation is given to the magma 
till it becomes quite uniform ; a process wliich a 
vigorous workman piques himself upon executing 
in the course of a few minutes. The nioulh of the 
tun is immediately covered over with canvass, and 
further secured with a coarse wooden lid, to con- 
fine the heat ; it is left in this state for two hours 
The contents being then stirred up once more, the 
transparent spent wash of a preceding mashing is 
first added, and next as much cold water as will 
reduce the temperature of the whole to about 85° 
F. The best Flanders yeast, which had been 
brought, for the sake of carriage, to a doughy con- 
sistence by pressure, is now introduced to the 
amount of 1 lb. to every 100 gallons of the mashed 
materials. The gravity of the wort is usually from 
33 to 38 lbs. per Dicas' hydrometer ; and the fer- 
mentation is carried on for from 48 to 60 hours, at 
the end of which time the attenuation is from 7 to 
4 lbs. : that is, the sp. gr. of the supernatant wash 
is from 1-007 to 1-004. On the third day after the 
fermenting tun is set, the wash containing the 
grains is transferred to the still, and converted 
into low wines. To every 100 gallons of this liquor, 
2' lbs. of juniper berries, from 3 to 5 years old, 
being added, along with \ lb. of salt, the whole are 
put into the low-wine still, and the fine hollands 
spirit is drawn off by a gentle and well-regulated 
heat till the magma becomes exhausted ; the first 
and last products being mixed together, whereby a 
spirit 2 to 3 per cent, above our hydrometer proof 
is obtained, possessing the peculiar fine aroma of 
gin. The product varies from 18 to 21 gallons 
per quarter of grain ; this large quantity being 
partly due to the employment of the spent wash 
of the preceding fermentation ; an addition which 
contributes at the same time to improve the fla- 
vor." (Ure's Diet, of Arts, &c.. pp. 571-2.) 

To the preceding it may be added that tlie yeast 
is skimmed ofF the fermenting tuns and sold to the 
bakers ; which is said to lessen the production of 
spirit, but to improve its quality. The ingredients 
are also reduced to the state of coarse meal before 
mashing them. 

Remarks. It will be seen from the preceding 
statement, to the accuracy of which the writer of 
this article bears willing testimony, that the supe- 
rior flavor of hollands spirit depends more on the 
peculiar mode of its manufacture than on the 
quantity of juniper berries employed ; 2 lbs. of 
that substance, when new, being equivalent to less 
than 5 drachms of the essential oil, and when old, 
only to about 2 drachms ; a quantity wholly insuf- 
ficient to flavor 100 gallons of spirit. Besides, as 
already noticed, the flavor of hollands differs con- 
siderably from that of juniper ; the latter being 
merely employed as a modifying ingredient. Most 
of the Dutch distillers add a little pure Strasburgh 
turpentine, and a handful or two of hops to the 
spirit, along with the juniper berries, before rectifi- 
cation. The former substance has a pale yellow- 
ish brown color, and a very fragrant and agreeable 
smell, and tends materially to impart that fine 
aroma for which the best Geneva is so much dis- 
tinguished. The principal part of the secret lies, 
however, in the careful management of the process. 
The numerous published receipts for hollands gin, 
in which 2 or 3 oz. of oil of juniper, and as many 



HON 



352 



HON 



pounds of juniper berries, are ordered to only 20 
or 25 gallons of proof spirit, tend only to deceive 
those who adopt them. At Rotterdam sweet fen- 
nel seeds are occasionally added as a flavoring ; 
and at Weesoppe, Strasburgh turpentine, fennel 
seeds, or the essential oil, are frequently wholly 
substituted for juniper berries. 

Schiedam hollands is considered the best ; the 
next quality is that of Rotterdam ; and afterwards, 
that of Weesoppe. Hollands spirit pays a duty of 
22s. ad. per proof gallon, which is the same as that 
on French brandy. See Gin. 

II. {Best hollands. Brandewyn von Koorn 
voorloof drie quart.) Hollands rectified to the 
strength of 24° Baume, (sp. gr. 0-9125.) The 
strength of this spirit alone is no proof of its supe- 
rior quality. 

III. Digest 2 or 3 lbs. of good old juniper berries 
in 1 or 2 gallons of rectified spirit of wine for a 
week or 10 days, then express the liquor, filter it 
through blotting paper, add it to 90 or 100 gallons 
of good corn spirit at 2 or 3§ over proof, and mix 
them by thorough agitation. 

IV. Juniper berries 2 to 4 lbs. ; sweet fennel 
seeds 4 or 5 oz. ; caraway seeds 3 or 4 oz. ; spirit 
of wine 1 or 2 gallons ; corn spirit 90 or 100 gal- 
lons. As last. 

V. Juniper berries, fennel seeds, caraways, and 
spirit, as last ; Strasburgh turpentine, a little. Pro- 
ceed as in No. III. 

Remarks. The last three forms produce very 
pleasant spirits, if kept for some time to mellow ; 
age is one of the reasons of the creaminess of for- 
eign gin, which usually lies in bond for some time 
before being consumed. The product is, however, 
much superior if the ingredients are put into a still 
along with 20 gallons of water, and the spirit 
drawn over by a moderate heat. In this case, it 
will be an improvement to employ some good plain- 
flavored English gin, instead of plain corn spirit, if 
the expense is no object. I have mentioned cer- 
tain quantities of the flavoring ingredients to be 
employed, as a guide to the reader ; but the actual 
quantities required in practice depend on their 
quality, and the taste of the consumer. The same 
remark also applies to the following. The imita- 
tion of hollands, like that of brandy, chiefly de- 
pends on the experience and discretion of the work- 
man. 

VI. Oil of juniper 4 oz;. ; oil of turpentine 5 
oz. ; oils of caraways and sweet fennel, of each 1 
oz., (all quite pure ;) rectified spirit of wine 1 gal- 
lon ; dissolve by occasionally agitating them well 
together in a corked bottle for 2 or 3 days, then 
add it gradually to clean corn spirit or plain gin 
until the required flavor is produced, observing not 
to use too much. Product. Good, if kept for some 
time. 

HONEY. Syn. Mel, {Lat. and Fr.) Honig, 
(Ger.) The sweet substance elaborated by the 
bee from the juices of the nectaries of flowers, and 
deposited in the cells of wax forming the honey- 
comb. Pure honey consists of a sirup of uncrys- 
tallizable sugar and crystalline saccharine grains, 
resembling grape sugar. Virgin honey is that 
which flows spontaneously from the comb ; ordi- 
nary honey, that obtained by heat and pressure. 
The former is pale and fragrant ; the latter darker, 
and possessing a less agreeable taste and smell. 



English honey (Mel Anglican) is chiefly collected 
from furze and broom flowers, and is more waxy 
than that from the South of Europe ; — Narbonne 
honey, (Mel Narbonense,) chiefly from rosemary, 
and other labiate flowers, very fine ; — Minorca 
honey, (Mel Minorcense ;) — East country honey, 
inferior and bad tasted ; — Poisonous honey, found 
near Trebisond, in Asia, narcotic and poisonous. 

Uses, <^c. Honey is nutritive and laxative, but 
very apt to gripe. It is employed in the prepara- 
tion of oxymels and gargles, and also to cover the 
taste of nauseous medicines, which it does better 
than sugar. Clarified honey is alone ordered to be 
used in medicine. 

Pur. Honey is frequently adulterated with trea- 
cle, starch, and wheat flour. The first may be 
detected by the color and odor, and the others by 
the honey not forming a nearly clear solution with 
cold water, and striking a blue color with iodine. 

HONEY, CLARIFIED. Syn. Mel despu- 
MATUM. Prep. I. (P. L. and D.) Melt the honey 
in a water-bath, remove the scum, and pour off the 
clear. Less agreeable than raw honey, but not so 
apt to ferment and gripe. 

II. (Siller.) Any quantity of honey is dissolved 
in an equal part by weight of water. The liquid 
is allowed to boil up 4 or 6 times without skim- 
ming ; it is then removed from the fire, and after 
being cooled, brought on several strong linen strain- 
ers, stretched horizontally, and covered with a 
layer of clean and well-washed sand an inch in 
depth. When the solution has passed through the 
strainers, it is found to be of the color of clear white 
wine ; the sand being allowed to remain on the 
strainers, is rinsed with cold water, and the whole 
of the liquor is finally evaporated to the thickness 
of sirup. 

III. Dissolve the honey in water, clarify with 
the white of egg, and evaporate to a proper con- 
sistence. 

IV. Dissolve in water, add 1-^ lb. of animal 
charcoal to every \ cwt. of honey, gently simmer 
for 15 minutes, add a little chalk to saturate excess 
of acid, if required ; strain or clarify, and evaporate. 

Remarks. Honey acquires a darker color if 
heated in copper or iron vessels ; the above pro- 
cesses should therefore be conducted in earthen or 
well-tinned copper pans. 

HONEY, HELLEBORE. Syn. Mel Helle- 
BORATUM. Prep. (P. L. 1746.) Hellebore root, 
bruised, lb. j ; water 4 pints ; digest for 3 days ; 
boil, strain, and add honey lb. ij ; boil to a sirup. 
Cathartic, in mania. 

HONEY, LIQUORICE. 5'yn. MelGlycyr- 
UHizATUM. Prep. (Hamb. Ph.) Honey and a 
strong infusion of liquorice boiled to a proper con- 

HONEY, MERCURIAL. Syn. Mel mer 

cuRiALE. Prep. (P. L. 1746.) Juice of the her'; 
mercury and honey, of each equal parts ; boil to i 
proper consistence. 

HONEY OF BORAX. Syn. Mel Bon vcis 
(P. L.) Mel Subboracis. Prep. (P. L.) Pow 
dered borax 3j ; clarified honey ^j j i"ix. Astrin- 
gent, detersive, and cooling. It is employed in 
aphthoB of the mouth and excessive salivation. It 
is incompatible with acids, and is decomposed by 
compound infusion of roses, with w Inch it is com- 
monly ordered. 



HOR 



353 



HUI 



HONEY OF MERCURY. Syn. Mel Hy- 
DRARGYRi. Prep. (BelJ.) Quicksilver 3j ; honey 
5j ; triturate till the globules disappear. Proper- 
ties similar to mercurial pill. 

HONEY OF MERCURY, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Mel Hydrargyri compositum. Prep. (P. C.) 
Quicksilver 3ij ; clarified honey ^U > o\l of cloves 
3ij ; as last. 

HONEY OF ROSES. Syn. Mel Ros^. 
Prep. (P. L.) Dried petals of the red rose ^iv ; 
boiling water 2^ pints ; macerate for 6 hours, 
strain, add honey lb. v ; and evaporate in a water- 
bath to a due consistence. Used to make astrin- 
gent gargles. It must not be boiled in a copper or 
iron vessel, as they will spoil the color. 

HONEY OF SQUILLS. Syn. Mel Scill/E. 
Prep. Clarified honey lb. iij ; tincture of squills 
lb. ij ; mix well. Properties and uses the same as 
oxymel of squills. 

HOP. Syn. HouBLON, (Fr.) Hopfen, (Ger.) 
HuMULUs LupuLus, (Lat.) The hop or hops of 
commerce, are the strobiles or catkins of the hop 
plant. In the choice of hops, care should be taken 
to select those that have large cones or strobiles, 
that are the most powerfully odorous, and most 
free from leaves, stems, scaly fragments, and 
sticks, and which, when rubbed between the 
hands, impart a yellowish tint and glutinous feel- 
ing to the skin. The tightness with which they 
are packed should also be noticed ; as without be- 
ing very firmly pressed together, and quite solid, 
they soon spoil by keeping. The finest flavored 
hops are those grown in East Kent, and termed 
the " golden bine /" these possess a lively golden 
yellow color, and are principally employed for the 
finer class of ales. Mid Kent and Sussex hops 
are also used for ale, but have an inferior color and 
flavor. Countrys and- Farnham hops have a 
greenish yellow color, and are more expensive than 
any other variety ; but are only used for malt 
liquor that it is intended to keep for a long time, 
as they do not impart their flavor to the beer be- 
fore it has been kept at least a year. They are 
chiefly used for ale. The best hops are packed in 
sacks of fine canvass, termed "pockets," weighing 
from 11 cwt. to 1| cwt. each ; and the inferior 
qualities in coarse '^bags," of about double the 
size. The former are mostly purchased by the 
ale, and the latter by the porter brewers. When 
hops are older than of the last season's growth, 
they are termed " yearlings," — when of the sec- 
ond season's growth, '* olds," — and when three 
years, or older, " old olds." (See Extract of 
Hops, and Brewing.) 

HORDEINE. (From hordeum, barley.) This 
name was given by Proust to the peculiar starchy 
matter of barley meal ; but according to Raspail, 
it is merely bran more minutely divided than that 
which remains in the sieve. 

HOREHOUND. Syn. White Horehound. 
Marrubium vulgare. This herb is a popular rem- 
edy in chronic pulmonary complaints, especially 
catarrh, and in uterine and liver affections. Hore- 
hound ea (thea vel infusum marubii) is prepared 
by infu^sing 1 oz. of the herb in boiling water for 
an hour ; sirup of horehound, (syrupus marubii,) 
by thickening the infusion or tea with sugar ; can- 
died horehound, (marrubium conditum,) by mix- 
ing horehound juice 1 pint, with white sugar 4 lbs., 
45 



and moist sugar 6 lbs., or white' sugar alono 10 lbs.; 
boiling to a candy height, and pouring it, while 
warm, into moulds err small paper cases, well dust- 
ed with finely-powdered lump sugar ; )r it is 
poured out on a dusted slab, and cut into 
squares. 

HORN is dyed with the same dyes, and in a 
similar manner to bones and ivory. (Seepage 125.) 
Horn is softened, bent, and moulded by means cf 
heat and pressure. 

HUILE ACOUSTIQUE. Prep. Bullock's 
garlic and bay leaves, of each 3iv ; olive oil lb. ss ; 
boil for 15 minutes, and strain. Used for earache 
and deafness ; a little dropped on cotton wool and 
placed in the ear. 

HUILE D'ANIS. Aniseed, bruised, i lb.; 
spirit of wine 1 gallon ; digest a week, strain, and 
add sugar 1^ lb. It may be made of star anise 
seed, and proof spirit may be substituted for spirit 
of wine. Cordial and pectoral. 

HUILE ANTIQUE. Prep. I. (Plain.) a. Ol- 
ive oil 1 pint ; oil of vitriol ^ oz. ; mix, agitate 
well in a corked bottle for 1 hour, then allow it to 
repose in the sun, or a moderately warm situation, 
for 12 or 14 days, after which time decant the 
clear portion from the sediment, b. Oil of ben 
iiuts filtered ; this never gets rank. c. Olive oil 
filtered. All the above keep the hair moist, and 
may be scented at pleasure. 

II. {Huile antique a. la rose.) a. Either of tire 
above scented with otto of roses, b. Rose leaves 
and blanched sweet almonds, equal parts ; grind 
them together, then express the oil, and either 
filter it through blotting paper, or allow it to de- 
posite in a closely-corked bottle, c. Use blanched 
bitter almonds instead of sweet ones. Remarks. 
The first two keep the hair moist ; the last one 
dries it. The same is the case with ail those that 
follow where bitter almonds are used. 

III. {Huile antique a la tuberose.) As the 
last. 

IV. {Huile antique a la fleur d'orange.) Plain 
Huile antique scented with Neroli, or orange 
flowers and almonds pressed together, as in 
No. IL 

V. (Huile antique au jasmin.) From oil of 
jasmin, or jasmin flowers, as the last. 

VI. (Huile antique a la violette.) Plain huile 
antique, scented with powdered orris root, by keep- 
ing them together at a gentle heat in a covered 
vessel for 24 hours, and filtering when cold. 

VII. (Huile antique auz mille fleur s.) Plain 
huile antique, scented with several perfumes, so 
that none may predominate. 

VIII. (Huile antique verte.) Plain huile an- 
tique 1 pint; gum guaiacum, bruised, ^ oz. ; dis- 
solve by placing the bottle in a water-bath ; when 
cold, filter through paper, and scent to your pleas- 
ure. 

IX. (Huile antique j-ouge d la rose.) Plain 
huile antique 1 pint ; alkanet root 1 dr. ; digest in 
a gentle heat until sufficiently colored, then strain, 
and add otto of roses 20 drops, oil of rosemary anc 
oil of neroli, of each 5 drops. 

HUILE LIQUEREUSE DE LA ROSE 
Prep. Rose water and simple sirup, equal partf. 
A pleasant and fragrant sweetening for grog, 
liqueurs, &c. 

HUILE LIQUEREUSE DES FLEURS 



HYD 



354 



HYD 



D'ORANGES. Prep. Orange-flower water and 
simple sirup, equal parts. More fragrant and 
agreeable than the last. Gives a delicious fla- 
vor to grog, liqueur, &c., and to perfume the 
breath. 

HUILE DE VANILLE. Prep. Spirit of 
wine and simple sirup, of each 1 quart ; essence 
or tincture of vanilla, a sufficient quantity to fla- 
vor ; mix. This should be kept in a decanter. 
Used to flavor liqueurs, &c. 

HUILE DE VENUS. Prep. I. Flowers of 
the wild carrot 5 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 gallon ; 
water 1 pint ; macerate 24 hours, then distil 1 gal- 
lon, and add an equal measure of capillaire or sim- 
ple sirup. 

II. Wild carrot flowers 4 oz. ; spirit of wine 1 
gallon ; macerate for 1 week, strain, and add cap- 
illaire 1 gallon. If preferred colored, steep ^ oz. 
of cochineal in it. A pleasant cordial. 

HUMUS. When wood, or woody fibre, is ex- 
posed to the joint action of air and moisture, it 
suffers decay or eremacausis, and moulders down 
into a dark-brown or black powder, commonly 
called Mould, and to which chemists have given 
the name Humus. By the action of alkalis, it is 
converted into humic acid, which is soluble, and 
forms salts called humates. 

HUSBANDRY. This term is applied to the 
joint operations of farming and gardening on the 
small scale, and it is also sometimes used synony- 
miously with agriculture. (See Agriculture, 
Farming, Manures, and Soil.) 

HYDRARGYRO-CHLORIDES. Salts in 
which the bichloride of mercury plays the part of 
an acid. The only one that has been applied to 
any useful purpose, is the hydrargyro-chloride of 
ammonia, or the sal alemhroth of pharmacy. Per- 
haps white precipitate may also belong to the 
same class. Similar salts have been formed with 
the chlorides of other metals, to which the names 
auro -chlorides, cupro-chlorides, ferro-chlorides, 
cobalto-chlorides, &c. &c., have been applied. 

HYDRARGYRO-IODO-CYANIDE OF 
POTASSIUM. Prep. Add a concentrated solu- 
tion of bicyanide of mercury to a solution of iodide 
of potassium, as long as a white, pearly, crystal- 
line precipitate is formed. Used to ascertain the 
purity of pnissic acid ; if a small portion be put 
into this acid, in a dilute state, red biniodide ot 
mercury will immediately be formed, if any foreign 
acid be present. 

HYDRARSINE. An ethereal, volatile sub- 
stance, having an intolerably fetid odor, formed by 
the action of air on alkarsine. 

HYDRATE. (From l6o,p, water.) In Chem- 
istry ; a compound containing water, in definite 
proportion. Thus, slaked lime is a hydrate of 
lime ; caustic potassa, a hydrate of potassa ; and 
oil of vitriol, a hydrate of sulphuric acid. 

HYDRATED. (In Chemistry.) Chemically 
combined with water. Thus, the crystallized ve- 
getable acids, fcitric, tartaric, oxalic,) and salts 
(epsom salts, carbonate of soda, &lc.) that contain 
combined water, are called hydrated acids and 
hydrated salts. The term hydrated is used as 
an adjective, in the same way as hydrate is as a 
substantive. The former is, however, usually ap- 
plied to compound names, as hydrated acetic 
acid, hydrated oxide of iron, Slc., and the lattef; 



for the sake of euphony, to simple names, as Ay- 
drate of lime, hydrate of potassa, &c. 

HYDRIODATE. Syn. Hydriodas, (Lat) 
A compound formed of the hydriodic acid with a 
base. The hydriodates may be easily formed by 
saturating the acid with the oxides or hydrates of 
the bases, or more economically, by acting on the 
bases in water, with iodine. (See Iodine, Iodides, 
and Hydriodic Acid.) 

HYDRIODIC ACID. Syn. Acidum Hydrio- 
DicuM. Prep. Pour a little water over some per- 
iodidi of phosphorus, previously put into a small 
glass retort, and apply a gentle heat, when hy- 
driodic acid will be evolved, and phosphoric acid 
remain behind. The gas may be either collected 
over mercury or passed into water, when liquid 
hydriodic acid will be formed. 

II. (F. D'Arcet.) Evaporate hypophosphonic 
acid until it begins to yield phosphoreted hydro- 
gen, then .mix it with an equal weight of iodine 
placed in a retort ; apply a gentle heat as before, 
and collect the evolved gas. The products of both 
this and the former process possess great purity. 

III. (Dr. Glover.) Place iodide of barium in a 
retort, and decompose it with sulphuric acid, when 
pure hydriodic acid will be evolved. 

IV. (Liquid.) Pass sulphureted hydrogen through 
a mixture of iodine and water, in a Woolf's bottle, 
until saturated, then gently heat the liquid until 
the excess of sulphur flies off". An economical 
process, but does not yield the pure acid. 

V. {Dr. Buchanan's medicinal hydriodic acid.) 
Tartaric acid 264 grs. ; pure iodide of potassium 
330 grs. ; dissolve each separately in water f §iss, 
mix the solutions, and when settled, decant the 
clear liquid and add water to make up f §vj 3ij. 
This liquid acid retains a little bitartrate of potassa 
in solution, but which does not interfere with its 
medicinal properties. (See Iodine and Hydrio- 
date.) 

HYDRO. (In Chemistry.) A prefix employed 
to designate the compounds of hydrogen ; as hy- 
drochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, acids formed 
of chlorine, bromine, and hydrogen. It is some- 
times, though improperly, used synonymously with 
the word hydrated. (See Hydrate and Hy- 
drated.) 

HYDROBENZAMIDE. A substance discov- 
ered by Laurent, and prepared by mixing pure 
hydruret of benzule with 20 times its volume of 
concentrated water of ammonia, in a stoppered 
bottle, a;.;i keeping the mixture for some hours at 
a heat oi .' 00 to 120°. The crystalline mass thus 
formed is washed with cold ether, when pure hy- 
drobenzamide is left, and may be obtained in crys- 
tals by re-solution in alcohol, and spontaneous 
evaporation. 

HYDROBROMATE. Syn. Hydrobromas. A 
compound of hydrobromic acid and a base. 

HYDROBROMIC ACID. Syn. Acidum Hy- 
drobromicum. An acid compound of hydrogen 
and bromine. It may be prepared from the bro- 
mide of phosphorus in a similar way to that for 
forming hydriodic acid from periodide ol phospho 
rus. It may also be prepared by deconiposing 
bromide of barium with .sulphuric acid, wiien pure 
hydrobromic acid will be evolved. (Dr. Glover.) 
It should either be collected in dry glass bottles, in 
the manner directed for chlorine, or over mercury, 



HYD 



355 



HYD 



in the pneumatic trough. When passed into wa- 
fer it forms liquid hydrobromic acid. The pure 
liquid acid cannot be made by passing sulphureted 
hydrogen tlirough water mixed with bromine, as is 
commonly practised. 

Prop., <^c. A colorless, acidulous, and pungent 
gas, or a limpid fluid. With the bases it forms 
salts called hydrobromates. These are formed in 
a similar way to the hydriodates. (See Bro- 
mine.) 

HYDROCARBURETS. Syn. Hydrocarbons. 
Compounds of hydrogen and carbon. The princi- 
pal of these are — 1. Light carbureted hydrogen, 
or the fire-damp of miners, consisting of two equiv- 
alents of hydrogen, and one equivalent of carbon, 
and burning with a pale blue flame. 2. Olefiant 
gas, consisting of two equivalents of hydrogen and 
two equivalents of carbon. It burns with a very 
white and luminous flame. 3. Light gas or coal 
gas, consisting of a mixture of the preceding in 
no definite proportions. 4. Quadricarbureted hy- 
drogen, quadrihydrocarbon, or etherin, consisting 
of 4 equivalents each of carbon and hydrogen, and 
produced during the destructive distillation of oil. 
It burns with a dull fuliginous flame. 5. Bi- 
carbureted hydrogen, also obtained by the de- 
structive distillation of oil, and consisting of 3 eq. 
of hydrogen and 6 eq. of carbon. (See Hydro- 
gen, Carbureted Hydrogen, Etherin, Naph- 
tha, &c.) 

HYDRO-COBALTO-CYANIC ACID. 
P'r'ip. Pass sulphureted hydrogen through a solu- 
tion of cobalto-cyanide of lead, separate the lead 
by filtration, evaporate and crystallize. White, 
fibrous, acidulous, deliquescent crystals, soluble 
In water. With the metals it forms compounds 
termed cobalto-cyanides. The cobalto-cyanide 
of potassium is formed by gently heating the 
carbonate, or pure protoxide of cobalt, in a solu- 
tion of caustic potassa, which has been treated 
with an excess of hydrocyanic acid, until dissolved, 
evaporating and crystallizing. It forms soluble, 
reddish yellow crj'stals, which are rendered color- 
less, or only slightly yellow, by recrystallization. 
The cobalto-cyanide of lead is made by treating 
a solution of acetate of lead with cobalto-cyanide 
of potassium, and adding ammonia, when a white 
granular precipitate is formed. Cobalto-cyanide 
of silver is prepared by mixing a solution of ni- 
trate of silver with another of cobalto-cyanide of 
potassium ; a white granular precipitate subsides. 
In a similar way several other cobalto-cyanides 
may be formed. 

HYDROFERRIC ACID. (See Ferric 
Acid.) 

HYDRO-FERRIDCYANIC ACID. Pre- 
pared by decomposing recently precipitated ferrid- 
cyanide of lead by sulphureted hydrogen, or by 
sulphuric acid carefully added. A yellow solution 
is thus obtained, which yields a deep brown pow- 
der when evaporated by heat, or yellow crystals 
by spontaneous evaporation. With the oxides of 
the metals it forms ferridcyanides. These may 
be made by adding a solution of the ferridcyanide 
of potassium to another of a soluble salt of the 
base. (See the Ferridcyanide of Potassium and 
Iron.) 
j HYDROFLUORIC ACID. Syji. Fi.roRic 
' Acid. Stygian Water. Acidum fluorxcum. 



AciDUM hydrofluoricum. Aqua Styois. An 
acid compound of hydrogen and fluorine. It was 
first procured in a pure state by Gay Lussac and 
Thdnard in 1810. 

Prep. Pour concentrated sulphuric acid on half 
its weight of fluor spar, carefully separated from 
silicious earth, and reduced to fine powder. The 
mixture must be made in a capacious leaden re- 
tort, and a gentle heat applied, when hydrofluoric 
acid gas will be evolved, and jnust be collected in 
a leaden receiver, surrounded with ice. 

Props., Uses, ^.c. A colorless fluid below 59° 
Fahr., when preserved from the air, but speedily 
evaporating in dense white fumes when exposed. 
Its affinity for water exceeds that of sulphuric 
acid, and its combination with that fluid is accom- 
panied with a hissing noise, and a considerable 
increase of its sp. gr. up to a certain point. It 
readily dissolves glass and silica, forming fuosili- 
cic acid, for which reason it cannot be preserved 
in glass vessels. Bottles of lead are hence gener- 
ally used for this purpose, but silver and platinum 
are more suitable materials. It is highly corro- 
sive, instantaneously destroying the skin on con- 
tact, and producing deep and serious ulcerations ; 
its vapor is pungent, irritating, and irrespirable. 
With the metals it unites to form hydrojiuorates, 
fluorates, or metallic fluorides. Hydrofluorate 
of ainmonia is obtained by heating together, over 
a lamp, 1 part of dry sal ammoniac, with a little 
more than 2 parts of hydrofluorate of soda, in a 
platinum crucible, with its lid turned upward, and 
filled with cold water. The hydrofluorate sublimes 
and adheres to the lid, forming a mass of small 
prismatic crystals. It readily acts on glass. The 
hydrofluorates of the alkalis, earths, and metals 
may mostly be prepared by saturating hydrofluoric 
acid with the recently precipitated oxide, or car- 
bonate of the base. 

In the arts, hydrofluoric acid is used for etching 
on glass. 

HYDROGEN. Syn. Hydrogemum, (Lat.) 
Wasserstoff, (Ger.) Hydrogen, (Fr.) Inflam- 
mable AIR. (From iSup, water, and yewato, 1 
generate.) A chemical element, first correctly 
described by Cavendish in 1766, having previously 
been confounded with other gases, and by some 
called phlogiston, from being supposed to be the 
matter of heat. The term hydrogen was first ap- 
plied to it by Lavoisier, because it is the radical or 
base of water. In the pure state it only exists as 
a gas, and is the lightest substance known. New 
opinions have lately been promulgated by one of 
the most celebrated continental chemists respect- 
ing hydrogen. At the termination of his fourth 
lecture at the Soibonne, M. Dumas announced the 
following striking views : — " Whateyer it may cost 
me, gentlemen, in thus giving my opinion, I ought 
to express it fully. We ought no longer to con- 
sider hydrogen as a metalloid, or as merely ap- 
proaching to a metal in any form — it ought to be 
classed by the side of metals, or among metals. It 
is a gaseous metal, even as mercury is a liquid 
metal. If we suppose that it is impossible to 
liquefy the vapor of mercury — that it is colorless, 
inodorous, and transparent as hydrogen — we shall 
have a correct idea of the views I wish to estab- 
lish. By degrees you will learn to appreciate the 
coiToctness of this new theory — when, for instance. 



HYD 



356 



HYD 



you study the different compound bodies of which 
hydrogen is a constituent. The ensemble of its 
properties approaches, in fact, to mercury and 
potassium." (Echo du Monde Savant, Nov. 20, 
1842.) 

Prep. I. Place iron wire in a gun-barrel, or a 
porcelain tube, open at both ends, to one of which 
attach a retort containing water, and to the other 
a bent tube, connected with a pneumatic trough. 
The gun-barrel must now be heated to redness, 
and the water in the retort brought into a state of 
brisk ebullition, when the vapor will be decom- 
posed, the oxygen being absorbed by the iron, and 
the hydrogen escaping into the gas receiver. 

II. Oil of vitriol 1 part ; water 5 parts ; mix, 
and pour the dilute acid on iron or ziac wire, or 
filings placed in a retort or gas bottle. Hydrogen 
will be evolved as before. This is the more con- 
venient method of the two, and the one usually 
adopted in practice. 

Remarks. To render the gas quite pure, distilled 
zinc should be employed, and the gas should be 
passed, first through alcohol, and then through a 
concentrated solution of pure potassa. 

Prop., Uses, <^c. A colorless, tasteless, odorless 
(when pure) combustible gas, having the sp. gr. 
0*0694 ; being 16 times lighter than oxygen gas, 
and nearly 14^ times lighter than atmospheric air. 
Combined with oxygen it forms water ; with chlo- 
rine, muriatic acid; with iodine, hydriodic acid; 
with bromine, hydrobromic acid; with fluorine, 
hydrofluoric acid ; with cyanogen, prussic acid ; 
with carbon, several hydrocarburets or hydrocar- 
bons; with nitrogen, ammonia; with phosphorus, 
phosphoreted hydrogen ; with sulphur, sulphuret- 
ed hydrogen; and with arsenic, tellurium, and 
potassium, arseniureted, tellureted, and potas- 
siureted hydrogens. It also enters into the com- 
position of all compounds containing water, (hy- 
drates, &LC.,) numerous acids and salts, and the 
various proximate organic principles both of the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms. It forms one of 
the ingredients of coal gas, and of all bodies that 
possess the power of turning with flame. From 
its extreme lightness it s used to fill balloons, but 
its carburet, (coal gas,, from being cheaper and 
more easily procured in large quantities, is general- 
ly employed for this purpose. 100 cubic inches, at 
60° F., and 30 inches of the barometer, weigh 
2-1371 grs. Mixed with atmospheric air or oxygen 
it explodes with extreme violence on the approach 
of flame, or sudden compression. (Biot.) When 
brought into contact with spongy platinum, the 
latter instantly becomes red hot, and the gas is 
kindled. A small apparatus, arranged upon this 
principle, constitutes the popular little instrument 
for the instantaneous production of light, sold by 
the philosophical instrument makers. One meas- 
ure of hydrogen and 5 or 6 of air, or 2 of hydro- 
gen and 1 of oxygen, are the proportions that ex- 
plode with the greatest violence. (Doebereiner.) 
A mixture of 1 volume of hydrogen and 9 volumes 
of air explodes feebly, and one of 4 volumes of 
hydrogen and 1 volume of air does not explode at 
all. (Cavendish.) The electric spark, spongy 
platinum, the black powder of platinum, (Garden,) 
clean platinum foil, (Faraday,) and some other 
substances, produce combination, and generally 
explosion, of the mixed gases. A jet of hydrogen, 



burnt in oxygen gas, or a jet of these gases (mixed) 
burnt in the air, with proper precautions, produces 
the most intense heat known. On this property is 
formed the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. This instru- 
ment can only be used with safety when furnished 
with Hemming's safety jet, or other arrangement 
to prevent an explosion. (See Blowpipe.) Prof. 
Daniell's method of fixing a jet of oxygen within 
another jet of hydrogen, or coal-gas, so that a cur- 
rent of oxygen may be introduced into the middle 
of the flame, is very safe and convenient. (The 
figures 1 and 6, at page 122, are wrongly number- 
ed ; they should be reversed.) 

HYDROGEN, BINOXIDE. Syn. Deutoxide 
OF Hydrogen. Peroxide of do. This singular 
fluid was discovered by M. Thenard in 1818. 

Prep. I. Mix deutoxide of barium, with about 
twice its weight of water, then gradually add sul- 
phuric acid until all the deutoxide is converted into 
sulphate of baryta, observing to avoid excess of 
acid. 

II. Water 6 or 7 oz. ; deutoxide of barium 230 
grs. ; mix, and add gradually as much pure con- 
centrated hydrochloric acid as is required to ren- 
der the deutoxide soluble ; then place the contain- 
ing vessel, which should be of glass, in a freezing 
mixture, or vessel of ice, and add gradually and 
cautiously 185 grs. of powdered deutoxide of ba- 
rium, stirring with a glass rod, after each addition ; 
as soon as dissolved, add sulphuric acid to precipi- 
tate the whole of the baryta, and then a second 
portion of 185 grs, of deutoxide of barium, as be- 
fore. This must also be precipitated with sulphuric 
acid, the solution filtered, and the same process re- 
peated, until about 3 oz. of deutoxide of barium 
have been employed. The hydrochloric acid must 
then be separated by means of sulphate of silver, 
cautiously added, and the sulphuric acid after- 
wards separated by pure solid baryta. (Ann. de 
Chim. et de Phys. and M. Thenard's Traite de 
Chimie.) 

Remarks. The liquid prepared by the last for- 
mula contains 25 to 30 times its volume of oxygen, 
and also much simple water. To remove the lat- 
ter it must be placed over sulphuric acid, under the 
exhausted receiver of an air-pump, where it must 
be kept until the sp. gr. becomes 1"452, beyond 
which it cannot be concentrated ; as at this point 
it begins itself to volatilize slowly. In this state 
it is a colorless and limpid fluid, having a metallic 
taste, and is stable at low temperatures, but re- 
solved into oxygen and water, at 59° F. It mixes 
with water in all proportions, and becomes more 
permanent. The same may also be said of the 
acids. It bleaches organic substances. All the 
metals, except iron, tin, antimony, and tellurium, 
decompose it with more or less facility, and this 
action is promoted by the substances being in a 
state of minute division. A similar decomposition 
is produced by many of the metallic oxides. The 
peroxides of lead, mercury, gold, platinum, man- 
ganese, and cobalt, effect this change instantane- 
ously, and accompanied with extreme violence, 
during which the glass tube holding the liquid be- 
comes red hot. Its action on oxide of silvt-r is also 
exceedingly violent. Every drop of the liquid let 
fall on the dry oxide produces a real explosion ; 
and so much heat is evolved, that if the experi- 
ment be made in a dark place, there is a very sen- 



HYD 



357 



HYD 



gible disengagement of light. Gold, in a state of 
extreme division, acts with great force on pure 
oxygenated water ; yet it has no action on that 
liquid if it be mixed with a little sulphuric acid. 
Fibrin, (recently extracted from the blood,) the 
tissue of the lungs, kidneys, and spleen, and the 
skin and veins, also deoxydize the liquid. 

Peroxide of hydrogen has been applied in the 
arts to restore the blackened lights of paintings, 
which have become darkened, from the lead they 
contain being acted on by the sulphureted hydro- 
gen frequently present in the atmosphere. It has 
been lately proposed by M. de Sondala, as a means 
of supplying oxygen to the confined air of diving 
bells and other limited places ; the carbonic acid 
formed by the lungs being at the same time ab- 
sorbed by passing the air through hydrate of lime. 

HYDROLEIC ACID. A peculiar compound 
obtained by evaporating the alcohol used in the 
preparation of hydromargaritic acid. 

HYDROMARGARIC ACID. A compound 
formed by melting together one equivalent each 
of meta-margaric and hydromargaritic acids, and 
crystallizing the mass from alcohol. 

HYDROMARGARITIC ACID. Obtained 
by boiling the mother liquor of meta-margaric and 
metoleic acids, when a mixture of hydromargaritic 
and hydroleic acids rises to the surface, which, af- 
ter being washed with cold alcohol, leaves the 
former pure. By heat it is converted into meta- 
margaric acid and water. Soluble in alcohol and 
ether. 

HYDROMELLONIC ACID. Prepared by 
dissolving mellonide of potassium in boiling water, 
adding muriatic, sulphuric, or nitric acid, and col- 
lecting and drying the precipitate. A yellow 
powder, soluble in water. It forms mellonides 
with the metallic oxides. 

HYDROMEL. Prep. (P. Cod.) Honey 2 
oz. ; boiling water 32 oz. ; dissolve and strain. 

HYDROMETER. (From HSwp, water, and 
HiTpov, a measure.) An instrument for ascertain- 
ing the specific gravities of liquids, and hence their 
strengths ; these being either in inverse or direct 
proportion to their specific gravities. Spirituous 
liquors and ammonia water are examples of the 
former, and malt wort, and sirups of the latter. 
The hydrometer employed by the revenue officers 
for levying the duties on spirits has been already 
described at pages 35 and 36. 

Baume's hydrometer or areometer is very gen- 
erally employed on the continent for ascertaining 
the specific gravities of various liquids. As now 
made, it either consists of a single spindle about 
18 inches long, graduated from —80° to -f 80°, 
or of two spindles of about half that length ; the 
one for light liquids ranging from 10° to 80°, and 
the other for heavy liquids ranging from 0° to 80°. 
These are employed with a long glass tube, in a 
similar way to Sike's hydrometer before noticed, 
but the thermometer for ascertaining the temper- 
ature must be covered with a glass case, or ar- 
ranged with a folding scale to allow of its immer- 
sion in corrosive liquids. 

In Baume's hydrometer for liquids lighter than 
water, the instrument is poised, so that the of the 
scale is at the bottom of the stem, when it is float- 
ing in a solution of 1 oz. of common salt in 9 oz. 
of water, and the depth to which it sinks in distil- 



led water shows the 10th° ; the space between 
these fixed points being equally divided. His grad- 
uation was continued upwards to the 50th°, but 
is now contmued further. 

Con-esponding Degrees of Baume's Hydrometer 
and real Specific Gravities. — I. Hydrometer for 
Light Fluids, or Pese-Espnt. Temperature 
56 to 60° Fahr. 



Baume. 


Spec. Gra. 


Banine. 


Spec. Gi 


50 . 


. 0-782 


29 . 


. 0-884 


49 . 


. 0-787 


28 . 


. 0-889 


48 . 


. 0-792 


27 . 


. 0-895 


47 . 


. 0-796 


26 . 


. 0-900 


46 . 


. 0-800 


25 . 


. 0-906 


45 . 


. 0-805 


24 . 


. 0-911 


44 . 


. 0-810 


23 . 


. 0-917 


43 . 


. 0-814 


22 . 


. 0-923 


42 . 


. 0-819 


21 . 


. 0-929 


41 . 


. 0-823 


20 . 


. 0-935 


40 . 


. 0-828 


19 . 


. 0-941 


39 . 


. 0-832 


18 . 


. 0-948 


38 . 


. 0-837 


17 . 


. 0-954 


37 . 


. 0-842 


16 . 


. 0-961 


36 . 


. 0-847 


15 . 


. 0-967 


35 . 


. 0-852 


14 . 


. 0-974 


34 . 


. 0-858 


13 . 


. 0-980 


33 . 


. 0-863 


12 . 


. 0-987 


32 . 


. 0-868 


11 . 


. 0-993 


31 . 


. 0-873 


10 . 


. 1-000 


30 . 


. 0-878 


0. 


. 1-075 



In the hydrometer for liquids heavier than wa- 
ter, the position of the fixed points is reversed ; for 
the is at the top of the stem, and denotes the 
level to which the hydrometer sinks in distilled 
water: the I0th° is lower down, and shows the 
level to which it sinks in the saline solution, and 
the graduation was continued downwards to the 
75th°, but is now continued further. 

Corresponding Degrees of Baume's Hydrometer 
and real Specific Gravities. — II. Hydrometer 
for Heavy Fluids, or Pese-Acid. Temperature 
56 to 60° Fahr. 



Baume 


Spec. Gra. 


Baume. 


Spec. Gra. 


1 . 


. 1-007 


23 . 


. 1-190 


2 . 


. 1-014 


24 . 


. 1-199 


3 . 


. 1-022 


25 . 


. 1-210 


4 . 


. 1-029 


26 . 


. 1-221 


5 • 


. 1-036 


27 . 


. 1-231 


6 . 


. 1-044 


28 . 


. 1-242 


7 . 


. 1-052 


29 . 


. 1-252 


8 . 


. 1-060 


30 . 


. 1-261 


9 . 


. 1-067 


31 . 


. 1-275 


10 . 


. 1-075 


32 .. 


. 1-286 


11 . 


. 1-083 


33 . 


. 1-298 


12 . 


. 1-091 


34 . 


. 1-309 


13 . 


. 1-100 


35 . 


. 1-321 


14 . 


. 1-108 


36 . 


. 1-334 


15 . 


. 1-116 


37 


. 1-346 


16 . 


. M25 


38 


1-359 


17 . 


. 1-134 


39 . 


. 1-372 


18 . 


. 1-143 


40 . 


. 1-384 


19 . 


. 1-152 


41 . 


. 1-398 


20 . 


. 1-161 


42 . 


. 1-412 


21 . 


. 1-171 


43 . 


. 1-426 


22 . 


. 1-180 


44 , 


. 1-440 



HYD 



358 



HYD 



Banme. 


Spec. Gra. 


Baume. 


Spec. Gra. 


45 . 


. 1-454 


61 . 


. 1-736 


46 . 


. 1-470 


62 . 


. 1-758 


47 . 


. 1.485 


63 . 


. 1-779 


48 . 


. 1.501 


64 . 


. 1-801 


49 . 


. 1.516 


65 . 


. 1-823 


50 . 


. 1.532 


66 . 


. 1-847 


51 . 


. 1.549 


67 . 


. 1-872 


52 . 


. 1.566 


68 . 


. 1-897 


53 . 


. 1-583 


69 • 


. 1-921 


54 . 


. 1.601 


70 . 


. 1-946 


i: 


. 1-618 


71 . 


1-974 


. 1-637 


72 . 


. 2-002 


57 . 


. 1-656 


73 . 


. 2-031 


58 . 


. 1-676 


74 . 


. 2-059 


59 . 


. 1-695 


75 . 


. 2-087 


60 . 


. 1-714 







The areometers and alcoholometers of Gay 
Lussac, Tralles, and Richter, at once indicate on 
their stems the strength of the hquid, which mere- 
ly requires correction as to temperature. (See 
page 37.) 

The hydrometer of Fahrenheit consists of a 
hollow ball, with a counterpoise below, and a very 
slender stem above, terminating in a small dish. 
The middle, or half length of the stem, is distin- 
guished by a fine line across. In this instrument 
every division of the stem is rejected, and it is im- 
mersed in all experiments to the middle of the 
stem, by placing proper weights in the little dish 
above. Then as the part immersed is constantly 
of the same magnitude, and the whole weight of 
the hydrometer is known, this last weight, added 
to the weights in the dish, will be equal to the 
weight of Huid displaced by the instrument, as all 
writers on hydrostatics prove. And accordingly, 
the sp. gravities for the common form of the tables 
will be had by the proportion : — 

As the whole weight of the hydrometer and its 
load, when adjusted in distilled water : is to the 
number 1000, &.c. : : so is the whole weight when 
adjusted in any other fluid : to the number ex- 
pressing its specific gravity. 

Nicholson's hydrometer for taking the sp. gr. 
of minerals, is a very convenient instrument. 

TwaddeLVs hydrometer is much used in the 
bleaching establishments of Scotland and some 
parts of England. According to this scale is 
equal to 1000, or the sp. gr. of distilled water, and 
each degree is equal to -005, so that by multiplying 
this number by the number of degrees marked on 
the scale, and adding 1- the real specific gravity is 
obtained. 

Table of Specific Gravities indicated by Twad- 
dell's Scale. 



Twaddell. 


Sp. Gr. 


Twaddell. 


Sp. Gr. 





1000 


100 


1500 


10 


1050 


110 


1550 


20 


1100 


120 


1600 


30 


1150 


130 


1650 


40 


1200 


140 


1700 


50 


1250 


150 


1750 


60 


1300 


160 


1800 


70 


1350 


170 


1850 


80 


1400 


180 


1900 


90 


1450 


190 


1950 



Hydrometers, unless manufactured with great 
eare and skill, merely afford approximate results, 



but which are nevertheless sufficiently correct fot 
all ordinary purposes. They also require several 
ounces of liquor to float them, and hence cannot 
be used for small quantities of liquid. (See Spe- 
cific Gravity.) 

HyDRO-PERSULPHOCYANIC ACID. A 
yellow reddish crystalline mass, obtained by fusing 
sulphocyanide of potassium in a stream of dry 
muriatic acid gas, in a vessel connected with a 
suitable receiver. It is purified by a solution in 
hot alcohol, which deposites it on cooling in a semi- 
crystalline form. 

HYDROPHOBIA, CURE FOR. At Udina, 
in Friule, a poor man lying under the frightful 
tortures of hydrophobia was cured with some 
draughts of vinegar, given him by mistake, in- 
stead of another potion. A physician at Padua 
got intelligence of this event at Udina, and tried 
the same remedy upon the patient in the hospital, 
administering to him a pound of vinegar in the 
morning, another at noon, and a third at sunset, 
and the man was speedily and perfectly cured. 

HYDRO-SULPHOCYANIC ACID. A pe- 
culiar acid occurring in the seeds and blossoms of 
the cruciferae, and in the saliva of man and sheep. 
It may be obtained by decomposing sulphocyanide 
of lead by dilute sulphuric acid, avoiding excess, 
and throwing down the last portion of lead by sul- 
phureted hydrogen. It may also be prepared by 
decomposing a mixture of 1 part of sulphocyanide 
of silver and 100 of water, by sulphureted hydro- 
gen. It forms a colorless fluid, readily undergoing 
decomposition by the action of air and heat. With 
the bases it forms compounds termed sulphocya- 
nides, most of which may be formed by saturating 
the acid with the oxide, or hydrate of the base, or 
from the sulphocyanide of potassium, and a soluble 
salt of the base, by double decomposition. — Sul- 
phocyanide of potassium is formed by drying 
prussiate of potash to expel its water, powdering, 
adding ^ its weight of sulphur, and fusing in an 
iron vessel at a low red heat, until the escaping 
bubbles of gas mflame in the air, and burn with a 
red light ; the mass must be then cooled, dissolved 
in boiling water, treated with a solution of carbon- 
ate of potassa until it ceases to become turbid, 
next boiled for a quarter of an hour, filtered, evap- 
orated, and crystallized. The crystals must be 
redissolved in alcohol, and the solution refiltered 
and recrystallized. Forms colorless, deliquescent, 
prismatic crystals, soluble in alcohol and water. — 
Sulphocyanide of lead is prepared by mixing con- 
centrated solutions of acetate of lead and sulpho- 
cyanide of potassium. Lustrous yellow opaque 
crystals, decomposed by boiling water, into hydro- 
sulphocyanic acid and a basic salt. If subacetate 
of lead be used instead of the acetate in the above 
formula, a basic sulphocyanide of lead will be 
formed. — Sulphocyanide of copper is prepared by 
precipitating a mixture of sulphate of copper and 
sulphocyanide of potassium with a solution of pro- 
tosulphate of iron. An insoluble granular powder. 
— Sulphocyanide of silver is formed by precipita- 
ting neutral nitrate of silver by sulphocyanide of 
potassium. White, insoluble. By solution in am- 
monia it may be obtained in brilliant crystalline 
white plates. 

IIYDROTELLURIC ACID. A peculiar 
gaseous body discovered by Davy in 1809, and 



HYP 



359 



HYP 



fonned in a similar manner to hydrogen by digest- 
ing muriatic acid on an alloy of tellurium with 
zinc or iron. It possesses feeble acid properties, 
and precipitates tellurets from metallic solutions. 
It is absorbed by water, and then forms liquid hy- 
drotelluric acid, or tellureted hydrogen. 

HYDROUS. Containing chemically combined 
water. (See Hydrate.) 

HYDROX\NTHIC ACID. The name ori- 
ginallv given by Zeise to xaathic acid. 

HYDRURET. Syn. Hydroguret. Hydru- 
RETUM, {Lat.) A compound of hydrogen with a 
metal. 

HYGRUSIN. A name given by Bizio to the 
^leoptene of Berzelius, or the liquid and more vol- 
atile portion of essential oils. 

HYOSCYAMIA. Syn. Hyoscyaminum. Hy- 
oscYAMiNE. Hyoscyama. Hyoscyamina. An al- 
kaloid discovered by Brande in common henbane, 
(hyoscyamus nigra.) It is powerfully narcotic. 
Chevaliier, Brault, and Poggiale, eminent and skil- 
ful chemists, have failed to procure it. (Jour, de 
Pharm.) It may be obtained in prisms, and with 
the acids forms salts. 

HYPNOTICS. (From vkvo^, sleep.) Medi- 
cines that induce sleep. Opium, morphia, and 
henbane, are the principal hypnotics. (See Axo- 

DYNE.) 

HYPOCHLOROUS ACID. Syn. Euchlo- 
RiNE. A gaseous compound, discovered by Davy 
in 1811. It is most conveniently prepared by agi- 
tating together a mixture of 1 part of peroxide of 
mercur}' and 2 parts of water, in a bottle filled 
with chlorine gas. The filtered liquid is fluid hy- 
pochlorous acid. It may be purified by distillation 
at a temperature considerably below 212°, as at 
that heat it suffers rapid decomposition. It bleaches 
powerfully, and is readily decomposed by light and 
contact with various substances, especially pow- 
dered glass or angular bodies. The compounds 
popularly called chloride of lime, soda, and pot- 
ash, are supposed by some to be hypochlorites, but 
the point is undetermined. 

HYPOCHONIRIASIS. (From liroxovhpiaKo?, 
one who is hipped.) The vapors, lowuess of spir- 
its, blue devils. This disease chiefly affects per- 
sons of the melancholic temperament, and is com- 
monly induced by hard study, irregular habits of 
life, want of proper social intercourse, and exercise. 
The treatment may in most cases be similar to that 
mentioned under dyspepsia, observing, however, 
that success depends more on amusing and enga- 
ging the mind, and in gradually weaning it from 
old conceits, than in the mere administration of 
medicine. When the patient is tormented with a 
visionary or exaggerated sense of pain, or of some 
concealed disease, or a whimsical dislike of certain 
persons, places, or things, or groundless apprehen- 
sions of personal danger or poverty, or the convic- 
tion of having experienced some dreadful accident 
or misfortune, the better way is to avoid any direct 
attempts to alter his opinions, but to endeavor to 
inspire confidence in some method of relief. Gre- 
ding mentions the case of a medical man who con- 
ceivo-l that his stomach was full of frogs, which 
had jeen successively spawning ever since he had 
bathed, when a boy, in a pool in which he had per- 
ceived some tadpoles ; and he had spent his life in 
endeavoring to get them removed. Another pa- 



tient perhaps conceives himself to be a giant ; a 
second as heavy as lead ; a third a feather, in con- 
tinual danger of being blown away by the M-ind ; 
and a fourtli a piece of glass, and is hourly fearful 
of being broken. Marcellus Dentatus mentions a 
baker of Ferrara, who thought himself a lump of 
butter, and durst not sit in the sun, or come near 
the fire, for fear of being melted. The writer of 
this article once knew a man who always put on 
his coat the wrong side in front, because he con- 
ceived* his face looked behind him. In such cases 
it is useless to argue with the patient, as it only 
causes irritation, and increases the malady. 

HYPONITROUS ACID. A highly volatile 
liquid, gaseous at common temperatures, first ob- 
tained by Gay Lussac, by confining a mixture of 
binoxide of nitrogen in excess and oxygen gas, in 
a gleiss tube over a concentrated solution of pure 
potassa, in the mercurial pneumatic trough. It 
may also be obtained from a mixture of 200 meas- 
ures of binoxide of nitrogen and 50 measures of 
oxygen, both quite dry, by exposing the resulting 
orange fumes to intense cold, which condenses 
them into a liquid. When 10 parts of nitric acid 
sp. gr. 1*3 are poured on 1 part of starch in a ca- 
pacious retort, and a gentle heat applieti by means 
of a water-bath, " pure hyponitrous acid is disen- 
gaged." (Liebig and Gregory, Turner's Chem., 7th 
ed. p. 848.) At 0° F., hyponitrous acid is a color- 
less liquid, but green at higher temperatures, rap- 
idly volatilizing in orange-colored vapors. It is 
decomposed by contact with water and the bases, 
but the earthy and alkaline hyponitrates may be 
indirectly formed by exposing the corresponding 
nitrates to a gentle red heat. 

HYPO-PHOSPHOROUS ACID. A peculiar 
viscid liquid discovered by Dulong in 1816, and 
obtained by treating phosphuret of barium with 
water, and as soon as the phosphureted hydrogen 
has escaped, filtering, throwing down the baryta 
with dilute sulphuric acid, again filtering and 
evaporating. It is a powerful deoxidizing agent, 
and forms salts with the bases called hypophos- 
phites. The hypophosphites of tlie alkalis may 
be prepared by precipitating an earthy hypophos- 
phite by an alkaline carbonate, or by directly neu- 
tralizing the acid with those carbonates. The 
earthy hypophosphites may be formed by boiling 
the earths in a caustic state along with water and 
a few fragments of phosphorus, filtering, and evap- 
orating. All the hypophosphites ^ are soluble in 
water, and those of the alkalis, both in alcohol and 
water ; they are all decomposed by heat. 

HYPOSULPHOBENZIDIC ACID. A soar 
liquid, or crj'stals, obtained by decomposing hypo- 
sulphobenzidate of copper by sulphureted hydrogen^ 
It forms salts with the bases termed hyposulpho- 
henzidates. The salt of baryta may be formed- 
by saturating fuming oil of vitriol with benzole, 
adding water, filtering, neutralizing the liquid with 
carbonate of barj'ta, again filtering, evaporating, 
and crv'stallizing. Hyposalphobenzidate of cop- 
per may be obtained by precipitating the last salt 
with sulphate of copper, filtering, evaporatijig-, and 
crystallizing. 

HYPOSULPHOBENZOIC ACID. Syn. 
SuLPHOBENzoic AciD. Prep. Accurately precipi- 
tate a solution of acid hyposulphobenzoat^ of ba- 
ryta with sulphuric acid, filter, evaporata firet over- 



HYP 



360 



IND 



the open fire, and then in vacuo over sulphuric 
acid. Crystalline, deliquescent, sour ; forming 
salts called kyposulphobenzates or sulphobenzates. 
The acid salt of baryta may be made by conduct- 
ing the vapors of anhydrous sulphuric acid into a 
dry receiver, containing crystals of benzoic acid, 
and placed in a freezing mixture. As soon as a 
translucent mass is formed, dissolve it in water, 
decant the clear, neutralize with carbonate of ba- 
ryta, evaporate, and add some muriatic acid, when 
crystals will form as the solution cools. It may be 
decolored by animal charcoal, and purified from 
muriatic acid by repeated re-solutions. 

HYPOSULPHO-INDIGOIC ACID. A name 
given by Berzelius to one of the acids obtained by 
precipitating sulphate of indigo with carbonate of 
potassa. 

HYPOSULPHURIC ACID. An acid com- 
pound of sulphur and oxygen, discovered by 
Welter and Gay Lussac. It is prepared by pass- 
ing sulphurous acid gas through water, holding in 
suspension black oxide of manganese, in fine pow- 
der. The manganese is then precipitated by baryta 
in excess, and a current of carbonic acid is passed 
through the liquid, which is next filtered and evapo- 
rated, when crystals of hyposulphate of baryta will 
be obtained. These, when dissolved, and carefully 
neutralized with sulphuric acid, will yield a solu- 
tion of hyposulphuric acid. It may be concen- 
trated until its sp. gr, becomes 1*35. It neutral- 
izes the alkalis and earths, forming salts called hy- 
posulphates, which are soluble. 

HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA. Prep. (Ca- 
paun's process.) Boil a dilute solution of caustic 
soda with sulphur until saturated. Then pass sul- 
phurous acid gas into the solution until there re- 
mains but a very small portion of Na S^ undecom- 
posed. This may be ascertained by filtering a 
small portion of the solution, which ought to have 
a very pale yellow color. If this is found to be the 
case, the whole of the solution is filtered and evapo- 
rated by boiling to a sirupy consistence. The am- 
bient air, during evaporation, acts upon the Na S^ 
which remains in the liquor, and converts it into 
hyposulphite soda. This last-mentioned salt crys- 
tallizes from the sirupy solution. When the salt is 
dry, it is unalterable in the air. If there still re- 
mains some sulphuret of soda in the sirup, with a 
view to its removal, it is simply necessary to mix 
it with one half of its weight of alcohol, and shake 
it well. The alcohol takes up the sulphuret of soda, 
and swims on th'e surface of the aqueous solution, 
which latter is set aside to crystallize, without re- 
moving the supernatant alcoholic layer. 

" It appears to me that it would be more advan- 
tageous to modify this operation in such a manner 
as to procure the bisulphite by saturating a solu- 
tion of carbonate of soda with sulphurous acid gas, 
disengaged fi-om bruised charcoal by sulphuric 
acid. Then mix with this solution (of bisulphite 
soda) the sulphuret of sodium, prepared in the 
moist way above mentioned, in slight excess ; fil- 
ter, evaporate, and set aside to crystallize." (Ber- 
neliuK.) 

HYPOSULPHUROUS ACID. The hyposuU 
phites, or salts formed by the union of this acid 
with the bases, may either be obtained by digest- 
ing sulpljur in solutions of the sulphites, or by pass- 
ing the sulphurous acid gas into alkaline solutions. 



The hyposulphites of potassa and soda possess 
the remarkable property of dissolving a large quan- 
tity of chloride of silver, and some other metallic 
compounds, hence their use in the art of photo* 
graphy. 

HYSTERICS. Syn. Hysteria, (from harepa, 
the womb.) The treatment of this disease varies 
with the causes and the symptoms. Bleeding and 
depletives are generally had recourse to in robust 
and plethoric habits, and stimulants and tonics in 
those of a weakly or relaxed constitution. Affu- 
sion of cold water, and nasal stimulants, will fre- 
quently remove the fit, in mild cases. Exercise, 
proper amusements, and regular hours and diet, 
are the best preventives. (See Antihysteric 
Draught.) 

IGASURIC ACID. Syn. Acidum Igasuri- 
CUM. An acid discovered by Pelletier and Caven- 
tou, associated with strychnine in the faba santa 
ignatii and nux vomica. It may be obtained by 
digesting the rasped or ground beans first in ether, 
and then in boiling alcohol, evaporating the latter 
decoction to dryness, diffusing the residuum through 
water, adding a little carbonate of magnesia, again 
boiling for some minutes, filtering, washing the 
powder with cold water, again digesting it in alco- 
hol, and filtering. The igasurate of magnesia 
thus obtahied is then dissolved in boiling water, the 
solution decomposed by acetate of lead, and the 
precipitate, (igasurate of lead,) after being wash- 
ed and diffused through distilled water, is decom- 
posed by sulphureted hydrogen. The solution thus 
obtained yields crystals on being evaporated. 

IMPERATORINE. A neutral, fusible, and 
acrid-tasted substance, extracted by means of 
ether from the roots of imperatoria ostrutium. It 
is insoluble in water. 

IMPERIAL. Syn. Imperial Drink. Potus 
iMPERiALis. Prep. I. Cream of tartar ^ oz. ; fresh 
orange or lemon-peel 3 oz. ; lump sugar 4 oz. ; boil- 
ing water 3 pints ; digest in a close vessel until 
cold, then pour off the clear. 

II. (Collier.) To the last add cream of tartar ^ 
oz., and sweeten to palate. Refrigerant ; a com- 
mon drink in fevers, and in hot weather. 

INDIAN RUBBER BLACKING. Prep. I. 
(Bryant and James'' s paste.) Ivory black 60 lbs. ; 
treacle 45 lbs. ; good vinegar and oil of vitriol, of 
each 12 lbs. ; Indian rubber oil 9 lbs. ; mix. 

II. {Bryant and James's liquid.) Ivory black 
60 lbs. ; treacle 45 lbs. ; gum (dissolved) 1 lb. ; vin- 
egar (No, 24) 20 gallons ; oil of vitriol 24 lbs. ; 
Indian rubber oil 9 lbs. ; mix. 

Remarks. The Indian rubber oil is made of 
caoutchouc 18 oz., dissolved in rape oil 9 lbs. by 
means of heat. The ingredients are mixed together 
in the same order and manner as common blacking. 

INDIGESTION, (POPULAR REMEDIES 
FOR.) Prep. I. {Abernethy's pills.) Calomel 
and oxysulphuret of antimony, of each 20 grs. ; 
powdered gum guaiacum 40 gre. ; Castile soap q. 
s., (about 25 grs. ;) beat into a mass, and divide in- 
to 20 pills. Dose. 1 or 2 night and morning oc- 
casionally. 

II. {Dr. Babington's mixture.) Infusion of 
calumba 6 oz. ; carbonate of potassa 1 dr. ; com- 
pound tincture of gentian 3 dr. ; mix. Dose. 2 or 
3 tablcspoonfuls daily at noon. 



IND 



361 



IND 



III. {Dr. Bniley^s mixture.) Epsom salts 3 
dr. ; infusion of roses ^ pint ; tincture of cascarilla 
^ oz. Dose. 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls at noon and in 
the evening. 

IV. {Dr. Gregory's mixture.) Carbonate of 
potassa i oz. ; cinnamon water and distilled water, 
of each 6 oz. ; compound tincture of gentian 1 oz. ; 
mix. Dose. As last. 

V. (Dr J. Hutchinson.) Quicklime i oz., slaked, 
by sprinkling on it a little water, and when it has 
fallen to powder, add water 1^ pint, and bruised 
cinchona bark 1 oz. ; macerate with occasional 
agitation for 3 hours, in a covered vessel, then de- 
cant the clear liquor, and further add tincture of 
cinchona bark 2 oz. ; sweet spirits of nitre 3 drs. ; 
sirup of orange-peel 1 oz. ; mix well, and keep it 
in a corked bottle. Dose. A wineglassful 2 or 3 
times a day, accompanying its use with an occa- 
sional dose of a saline aperient. " Such were the 
renovating effects of this medicine on me, that it 
may with truth be denominated the true aqua 
vita. ; for it laid the foundation of a state of health 
and strength which has seldom been surpeissed." 
(Sir J. Jervis, Bart.) 

VI. {Dr. Reece's mixture.) Carbonate of soda 
1 dr. ; compound tincture of rhatany 1 oz. ; tinc- 
tures of ginger and chamomiles, of each 3 dr. ; 
camphor julep 7 oz. ; mix. Dose. 3 tablespooufuls 
twice a day. (See Dyspepsia.) 

INDIGO. Syn. Anil. Bleu d'Inde ; Indigo, 
i^Fr.) Indicum ; Pigmentum Indicum, {Lat.) Iv^kov, 
{Gr.) A blue substance obtained from the leaves 
and young shoots of several species of indigofera 
and nerium, by soaking them either in cold water, 
or, still better, in water kept warm, and at about 
106° Fahr., till the liquor becomes deep green ; it 
is then drawn off, and beat or churned till blue 
flakes appear, lime-water is next added, the yel- 
low liquor drawn off, the blue sediment dried, and 
formed into small lumps. Used as a blue dye and 
pigment, aud occasionally in medicine for epilepsy. 

Indigo, though apparently a very simple sub- 
stance, is composed of several distinct principles, 
and by the action of acids, alkalis, oxygen, chlo- 
rine, &-C., yields other substances possessing consid- 
erable interest. The following are the chief of 
these compounds, of which the word indigo consti- 
tutes a portion of the name : — 

Pure indigo, or indigo blue. I. Powdered in- 
digo 5 parts ; green vitriol 10 parts ; hydrate of 
lime 15 parts ; water 60 parts; mix, agitate oc- 
casionally until the color is destroyed, then decant 
the clear portion, precipitate with hydrochloric 
acid, and wash the powder, first with water, and 
then with boiling alcohol, until the latter ceases to 
acquire a yellow color. 

II. Caustic soda and grape sugar, of each 1 
part ; water 20 parts ; powdered indigo 5 parts ; 
mix, and proceed as above. 

III. (Thos. Taylor.) Powdered indigo 2 parts ; 
plEister of Paris 1 part ; water, sufficient to reduce 
the mixture to a thin paste ; spread the mass 
evenly upon an oblong iron plate to the depth of | 
inch, and dry it by a gentle heat. It must then 
be held over the flame of a spirit lamp, when a 
disgusting odor will be evolved, the mass will 
begin to smoke, and in a few minutes will be 
covered with a dense purple vapor, which will 
condense into brilliant flattened prisms or plates of 

46 



an intense copper color, forming a thick velvety 
coating over the surface immediately exposed to 
the heat; should the mass catch fire, it may in- 
stantly be extinguished by a drop of water let fall 
upon it. Prod. 15 to 18§. 

IV. (Fritsche.) Indigo and grape sugar, of 
each 1 part ; put them into a bottle capable oi 
holding 40 parts of liquid ; half fill the bottle with 
boiling alcohol, and the other half with alcohol 
holding 1^ part of a very concentrated lye of 
caustic soda in solution, agitate well, and, after 
repose, decant the clear. The liquid thus obtain- 
ed possesses an intense yellowish red color, but 
quickly passes, by exposure to the air, through the 
various shades of red, violet, and blue, at the 
same time depositing indigo blue, in scales. These 
must be well washed, first in alcohol, and lastly 
in water. Pi oduct. More than 50§ of the indi- 
go employed. This offers the eeisiest and most 
correct means of testing commercial indigo, and 
is well calculated, from its simphcity, for the use of 
dyers. 

Indigogen, indigotine, indigo white, or re- 
duced indigo. Prep. The yellow alkaline solu- 
tion obtained by one of the above processes is 
carefully protected from the air, both before and 
after precipitation with muriatic acid ; and the 
precipitate, after being rapidly washed with re- 
cently boiled distilled water, or with dilute sul- 
phurous acid, is drained on a filter, and dried in 
vacuo. The product consists of a grayish mass 
of minute crystals, generally light-blue on the 
surface, and rapidly turning blue on exposure to 
the air. White indigo is soluble in alkalis, alco- 
hol, and ether, to which it imparts a yellow color. 
These solutions deposite indigo blue on exposure to 
the air. 

Indigo gluten is obtained by the action of 
dilute acids on indigo. It possesses little interest. 

Indigo brown is obtained from powdered in- 
digo by treating it first with dilute acid, and then 
with a hot strong caustic lye, which must after- 
wards be neutralized with acetic acid, evaporated 
to dryness, and treated with alcohol, to dissolve 
out acetate of potassa. A dark brown substance 
resembling humic acid. 

Indigo red is obtained by boiling alcohol on 
powdered indigo exhausted of the two previous 
substances, by dilute acids and strong alkaline 
lyes. When heated, indigo red is converted into 
a white sublimate, (deoxydized indigo red,) but re- 
covers its color by the action of nitric acid. This 
substance has also been called the Red Resin of 
Indigo. 

Indigo purple or phenecine, the purple pre- 
cipitate obtained by filtration from a solution of 
indigo in fuming sulphuric acid, when largely di- 
luted with water. 

INDIGO DYES. There are two methods of 
preparing solutions of indigo for dyeing. 1. By 
deoxydizing it and dissolving it in alkaline men- 
strua. 2. By dissolving it in sulphuric acid. The 
former constitutes the ordinary indigo vat of the 
dyers. 

Prep. I. a. {Cold vat.) Finely-powdered in- 
digo 1 lb. ; green copperas (as free as possible 
from red oxide) 2^ to 3 lbs. ; newly-slaked quick- 
lime 3^ to 4 lbs. ; triturate the powdered indigo 
with a little water or an alkaline lye, thmi mix it 



IND 



362 



INF 



with some hot water, add the li:iie, again well 
mix, after which pour in the solution of copperas, 
and agitate thoroughly. A little potash or soda is 
frequently added, and a corresponding portion of 
lime omitted. For use, a portion of this prepara- 
Hon vat is ladled into the dyeing vat, as wanted. 
After using for some time the vat must be re- 
freshed with a little copperas and fresh-slaked 
lirae, when the sediment must be well stirred up, 
and the whole mixed together. 

h. {Potash vat.) Indigo, in fine powder, 12 
lbs. ; madder 8 lbs. ; bran 9 lbs. ; potash 24 lbs. ; 
water at 125° F. 120 cubic feet ; mix well ; at 
the end of 36 hours add 14 lbs. more potash, and 
after 10 or 12 hours longer, further add 10 lbs. of 
potash, rouse well, and as soon as the fermentation 
and reduction of the indigo are well developed, 
which generally takes place in about 72 hours, 
add a little freshly-slaked quicklime. This vat 
dyes very quickly, and the goods lose less of their 
color in alkaline and soapy solutions than when 
dyed in the common vat. 

Remarks. Wool, silk, linen, and cotton, may 
all be dyed in the indigo vat by passing them 
through a weak alkaline solution, and then through 
the indigo vat for about fifteen minutes ; the stuff 
should be exposed to the air, and the immersion in 
the vat and exposure repeated till the color be- 
comes sufficiently deep. The addition of a little 
woad and madder to the vat improves the dye. 
Other deoxydizing substances, beside those above 
mentioned, may be used to effect the deoxydation 
of the indigo ; thus a mixture of caustic soda, 
grape sugar, indigo, and water, is often employed 
on the Continent for this purpose, and orpiment, 
lime, and pearlash are also occasionally used. 
When properly prepared, the indigo vat may be 
kept in action for several months by the addition 
of orie or other of its constituents, as required. 
An excess of either copperas or lime should be 
avoided. 

II. Dissolve indigo 1 lb. in smoking sUi^huric 
acid 4^ lbs., or oil of vitriol 7 or 8 lbs., in the way 
directed under liquid blue, page 122, and, after 
standing 48 hours, add water 2 gallons. This 
liquid is added to water as required, and the cloth, 
previously boiled with alum, is immersed in it, and 
the boiling and immersion are repeated until the 
wool becomes sufficiently dyed. 

Remarks. With the above dye every shade of 
blue may be dyed, but it is most commonly em- 
ployed to give a ground to logwood blues ; in 
which case the stuff is usually prepared by a boil 
with a mixed mordant of alum, tartar, the sul- 
phates of copper and iron, and the blue solution, 
and then dyed in a logwood bath, to which a little 
potash has been added. When the above sul- 
phuric solution of indigo is diffused through water, 
at a boiling temperature, and wool plunged there- 
in, and allowed to remain as it cools for 24 hcurs, 
and then taken out, drained, washed in wdter 
until the latter ceases to be colored, and then 
boiled for about 15 minutes in water containing 1 
or 2-^ of carbonate of potassa, soda, or ammonia, 
or a weight equal tc ibout \ of the indigo em- 
ployed, the blue color will forsake the wool, and 
become dissolved in the water. This li(|uid, when 
slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, imparts a 
fine blutr to cloth. The names soluble blue, dis- 



tilled blue, blue carmine, &:.c.", &c., have been ap- 
plied to it ; it is in reality a cseruleo-sulphate of 
potassa, or a double sulphate of indigo and potassa. 
It may be purified by evaporation to a sirup, 
and agitation, first with alcohol, and then with a 
mixture of alcohol and acetic acid ; it may then 
be evaporated to dryness, when it forms a dark 
blue powder. 

INDIGOIC ACID. Syn. Anilic Acid. An 
acid obtained by Chevreul by the action of dilute 
boiling nitric acid on indigo. It is prepared by 
gradually adding indigo in powder to boiling nitric 
acid, previously diluted with 12 or 15 parts of 
water, as long as effervescence ensues ; a little 
water being dropped in from time to time to pre- 
vent the formation of carbazotic acid. The clear 
yellow liquid is then decanted while hot, and the 
crystals deposited as it cools, redissolved in boiling 
water, and acetate of lead added as long as it 
causes a brown precipitate. The filtered liquor 
deposites crystals of anilate of lead on cooling, 
which by resolution in boiling water, and decom- 
position with sulphuric acid, yield crysta-,^ of anilic 
acid. Colorless, fusible, yellowish white needles, 
scarcely soluble in cold water, but freely soluble 
in boiling water. It forms soluble and crystalliza- 
ble salts, called Anilates or Indigotates, with 
some of the bases. 

INFANT'S PRESERVATIVE, (ATKIN- 
SON'S.) Prep. Bicarbonate of magnesia 3vj ; 
white sugar §ij ; oil of aniseed 20 drops ; com- 
pound spirit of ammonia 3iiss ; laudanum 3j ; sirup 
of saffron §j ; caraway water q. s. to make the 
whole measure 1 pint. (Haggard.) 

INFUSION. Syn. Infusion, (Fr.) Infusum ; 
Infusio, {Lat., from infundo, to pour in.) In 
Pharmacy, a liquid preparation obtained by pour- 
ing water of any required temperature upon 
vegetable or animal substances, and suffering it to 
stand a certain time. Shavings, leaves, and flowers, 
require no previous preparation ; but roots, woods, 
and other solid substances must be bruised or 
sliced, if in the green or recent state, or bruised, or 
coarsely pulverized, if dry, for the purpose of ex- 
posing as large a surface as possible to the action 
of the menstruum. 

The substances extracted by water from vegeta- 
bles by infusion are chiefly gum, mucus, ex- 
tractive, tannin, certain vegetable acids, the bitter 
and narcotic principles, gum-resin, essential oil, 
and alkalis. Some of these substances are only 
sparingly soluble in. water at ordinary tempera- 
tures ; but more readily so in hot water, and 
freely soluble in boiling water. The temperature 
of the water should be therefore proportioned to 
the nature of the vegetable matter operated on. 
For mere demulcent infusions, in which fecula 
and gum are the chief substances sought to be 
dissolved out, and when the active principle is 
scarcely soluble in water, unless nearly at the 
boiling temperature, boiling water alone should be 
employed ; but when the medicinal virtues of 
vegetables are soluble in water at lower tern- .^ 
peratures, it is better to employ hoi water, and to 
allow a little longer period for the digestion. In 
many cases temperate water, (from ()0 to 71)",) or 
tepid water, (from 80 to 90°,) may be used with 
advantage, especially in the preparation of aro« 
matic bitter infusions, and in most cases, where it 



INF 



363 



INF 



is wished that the product should contain as little 
inert matter as possible ; but when water at low 
temperatures is employed, the period of the macera- 
tion must be proportionately increased. By adopt- 
ing the method of maceration in vacuo, the men- 
struum may be allowed to lie in contact with the 
vegetable matter for an unlimited period, without 
decomposition taking place. 

Infusions, like decoctions, are liable to undergo 
spontaneous decomposition by keeping, especially 
in warm weather, when a few hours are often suf- 
ficient for their passage into a state of active fer- 
mentation ; they should therefore be prepared for 
use daily, as beyond 24 hours they cannot be de- 
pended on. The London College directs a pint 
only to be made at a time, thus very properly re- 
garding them as extemporaneous preparations. See 
Decoctions. 

*^* As many infusions which are occasionally 
employed in medicine must necessarily escape no- 
tice in the following list, it may be as well to re- 
mark, that the Infusions of all vegetables that do 
not exert a very powerful action on the human 
frame, may be made by pouring 1 pint of boiling 
water on 1 oz. of the vegetable matter, and allow- 
ing it to macerate for half an hour to an hour ; and 
the Decoctions of the same vegetables may be 
made by boiling the above ingredients in the same 
proportions for 10 or 15 minutes, instead of opera- 
ting by mere infusion. The ordinary dose of such 
infusions and decoctions is 1 to 2 oz. three or'i'our 
times a dav. 

INFUSION, ANTISCORBUTIC. Syn. In- 
FUsuM ANTiscGRBUTicuM. Prep. (E. H.) Water 
trefoil (menyanthes aquaticum) |ij ; orange §ss ; 
boiling water 4 pints ; infuse for a night, strain, and 
add compound spirits of horseradish half a pint. 

INFUSIONS, ASTRINGENT. Syn. Inf. 
ASTRiNGENs. Prep. I. Oak bark §ss ; boiling wa- 
ter ^ pint ; infuse 1 hour, and to each §iss of the 
strained liquor add powdered galls 10 grs. ; tincture 
of catechu, compound tincture of cardamoms, and 
sirup of orange peel, of each 5ss, for a dose. 

II. Infusion of cusparia §j ; tincture of catechu 
or kino 3j ; powdered ipecacuanha 3 grs. ; powder- 
ed opium i a gr. ; mix for a dose. In diarrhoea, &c. 

INFUSION, BITTER PURGING. Syn. 
Inf. amarum purgans (P. L. 1746.) The same 
as compound gentian mixture. 

INFUSION, CATHARTIC. Syn. Inf. ca- 
THARTicuM. Prep. I. Infusion of senna ^j ; tinc- 
tures of senna and jalap, tartrate of potassa, and 
sirup of senna, of each 5j ; mix, for a dose. 

II. Infusion of senna ^iss ; Epsom salts 3vj ; 
tinctures of jalap and castor, of each 3j ; lauda- 
num and tincture of ginger, of each 10 drops ; 
mix, for 1 dose. 

III. Infusion of senna f ij ; potassio-tartrate of 
soda 3vj ; cinnamon water ^ss ; mix, for 2 doses. 

IV. Senna leaves ^ oz. ; Glauber salts 2 oz. ; 
boiling water ^ pint ; macerate for 2 hours, strain, 
and add tincture of ginger \ oz. ; compound tinc- 
ture of cardamoms 1 oz. ; for 4 doses. 

INFUSION, CEPHALIC. Syn. Inf. ce- 
PHALicuM. Prep. (E. H.) Valerian root ^ij ; rose- 
mary 3iv ; boiling water 1 quart ; infuse 12 hours, 
strain, and add aromatic water '^'iv. Dose. A wine- 
glassful 3 or 4 times a day, as antispasmodic, and 
in various affections of the head. 



INFUSION, DIURETIC. Syn. Inf. diuret- 
icuM. Prep. I. Broom tops ^'j ; boiling watei 
^xvi ; infuse 1 hour, strain, cool, and add sweel 
spirits of nitre 3iv. Dose, ^j every other hour. 

II. Infusion of foxglove ^'iv ; tincture of fox- 
glove 3ss ; acetate of potassa 3j ; laudanum 10 
drops. Dose. 1 tablespoonful twice or thrice a 
day. 

III. Juniper berries ^ij ; aniseed 3ij ; boiling 
water lb. j ; infuse 1 hour; strain, and when cold, 
add compound spirit of juniper §ij ; tincture of 
squills and nitre, of each 3j. Dose. ^ a teacupful 
frequently. All the above are common diuretics 
in dropsies. 

INFUSION OF ALOES. Syn. Inf. Aloes. 
Prep. Socotrine or hepatic aloes, bruised, 5iv ; 
boiling water 1 pint ; digest with agitation for 1 hour, 
and when cold pour off the clear. Dose. | oz. 19 
1 oz., alone or combined with ^ oz. of tincture of 
rhubarb ; laxative. 

INFUSION OF ALOES, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Inf. Aloes compositum. Prep. (Dr. Foth- 
ergill.) Aloes 3j ; rhubarb and calumba, of each 
3iv ; lime water f ^viij ; spirit of horseradish f3iv; 
infuse for 12 hours. An excellent stomachic pur- 
gative. 

INFUSION OF ANGELICA. Syn. Inf. 
A.NGELIC.E. Angelica root 3vj ; boiling water 1 
pint ; macerate 2 hours and strain. Aromatic and 
stomachic. 

INFUSION OF ARNICA. Syn. Inf. Arni- 
CiE. Prep. I. (Dr. Joy.) Flowers of leopard's 
bane (arnica montana) 3j ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
macerate half an hour. 

II. (A. T. Thomson.) Leaves or flowers 3iss 01 
root 3ij ; boiling water f ^xij. 

III. (Pereira.) Arnica (flowers or leaves?) ^ss ; 
boiling water 1 pint. Stimulant, diaphoretic, and 
diuretic. Dose. f§ss to f^j. The operation of 
arnica appears to resemble that of senega. (Sun- 
delin.) 

INFUSION OF BARBERRY. Syn. Inf. Ber- 
beris. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Bark of the barberry 
shrub §ss ; boiling water ^ pint ; macerate two 
j hours, and strain. Dose. 1 to 2 oz. either alone or 
combined with a little carbonate of soda or potassa 
and tincture of calumba ; in jaundice, biliary 
fluxes, and other cases where heat and acrimony 
prevail. 

INFUSION OF BARK. Syn. Inf. Clncho- 
NiE, (P. L. E. and D.) Inf. Corticis Cinchon.«. 
Infusion de Quinquina, (Fr.) Infuso di China, 
{Ital.) Chinainfusum, (Ger.) Prep. I. (P. L.) 
Lanceleaved (pale) cinchona, bruised, ^j ; boiling 
water 1 pint ; macerate for 6 hoars in a lightly cov- 
ered vessel, and strain. 

II. {Inf. cinchoncs sine colore.) Prep. (P. D.) 
Triturate the bark with a little of the water, and 
add the remainder (coldj during the trituration ; 
macerate for 24 hours, and decant the clear liquor. 

III. (P. E.) From any species of cinchona, in a 
similar way to the infusion of cinchona, P. L. 

Remarks. The addition of f 3j of diluted sul- 
phuric acid to the water before pouring on the bark 
increases its solvent power, and, consequently, the 
strength of the infusion. Dose, f^j to f ^.j three 
or four times daily, as a tonic in dyspepsia and con- 
valescences. (See Decoction of Bark.) 

INFUSION OF BARK AND MAGNESIA 



INF 



364 



INF 



S^n. Inf. CiNCHONyE cum Magnesia. Prep. (P. 
U. S.) Bruised bark §j ; calcined magnesia 3j ; 
boiling water f §xij ; boil, digest 1 hour, and strain. 

INFUSION OF BARK WITH LIME WA- 
TER. Syn. Inf. Cinchona cum Aqua Calcis. 
Prep. (P. U. S.) Bruised cinchona bark §j ; linme 
water (cold) 1 pint ; macerate 12 hours in a cov- 
ered vessel 

INFUSION OF BARK, COMPOUND. Syn. 
Inf. Cinchona comfositum. Prep. (St. B. H.) 
Cinchona bark §j ; red rose leaves 3iij ; orange 
peel (dried) 3ij ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 2 
hours in a covered vessel, strain, and add diluted 
sulphuric acid 3iss. 

INFUSION OF BARK, CONCENTRATED. 
Prep. I. Coarsely-powdered bark 4 lbs. ; boiling 
water 8 lbs. ; macerate for 10 or 12 hours, express 
the liquor, add rectified spirit of wine 2 lbs. ; mix 
well, let it repose for 24 hours, and filter the clear 
portion. 

II. To the water employed in the last portion, 
add diluted sulphuric acid 2 or 3 fluid ounces, and 
proceed as before. 

III. Coarsely-powdered bark 4 lbs. ; cold water 
8 lbs. ; rectified spirit 2 lbs. ; diluted sulphuric acid 
3 or 4 oz. ; mix the fluids, and either macerate the 
bark in them for a week in a closed vessel, or pro- 
ceed by the method of displacement. Product 
very superior. 

Remarks. One fluid drachm of either of the 
above, added to 7 fluid drachms of water, produces 
an extemporaneous infusion of cinchona resem- 
bling that of the pharmacopoeia. 

INFUSION OF BLUE FLAG. Prep. Blue 
flag flowers 1 to 2 oz. ; boiling water 1 pint ; ma- 
cerate. Used for the color. 

INFUSION OF BRAZIL WOOD. Prep. 
From ground Brazil wood as the last. When 
wanted to keep, 3 oz. of rectified spirit are added to 
e/3i-^' pint. Used as coloring. 

INFUSION OF BROOM. Syn. Inf. Sco- 
PARii. Prep. (P. L.) Fresh broom tops §j ; boil- 
ing distilled water 1 pint ; macerate for 4 hours in 
a lightly-covered vessel, and strain. Diuretic or 
purgative. Dose. 1 to 4 oz. 

INFUSION OF BUCHU. Syn. Inf. Buchu, 
(P. D.) Inf. Bucku, (P. E.) Inf. Diosm^, (P. 
L.) Prep. (P. L.) Buchu leaves f j ; boiling 
water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours. Tonic, stimu- 
lant, and diuretic. Dose. 1^ oz. to 2 oz. 

INFUSION OF CALUMBA. Syn. Inf. 
Radicis Calumb^e. Inf. Calumb^e, (P. L. & E.) 
Inf. CoLOMBiE, (P. D.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Calum- 
ba root, sliced, 3v ; boiling distilled water 1 pint ; 
macerate for 2 hours in a lightly-covered vessel, 
and strain. The Dublin form is similar, but orders 
only 3ij of calumba root. 

II. (Jnfusum calumbtB cum aqua frigida.) 
Prep. (P. E.) Calumba, in coarse powder, §ss ; 
cold water 1 pint ; triturate with a little of the 
water so as to moisten it thoroughly, then put it 
into a percolator, and pass cold water through it 
until f ^xvj of infusion have been obtained. 

Remarks. The infusion prepared by the first of 
the above formulsB soon spoils, but that prepared by 
the second will keep for some days. Infusion of 
cajumba is a good tonic and stomachic bitter. 
Dose. 1 to 3 ounces in dyspepsia, &>c., and for re- 
straining vomiting and diarrlioja during pregnancy 



or dentition. It is preferably joined with small 
doses of carbonate of soda or potassa. 

INFUSION OF CALUMBA, (CONCEN- 
TRATED.) Prep. I. Calumba, in coarse pow- 
der, §v ; boiling water ^xvj ; macerate 2 hours ; 
strain, add rectified spirit §iv ; and the next day 
filter. 

II. Coarsely-powdered calumba root 5 lbs. ; rec- 
tified spirit of wine 5^ pints ; cold water 11 pints ; 
macerate in a closed vessel with frequent agitation 
for 5 days ; express the liquor, add the whites of 
4 or 5 eggs, previously mixed with \ pint of cold 
water, agitate well for 10 minutes, allow it to re- 
pose for 1 week, and decant the cleai. Should it 
not be perfectly transparent, it may be filtered 
through blotting paper. Product. 20 lbs. 

III. From the same ingredients ae the last, but 
by the method of displacement. 

Remarks. The concentrated infusion produced 
by the last two formulae ^s of very superior quali- 
ty, and has acquired a gr^ti sale in the wholesale 
trade, f 3j added to f 3vij of water makes a per- 
fectly transparent liquid, possessing exactly similar 
virtues to the infusion of calumba, P. L. 

INFUSION OF CAPSICUM. Syn. Inf. 
Capsici. Prep. (Pereira.) Powdered capsicum 
3iv ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate in a covered 
vessel for 2 hours. Dose. ^ oz. and upwards in 
malignant sore throat and scarlatina. 

INFUSION OF CASCARILLA. Syn. Inf. 

CORTICIS CaSCARILL^. Inf. CASCARILLiE,>(P. L. 

E. &L D.) Prep. (P. L.) Cascarilla bark, bruised, 
f iss ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours, and 
strain. A light and aromatic bitter tonic. Dose. 
1 to 3 oz., usually combined with carbonate of soda 
and tincture of cascarilla. It is an excellent medi- 
cine in various stomach complaints, debility, diar- 
rhcea, «Slc. 

INFUSION OF CASCARILLA, (CONCEN- 
TRATED.) Prep. Cascarilla, (good and fra- 
grant,) bruised, 6 lbs. ; rectified spirit of wine 3 
pints ; cold water 6 pints ; macerate in a close 
vessel for 14 days, express the liquor, and filter. 

Remarks. The product, if the preceding process 
be well managed, resembles brandy in color and 
transparency, and is delightfully fragrant. Should 
it, however, prove slightly opaque, it may be ren- 
dered brilliant by shaking it up, first with about a 
drachm of dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards 
with the whites of 3 or 4 eggs, previously mixed 
with a few ounces of water ; it will then either 
become fine by repose or by filtration. Concen- 
trated infusion of cascarilla may also be advan- 
tageously made from the same ingredients by the 
method of displacement. (See Infusion of Ca- 
lumba, CONCENTRATED.) f 3j of this Infusiou, mixed 
with f3vij of water, makes a preparation exactly 
resembling the infusion of calumba, P. L. 

INFUSION OF CATECHU. Syn. Com- 
pound Infusion of Catechu. Inf. Catechu, (P. 
E.) Inf. Catechu compositum, (P. L. & D.) 
Infusion de Cachou, {Fr.) Katechu-Infusum, 
{Ger.) Prep. (P. L.) Catechu 3vj ; bruised cin- 
namon 3j ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 1 hour. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh college orders f ^xvij 
of water, and the addition of f ^iij of sirup to the 
strained liquid. Astringent. Dose. 1 to 3 oz. in 
diarrhoea, 3 or 4 times a day, or after every liquid 
dejection. 



INF 



365 



INF 



INFUSION OF CENTAURY. Syn. Inf. 
Centaurii. Prep. I. (A. T. Thomson.) Sum- 
mits of (cojnmon or lesser) centaury 3vj ; boiling 
water ^ pint. 

II. (P. Cod.) Leaves 3j ; water f ^xvj. Bitter, 
stomachic ; has been proposed as a substitute for 
infusion of gentian. 

INFUSION OF CHAMOMILES. Syn. 
Chamomile Tea. Inf. Anthemidis, (P. L. & E.) 
Inf. Cham^meli, (P. D.) Infusion de Camo- 
MiJLLE Romaine, (Fr.) Prep. (P. L.) Chamo- 
mile flowers 3v ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 
10 minutes, (20 minutes, P. E.,) and strain. Tonic, 
bitter, and stomachic. Dose. 1 to 2 oz. two or 
three times a day. It should be drunk cold, as it 
is emetic when warm. 

INFUSION OF CHAMOMILES, (CON- 
CENTRATED.) Prep. Chamomiles 5 oz. ; 
water 1 pint ; boil till the mixture weighs exactly 
21 oz. ; express the liquor by means of a tincture- 
press, cool, and add essential oil of chamomile 15 
drops, dissolved in rectified spirit of wine 5 oz. ; 
agitate well, let it repose until the next day, then 
decant the clear, and filter. Product. Strongly 
bitter and odorous, and beautifully transparent. 8 
tunes as strong as the infusion, P. L. 

INFUSION OF CHERRY-LAUREL. Syn. 
Inf. Lauro-cerasi. Prep. (Dr. Cheston.) Fresh 
cherry-laurel leaves ^iv ; boiling water f 3xxxij ; 
mfuse an hour, strain, and add clarified honey ^iv. 
This infusion is employed externally; in- large 
doses it is poisonous. 

INFUSION OF CHIRETTA. Syn. Inf. 
Chirayt-e. Inf. Chirett.e. Prep. (P. E.) Chi- 
retta ^iv ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours. 
A tonic bitter. Dose. 1 to 2 oz. combined with 
carbonate of soda or tincture of sesquichloride of 
iron in dyspepsia and debility. 

INFUSION OF CLOVES. Syn. Inf. Cary- 
opHiLLORrM. Inf. Caryophilli, (P. L. E. & D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Bruised cloves 3iij, (3i,. P. D. ;) 
boiling water 1 pint ; macerate for 2 hours, and 
strain. A grateful stomachic. Dose. 1 to 2 oz. 
three or four times a day. 

INFUSION OF CLOVES, (CONCENTRA- 
TED.) Prep. I. Bruised cloves ^iij ; boiling wa- 
ter f fxv ; infuse as above and strain ; when cold 
add rectified spirit ^ pint, c :d filter. 

II. Bruised cloves 1^ lbs. ; rectified spirit 1 
quart ; cold water 3 quarts ; macerate for 7 days, 
express the liquid, and filter. Product. Very 
fine. 

Remarks. The above is 8 times the strength of 
the infusion of cloves, P. L. 

INFUSION OF CUSPARIA. Syn. Infusion 
OF Angostura. Inf. Cuspari^e, (P. L. & E.) Inf. 
Angustur^, (P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Angustura 
bark 5v ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours. 
Stimulant and tonic. Dose. 1 to 3 oz. three or 
four times a day, ui typhus fever, bilious diarrhoea, 
dvsentery, «Scc. 

' INFUSION OF DAHLIA PETALS. From 
the violet blue variety, 1 oz. to a pint of boiling 
water. 

INFUSION OF DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. 
Syn. Inf. Belladonn.£. Prep. I, (Dr. Paris.) 
Dried belladonna leaves 4 grs. ; boiling water f ^ij ; 
for a dose. 

II. (Dr. Saunders.) Leaves 3ss ; boiling water 



! f ^xij ; infuse, strain, and to ever>' f ^vij of the m* 
i fusion add compound tincture of cardamoms 5). 
j INFUSION OF DIGITALIS. Syn. Inf 
! OF Foxglove. Inf. Digitalis. (P. L. E. & D.) 
I Infusion de Digitale Purpurine, {Fr.) Flnger- 
j HUT Aufguss, (Ger.) Prep. (P. L.) Dried fox- 
glove leaves 3j ; spirit of cinnamon f 5J ; boiling 
distilled water 1 pint ; macerate the leaves in the 
water for 4 hours ; strain, and add the spirit. 

Remarks. The Dublin form is similar, but the 
Edinburgh college orders 5ij of the dried leaves. 
Diuretic and narcotic. Dose. ^ oz. to 1 oz. every 
8 or 10 hours, till it exerts a sensible eflfect upon 
the bod v. 

INFUSION OF ERGOT. Syn. Inf. Ergo- 
TiE. Inf. Secalis Cornuti. Prep. (Pereira.) 
Ergot 3j ; boiling water f ^iv ; infuse till cold. 
Dose. One third every half hour vmtil the whole 
is taken : in labor. 

INFUSION OF EUPAIlRIUM. Syn.Isr. 
EuPATORiL Prep. (P. U. S.) Eupatorium (per- 
foliata) §j ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 2 
hours. 

INFUSION OF FUMATORY. Syn. Inf. 
of Fumaria. Inf. Fumarle. Prep. Fumaria 
(officinalis) 1 handful ; boiling water 1 quart ; in- 1. 
fuse one hour. For skin diseases. 

INFUSION OF GALLS. Syn. Inf. Gall^b. 
Prep. (Pereira.) Bruised galls 3iv ; boiling water 
f 3vj ; infuse. Dose. ^ oz. to 2 oz. in intermit- 
tents, or 3 to 4 oz. in cases of poisoning by the al- 
kaloids. It is also used m gargles, injections, and 
embrocations. 

INFUSION OF GENTIAN, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Inf. Gentian.*, (P. E.) Inf. Gentians 
coMPOsiTUM, (P. L. & D.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Gen- 
tian root, sliced, and dried orange-peel, of each, 
3ij ; fresh lemon-peel 3iv ; boiling distilled water 
1 pint ; infuse for one hour, and strain. 

II. (P. E.) Sliced gentian root §ss ; bitter or- 
ange-peel, dried and bruised, and coriander seeds, 
of each 3j ; proof spirit f 5iv ; digest 3 hours, then 
add of cold water f §xvj, and in 12 hours more, 
strain. 

III. (P. D.) Gentian 3ij ; fresh lemon-peel ^ss ; 
dried orange-peel oiss ; proof spirit f 3iv ; macerate 
3 hours, then add of boiling water f ^xvj, emd di- 
gest for 2 days in a closed vessel. 

Remarks. The above are elegant tonics and 
stomachics. The dose of the infusion (P. L. and 
D.) is 1 to 2 oz., that of the infusion (P. E.) ^ oz. 
to 1 oz. The first speedily spoils, but the infusions 
of the Edinburgh and Dublin colleges will keep 
for some time in close vessels. 

INFUSION OF GENTIAN, COMPOUND, 
(CONCENTRATED.) Prep. I. Bruised gentian 
root 4 lbs. ; boiling water sufficient to cover it ; in- 
fuse with occasional agitation for 2 hours, express 
the liquor, wash the root with a little boiling wa- 
ter, and evaporate to 13 quarts ; when cold, 
strain through flannel, add rectified spirit of wine 
1 gallon, and pour the mixed fluids on dried or- 
ange-peel 4 lbs., and fresh lemon-peel 8 lbs. ; 
macerate for 1 week, then express the liquor, and 
filter through paper. 

II. Bruised gentian and dried orange-peel, of 
each 4 lbs. ; fresh lemon-peel 8 lbs. ; cold distilled 
water 13 quarts ; rectified spirit of wine 1 gallon ; 
pour the mixed fluids on the other ingredients 



INF 



366 



INF 



placed in a stoneware jar, bung close, Ik over the 
vessel with bladder and canvass, and mac?3rate for 
14 or 15 days, observing to let the vessel remain 
upright during the night, but inverted during the 
day. At the end of the time express the liquid, 
add 1 drachm each of the essences of lemon and 
orange, agitate well, and filter; it runs rapidly 
through paper. Product of very superior qual- 
ity. 

III. Bruised gentian 4^ lbs. ; essence of lemon 
j^ oz. ; essence of orange \ oz. ; essence of cedrat 
1 dr. ; rectified spirit of wine 1 gallon ; cold water 
3 gallons ; infuse with agitation for a fortnight, 
press, and filter. Product. Very fine and odor- 
ous. 

Remarks. The above formulse are actually em- 
ployed at the present time by houses who do 
largely in concentrated infusion of gentian, and 
with proper management the products, especially 
of the last two, possess all the brilliancy of brandy, 
and are powerfully bitter, odorous, and aromatic ; 
they also keep well : f 3j added to f 3vij of water, 
produce a liquid resembling the infusion of the 
Pharmacopoeia in every particular. 

INFUSION OF GINGER. Syn. Inf. Zin- 
'■i^ GiBERis. Prep. (Pereira.) Ginger, bruised, 3ij to 
3iij ; boiling water f§vj; macerate for 2 hours. 
Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls in flatulence and indi- 
gestion. 

INFUSION OF GRATIOLA. Syn. Inf. 
Gratiol^. Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Gratiola, 
dried, 3ij ; boiling water f ^viij. 

INFUSION OF GUAIACUM, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Compound Lime-water. Aqua Calcis com- 
posiTA, (P. D.) Inf. Guaiaci comp. Prep. (P. D.) 
Guaiacum shavings lb. ss ; bruised liquorice root 
§j ; sassafras ^ss ; coriander seeds 3iij ; lime-water 
3 quarts ; infuse for 2 days, and strain. Dose. 3 
to 4 oz. twice or thrice a day, in scrofula, rheuma- 
tism, eruptions, &c. 

INFUSION OF GUM. Syn. Inf. Acacia. 
Prep. Gum acacia and lump sugar, of each 2 oz. ; 
boiling water 1 pint ; macerate until dissolved, 
then cool, and add orange-flower water ^ bz. A 
pleasant demulcent in coughs, hoarseness, &c. 

INFUFION OF (STINKING) HELLE- 
BORE. 6yn. Inf. of Bearsfoot. Inf. Helle- 
BORi fcetidi. Prep. (Woodville.) Fresh leaves of 
stinking hellebore 3ij, or dried leaves 3ss ; boiling 
water f §viij ; infuse 1 hour. Cathartic, emetic. 

INFUSION OF HEMEDESMUS. Syn. 
Inf. Hemedesmi. Prep. (Ashburner.) Root of 
hemedesmus indicus §ij ; lime-water 1 pint ; in- 
fuse 12 hours. 

INFUSION OF HEMLOCK. Syn. Inf. 
Conii. Inb'. Conii maculati. Prep. (Guy's H.) 
Dried leaves of hemlock and coriander seeds, of 
each 3ij ; boiling water ^viij ; infuse for 2 hours. 
Combined with acetate of ammonia, tincture of 
henbane, and sirup of poppies, in pulmonary com- 
plaints. 

INFUSION OF HOLY THISTLE. Syn. 
Inf. Cardui Benedicti. Prep. (P. Cod.) Holy 
thistle 3j ; boiling water f jviij ; macerate 2 hours. 
Bitter, tonic, and astringent ; in stomach dis- 



IN FUSION OF HOP. Syn. Inf. Lupuli, 
(P. L.) Inf. Humuli. Prep. (P. L.) Hops 3vj ; 
boiling water 1 pint; infuse for 4 hours. Tonic 



and anodyne. Dose, f ^j to f fij. Well-hopped 
mild ale \n a good substitute. 

INFUSION OF HOREHOUND. Syn. Ink 
Marubii. Prep. (Pereira.) Horehound leaves f j ; 
boiling water 1 pint ; infuse for an hour. Dose. ^ 
to a whole teacupful in coughs, colds, &c. 

INFUSION OF HORSERADISH. Syn. Inf. 
Armoraci^. Prep. Horseradish, sliced, fiss; 
boiling water 1 pint ; infuse one hour. Diuretic 
and stomachic. Dose. 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls every 
3 or 4 hours. 

INFUSION OF HORSERADISH, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Inf. Armoraci^ compositum. 
Prep. (P. L.) Sliced horseradish and bruised mus- 
tard seed, of each ^j ; compound spirit of horse- 
radish f 5j ; boiling water 1 pint ; infuse the root 
and seeds in the water for 2 hours, strain, cool, 
and add the spirit. Stimulant and diuretic. Dose. 
1 to 3 oz. every second or third hour, in paralysis, 
dropsies, &c. 

INFUSION OF JUNIPER BERRIES. Syn. 
Inf. Juniperi. Inf. Bacc^ Juniperi. Prep. (Pe- 
reira.) Juniper berries §j ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
infuse 1 hour. Diuretic. Dose. ^ to a "hole tea- 
cupful, ad libitum. 

INFUSION OF LINSEED, (CATHARTIC.) 
Syn. Inf. Lint cathartici. Prep. (A. T. Thom- 
son.) Cathartic linseed (purging flax) 3ij ; boiling 
water f §xvj ; infuse 1 hour, and strain. 

INFUSION OF LINSEED, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Linseed Tea. Inf. Lini, (P. E.) Inf. Lini 
coicpositum, (P. L. and D.) Infusion de Semence 
DE Lin, (jPr.) Leinsamen Aufguss, (Ger.) In- 
Fuso Di Semi di Lino, (Ital.) Prep. (P. L.) Lin- 
seed 3vj ; bruised liquorice root 3ij ; boiling water 
1 pint ; macerate for 4 hours near the fire, and 
strain. A cheap and useful demulcent. Dose. 
f §ij ad libitum. In pulmonary and urinary irrita- 
tion. 

INFUSION OF LIQUORICE. Syu. Inf. 
Glycyrrhiz^. Prep. (St. B. H.) Fresh liquorice 
root 5J ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours. 
Demulcent ; taken ad libitum. 

INFUSION OF LITMUS. See Infusion of 
Archil, page 72. 

INFUSION OF LOBELIA. Syn. Inf. Lo- 
belia. Inf. Lobelia inflate. Prep. (Collier.) 
Lobelia (Indian tobacco) §j ; boiling water i a 
pint ; infuse half an hour, and strain. Dose, f fss 
every half hour until it nauseates. In asthma. 

INFUSION OF LOGWOOD. Syn. Inf. 
HiEMATOXYLi. Piep. Logwood 1 oz. ; boiling wa- 
ter 1 pint ; infuse 1 hour. Used as a color and 
test. 

INFUSION OF MALLOW FLOWERS. 

INFUSION OF NARCISSUS. Syn. Inf. 
Narcissi. Prep. (Dufresnoy.) Flowers 3 to 16 in 
number ; boiling water 1 pint ; infuse. 

INFUSION OF ORANGE-PEEL, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Inf. Aurantii. Inf. Aurantii 
COMPOSITUM, (P. L.) Prep. (P. L.) Dried orange- 
peel §ss ; fresh lemon-peel 3ij ; bruised cloves 3j , 
boiling water 1 pint ; infuse for 15 minutes, and 
strain. A pleasant stomachic. Dose. 1 or 2 oz. 
twice or thrice a day. 

INFUSION OF ORANGE-PEEL, COM- 
POUND, (CONCENTRATED.) Prep. I. Dried 
orange-peel 3 lbs.; fresh lemon-peel 1^ lbs.; 



INF 



367 



INF 



bruised cloves | lb. ; boiling water 9 pints ; infuse 
for 20 minutes, press out the liquor, and when 
cold, add rectified spirits 1 quart ; filter. 

II. Dried orange-peel 3 lbs. ; fresh lemon-peel 
li lb. ; bruised cloves | lb. ; rectified spirit 3 pints ; 
cold water 9 pints ; macerate for 1 week, press, 
and filter. Product very superior. 

Remarks, f 3j of either of the above, added to 
f 3vij of water, makes a similar (preferable) prepar- 
ation to the compound infusion of orange-peel, 
P. L. 

INFUSION OF PEACH LEAVES. Syn. 
Inf. Persic^. Prep. (Pereira.) Dried peach leaves 
f ss ; boiling water 1 pint. Dose. ^ oz. 2 or 3 
times a day. As a vermifuge, and to allay irrita- 
tion of the bladder and urethra. 

INFUSION OF PEPPERMINT. Syn. Inf. 
Mentha Piperit^e. Prep. 1 oz. of the herb to 1 
pint of boiling water. Dose. A teacupful ad libi- 
tum, as a stomachic. 

INFUSION OF PAREIRA. Syn. Inf. Pa- 
REiRiE. Prep. (P. L.) Pareira brava 3vj ; boiling 
"Water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours. Dose. 1 to 2 oz., 
in irritation of the urinary organs. 

INFUSION OF PERIWINKLE. Prep. Pe- 
tals 1 oz. to boiling water 1 pint. 

INFUSION OF PYROLA. Syn. Inf. of 
Winter Green. Inf. Chimaphil^. Inf. Pyrol^. 
Prep. (Collier.) Pyrola leaves §j ; boiling water 1 
pint ; infuse. Astringent, diuretic. Dose. 1 to 2 
oz. It blackens the urine, like uva ursi. 

INFUSION OF QUASSIA. Syn. Inf. 
QuAssiiE. Prep. (P. L.) Quassia wood chips ^ij ; 
boiling distilled water 1 pint ; macerate for 2 hours, 
and struiui. Dose. 1 to 3 oz. twice or thrice a day, 
in dyspepsia, &c. It is not turned black by cha- 
lybeates. 

INFUSION OF QUASSIA AND ZINC. 
Syn. Inf. Quassi^e cum Zinci Sulphate. Prep. 
(P. U. S.) Quassia 3j ; sulphate of zinc 8 grs. ; 
boiling water ^ pint. 

INFUSION OF RED CABBAGE. 1 oz. of 
the dried leaves to boiling water 1 pint. Use. As 
a color and test. It will not keep without the ad- 
dition of 1 i to 2 oz. of spirit to the above quantity. 

INFUSION OF RHATANY. Syn. Inf. 
Rhatani^. Inf. Krameri^. Prep. (P. L.) Rha- 
tany root §j ; boiling water 1 pint ; infuse 2 houTs. 
Astringent. Dose. ^ oz. to 2 oz. in chronic diarrhoea. 

INFUSION OF RHUBARB. Syn. Inf. Rhei. 
(P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Sliced rhubarb 3iij ; 
distilled water 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours, and 
iitrain. 

II. (P. E.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, f j ; boil- 
ing water §xviij ; infuse for 12 hours, add spirit of 
cinnamon f ^ij, and strain through linen or calico. 
Stomachic and purgative. Dose. Of the infusion 
P. L. ffj to f^iij, and that of the P. E. about half 
that quantity, along with neutral salts or aro- 
matics. 

INFUSION OF RHUBARB, ALKALINE. 
Syn. Inf. Rhei alkalinum. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) 
Rhubarb 3ij ; carbonate of potassa 3j ; boiling wa- 
ter i a pint ; infuse for 4 hours, strain, and add 
tincture of cinnamon ^ss. ^ 

INFUSION OF RHUBARB ^D BORAX. 
Syn. Inf. Rhei Boraxatum. Prep. (P. Pol.) 
Rhubarb 3vj ; borax 3j ; boiling water ^vj ; infuse, 
train, and add of cumamon water §j. 



INFUSION OF RHUBARB, CONCEN. 
TRATED. Prep. Rhubarb reduced to coarse 
powder 3 lbs. ; cold distilled water 11 pints; rec- 
tified spirit of wine 5^^ pints ; mix, let it stand for 
8 days, employing frequent agitation, then press 
out the liquor, and filter. 

Remarks. The product of the above process is 
8 times as strong as the infusion of rhubarb, P. K 
This is the only way a fine, rich-colored, and 
transparent concentrated preparation can be made, 
that will keep. Should it not prove perfectly lim- 
pid it may be clarified with a little white of Pigg, as 
directed under Infusion of Calumba, Concen- 
trated. 

INFUSION OF ROSES. Syn. Inf. Ros^ 
1 oz. of petals to a pint of boiling water. 

INFUSION OF ROSES, COMPOUND 
Syn. Inf. Ros^k, (P. E.) Inf. Ros^ compositum, 
(P. L.) Inf. Ros^ acidum, (P. D.) Inf. Rosariim. 
Inf. Rosarum comp. Tinctura Rosarum, (P. L. 
1746.) Infusion des Roses, (Fr.) Rosen Auf- 
Guss, (Ger.) Infuso di Rose, {It.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Dried petals of the red rose 3iij ; diluted sulphuric 
acid f 3iss ; (§ss, P. D. ;) boiling distilled water 1 
pint, (lb. iij by measure, P. D. ;) white sugar 3vj ; 
(§iss, P. D.) Pour the water on the petals, placed 
in a vessel of glass or earthenware, stir in the 
acid, and infuse for 6 hours, strain, and add the 
sugar. 

Remarks. The Edinburgh College orders the 
acid not to be added until after the infusion is 
strained from the leaves, and the period of the 
maceration to be only 1 hour. Infusion of roses 
is principally used as a vehicle for sulphate of 
quinine, saline purgatives, and other medicines. It 
is astringent and refrigerant, and, when diluted 
with water, forms a pleasant drink in febrile dis- 
orders, phthisical sweats, hemorrhages, diarrhcea, 
&c. Dose, ffj to f§iv, either alone or diluted 
with water. It is incompatible with the alkalis 
and earths. 

INFUSION OF ROSES, CONCENTRA- 
TED. Prep. I. Rose petals or leaves 3 lbs. ; boil- 
ing wafer 2 gallons ; infuse 2 hours, with constant 
agitation, then press out the liquor in a very clean 
tincture press, strain through flannel or a hair 
sieve, add diluted sulphuric acid 24 oz., (by meas- 
ure,) agitate well, and filter through paper sup- 
ported on coarse calico ; lastly, add 6 lbs. of the 
finest white sugar broken up into small lumps, but 
perfectly free from dust and dirt. When dissolved, 
put the infusion into clean, stoppered green glass 
bottles, and keep it from the light in a cool place. 
Product very superior. 

II. Take rose leaves, acid, and cold water, as 
last, mix, and infuse for 48 hours in a clean, cov- 
ered, earthenware vessel, then press out the liquid 
with the hands, filter, and add the sugar, as be- 
fore. Product very fine, and keeps well. 

Remarks. The above infusion is 8 times as 
strong as that of the London Pharmacopoeia. In 
employing the first formula, care should be taken 
that the utensils be perfectly clean, especially the 
press, and earthenware glazed with lead should be 
avoided. The ^'pressing" should also be couduct- 
ed as rapidly as possible, to avoid the color being 
injured by the iron, though I find that clean iron 
does not readily injure infusion of roses before the 
addition of the acid. Should not the infusion filter 



INF 



368 



INF 



quite clear through paper, the addition of the 
whites of 2 or 3 eggs, diluted with 2 or 3 ounces 
of water, followed by violent agitation of the liquid 
for a few minutes, and repose for an hour or two, 
will usually render it fine, when it may either be 
decanted or filtered should it require it. It will 
now j)ass rapidly through ordinary filtering paper, 
and at once run clear. 

INFUSION OF SAGE. Syn. Inf. Salvia. 
Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Sage leaves, dried, ^j ; 
boiling water 1 pint ; infuse ^ an hour. Aromatic. 

INFUSION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. 
Inf. Sarz^. Inf. Sarsaparill^e. Prep. Sarsa- 
parilla, sliced, §j ; boiling water 1 pint; macerate 
2 hours, and strain. 

INFUSION OF SARSAPARILLA, COM- 
POUND. Syn. Inf. Sarz^ comp. Inf. Sarsa- 
PARiLL^, coMPOsiTUM, (P. D.) Prep. Sarsaparilla 
washed in cold water, and sliced, §j ; lime water 1 
pint ; macerate in a close vessel for 12 hours, with 
frequent agitation. Alterative, in skin diseases, or 
with or after a course of mercurials. Lime water 
extracts less from sarsaparilla than cold distilled 
water. (Battley.) 

INFUSION OF SENNA. Syn. Inf. Senn^. 
Prep. Senna leaves §iss ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
macerate 2 hours. Purgative. Dose. 1 oz. com- 
bined with 3 to 6 drs. of Epsom salts, or other sa- 
line purgative. 

INFUSION OF SENNA, COMPOUND. 
Syn. Senna Tea. Inf. Senn^ compositum, (P. 
L. «fe D.) Inf. Senn^, (P. E.) Infusion de Sene, 
(Fr.) Senna Aufguss, (Ger.) Infuso di Senna, 
(It.) Prep. (P. L.) Senna leaves 3xv ; bruised 
ginger 3iv ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 1 hour, 
and strain. Purgative. Dose. 2 to 4 oz., usually 
combined with some aperient salt. 

INFUSION OF SENNA, COMPOUND. 
(CONCENTRATED.) Prep. I. Alexandria 
senna (Opt.) 6 lbs. ; bruised unbleached Jamaica 
ginger 2| lbs. ; rectified spirit, and water, of each 
1 gallon ; macerate for 14 days, press out the 
fliuid, filter, and set it aside in a well-corked bottle ; 
then taKe 24 lbs. of good East India senna, and 
the pressings from the tincture, (above,) and mace- 
rate in the least possible quantity (10 or 12 gallons) 
of cold water, for 12 or 14 hours, employing fre- 
quent agitation ; press out the liquid, and again 
macerate the residue in cold water (5 or 6 gallons) 
for 2 hours ; press, mix the two liquors, strain, heat 
gradually to the boiling point, carefully separate 
the coagulated albumen, and evaporate as quickly 
as possible to exactly 9 quarts ; put the liquid into 
a vessel capable of holding 5 gallons, bung close to 
exclude the air, and when cold add the " tincture" 
obtained from the Alexandria senna and ginger ; 
mix well, allow it to stand for a week, and decant 
the clear portion. This process, if skilfully man- 
aged, yields a beautiful article. 

II. The same as the last, but employ hot water, 
and limit the period of the infusions to 2 hours and 
1 hour. Prod. Good, but there is s large deposite, 
from which the last portion of the infusion cannot 
be readily procured. 

III. Take 8 times the pharmacopoeia quantity 
of senna and ginger, put them into a percolator, 
either alone, or mixed with clean washed sand, 
and pass water, mixed with :Jth rectified spirit, 
through the mass, until the proper quaiitity of in- 



fusion is obtained. Product very superior, but th^ 
process requires considerable address to manage it 
satisfactorily. 

Remarks. All the preceding forms are at pres- 
ent actually employed in the wholesale trade, and 
with proper management cannot possibly fail of 
producing superior products. They each give an 
infusion possessing 8 times the strength of that of 
the pharmacopceia. 

From the extreme bulkiness of senna, it has be- 
come a practice with some unprincipled persons to 
employ only ^ or ^ of the proper quantity of that 
drug, and to add burnt sugar or treacle to bring 
up the consistence and color, and an alkaline so- 
lution of gamboge to impart the necessary purga- 
tive quality ; but this fraudulent practice may be 
detected in the way described at p. 292, (Art. Ex- 
tract of Colooynth, comp.) Pure infusion of 
senna reddens litmus paper. Concentrated infu- 
sion of senna, as generally met with, is next to 
worthless. This arises either from the employ- 
ment of inferior senna, or the destruction of its 
active principle, by lengthened exposure to heat 
and atmospheric oxygen, during its manufacture. 

INFUSION OF SENNA AND TAMA- 
RINDS. Syn. Inf. Senn^e compositum, (P. E.) 
Inf. Senn^ cum Tamarindis, (P. D.) Prep. (P. 
E.) Senna 3iij ; tamarinds §j ; coriander seeds 3j ; 
sugar ^ss, (if brown §j ;) boiling water f^viij ; in- 
fuse for 4 hours, with agitation, then strain through 
calico. Pleasanter than the ordinary infusions of 
senna. 

INFUSION OF SENNA AND CREAM 
OF TARTAR. Syn. Inf. Senn^e Tartariza- 
TUM. Prep. (P. L. 1788.) Senna §iss; coriander 
seeds §ss ; cream of tartar 3ij ; boiling water lb. j ; 
infuse 1 hour. Purgative. 

INFUSION OF SENNA, LEMONATED. 
Syn. Inf. Senn^e Limoniatum. Prep. (P. L. 
1746.) Senna §iss; fresh lemon peel |j ; lemon 
juice f 5J ; boiling water f ^xvj ; as last. 

INFUSION OF SENEGA. Syn. Inf. Se- 
nega. Prep. (P. E.) Senega (rattlesnake) root 
3ij ; boiling water 1 pint ; infuse for 4 hours. 

INFUSION OF SERPENTARY. Syn. Inf. 
SERPENTARiiE. Prep. (P. L. Sc E.) Serpentary 
(Virginian snake) root 3iv ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
macerate for 4 hours. Tonic, stimulant, and dia- 
phoretic. Dose. ^ oz. to 2 oz., in low fevers. 

INFUSION OF SIMAROUBA. Syn. Inf. 
SiMAROUB^, (P. L. E. «& D.) Prep. (P. L.) Si- 
marouba bark 3iij ; boiling water 1 pint ; mace- 
rate 2 hours. Dose. 1 to 2 oz., as a tonic ; emetifc 
in larger doses. 

INFUSION OF SPIGELIA. Syn. Worm 
Tea. Inf. of Pink Root. Inf. Spigeli^.. Prep 
(P. U.S.) Pink root §ss; boiling water f fxv ; in- 
fuse for 2 hours. Vermifuge. Dose. ^ oz. to 1 oz., 
for a child 3 years of age ; for an adult 4 to 8 oz., 
morning and evening. It is usually combined with 
an equal quantity of infusion of senna, and, in 
America, with manna and savine as well. 

INFUSION OF SPIGELIA AND SENNA. 
Syn. Inf. SpiGELiiE cum Senna. Prep. Pink 
root and senna, of each, 3iv ; boiling water 1 pint : 

""Infusion of spigelia, compound 

Syn. Inf. Spigp.li^ compositum. Prep. (Sprague.) 
Pink root ^ss ; senna 3ij ; orange peel, worm seed, 



INF 



369 



INH 



and swfet fennel seed, of each, 3j ; boiling water, 
f^xij ; infuse 2 hours. Vermifuge. Dose. A wiue- 
giassful or more every morning, fasting. 

INFUSION OF SPEARMINT. Syn. Inf. 
MENTiiiK SIMPLEX. Piep. (P. D.) Dried leaves 
3ij ; boiling water f 3viij ; infuse half an hour. 
Stomachic. Dose. A wine-glassful ad libitum. 

INFUSION OF SPEARMINT, COM- 
POUND. Syn. IxF. Mentha comp. Prep. (P. 
D.) To the last, as soon as cold, add oil of mint 
3 drops, and lump sugar 3ij, previously rubbed to- 
gether, and dissolved in compound tincture of car- 
damoms f^ss. Dose. As last. A grateful sto- 
machic, in flatulency, &c. 

INFUSION OF SVVEETFLAG. Syn. Inf. 
AcoRi Calami. Prep. I. (Brande.) Calamus 
aromaticus §j ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 4 
hours. 

II. (Paris.) Dried root 3vj, to water f ^xij. 

III. (Pereira.) fj to ffxij of water. Stoma- 
chic, tonic, febrifuge. 

INFUSION OF TANSY. Syn. Tansy Tea. 
Inf. Tanaceti. Prep. I. (Pereira.) Green herb 
^ij ; boiling water 1 pint ; infuse. 

II. (Nieman.) Tansy §j ; boiling water 1 pint. 
Aromatic, bitter, tonic, and vermifuge. Dose. 2 
to 4 oz. 

INFUSION OF TOBACCO, Syn. Inf. Ta- 
BACi. Prep. (P. D.) TobaccQ leaves 3j ; water 1 
pint ; infuse for half an hour. (See Enema of 
Tobacco.) ~~ 

INFUSION OF TREFOIL. Syn. Inf. Me- 
NYANTiiis. Prep. (Pereira.) Marsh trefoil leaves 
§ss ; boiling water f ^xvj ; infuse 1 hour. 

INFUSION OF TURMERIC. Syn. Inf. 
CuRCUM/E. Prep. Turmeric ^iss ; boiling water 
1 pint ; infuse 1 hour. Used as a test, and to 
prepare a test-paper. ■ Alkalis turn it brown. If 
wanted to keep, add spirit of wine f §iij, to the 
cold infusion. 

INFUSION OF VALERIAN. Syn. Inf. 
Valeriana, (P. L. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Vale- 
rian root ^ss ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate half 
an hour, in a covered vessel. Dose. 1^ oz. to 2 
oz., two or three times a day, in nervous and hys- 
terical complaints. 

INFUSION OF WHORTLEBERRY. Syn. 
Inf. Uv.'E Ursi. Prep. Leaves 3iv ; boiling wa- 
ter 1 pint ; macerate 3 hours. With alkalis, hen- 
bane or opium, in diseases of the urinary organs ; 
and with sulphuric acid and foxglove, in aifections 
of the luags. 

INFUSION OF WORMWOOD. Syn. Inf. 
AnsiNTHii. Prep. (Brande.) Fresh leaves of 
wormwood ^ij ; boiling water 1 plat ; macerate 4 
hours. Bitter, stomachic. 

INFUSION, PECTORAL. Syn. Inf. pec- 
TORALE. Prep. (E. H.) Linseed ^iss ; liquorice 
3iv ; coltsfoot leaves ^j ; boiUng water 3 pints ; di- 
gest 4 hours, and strain. 

INFUSION, STIMULANT. Syn. Inf. sti- 
mulans. Prep. (Dr. Paris.) Black mustard seed, 
bruised, and dittander, of each, §ss ; boiling water 
§xvj ; macerate for 1 hour, strain, and when cold 
add spirits of sal volatile 3j ; spirit of pimento §ss. 
Dose. 2 tablespoonfuls 3 times a day in palsy. 

INFUSIONS, TONIC. Syn. Strengthen- 
INg Infusions. Prep. 1. Compound infusion of 
gentian 1 oz. ; bicarbotiate of potassa or soda 
47 



20 grs. ; tincture of cascarilla f 3j ; mix for a 
dose. 

II. Infusion of cascarilla I^ oz. ; tinctures of 
cascarilla and ginger, of each, 1 dr. ; mix for a 
dose. 

III. Infusion of calumba 1 oz. ; bicarbonate or 
carbonate of soda 25 grs. ; tincture of ginger and 
compound tincture of cardamoms, of each, 3j ; 
mix for a dose. The above are all taken in dys- 
pepsia, and in loss of appetite arising from hard 
drinking. 

INFUSIONS, (CONCENTRATED.) These 
are now very generally met with in trade, and 
are made of 8 times the pharmacopceial strength. 
They are mostly prepared by employing 8 times 
the usual quantity of ingredients, and only |-lhs of 
the proper quantity of water, and adding to the 
strained liquor, when cold, sufficient spirit of wine 
to bring the liquid up to the proper strength, 
(about ^ of the weight of the strained infusion.) 
A still better plan is to treat 8 times the usual 
quantity of the ingredients with a mixture of rec- 
tified spirit 1 part, and cold water 3 parts ; in the 
usual way for making tinctures, either by mace- 
ration for 7 to 14 days, or by percolation. Con- 
centrated infusions made in this way keep well, 
and deposite scarcely any sediment. Many houses 
that are remarkable for the brilliancy and beauty 
of these preparations, employ J- spirit of wine and 
§ water as the menstruum. It may, however, be 
taken as a general rule, that for vegetable sub- 
stances that abound in woody fibre, and contain 
but little extractive matter soluble in water, (as 
quassia for instance,) ^ to I part of spirit is suffi- 
cient for their preservation ; while for those abound- 
ing in mucilage or fecula, or that readily soften 
and become pulpy and glutinous in weak spirit (as 
rhubarb) i to ^ is required. By macerating in 
the infusion as much bruised mustard seed as can 
be added without flavoring the liquor, along with 
a little bruised cloves, I find that most vegetable 
infusions may be preserved without either ferment- 
ing or becoming mouldy with very little spirit, (^ 
or — ;) in fact, I have now by me infusions of 
quassia and orange-peel, and compound decoction 
of sarsaparilla, which were prepared without any 
spirit 18 months ago, and which are now as trans- 
parent and full-flavored as when first made. (See 
Concentrated Decoctions.) 

INHALATION. Inhalatio, (Lat., from in- 
halo, to breathe in.) In Medicine, the drawing 
in of vapors or gases along with the breath, for 
the purpose of their acting on the mucous mem- 
brane of the air-passages. The substances that 
are to furnish the vapors or fumes are put into a 
vessel called an ' inhaler,' which is merely a small 
covered pot or mug of metal or glass, furnished 
with a short flexible tube, terminating iu a small 
mouth-piece. The following are the principal sub- 
stances that are employed for the above purpose 
at the present day: — 1. The steam of hot loafer, 
in bronchitis, and to allay the cough in phthisis ; 
small quantities of the seeds of henbane, opium, 
poppy-heads, «&c., are frequently added to produce 
an anodyne effect. 2. Tar vapor, obtained by 
heating tar, mixed with a little carbonate of pot- 
ash, over a spirit lamp. Occasionally employed in 
bronchitis, and recommended by Sir A. CrightOE 
in phthisic, but is useless in the latter. 3. ChlO' 



INJ 



370 



INJ 



rine gas, exhibited by adding 5 or 6 drops of 
aqueous chlorine to the water (tepid) of the in- 
haler, which should be of glass. Employed in 
Fraiace for phthisis, but seldom used in England. 
4. Vapor of iodine, administered as the last, and 
occasionally used in phthisis. 5. Oxygen and hy- 
drogen gases, alone or diluted with air, employed 
m asthma and phthisis, by means of a bladder 
and mouth-piece. 6. Carbonic acid gas and ni- 
trous oxide, occasionally used as the last in 
phthisis. 

INJECTION. Syn. Injectio, (Lat, from 
injicio, to cast into.) Liquid medicines thrown 
into the cavities of the body by means of a syringe 
or elastic bag. Those thrown into the rectum are 
commonly called clysters, or enemata. (See 
Enema.) The following are the principal injec- 
tions employed in medical practice at the present 
day : — 

INJECTION FOR DEAFNESS. Syn. In- 
jectio ACOusTiCA. Prep. I. Ox gall 3 dr., ; bal- 
sam of Peru 1 dr. ; mix. 

II. Oil of almonds or olives 2 oz. ; oil of amber 
20 drops ; tincture of castor 1 dr. ; spirit of cam- 
phor i dr. ; laudanum 3 drops ; mix. 

INJECTION, LITHONTRIPTIC. Syn. 
Inj. lithontriptica. Prep. (Chevallier.) Car- 
bonate of soda 3j ; Castile soap §ij ; water f §xij ; 
dissolve. For calculus. 

INJECTION OF ACETATE OF AMMO- 
NIA. Syn. Inj. Ammonite acetatis. Prep. 
(P. C.) Liquor of acetate of ammonia f j ; water 
§iij ; mix. 

INJECTION OF ALUM. Syn. Inj. Alu- 
minis. Prep. I. (Collier) a. Alum 18 grs. ; rose- 
water f §vj ; for the urethra. — h. Alum 3iij ; wa- 
ter 1 quart ; for the vagina. 

II. (Brande.) Compound liquor of alum 3vj ; 
water f^viss; mucilage §ss. 

III. (P. C.) Alum 4 grs. ; rose-water §iv. All 
the above are astringent. 

INJECTION OF AMMONIA. Syn. Inj. 
Ammonia. Prep. (Lavagna.) Liquor of ammonia 
8 to 12 drops; milk §ij ; mix. Stimulant and 
emollient. 

INJECTION OF BICHLORIDE OF MER- 
CURY. Syn. Inj. Hydrargyri Bichloridi. Inj. 
CoRRosivi SuBLiMATi. Prep. I. (P. C.) Corrosive 
sulimate 8 to 12 grs. ; water 1 quart. ' 

II. (P. H.) To the last add wine of opium f ^j. 

III. Corrosive sublimate 5 grs. ; rose-water 2 
oz. Used to promote a healthy action, and to 
prevent infection. 

INJECTION OF CALOMEL. Syn. Inj. 
Calomelanos. Prep. (P. C.) Calomel 3ss ; 
quince mucilage §iv. 

INJECTION OF CHLORINE. Stjn. Inj. 
Chlorinata. Prep. Liquor of chloride of soda 
Sj ; water ^^ij. As above. 

INJECTION OF COPAIBA. Syn. Inj 
CoPAiByE. Prep. (P. C.) Balsam of copaiba 3ij ; 
mucilage §ss ; lime water §iv ; make an emulsion. 
Used in diseases of the mucous membranes of the 
urethra and vagina. 

INJECTION OF ACETATE OF COPPER. 
Syn. Inj. Cupri acetatis. Prep. (P. C.) Ver- 
digris 10 grs.; oif of almonds ^'v ; triturate until 
dissolved, then strain. 

INJECTION OF ACETATE OF LEAD. 



Syn. Inj. Plumbi acetatis. Prep. (Collier.) 
Sugar of lead 40 grs. ; rose-water ^viij. 

INJECTION OF AMMONIATED COP 
PER, Syn. Inj. Cupri ammoniati. Inj. Cupri 
ammonio-sulphatis Prep. I. (P. C.) Liquor of 
ammonio-sulphate of copper 20 drops ; rose-water 

II. (Swediaur.) Ammonio-sulphate of copper 5 
grs. ; rose-water §viij. 

INJECTION OF SULPHATE OF COP- 
PER. Syn. Inj. Cupri sulphatis. Prep. Sul- 
phate of copper 5 grs. ; rose-water §iv. 

INJECTION OF SULPHATE OF COP- 
PER, (COMPOUND.) Prep. To the last add 
solution of diacetate of lead 20 drops. The above 
cupreous injections are all mildly detergent and 
escharotic. 

INJECTION OF CUBEBS. Syn. Inj. Cu- 
bes^. Prep. Cubebs, in powder, fj ; extract of 
belladonna 3j ; boiling water f §xvj ; infuse in a 
covered v^-^sel, and strain. In diseases of the 
mucous membranes. Irritant and narcotic. 

INJECTION OF LEAD. Syn. Inj. Plumbi. 
Prep. Liquor of diacetate of lead 3ss ; rose-water 

INJECTION OF LEAD AND OPIUM. 
Syn. Inj. Plumbi opiata. Prep. (Wendt.) 
Aqueous extract of opium 1^ gr. ; mucilage 3ij ; 
solution of diacetate of lead 4 drops ; water §ij 
The above are cooling, sedative, and anodyne. 

INJECTION OF MERCURY. Syn. Inj. 
Hydrargyrl Prep. I. (P. C.) Quicksilver 3j ; 
gum §iss ; rub till combined, then add water §iss. 

II. (E, H.) Quicksilver and balsam of copaiba, 
of each 3iv ; yelk of 1 egg ; rose-water i^ a pint. 

INJECTION OF MORPHIA. Syn. Inj. 
Morphia. Prep. (Brera.) Morphia 2 grs. ; oil 
of almonds f j ; dissolve. Anodyne and emollient. 

INJECTION OF MURIATIC ACID. Syn. 
Inj. Acim muriatici. Prep. (P. C.) Muriatic 
acid 8 drops ; water §iv. 

INJECTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER. 
Syn. Inj. Argenti nitratis. Prep. I. (Colliea) 
Nitrate of silver 2 grs. ; rose-water 1 oz. ; dissolve. 

II. (Jewell.) Nitrate of silver 12 grs. ; distilled 
water f fvj. For fistulous sores. 

INJECTION OF OIL OF ALMONDS. Syn. 
Inj. Oleosa. Prep. (P. C.) Oil of almonds 3iv ; 
solution of diacetate of lead 8 drops ; mix. Emol- 
lient and sedative. 

INJECTION OF OPIUM. Syn. Inj. Opiata. 
Prep. I. (P. C.) Laudanum 40 drops ; water ^iv. 

II. (Fr. H.) Wine of opium 5j ; barley water I 
pint. Anodyne. 

INJECTION OF TANNIN. Syn. Inj. 
Tannini. Inj. Acidi Tannici. Prep. (Richard.) 
Tannin 3j ; water ^viij ; dissolve. Astringent. 

INJECTION OF TEA. Syn. Inj. The.e. 
Prep (P. C.) Green tea 3j ; boiling water ^viij ; 
infuse. Astringent; frequently used in fl nor albus. 

INJECTION OF TURPENTINPl Sytu 
Inj. Terebinthin.e. Prep. (St. B. H.) Olive oil 
f §xij ; oil of turpentine f^iss. Vermifuge. 

INJECTION OF VVINE. Syn. Inj. Vini 
Prep. (Earle.) Red wine §xij ; water §iv ; mix 
Astringent ; in hydrocele. 

INJECTION OF WHITELEAD. Syn. 
Inj. CerussjE comp. Prep. (P. C.) Compound 



INK 



371 



INK 



powder of carbonate of lead 3j ; sulphate of zinc 
6 grs. ; rose-water ^iv., 

INJECTION OF ACETATE OF ZINC. 
Syn. Inj. Zinci acetatis. Prep. Sulphate of 
zinc 3j ; acetate of lead 3iv ; water 1 pint ; mix, 
and filter. 

INJECTION OF SULPHATE OF ZINC. 
Syn. Inj. Zinci sulpuatis. Prep. (P. C.) Sul- 
phate of zinc 4 to 10 grs. ; water f^'v. 

INK. Syn. Writing Fluid. Atramentum, 
(Lat.) Encre, (Fr.) Tinte, {Ger.) Colored liquid 
employed for writing with a pen. Ink is made of 
various substances and colors, of which the follow- 
ing are the principal : — 

INK, BLACK. Prep. I. Bruised Aleppo nut- 
galls 12 lbs. ; water 6 galls. ; boil in a copper ves- 
sel for 1 hour, adding water to make up for the 
portion lost by evaporation ; strain and again boil 
the galls with water 4 gallons, for ^ an hour, strain 
off the liquor and boil a third time with water 2^ 
gallons, and strain ; mix the several liquors, and 
while still hot add green copperas, coarsely pow- 
dered, 4 lbs. ; gum arable bruised small 3^ lbs. ; 
agitate until dissolved, and after defecation, strain 
through a hair sieve, and keep it in a bunged-up 
cask for use. Product. 12 gallons, very fine and 
durable. 

II. Campeachy logwood chips 3 lbs. ; bruised 
galls 9 lbs. ; boil in water as above, and to the 
mixed liquors add gum arable and green copperas, 
of each 4 lbs. ; to produce 16^ galls, of ink. Qual- 
ity. Very good. 

III. (Lewis.) Bruised galls, 3 lbs. ; gum and 
sulphate of iron, of each 1 lb. ; vinegar 1 gall. ; 
water 2 galls. ; macerate with frequent agitation 
for 14 days. To produce 3 galls. Fine quality. 

IV. (M. Ribaucourt.) Bruiiied galls 1 lb. ; log- 
wood, in thin chips, and sulphate of iron, of each 
i lb. ; gum 6 oz. ; sulphate of copper and sugar 
candy, of each 1 oz. Boil the sfalls and logwood 
m 2^ galls, of water for 1 hour, or until reduced 
to one half, strain, add the other ingredients, and 
stir until dissolved, then decant land preserve in 
stone or glass bottles, well corked. Full colored. 

V. (M. Desormeaux, jun.) Logwood chips 4 
oz. ; water 6 quarts ; boil 1 hour and strain 5 
quarts ; add bruised galls 1 lb. ; sulphate of iron 
calcined to whiteness 4 oz. ; brown sugar 3 oz. ; 
gum 6 oz. ; acetate of copper \ oz. ; agitate twice 
a day for a fortnight, then decant the clear, bottle 
and cork up for use. 

VI. Bruised galls 2 lbs. ; logwood, green cop- 
peras, and gum, of each 1 lb. : water 6 gallons ; 
boil the whole of the ingredients in the water for 
1^ hours, and strain 5 galls. Good, but not fine. 

VII. Bruised galls 1 lb. ; logwood 2 lbs. ; com- 
mon gum I lb. ; green copperas ^ lb. ; water 5 
gallons ; boil. Common, but fit for ordinary pur- 
poses. 

VII. (Patent.) Logwood shavings and powdered 
galls, of each 2 lbs. ; green vitriol 1 lb. : gum ^ lb. ; 
pomegranate bark ^ lb. ; water 1 gallon ; infuse 
14 days, with frequent agitation. 

Vlil. {Asiatic.) The same as the last. Both 
write pale, but turn very black by keeping, and 
flow well from the pen. 

IX. {Used in^the Prerogative Office.) Bruised 
galls 1 lb. ; gum arable 6 oz. ; alum 2 oz. ; green 
vitriol 7 oz. ; kino 3 oz. ; logwood raspmgs or saw- 



dust 4 oz. ; water 1 gallon ; macerate as last. Said 
to write well on parchment. 

X. {Japan.) This is a black and glossy kind of 
ink, which may be prepared from either of the 
above receipts by calcining the copperas until white 
or yellow, or by sprinkling it (in powder) with a 
little nitric acid before adding it to the decoction, 
(preferably the former,) by which the ink is ren- 
dered of a full black as soon as made. The glossi- 
ness is given by using more gum. Flows less 
easily from the pen, and is less durable than ink 
that writes paler and afterwards turns black. 

XI. {Exchequer.) Bruised galls 40 lbs. ; gum 
10 lbs. ; green sulphate of iron 9 lbs. ; soft water 
45 gallons ; macerate for 3 weeks, employing fre- 
quent agitation. " This ink will endure for centu- 
ries." 

Remarks. The ink prepared by the first formula 
is the most durable, and will bear dilution with 
nearly its own weight of water, and still be equal 
to the ordinary ink of the shops. I have writing 
by me that was executed with this kind of ink up- 
wards of 50 years ago, which still possesses a good 
color. The respective qualities of the others are 
noticed at the foot of each. 

According to the most accurate experiments on 
the preparation of black ink, it appears that the 
quantity of sulphate of iron should not exceed one- 
third part of that of the galls, by which an excess 
of coloring matter, which is necessary for the du- 
rability of the black, is preserved in the liquid. 
Gum, by shielding the writing from the action of 
the air, tends to preserve the color, but if much is 
employed, the ink flows languidly from quill pens, 
and scarcely at ail from steel pens. The latter 
require a very limpid ink. The addition of sugar 
increases the flowing property of ink, but makes it 
dry more slowly, and frequently passes into vine- 
gar, when it acts injuriously on the pen. Vinegar, 
for a like reason, is not calculated for the men- 
struum. 

The addition of a few bruised cloves, or a little 
oil of cloves ; or still better, a few drops of creo- 
sote, will effectually prevent any tendency to 
mouldiness in ink. The best blue galls should 
alone be employed in making ink. 

Sumach, logwood, and oak bark, are frequently 
substituted for galls in the preparation of common 
ink. When such is the case, only about one-sixth 
or one-seventh of their weight of copperas should 
be employed. 

The most permanent (tanno-gallate) inks are 
those which contain the proper quantity of oxide 
of iron, at the minimum of oxldlzement, in a state 
of solution or minute suspension, by which means, 
not only does a larger quantity of the fluid flow 
from the pen on to a given space, but it also sinks 
into the substance of the paper, by which the stain 
is rendered more permanent and less easily re- 
moved by attrition. Such inks are uniformly pale 
until exposed to the air for some days, when they 
acquire their full color. When the iron is at the 
maxlmmi of oxldlzement, as is the case when cal- 
cined copperas is employed, the ink writes of a full 
black at first, but from its coloring matter being 
merely a suspended precipitate, it rests upon the 
surface of the paper without sinking into it, and 
may consequently be more easily erased than the 
i former. Its black color is also more liable to fade. 



INK 



372 



INK 



The very general use of steel pens has caused a 
corresponding demand for easy flowing inks, many 
of which have been of late years introduced under 
the title of" writing fluids," or "steel-pen ink." 
These are mostly prepared from galls in the prece- 
ding manner, but a less quantity of gum is em- 
ployed. The bkie writing fluids which either main- 
tain their color or turn black by exposure, are pre 
pared from the ferrocyanide of potassium, or from 
hidigo. (See Writing Fluids.) 

INKS, BLUE. Syn. Blue Writing Fluids. 
Prep. I. Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and added 
to water until a proper shade of color is produced, 
as much potash or soda being also added as the 
liquid will bear without dropping its color. 

II. Powdered Prussian blue 1 oz. ; concentrated 
muriatic acid 1^ to 2 oz. ; mix in a matrass or glass 
bottle, and after 24 or 30 hours, dilute the mass 
with a sufficient quantity of water. 

III. (Mohr.) Pure Prussian blue 6 parts ; oxalic 
acid 1 pan ; triturate with a httle water to a per- 
fectly smooth paste, then dilute with a proper 
quantity of soft water. Both this and the last pro- 
duce a superb liquid blue, admirably calculated for 
writing with, when the process is properly man- 
aged and the Prussian blue pure ; but it will not 
succeed with every sample of that pigment. A lit- 
tle gum may be added, if required, to prevent the 
fluid spreading on the paper, 

INKS, COLORED. Inks of various colors 
may be made from a strong decoction of the ingre- 
dients used in dyeing, mixed with a little alum and 
gum arable. Any of the ordinary water-color 
cakes employed in drawing, diffused through wa- 
ter, may also be used for colored inks. 

INK, COPYING. This is prepared by adding 
a little sugar to ordinary black ink. Writing exe- 
cuted with this ink may be copied within the space 
of 5 or 6 hours, by passing it through a press in 
contact with thin unsized paper, when a reversed 
copy will be obtained, but which will read in proper 
order by holding the back of the copy towards 
you. Writing executed with this ink may be co- 
pied after any lapso of time, by employing damp 
copying paper. A warm flat-iron passed over the 
latter laid upon the writing, may be substituted for 
the use of the copying press. 

INK, GOLD. Prep. Honey and gold leaf 
equal parts ; grind together upon a painter's por- 
phyry slab with a muller, until the gold is reduced 
to the finest possible state of division, and the mass 
becomes perfectly homogeneous, when it must be 
agitated with 20 or 30 times its weight of hot wa- 
ter, and then allowed to settle and the water poured 
off'; this process must be repeated with fresh water 
2 or 3 times, when the gold must be dried and then 
mixed up with a little weak gum water for use. 
The brilliancy of writing performed with this ink 
is considerable, and may be increased by, burnish- 
ing. Gold ink may also be made by mixing pre- 
cipitated gold powder with a little gum water. 

INK, GREEN. Prep. L (Klaproth.) Ver- 
digris 2 oz. ; cream of tartar 1 oz. ; water ^ a pint ; 
boil to one half and filter. 

II. Make a strong solution of binacetate of cop- 
per in water, or of verdigris in viuogar. 

INK, INDELIBLE. Syn. Marking Ink. 
Permanent Ink. Prep. I. Nitrate of silver \ oz. ; 
hot distilled water \ oz. ; when cooled a little, add 



mucilage \ oz., and sap green or sirup of buck 
thorn to color ; mix well. The linen must be first 
moistened with " liquid pounce," or " the prepar- 
ation," as it is commonly called, dried, and then 
written on with a clean quill pen. This ink will 
bear dilution if not wanted very black. 

The pounce or preparation. Carbonate of soda 
1 oz. to 1^ oz., water 1 pint ; color with a little sap 
green or sirup of buckthorn. 

II. {Without preparation.) Nitrate of silver I 
to 2 dr. ; water | oz. ; dis-solve, add as much of the 
strongest ammonia water as will dissolve the pre- 
cipitate formed on its first addition, then further 
add mucilage 1 or 2 drachms, and a little sap green 
to color. Writing executed with this ink turns 
black on being passed over a hot Italian iron. 

III. Terchloride of gold 1^ drachms ; water 7 
drs. ; mucilage 1 dr. ; sap green to color ; mix. 
To be written with on a ground prepared with a 
weak solution of protomuriate of tin, and dried. 

Remarks. The products of the first two of the 
above forms constitute the marking inks of the 
shops. They have, however, no claim to the title 
of " indelible ink" — " which no art can extract 
without injuring the fabric" — as is genially rep- 
resented. On the contrary, they may e dis- 
charged with almost as much facility as common 
iron-moulds. This may be easily and cheaply 
effected with either chlorine or ammonia, without 
in the least injuring the texture of tha- fabric to 
which it may be applied. From a great number 
of experiments which I have lately made on the 
subject, I find that this kind of ink may be dis- 
charged from even the finest muslins, without im- 
pairing their quality. The only precaution re- 
quired, is that of rinsing them in clean water 
immediately after tjie operation. (See Chem., ii. 
210.) The " marking ink without preparation,^^ 
is also more easily extracted than that " with prep- 
aration ;" and the former has also the disadvantage 
of not keeping so well as the latter, and of deposit- 
ing a portion of fulminating silver, under some 
circumstances, which renders its use dangerous. 
The best marking ink made at the present day is 
the heraldic ink. This ink is either applied with 
a stamp or pen, and by the former linen may be 
marked with great facility and neatness. 

INK, INCORRODIBLE. Prep. I. (Mr. 
Close.) a. Powdered copal 25 grs. ; oil of laven- 
der 200 grs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, add lamp- 
black 3 grs., indigo 1 gr. — h. Powdered copal 1 
part ; oil of lavender 7 parts ; vermilion 4 parts ; 
as last. 

II. (Mr. Hausman.) Genuine asphaltum 1 part ; 
oil of turpentine 4 parts ; dissolve, and add lamp- 
black or blacklead to bring it to a proper con.sist- 
ence. Resists the action of iodine, chlorine, alka- 
lis, and acids. 

III. (Sheldrake.) Asphaltum dissolved in am- 
ber varnish and oil of turpentine, and colored with 
lampblack. 

IV. (Cooley.) Asphaltum 1 part ; oil of turpen- 
tine 4 parts ; dissolve, and color with printer's ink. 
Very permanent. 

Remarks. The above are frequently called " In- 
delude inks." They are employed lor writing la- 
bels on bottles containing strong acids and alka- 
line solutions. The second and last are very per- 
manent, and are capable of resisting all the opera- 



INK 



373 



INO 



tions of dyeing and bleaching, and at once offer a 
cheap and excellent material for marking linen, 
&c., as they cannot be dissolved off by any men- 
strua that will not destroy the fabric. They must 
be employed with stamps or types, which is a 
neater method th^n that with a brush or pen. 

V. (M. Bezanger.) This patent ink consists of 
lampblack and caustic soda, mixed with gelatin 
and caustic soda. It is said to be indelible, and to 
resemble China ink. (Moniteur Industriel.) 

VI. Indian ink, ground up with ordinary black 
writing ink, forms a cheap indelible ink for common 
purposes. It will resist the action of chlorine, 
most acids, and even ablution with a brush or sponge. 

INK, INDIAN. Syn. China Ink. Indicum. 
Atramentum Indicum. Prep. I. (Proust.) Purify 
real lampblack by washing it with potash lye, dry, 
make it into a thick paste with a solution of glue, 
mould and dry. 

II. (M. Merim^e.) Dissolve glue in wa'i,er, add 
a strong solution of nutgalls, and wash the precipi- 
tate in hot water ; then dissolve it in a spare solu- 
tion of glue, filter, evaporate to a proper thickness, 
and form it into a paste as before, with purified 
lampblack. 

III. (Cooley.) Boil a weak solution of glue at a 
high temperature in a Papin's digester for i2 hours, 
then boil it in an open vessel for 1 hour more, filler 
and evaporate to a proper consistence, then make 
a paste as before with purified lampblack, adding 
a few drops of essence of musk and about half as 
much essence of ambergris to perfume ; lastly, 
mould into cakes, and when dry, ornament them 
with Chinese characters and devices. Quality very 
superior ; does not gelatinize in cold weather like 
ordinary imitations. 

IV. (Gray.) Pure lampblack made up with 
asses' skin glue, and scented with musk. 

V. Seed lac ^ oz. ; borax 1 dr. ; water ^ pint ; 
boil to' 8 oz., filter, and make a paste with pure 
lampblack as before. Good ; when dry it resists 
the action of water. 

Remarks. The Chinese do not use glue in the 
preparation of their ink, but a glutinous vegetable 
juice or solution, which at once imparts brilliancy 
and durability. Starch coii"verted into gum by 
means of sulphuric acid, or British gum, has been 
recommended as a substitute, (M. Merimee.) But 
from information afforded me by a gentleman 
who has resided some years in China, I am led to 
believe that the liquid employed by the Chinese to 
convert their black pigment into a paste, is either an 
infusion or decoction of some seeds abounding in 
mucilage, and not the juice of a plant as usually 
supposed. Indian ink is chiefly employed by art- 
ists, but it has been occasionally given as a medi- 
cine, dissolved in water or wine, in hemorrhages 
and stomach complaints. Dose. 1 to 2 dr. 

INK, MARKING. Ink bottoms. Used by 
packers for marking bales, boxes, &c. 

INK, PERPETUAL. Prep. Pitch 3 lbs. ; melt 
over the fire, then add lampblack 1 lb. ; mix well. 
Used in a melted state to fill the letters on tomb- 
stones, marbles, &.c. Without actual violence it 
will endure as long as the stone itself. 

INK, RED. Prep. I. Ground Brazil wood 8 
oz. ; vinegar 10 pints ; macerate for 4 or 5 days ; 
boil in a tinned-copper vessel to one half, then add 
roach alum 8 oz., and gum 3 oz. ; dissolve. 



II. As the last, but use water or beer instead of 
vinegar. 

III. Stale beer 1 pint ; cochineal, bruised, 1 dr.; 
gum arable 1 oz. ; ground Brazil and alum, of each 

2 oz. ; boil or macerate with agitation for 14 days, 
and strain. 

IV. Pure carmine 12 grs. ; water of ammonia 

3 oz. ; disriolve, then add powdered gum 18 grs. 
Half a drachm of powdered drop lake may be sub- 
stituted for the carmine where expense is an ob- 
ject. Color superb. (Buchner's Repert.) 

V. Cochineal, in powder, 1 oz. ; hot water i 
pint; digest, and when quite cold, add spirit of 
hartshorn ^ pint, or liquor of ammonia 1 oz. ; di- 
lute with 3 or 4 oz. of water ; macerate for a few 
days longer, then decant the clear. Color, very 
fine. 

INK, SILVER. This is prepared like gold ink. 

INKS, SYMPATHETIC. Fluids which, 
when employed for writing on paper, do not ren- 
der the marks visible till acted on by some re- 
agent. Sympathetic inks are commonly employed 
as the instruments of secret correspondence, and 
frequently escape detection, but by heating the 
paper before the fire until it is nearly sco. v.,hed, the 
whole of them may be rendered visible. 

The following are the most common and amu- 
sing sympathetic inks : — 1. Sulphate of copper and 
sal ammoniac, equal parts, dissolved in water ; 
writes colorless but turns yellow when heated. — 2. 
Onion juice, like the last. — 3. A weak infusion of 
galls ; turns black when moistened with Vv'eak cop- 
peras water. — 4. A weak solution of sulphate of 
iron ; turns blue when moistened with a weak so- 
lution of prussiate of potash, and black with infu- 
sion of galls. — 5. The diluted solutions of nitrate 
of silver and terchloride of gold ; darkens when ex- 
posed to the sunlight. — 6. Aquafortis, spirits of 
salts, oil of vitriol, common salt or saltpetre dis- 
solved in a large quantity of water ; turns yellow 
or brown when heated. — 7. Solution of nitromu- 
riate of cobalt ; turns green when heated, and dis- 
appears again on cooling. — 8. Solution of acetate 
of cobalt, to which a little nitre has been added ; 
becomes rose-colored when heated, and disappears 
on cooling. 

INK, YELLOW. Prep. I. Boil French ber- 
ries i lb., and alum 1 oz., in water 1 quart, for 
half an hour or longer, then strain and dissolve in 
the hot liquor, gum arable 1 oz. 

II. Gamboge in coarse powder 1 oz. ; hot water 
5 oz. ; dissolve, and when cold, add spirit ^ oz. or 
1 oz. 

INK, TO RESTORE FADED. Writing ren- 
dered illegible by age may be restored by moisten- 
ing it by means of a feather with an infusion of 
galls, or a solution of prussiate. of potash slightly 
acidulated with muriatic acid, observing so to ap- 
ply the liquid as to prevent the ink spreading. 

INK STAINS may be readily removed from 
white articles by means of a little salt of lemons, 
diluted muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or tartaric acid, 
and hot water ; or by means of a little solution of 
chlorine or chloride of lime. The spots should be 
afterwards thoroughly rinsed in warm water, be- 
fore touching them with soap. Marking ink may 
be removed by ammonia water, solution of chlo- 
ride of lime, liquid chlorine, or iodine. 

INOCULATION. (In Surgery.) The inser- 



lOD 



374 



TOD 



tion of poisonous or infectious matter into any part 
of the body for the purpose of propagating a mild 
form of disease, and thus preventing or lessening 
the virulence of future attacks. The word is gener- 
ally applied to the insertion of the virus of the 
common smallpox, by which a milder form of the 
disease is produced, than when it is caught in the 
natural way. Vaccination has now veiy generally 
superseded inoculation. 

Oper. Inoculation is performed by inserting the 
point of a lancet wetted with smallpox matter un- 
der the cuticle, and afterwards gently rubbing the 
moistened point over the scratch. 

INULIN. Syn. Alantin. Menyanthin. Ele- 
CAMPiN. Dahlin. Datiscin. A peculiar starch- 
hke substance first obtained by Rose from the inula 
helenium or elecampane. It may be obtained by 
boiling elecampane in 4 times its weight of water, 
and allowing the decoction to repose for a short 
time. It is distinguished from starch by the pre- 
cipitate formed in the cold decoction by an infu- 
sion of gall nuts, not disappearing until the liquid 
IS heated to above 212°, while the precipitate 
from starch redissolves at 122° F. Inulin is solu- 
ble in boiling water, but separates as the liquid 
cools. 

lODATE. Si/m Iodas, (Lat.) A compound 
formed of iodic acid and a base in definite pro- 
portion. The iodates resemble the chlorates of 
the corresponding bases. They may be easily 
recognised by the development of free iodine 
when treated with sulphurous, phosphorous, and 
hydrochloric acids, and other deoxydizing agents, 
and by their solutions being converted into iodides 
when treated with sulphureted hydrogen. They 
are all of sparing solubility, and many are quite in- 
soluble in water. All the insoluble iodates may 
be obtained from the iodate of potassa, by decom- 
posing it in solution by a solution of a soluble salt 
of the base, 

IODATE OF MERCURY. Syn. Hydkakgyri 
Iodas. Prep. Precipitate a solution of mercury 
in nitric acid with another of iodate of potassa. A 
yellow powder resembling Turpeth's mineral. 

IODATE OF POTASSA. Syn. Potass^ 
loDAS. Prep. I. Neutralize a hot solution of 
potassa with iodine, evaporate to dryness by a 
gentle heat, powder, and digest in alcohol, to dis- 
solve out the iodide of potassium, then dissolve the 
residue in hot water and crystallize. 

II. (M. Henry, jun.) Iodide of potassium 2 
parts ; chlorate of potassa 3 do. ; fuse the iodide of 
potassium in a large Hessian crucible ; remove it 
froni the fire, and add, while still fluid, successive 
portions of the powdered chlorate of potassa, stir- 
ring well after each addition. When the matter 
ceases to froth up, cool, powder, and digest in 
tepid water to dissolve out the chloride of potas- 
sium, when the residue may be dissolved in hot 
water and crystallized. 

Remarks. Iodate of potassa has been recom- 
mended in bronchocele. A biniodate and teriodate 
of potassa may also be formed, but possess little 
interest. 

IODATE OF SILVER. Syn. Argenti 
loDAs. Prep. From a solution of nitrate of silver, 
as Iodate of Mercury. A white powder, soluble in 
ammonia. 

IODIC ACID. Syn. Oxiodine. Acidum 



loDicuM. An acid compound of iodine and 
oxygen discovered by Gay Lussac and Davy. 

Prep. I. Dissolve iodate of soda in sulphuric 
acid m considerable excess, boil for 15 minutes, and 
set the solution aside to crystallize. Pure. 

II. (M. Boursen.) loctine 1 part; strongest 
(monohydrated) nitric acid 4 parts ; mix, and 
apply a gentle heat until the color of the iodine 
disappears, then evaporate to dryness and leave 
the residuum in the open air at a temperature of 
about 15° C. When by attracting moisture it 
has acquired the consistence of a sirup, put it into 
a place where the temperature is higher and the 
air drier, when in a few days very fine white crys- 
tals of rhomboidal shape will form. (Compt 
Rend, xxiv.) Pure. 

III. (J. L. Lassaigne.) Treat a solution of 
nitrate of silver with an excess of iodine, filter, 
evaporate to dryness, and proceed as last. Pure. 

IV. Diffuse iodine in powder through distilled 
water, then pass a current of chlorine through the 
liquid ; evaporate. 

Remarks. Iodic acid is decomposed into oxygen 
and iodine by a heat of about 450 to 500° F. It 
is very soluble in water and deliquescent ; it deto- 
nates with inflammable bodies like the nitrates and 
chlorates; with the bases it forms salts called 
Iodates. The Iodate of soda above alluded to 
may be made in the same way as the iodate of 
potassa. Iodic acid is used as a test for morphia 
and sulphurous acid. (See Iodate.) 

IODIDE. Syn. Iodure. Ioduret. Hy- 

DRIODATE. loDIDUM ; loDURETUM ; PIydRIODAS, 

{Lat.) A compound of iodine and a base. 

IODIDE OF ARSENIC. Syn. Arsenici 
Iodidum. Prep. (Wacl^enroder.) Sublimed me- 
tallic arsenic 1 gr. ; pure iodine 6 grs. ; water 2 
drachms; digest together, evaporate by a gentle 
heat, and as soon as the mass begins to solidity, 
the temperature must not exceed 86° F. A red 
crystalline mass is obtained. (See p. 74.) 

IODIDE OF ARSENIC, SOLUTION OF. 
Prep. (Wackenroder.) Dissolve the product of 
the above process in water 6 oz. ; every drachm of 
which will contain one-forty-eighth gr. of metallic 
arsenic, and one-tenth gr. (nearly) of iodine. 

IODIDE OF CYANOGEN. Prep. (Mits- 
cherhch.) Gently heat a mixture of bicyanide of 
mercury, iodine, and water, in a retort, when 
iodide of cyanogen will subhme and collect in the 
neck of the retort, under the form of a crystalline 
snow or needles. It volatilizes at 100° F., and is 
soluble in water, ether, and alcohol. 

IODIDE OF NITROGEN. Syn. Teriodide 
OF Nitrogen. A dark powder, which subsides 
when iodine is put into liquor of ammonia. It 
may be more safely and conveniently made by 
saturating alcohol of sp. gr. -852 with iodine, ad- 
ding a large quantity of ammonia, and agitating 
the mixture ; water must now be added, when 
the iodide will be precipitated, and must be care- 
fully washed with cold distilled water. %* It 
detonates violently as soon as it becomes dry, and 
by slight pressure, or friction, even when moist, 
't should only be prepared in very small quantities 
at a time. 

IODIDES OF PHOSPHORUS. Prep. I. 
(Protiodide.) Phosphorus 1 part ; iodine 7 parts ; 
mix in a close vessel, placed in a freezing mixture, 



lOD 



375 



lOD 



Orange colored ; melts at 212° ; volatile, and de- 
composed by water. 

II. (Sesquiodide.) Phosphorus 1 part ; iodine 12 
parts ; as last. A dark gray semi-crystalline mass, 
liquid at 84° F. 

III. {Periodide.) Phosphorus 1 part ; iodine 
20 parts ; as last. A black mass, fusible at about 
115° F. All the above yield hydriodic acid and 
phosphorous or phosphoric acid, by contact with 
water. 

IODIDE OF SULPHUR. Syn. Sulphuris 
loDiDUM. Prep. Iodine 4 parts ; sulphur 1 part ; 
place the mixture in a loose-corked flask, immerse 
it in a water bath, and, as soon as it melts, stir it 
with a glass rod, then place in the cork, remove 
the bath from the fire^ and let the two cool 
together. When cold, break the iodide into 
pieces, and place it in a wide-mouthed stoppered 
bottle. In this way a beautiful semi-crystalline, 
dark gray mass, resembling antimony, is obtained. 

Remarks. An ointment made with 5 parts 
of iodide of sulphur, and 96 of lard, or 8 of the 
iodide and 144 of lard, has been recommended by 
Biett in tuberculous affections of the skin. Iodide 
of sulphur stains the skin like iodine, and is 
readily decomposed by contact with organic sub- 

StSLllCCS* 

IODIDE OF STARCH. Syn. Amvli Io- 
DiDUM. Prep. (Dr. Buchanan.) Iodine 24 grs. ; 
water q. s. ; triturate ; then add starch f j ; again 
triturate, until the mass assumes a uniform color. 
One of the most worthless of the preparations of 
iodine. 

IODIDES, DOUBLE. Several of these com- 
pounds have been described by BonsdorfF, Boullay, 
and Liebig, many of which are formed by dis- 
solving the iodides in a solution of iodide of potas- 
sium, when crystals of the double salt are de- 
posited as the liquid cools, or on evaporation. 
They possess but little interest in a practical point 
of view. 

IODINE. Syn. Iode, {Fr.) Ion, {Ger.) Iodium ; 
loDiNiuM ; loDiNA, (Lfflt, from nnhi, violet colored, 
on account of the color of its vapor.) A chemical 
element, accidentally discovered in 1812, by De 
Courtois, a saltpetre manufacturer at Paris, but 
was first described by Clement, in 1813, and its 
precise nature was soon afterwards determined by 
Sir H. Davy and M. Gay Lussac. It is found 
both in the animal, vegetable, and mineral king- 
doms, but exists in greatest abundance in the 
vegetable family algae. It is principally manu- 
factured in the neighborhood of Glasgow, from 
the mother waters of kelp. 

Prep. I. Extract all the soluble part of kelp by 
water, and crystallize the soda by evaporation ; to 
the mother lye add oil of vitriol in excess and boil 
the liquid, then strain it to separate some sulphur, 
and mix the filtered liquor with as much manganese 
as there weis oil of vitriol used ; on applying heat, 
the iodine sublimes in the form of grayish black 
scales, with a metallic lustre. The boiling is con- 
ducted in a leaden vessel ; and a cylindrical leaden 
still, with a very short head, and connected with 
2 or 3 large globular glass receivers, is used for 
the subliming apparatus. Care must be taken to 
watch the process, and prevent the neck of the 
still becoming choked with condensed iodine. 

II. (Ure.) Saturate the residual liquor of the 



manufacture of soap from kelp, of the sp. gr. of 
1-374, healed to 230° F., with sulphuric acid 
diluted with half its weight of water, cool, decant 
the clear, strain, and to every 12 fluid ounces add 
1000 grs. of black oxide of manganese, in powder; 
put the mixture into a glass globe, or matrass 
with a wide neck, over which invert another 
glass globe, and apply heat with a charcoal 
chauffer ; iodine will sublin)e very copiously, and 
condense in the upper vessel, which as soon as 
warm should be replaced by another; and the 
two globes thus applied in succession, as long as 
violet vapor arises. It may be washed out of the 
globes with a little cold water. A thin disc of 
wood, having a hole in its centre, should be 
placed over the shoulder of the matrass, to pre- 
vent the heat from acting on the globular re- 
ceiver. On the large scale, a leaden still, as be- « 
fore described, may be employed, and receivers of 
stoneware economically substituted for glass ones. 
The addition of the sulphuric acid should be made 
in a wooden or stoneware basin or trough. Prod. 
12 oz. yield 80 to 100 grs. 

III. (Soubeir^u.) Add a mixed solution of 1 
part of sulphate oi copper and 2^ parts of proto- 
sulphate of iron to the mother liquors of the soda 
works, as long as a white precipitate is thrown 
down; the precipitate (diuiodide of copper) must 
be then collected, dried, mixed with its own weight 
of finely-powdered black oxide of manganese, and 
distilled by a strong heat in a retort ; dry iodine 
will pass over. By the addition of sulphuric acid 
with the manganese, a less heat is required. 

Remarks. The top of the leaden still employed 
for the preparation of iodine, is usually furnished 
with a moveable stopper, by which the process 
may be watched, and additions of manganese or 
sulphuric acid made, if required. To render it 
pure, it should be dried as much as possible, and 
then resublimed in glass or stoneware. 

Prop. Iodine is usually met with under the form 
of semicrystalline lumps, having a metallic lustre, 
or in micaceous, friable scales, somewhat resem- 
bling gunpowder. It has a grayish -black color, a 
hot acrid taste, and a disagreeable odor, not much 
unlike that of chlorine. It fuses at 225° F., vo- 
latilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures, boils at 
347°, and when mixed with water rapidly rises 
along with its vapor at 212°. It dissolves in 7000 
parts of water, and freely in alcohol and ether. It 
may be crystallized in large rhomboidal plates, by 
exposing to the air a solution of it in hydiodic acid. 
Iodine, like chlorine, has an extensive range of 
affinity ; with the salifiable bases, it forms com- 
pounds termed Iodides, lodurets, or Hydriodates ; 
and it destroys vegetable colors. Many of the 
iodides are used in medicine. 

Pur. The iodine of commerce is usually that of 
the fijst sublimation, and commonly contains 12 
to 20g of water. Some of the foreign iodine, ob- 
tained by precipitation with chlorine, without sub- 
sequent sublimation, frequently contains ^th water, 
has a leaden-gray color, and a sensible odor of 
chlorine. Coal, plumbago, oxide of manganese, 
crude antimony, and charcoal, are also frequently 
mixed wit|| it. Water may be detected by the 
loss of weight it suflfers when exposed to strong 
pressure between the folds of bibulous paper, — 
chlorine, by the odor, and the other substance* 



lOD 



376 



IRl 



mentioned above, by digestion in spirits of wine, 
when the iodine will dissolve, leaving the impuri- 
ties behind. Before use as a medicine, " it must 
be dried, by being placed in a shallow basin of 
earthenware, in a small confined space of air, with 
10 or 12 times its weight of fresh-burnt lime, till it 
scarcely adheres to the side of a dry bottle." Pure 
iodine " is entirely vaporizable ; 39 grs., with 9 grs. 
of quicklime, and fiij of water, when heated short 
of ebullition, slowly form a perfect solution, which 
is yellowish or brownish, if the iodine be pure, 
but colorless, if it contains more than 2§ of water, 
or other impurity." (P. E) 

Uses, Dose, ^c. Iodine is chiefly used as a med- 
icine, and a chemical test. Its physiological ac- 
tion, when applied externally, is that of an irritant, 
and, when swallowed in large doses, it produces 
powerful gastric irritation. In small doses, it ap- 
pears to be both alterative and tonic, rapidly diffu- 
sing itself through the body, and exerting a stimu- 
lating action on the organs of secretion. It is also 
said to be diuretic, and in some cases to have pro- 
duced diaphoresis and salivation. It exerts a pow- 
erful anti-aphrodisiac action, and instances are 
recorded where absorption of the mammae and 
testsB have followed its exhibition. (Hufeland's 
Journal.) Dose. ^ gr. dissolved in spirit, or in wa- 
ter, by means of an equal weight of iodide of po- 
tassium. It is seldom exhibited alone, being usu- 
ally combined with the latter substance, and in 
fact this salt is now generally preferred by practi- 
tioners. Iodine, in medicinal doses, has been 
exhibited in the following diseases, as well as in 
most others depending on an imperfect action of 
the absorbents, or accompanied by induration or 
enlargement of individual glands or organs : — In- 
ternally, in bronchocele, goitre, Derbyshire neck, 
scrofula, ovarian tumors, enlargement or indu- 
ration of the lymphatic, prostate, and parotid 
glands, amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, diseases of the 
muco-genital tissues, phthisis, chronic nervous 
diseases, lepra, psoriasis, chronic rheumatism, 
dropsies, hydrocele, ^c. : — Externally, in scrof- 
ula, numerous skin diseases, (especially the scaly,) 
erysipelas, diseased joints, chilblains, burns, 
scalds, various wounds, to check ulceration, to 
promote absorption, <^c. It is applied externally 
in the form of ointment, solution, or tincture. 

Tests. Free iodine may be recognised by — 1. 
The violet color of its vapor. — 2. Striking a blue 
color with starch : this test is so delicate that wa- 
ter containing only ^-^_L_- part of iodine, acquires 
a perceptible blue tinge on the addition of starch. 
(Stromeyer.) — 3, Nitrate of silver causes a white 
precipitate in solutions containing iodine. — 4. Chlo- 
ride of palladium causes a black, flaky precipitate ; 
equal in sensibility to starch. (M. Bauman.) — 
5. It strikes a blue color with opium and nar- 
ceine. 

Iodine in combination, as it exists in iodic acid 
and the iodates, does not strike a blue color with 
starch, without the addition of some deoxydizing 
agent, as sulphurous acid or morphia ; and as it 
exists in the iodides, not until the base is saturated 
with an acid, (as the sulphuric or nitric,) when 
iodine b^ing set free, immediately rcacU upon the 
starch An excess of either acid or alkali destroys 
the action of the test. By mixing the liquid con- 
taining the iodine with the starch and sulphuric 



acid, and lightly pouring thereon a small quantity 
of aqueous chlorine, a very visible blue zone will 
be developed at the line of contact. (Balard.) 

Solutions containing iodates yield, with nitrate 
of silver, a white precipitate soluble in ammonia; 
the iodides, under the same circumstances, give a 
pale yellowish precipitate with nitrate of silver, 
scarcely soluble in ammonia ; a bright yellow one 
with acetate of lead ; and a scarlet one with bi- 
chloride of mercury. The iodates deflagrate when 
thrown on burning coals, but the iodides do not. 
The iodates may also be tested as iodides, by first 
heating them to redness, by which they lose their 
oxygen, and are converted into iodides. 

IODINE, CHLORIDES OF. When dry 
chlorine is passed over dry iodine, at common tem- 
peratures, heat is evolved, and a solid chloride re- 
sults. It is orange-yellow when the iodine is fully 
saturated, and reddish orange when the iodine is 
in excess. It deliquesces in the air, is volatile, and 
very soluble in water, forming a colorless solution, 
which exhibits acid properties. It is the chloriodic 
acid of Sir H. Davy. The protochloride of iodine 
is formed when chlorine is passed into jvater hold- 
ing iodine in suspension, and the perchloride by 
repeatedly distilling the protochloride, or by adding 
to a solution of the latter a strong solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate. The latter is also called the 

lODOSALICULIC ACID. A dark brown 
fusible mass, obtained by distilling a mixture of 
iodide of potassium and chloro-saliculic acid ; or 
by dissolving iodine in saliculic acid. 

lODO-SULPHURIC ACID. Prep. Drop 
sulphuric acid into a hot concentrated aqueous so- 
lution of iodic acid, as long as a precipitate falls. 
When strongly heated, it sublimes, and is decom- 
posed, but by means of a gentle heat, gradually 
applied, it melts, and crystallizes in yellow rhom- 
boids as it cools. In a similar manner may be 
formed iodo-phosphoric and iodoniiric acids. All 
these act with great energy on the metals, and 
dissolve gold and platinum. 

lODOUS ACID. Prep. (Sementini.) Chlo- 
rate of potassa and iodine, equal parts ; triturate 
together, until reduced to a homogeneous yellow 
mass ; then heat the mixture over a spirit-lamp, in 
a glass retort connected with a spacious receiver, 
until vapors cease to arise. The oily liquid in the 
receiver is the iodous acid. 

II. (Pleischl.) Chlorate of potash 3 parts ; 
iodine 1 part ; as last. 

Remarks. Iodous acid, or oxide of iodine, red- 
dens test papers, is volatile at 112° F., and freely 
dissolves iodine. Little is known respecting its 
precise composition. (See Iodic Acid.) 

lODURETED IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
Iodine dissolved in a solution of iodide of potassium. 
Various strengths are employed by different au- 
thorities. (See Solutions.) 

IRIDIUM. (From Iris, the rainbow, because 
of the variety of colors exhibited by its solutions.) 
A rare metal, discovered by Descotils in 1803, and 
by Tennai>t in 1804, in the black powder left in 
dissolving platina. It is obtained in combination 
with osmium. 

Prep. (Wollaston.) Reduce the pulverulent 
residue of the ores of platina to fine powder, along 
with J of its weight of nitre, and heat the mixture 



IRO 



377 



IRO 



to redness^ a silver crucible, until reduced to a 
pasty state, and the odor of oxide of osmiunn be^ 
comes percej)tiblo ; cool, powder, agitate with the 
smallest possible quantity of water, place the solu- 
tion in a retort, acidulate with oil of vitriol diluted 
with an equal weight of water, and distil rapidly 
into a clean receiver, as long as fumes of osmic 
acid pass over and condense as a white crust on 
the sides of the vessel, afterwards liquefying, and 
linking beneath the water, forming a flattened 
globule. By solution in water, agitation with mer- 
cury, and the addition of muriatic acid, osmium, is 
pbtained as a black porous powder, which exhibits 
a metallic lustre when rubbed. The undissolved 
portion must now be digested in muriatic acid, and 
the solution treated WMt+j any metal but gold or 
platinum, when the iridium will be precipitated. 

Prop., ^c. Brittle, pulverulent, and when pol- 
ished, resembling platinum. It is the heaviest, 
hardest, most infusible, indestructive, and least af- 
fected by acids, of all the metals. With chlorine, 
iridium forms four compounds: — the protochloride, 
formed by transmitting chlorine over powdered 
iridium, heated to a dull red, or by digesting the 
hj'drated protoxide in muriatic acid ; — the sesqui- 
chloride, by calcining iridium with nitre, digesting 
in nitric acid, washing with water, and solution in 
hydrochloric acid ; — the bichloride, by digesting 
the sesquichloride in hot nitro-muriatic acid ; — the 
terchloride, obtained as a double chloride of potas- 
sium. With oxygen, iridium forms a protoxide, 
sesquioxide, and teroxide, each of which may be 
obtained by precipitating a solution of the corre- 
spondinor chloride with an alkali. 

IRIDIO-C HLORIDES. Double salts, formed 
of the chlorides of iridium with other chlorides. 
Some of them are cn'stallizable and soluble. 

IRON. Syn. Ferrum, (Lat.) Fer, (Fr.) Eisen, 
(Ger.) Ferro, (It.) Ferro, (Port.) Hierro, (Sp.) 
Jern, (Dan. ^ Swed.) Ijzen, (Dut.) Mars, 
(Alch.) The early history of iron is lost in its an- 
tiquity. It is said to have been employed as a 
medicine upwards of 3200 years ago. As a reme- 
dial agent, when properly exhibited, it acts as a 
genial stimulant and tonic, and generally proves 
beneficial in cases of chronic debility, unaccompa- 
nied with organic congestion or inflammation. For 
this purpose, the protoxide or its salts should alone 
be employed, as the peroxide and its salts act, al- 
most universally, as irritant stimulants, occasioning 
heartburn, febrile symptoms, and accelerated pulse. 
The powers of the protocarbonate, as it exists in 
mineral waters, held in solution by carbonic acid 
in excess, appears to be the form most congenial 
to the human body : and from its state of dilution, 
" is rapidly absorbed by the lacteals, and speedily 
imparts a ruddy hue to the wan countenance." 
Iron is undoubtedly one of the most valuable arti- 
oles of the materia medica, and appears, from the 
antiquity of its introduction into medicine, and the 
number of its preparations, to have been deserved- 
ly appreciated. It bears the recommendation of 
upwards of 3000 years upon its brow, and surely a 
medicine that hath withstood such vicissitudes, 
cannot be destitute of virtue. 

Prep. Iron is only prepared on the large scale. 

In Sweden it is extracted from magnetic iron, and 

micaceous iron ore ; and in England, principally 

from clay iron ore. It is obtained by smelting the 

48 



[ ore along with coke and a flux, (either limestone 
, or clay.) The crude iron thus obtained is run into 
I moulds, and then constitute.s cast iron or pio 
I IRON, (ferrum fu,9um.) By the subsequent pro- 
cess of refining, (puddling, w^elding,) it is convert- 
ed into SOFT IRON or wrought iron, (ferrum cu- 
sum.) 

Prop. <^ Uses. The properties and uses of iron 
are too well known to require description. Its ap- 
plications in almost every branch of human indus- 
try, are almost infinite. It is remarkably uuctile, 
and possesses great tenacity, but it is less iii..'lea- 
ble than many of the other metals. iLs sp. gr. is 
7-788. It is the hardest of all of the malle :ble and 
ductile metals, and when combined with carbon 
or silica, (steel,) admits of being tempered to al- 
most any degree of hardness or elasticity. Iron- 
filings, (ferri limaturcB,) iron-turnings, (fei-ri 
ramenta, ferri scobs,) and iron-wire, (ferri 
filum,) are the forms under which iron is ordered 
in the pharmacopoeias. The last is only used in 
preparations, but the others are also taken. Dose. 
Of the filings 5 to 10 grs., in chlorosis, &c. For 
medical purposes, iron-filings and turnings should 
be purified by washing, drying, and separating 
them from particles of copper and other metals, by 
laying a sieve over them, and drawing them 
through it with a magnet. 

Tests. 1. Metallic iron is attracted by the mag- 
net. 2. It dissolves in muriatic and sulphuric 
acids, with the evolution of hydrogen gas. 3. Its 
oxides are also soluble in the acids. 4. The solu- 
tions of iron (ferruginous salts) yield a greenish 
white precipitate, subsequently turning red or 
brown, when treated with alkalis. 5. Aurochlo- 
ride of sodium gives a purple precipitate with solu- 
tions of the protosalts of iron, and red prussiate of 
potash a blue one. 6. Prussiate of potash, under 
like circumstances, gives a pale blue one, or a full 
blue, if a little nitric acid has been previously add- 
ed. The protosalts may thus be all converted into 
persalts, and tested accordingly. 7. The persalts 
of iron yield a blue precipitate with yellow prus- 
siate of potash, but are unaffected by the red prus- 
siate ; sulphocyanic and meconic acids strike a 
red color ; gallic acid, tannic acid, and infusion or 
tincture of galls, a bluish black ; succinate and 
benzoate of ammonia, a yellowish one ; citric acid 
or a citrate, a pale red color, (transparent.) 8. 
Cochineal freed from fat by ether, and then di- 
gested in water, (or very weak spirit,) gives a so- 
lution which is colored violet by the protosalts of 
iron. (Kastner.) 9. Hydrosulphuret of ammonia 
gives a black precipitate. 10. Phosphate of soda 
precipitates the persalts white, and the protosalts 
blue. 

IRON, ACETATE OF. Acetate de fer, 
(Fr.) AcETATO Di Ferro, (I'tal.) Ferri ace- 
TAs, (Lat.) Prep. I. (P. D.) Sesquioxide of iron 
1 part ; acetic acid 6 parts ; digest 3 days and 
filter. Tonic. Dose. 10 to 25 drops in water or 
wine. This preparation is a mixture of the proto- 
and per-acetate of iron. 

II. (Pyrolignite of iron. Iron liquor. Dyer's 
acetate of iron.) Prep. a. (Prof. Runge.) Eight 
suitable vessels are arranged one above another, 
like a staircase, so that the top of the upper one 
may rest over the one immediately below it, and 
so on of the others to the bottom one. The eight 



IRO 



378 



IRO 



vessels are lum filled with old scraps of iron, and 
the upper one with pyroligneous acid ; after half 
an hour this is drawn off into the vessel next be- 
low it, and this again, after the lapse of another 
half hour, into the third, and so on until the last 
is emptied. The acid is now passed a second time 
througii the vessels in the same way as before, 
and thus becomes more strongly impregnated with 
iron in a less time than hy any other me'diis, except 
the following: — ■ 

b. (Dr. Winterfield.) This consists in employ- 
ing several wooden cylinders, resembling those 
used in the quick process of making vinegar ; the 
space between the two perforated bottoms, usually 
filled with wood shavings, being occupied with 
scraps of iron. Pyroligueous acid is then passed 
througii them, and the same system of ventilation 
observed as in the manufacture of vinegar. (Ge- 
werbe-Blatt f. Saclisen.) 

c. Leave old scraps of iron in a cask of vinegar, 
or pyroligneous acid, and employ occasional agi- 
tation, until a sufficiently strong solution is ob- 
tained. When the deposite of tar on the iron 
hinders the solution, it may be burnt off. 

d. Add a solution of acetate of lime to another 
of green copperas, as long as a precipitate is 
formed ; decant. 

III. {Protacetate.) Dissolve freshly precipita- 
ted protoxide or carbonate of iron in acetic acid, 
or add a solution of acetate of lime to another of 
protosulphate of iron, and evaporate out of con- 
tact with the air. Small green prismatic crys- 
tals. 

IV. (Sesquiacetate. Peracetate.) Dissolve hy- 
drated peroxide of iron in acetic acid, or precipi- 
tate a solution of acetate of baryta by another of 
persulphate of iron. Uncrystallizable. 

Remarks. All the above, prepared with crude 
materials, are used as mordants by the dyers. 

IRON, ARSENITE OF. Prep. I. {Protar- 
senite. Ferri arsenias.) Precipitate a solution of 
protosulphate of iron with another of arsenite of 
soda or ammonia ; wash and dry. A yellowish 
brown powder, used in medicine as a tonic, alter- 
ative, and febrifuge. 

II. (Perarsenite. Sesquiarsenite.) Prepared 
by precipitating peracetate of iron with arsenite 
of ammonia, or by boiling nitric acid on the prot- 
arsenite. 

Remarks. The arseniates of the iron may be 
formed in a similar way, from the arseniate of 
soda or ammonia. 

IRON, ALBUMINATE. Prej>. I. (Las- 
saigne.) Precipitate a filtered solution of white of 
egg with another of persulphate of iron, wash the 
deposite in water, and dissolve it in alcohol, hold- 
ing caustic potassa in solution. 

II. (Cooley.) Dissolve well washed hydrated 
protoxide or peroxide of iron in white of egg, di- 
luted with twice its weight of water, and filtered. 

Remarks. As a therapeutic agent, the albumi- 
nate of iron is highly spoken of by M. Lassaigno 
and other high authorities, who recommend it as 
a preparation especially adapted by its nature, on 
theoretical grounds, for conjbining with the tissues 
of the body. It will no doubt, ere long, take a 
prominent situation among the most esteemed of 
our chalybeates. 

IRON, AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF. Syn. 



Ferro-chloride of Ammonia. Ammonipted Iron. 
Ens Veneris Boylei. Ens Martis, (P. L. 1720.) 
Flores martiales, (P. L. 1775.) Ferrum \mmo- 
NiACALE, (P. L. 1788.) Ferrum ammoniatlm, (P. 
L. 1809 and 1824.) Ferri ammonio-chloribum, 
(P. L. 1836.) Flores Salis Ammoniaci martia- 
Lis. MuRiAs Ferri et Ammonia. Prep. I. (P. 
L.) Sesquioxide of iron §iij ; muriatic acid ^ pint ; 
digest in a proper vessel in a sand-bath for 2 hours, 
then add sal ammonia lb. iiss, dissolved in water 3 
pints ; filter, evaporate to dryness, and reduce the 
mass to coarse powder. Orange-colored crystal- 
line grains. 

II. Rub sal ammoniac with twice its weight of 
colcother or rust of iron, sublime with a quick 
sudden heat, and repeat the sublimation with fresh 
sal ammoniac as long as the flowers are well col- 
ored. Difficult to manage. 

Remarks. Ammonio-chloride of iron " is totally 
soluble in proof spirit and in water. Potassa add- 
ed to the solution throws down sesquK xide r,f iron, 
and when added in excess, evolves .i.mnonia." 
(P. L.) Tonic. Emmenagogue and aperient. 
Dose. 5 to 15 grs. in glandular swellings, obstruc- 
tions, &c. 

IRON, AMMONIO-TARTRATE OF. Syn. 
Aikin's Ammonio-tartrate of Iron. Tartrate 
OF Iron and Ammonia. Ferro-tartrate of Am- 
monia. Ammonite Ferro-tartras, &c. Prep. 
Tartaric acid 1 part ; iron filings 3 parts ; digest 
in a sufficient quantity of hot water to barely 
cover the mixture for 2 or 3 days, observing to 
stir it frequently, and to add just enough water to 
allow the evolved gas to escape freely ; then add* 
some liquor of ammonia, and continue the stirring ; 
dilute with water, decant, wash the undissolved 
portion of iron, filter the mixed liquors, and evapo- 
rate to dryness ; redissolve in water, add a little 
more ammonia, filter, and again gently evaporate 
to dryness, or to the consistence of a thick sirup, 
when it may be spread upon hot plates of glass, 
or on earthenware dishes, and dried in a stove- 
room, as directed for citrate of iron. 

Remarks. Glossy, brittle lamellae, or irregular 
pieces, deep garnet-colored, almost black, very 
soluble in water, and possessing a sweetish and 
slightly ferruginous taste. By repeated re-solution 
and evaporation its sweetness is increased, prob- 
ably from the conversion of a part of its acid into 
sugar. It contains more iron than a given weight 
of the sulphate of the same base. It is the most 
pleasant-tasted of all the preparations of iron, ex- 
cept the ammonio-citrate. (Aikin, Lond. Med. 
Gaz.) 

IRON, BENZOATES OF. Prepared by di- 
gesting the hydrated oxides in a hot solution of 
the acid, or from the benzoate of an alkali and a 
salt of iron by double decomposition. 

IRON, BRONZING OF. (See Browning of 
Gun Barrels, and Bronzing.) 

IRON, CARBONATE OF. Syn. Ferri 
Cakhonas. This preparation is found in a nrys- 
tallizod state in the mineral called Spathose iron, 
and in some chalybeate waters. 

Prep. Precipitate protosulphate of iron by add- 
ing a solution of carbonate of soda, well wash the 
green powder with water and dry it out of contact 
with the air. Ou the slightest e.<posure it is con- 
verted into sesquioxide of iron. 



IRO 



379 



IRO 



IRON, CARBONATE, (SACCHARINE.) 

Syn. Kl.vuer's Ferrum carbonicum sacchara- 
TUM. Ferri Carbonas saccharatum. Prep. (P. 
E.) Sulphate of iron §iv ; carbonate of soda ^v ; 
dissolve each separately in water 1 quart, mix the 
solutions, collect the precipitate, well wash it with 
cold water, drain on a cloth, squeeze out as much 
of the water as possible, and add powdered lump 
sugar ^ij ; mix and dry at a temperature not much 
above 120° F. The whole operation should be 
performed as quickly as possible. A sweet-tasted 
greenish mass or powder, consisting chiefly of car- 
bonate of iron. It is one of the best of the cha- 
lybeates. Dose. 5 to 10 grs. When pure it should 
be " easily soluble in muriatic acid with brisk ef- 
fervescence." (P. E.) 

IRON, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Ferri Chlo- 
RiDUM. Prep. I. (Protochloride.) Dissolve iron 
filings or scales in muriatic acid, evaporate and 
crystallize. Soluble, green crystals. 

II. {Per chloride. Sesquichloride.) Dissolve 
sesquioxide or rust of iron in muriatic acid, evapo- 
rate to the consistence of a sirup, and crystallize. 
Red crystals. 

Remarks. Neither of the preceding is abso- 
lutely pure ; but by transmitting dry hydrochloric 
acid gas over iron heated to redness, a pure white 
crystalline protochloride of iron is obtained ; 
and by the combustion of iron wire in chlorine 
gas, or by passing chlorine over heated iron, the 
pure perchloride of iron is formed. The proto- 
chloride is volatile ,at high temperatures, and the 
perchloride is dissipated by a heat a little above 
212° F. The latter is soluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether, and is deliquescent. (See Tinct. of 
Sesquichloride of Iron.) 

IRON, IODIDES OF. Prep.l. (Protiodide 
of Iron. Iodide of do. loduret of do. Ferri 
lodidum, P. L. Ferri loduretum.) a. (P. L.) 
Iodine §vj ; iron filings §ij ; water 4^ pints ; mix, 
boil in a sand-bath until the liquid turns to a pale 
green, filter, wash the residue with a little water, 
and evaporate the mixed liquors in an iron vessel, 
at 212°, to dryness. 

b. (P. E.) The Scotch college orders the solu- 
tion not to be filtered until evaporated to ^, with- 
out removing the excess of iron, and then to be 
filtered as quickly as possible and put into a basin, 
which must be surrounded with 12 times its weight 
of quicklime, and placed in some convenient ap- 
paratus in which it may be accurately shut in a 
small space not communicating with the general 
atmosphere. The whole must then be heated in 
a hot-air press, in a stove or otherwise, until the 
water be entirely evaporated, when the iodide of 
iron must be put into small dry-stoppered vials. 
Product excellent. 

Remarks. A great deal has been written and 
said about the preparation of iodide of iron, much 
of which is more amusing than instructive. There 
is in reality very little difficulty in the process. 
As soon as iodine and iron are mixed together un- 
der water, much heat is evolved, and if too much 
water be not used the combination is soon com- 
pleted, and the liquor merely requires to be evapo- 
rated to dryness, out of contact with the air, at a 
heat not exceeding 212°. This is most cheaply 
and easily performed by employing a glass flask, 
with a thin broad bottom and a narrow mouth, by 



which means the evolved steam will exclude air 
from the vessel. I have adopted the following 
formula with excellent results: — Iodine 18 oz. ; 
iron wire or filings 6 or 7 oz. ; water about 1 
quart ; mix in a glass or stoneware jug, agitate 
with an iron rod, (cautiously;) when the temper- 
ature of the liquid will rise considerably, and the 
combination be completed in 20 or 30 minutes, 
without the application of external heat. When 
the liquor assumes a pale green color, decant it 
into a glass flask with a thin bottom, wash the 
remaining iron with a little water, filter, and add 
it to that already in the flask. Apply the heat of 
a sand-bath, or a rose gas jet, (preferably the 
former,) and evaporate to the consistence of a 
sirup as quickly as possible, then remove the flask 
into a water-bath containing 1 salt and evaporate 
to dryness, observing not to stir the mass during 
the latter part of the process. The whole of the 
uncombined water may be known to bo evapo- 
rated when vapor ceases to condense on a piece 
of cold glass held over the mouth of the flask ; a 
piece of moistened starch paper occasionally ap- 
plied in the same way, will indicate whether free 
iodine be evolved ; should such be the case, the 
heat should be immediately lessened. When the 
evaporation is completed, the mouth of the flask 
should be stopped up by laying a piece of sheet 
Indian rubber on it, and over that a flat weight ; 
the flask must be then removed, and when cold 
broken to pieces, the iodide weighed, and put into 
dry and warm stoppered wide-mouth glass vials, 
which must be immediately closed, tied over with 
bladder, and the stoppers dipped into mejted wax. 

Iodide of iron " evolves violet vapors by heat, 
and sesquioxide of iron remains. When freshly 
made it is totally soluble in water, and from this 
solution when kept in a badly stoppered vessel, 
sesquioxide of iron is very §oon precipitated ; but 
with iron wire immersed in it, it may be kept 
clear in a well-stoppered vessel." (P. L.) " En- 
tirely soluble in water, or nearly so, forming a 
greenish solution." (P. E.) Its dilute solution 
should be colorless. (A. J. C.) 

Dose. 1 to 3 grs. or more. It is tonic, stimu- 
lant, and resolvent, and has been given with ad- 
vantage in debility, scrofula, and various glandular 
affections. 

II. (Periodide.) Freely expose a solution of 
protiodide of iron to the air ; or digest iodine in ex- 
cess on iron under water, gently evaporate, and 
sublime. A deliquescent, volatile red compound, 
soluble in water and alcohol. 

IRON, LACTATE. Syn. Protolactate of 
Iron. Ferri lactas. Prep. I. (Rassman.) Boil 
iron filings in lactic acid diluted with water till gas 
ceases to be evolved, filter while hot into a suitable 
vessel, which must then be closely stopped ; as the 
solution cools, crystals will be deposited, and these 
must be washed with a little cold water, then v.-ith 
alcohol, and lastly dried. The mother-liquor di- 
gested as before with fresh iron will yield more 
crystals. (Buchners Rep.) 

II. (Pagenstecher.) Lactate of lime prepared 
from sour milk is dissolved in water, and carbonate 
of ammonia added till it ceases to produce a pre- 
cipitate ; the liquid is now filtered, and concen- 
trated by heat till it acquires the consistence of a 
sirup ; it is then mixed with 6 times its weight of 



IRO 



380 



IRO 



alcohol of sp. gr. -879, and a concentrated solution 
of protochloride of iron added, containing a quan- 
tity of the salt equal to 38§ of the lactate of lime 
employed. In about 36 hours the ■ mixed liquid 
will have deposited all its lactate of iron in minute 
crystals, which may be obtained by straining and 
pressure between the folds of bibulous paper. It 
is a mild chalybeate, nearly insoluble in cold water. 

IRON, OXIDES OF. Prep. I. {Protoxide.) 
This oxide is precipitated from solutions of the pro- 
tosalts of iron, as a white hydrate by pure alkalis, 
and as a white carbonate by the alkaline carbon- 
ates ; both of which turn first green and then red 
by exposure to the air. It readily dissolves in the 
acids forming protosalts of iron. 

II. {Sesquioxide. Peroxide. Red oxide.) — 
1. By PRECIPITATION. (Carbonate of iron. Sub- 
carbonate of do. Precipitated carbonate of 
do. Ferri sesquioxidum, P. L. Ferri oxy- 
dum rubrum, P. E. Ferri carbonas, P. D. 
Oxyde de Fer rouge; Carbonate de Fer, Fr. 
Koklensaures eisen Rost, Ger.) By precipi- 
tating a solution of sulphate of iron with another 
of carbonate of soda, washing thoroughly the pre- 
cipitate with water, and drying it. The London 
College orders of sulphate of iron lb. iv ; carbonate 
of soda lb. iv §ij ; boiling water 6 ^'e,..lone ; — the 
Edinburgh, sulphate of iron §iv ; carbonate of 
soda §v ; water 4 pints ; — the Dublin, sulphate of 
iron 25 parts ; carbonate of soda 26 parts ; water 
800 parts. A greenish brown powder, reddening 
by exposure to air and to heat. 

2. By calcination. {Crocus. Crocus martis. 
Colcothar. Trip. Brown red. Indian red. 
Rouge. Jewellers' do. Caput mortuum vitrioli. 
Crocus martis astringens. Do. do. sulphuratus. 
Portee deader. Terra dulcis vitrioli. Ferrum 
oxydum rubrum, P. D. Rouge d'Angleterre ; 
Oxyde de Fer rouge, Fr. Rothes eisenoxyd, Ger.) 

a. (P. D.) Calcine sulphate of iron, then roast 
it with a strong fire until acid vapors cease to rise, 
cool, wash with water till the latter ceases to affect 
litmus, and dry. 

h. (Berzelius.) G'een sulphate of iron 100 parts ; 
common salt 42 parts ; calcine, wash well with 
water, dry, and levigate the residuum. This pro- 
cess yields a cheap and beautiful product, which is 
frequently sold for the sesquioxide, P. L., but is less 
soluble. 

3. From metallic iron. {Rust of iron. Crude 
carbonate, or hydrated sesquioxide of iron. Ferri 
rubigo, P. D.) Moisten iron wire cut into pieces 
with water, and expose it to the air until corroded 
into rust, then grind, elutriate, and dry. Iron 
filings may be used for wire. It is usually made 
jp into small conical loaves. 

Remarks. Sesquioxide of iron, prepared by pre- 
cipitation, is an impalpable powder, of a brownish 
red color, odorless, insoluble in water, and possess- 
ing a slightly styptic taste, especially when recently 
prepared. When exposed to heat, its color is 
brightened, its sp. gr. increased, and it is rendered 
less easily soluble in acids. The sesquioxide pre- 
pared by calcination is darker and brighter colored, 
less soluble, and quite tasteless. It has either a 
scarlet or purplish cast, according to the heat to 
which it has been exposed. The finest Indian red 
or crocus usually undergoes a second calcinttion, 
bi which it is exposed to a very intense heat. The 



best jewellers' rouge is prepared by calci'ning the 
precipitated oxide until it becomes scarlet. The 
rust of iron contains some combined water, and is 
more soluble than the oxide prepared by calcina- 
tion. 

Uses, ^c. The precipitated oxide is employed 
in medicine as a tonic and emmenagogue in doses 
of 10 to 30 grs. ; and in tic douloureux, in doses c£ 
3j to 3iv, mixed up with honey. It is also em- 
ployed to make some preparations of iron. Rust 
of iron is likewise used in the same way. The 
calcined oxide is employed as a pigment, as an in- 
gredient in a plaster, &c. 

III. {Black oxide. Magnetic oxide. Martial 
Ethiops. JEthiops martialis. Ferri oxidum 
nigrum, P. E. Oxydum ferroso-ferricum, Ber- 
zelius. L' Oxide noir de fer, Fr. Schwarzesges 
auertes eisen, Ger.) Prep. I. (P. E.) Sulphate 
of iron §vj ; oil of vitriol f 3ij f 3ij ; nitric acid 
f 3iv ; liquor of ammonia (fort.) f ivss ; boiling wa- 
ter 3 pints ; dissolve half the sulphate in half of 
the water, add the oil of vitriol, boil, add the nitric 
acid gradually, boiling after each addition for a few 
minutes ; dissolve the remaining half of the sul- 
phate of iron in the rest of the boiling water ; mix 
the two solutions and add the ammonia, stirring 
"A;ell all the time ; collect the precipitate on a cal- 
ico filter, wash with water till the latter ceases to 
aiFect nitrate of baryta water, and dry at a heat 
not exceeding 180° F. The formulae of Gregory 
and Dr. Jephson are similar. 

II. The Dublin College orders it to be prepared 
by washing the black scales of iron (Ferri oxydi 
squamae) that fall around the smith's anvils, drying, 
detaching them from impurities by means of a 
magnet, then grinding, elutriating, and drying. 
This process is the cheaper of the two, but the 
product is inferior as a medicine, being less easily 
soluble. 

Remarks. When pure it is attracted by the mag- 
net, and entirely soluble in muriatic acid ; and 
ammonia added to the solution throws down a black 
precipitate, (P. E.) Dose. 5 to 20 grains two or 
three times a day. 

IV. Hydrated peroxide. Do. Sesquioxide. 
Ferrugo, P. E. Hydrate de peroxide de Fer, 
Fr. Eisen oxydhydrat, Ger. Prep. (P. E.) 
Sulphate of iron §iv ; oil of vitriol f §iiiss ; water 1 
quart ; mix, dissolve, and boil, then gradually add 
nitric acid f 3ix ; stirring well and boiling for a 
minute or two after each addition, until the liquor 
yields a yellowish-brown precipitate vv^ith ammo- 
nia, when it must be filtered and precipitated with 
liquor of ammonia (fort.) §iiiss, rapidly added and 
well mixed in ; collect, wash well with water, 
drain on a calico filter, and dry at a heat not ex- 
ceeding 180° F. ; when intended as an antidote 
for arsenic it should not be dried, but kept in the 
moist or gelatinous state. 

Remarks. Very soluble in acids. As an antidote 
for arsenic 1 tablespoonful of the moist oxide may 
be given every 5 or 10 minutes, or as often as the 
patient can swallow it. (Pereira.) When this 
preparation cannot be obtained, rust of iron, or 
even the dry carbonate, (sesquioxide,) may be 
given along with water instead. 12 parts of the 
hydrated oxide of iron are required to neutralize 1 
part of arsenious acid. (Dr. Maclagan.) We are 
indebted to Messrs. Bunsen and fierthold for the 



IRO 



381 



ISA 



introduction of this substance as an antidote to 
arsenic. Dose. As a tonic, 5 to 20 grs. The rust 
of iron is also a hydrated oxide, but is less soluble 
than that recently precipitated from its solution in 
an acid. 

IRON, PERNITRATE. Syn. Ferri perni- 
TRAS. Ferri persesquimtras. Prep. Digest iron 
in nitric acid diluted with water, until saturated. 
It has been given in diarrhoea. 

IRON, PERSULPHATE. Syn. Tritosul- 
FATE i)E fer. Persesqui-sulphate of Iron. Ferri 
PERSULPiiAS. Prep. The liquor, before the addition 
of the diumonia in the last article but one, is a 
solution of persulphate of iron, which may be 
evaporated. This salt is also formed when proto- 
sulphate of iron is calcined with free exposure to 
the air. Dissolved in water it is used as a test for 
prussic, gallic, tannic, and boletic acids. 

IRON, PHOSPHATE. Syn. Ferri phosphas. 
Prep. Precipitate a solution of sulphate of iron by 
another of phosphate of soda ; wash and dry. A 
blue powder, frequently called the Proto-phos- 
piiATE of iron. The Perphosphate of Iron, {Ses- 
qui-phosphate of iron, Oxyphosphate of iron, 
Ferri phosphas tritoxydi, Ferri sesquiphosphas,) 
is a white powder, obtained by precipitating sesqui- 
chloride ot iron by phosphate of soda. Both the 
above are given in scrofula and cancer. Dose, 10 
to 15 grs. 

IRON, POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF. Syn. 
Tartrate of Potash and Iron. Tartrate of 
Iron. Ferro-tartrate of Potassa. Cremo- 

TARTRATE OF IrON. FeRRI POTASSIO-TARTRAS, (P. 

L.) Ferrum tartarizatum, (P. E.) Ferri tar- 
taru.m, (P. D.) Tartrate de Fer et de Potasse, 
(Fr.) Eisenweinstein, (Ger.) Prep. I. (P. L.) 
Boil freshly precipitated sesquioxide of iron with a 
solution of cream of tartar, till it ceases to be dis- 
solved ; then filter, and if the liquor reddens litmus 
paper, add a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammo- 
nia to saturation ; again strain, and evaporate to 
dryness. 

II. (P. D.) Iron wire (filings) 1 part ; bitartrate 
of potash, in fine powder, 4 parts ; distilled water 
8 parts, or q. s. ; mix, expose the mass to the air 
in a shallow vessel for 15 days, occasionally stir- 
ring, and adding enough water to keep the mass 
moist ; lastly, boil the magma in water, filter, and 
evaporate. 

Remarks. This preparation is a double salt of 
iron and potassa ; it is therefore wrongly called 
tartrate of iron. It should be " totally soluble in 
water, neutral to litmus, unaffected by yellow 
prussiate of potash, and not precipitated by acids 
nor alkalis, nor acted on by the magnet." (P. L.) 
" Entirely soluble in cold water ; taste, feebly 
chalybeate." (P. E.) An excellent ferruginous 
tonic. Dose. 10 to 30 grs. made into a bolus with 
aromatics. 

IRON, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Copperas. 
Green Vitriol. Protosulphate of Iron. Vit- 
riol OF Mars. Salt of Mars. Vitriolated 
Iron. Vitriolum viride. Vitriolum Martis. 
Sal Martis. Ferrum vitriolatum. Vitriolum 

VULGARE AnGLICANUM. ViTRIOLUM FeRRI. VlT- 

RiOLUM Ferratum. Ferri Sulphas, (P. L. E. and 

D.) COUPEROSE VERTE ; SuLPHATE DE FeR, {Ft.) 
ScHWEFELSAURES EisEN-OXYDUL, EiSEN VITRIOL, 

''(xer.) Chalca.nthum, (Pliny.) 



Prep. (Ferri sulphas, P. L., medicinal sulphate 
of iron.) Iron filings '^vW'} ; sulphuric acid 3xiv; 
water 4 pints ; dissolve by heat, filler, set aside to 
crystallize, and evaporate for more crystals. The 
Dublin College orders iron wire to be employed, 
and the Edinburgh College directs the transparent 
green crystals of the copperas of commerce, to be 
dissolved in their own weight of boiling water, 
acidulated with sulphuric acid, and recrysiallized. 

Remarks. It should be perfectly soluble in wa« 
ter, and a piece of iron put into the solution should 
not precipitate metallic copper. (P. L.) Sulphate 
of iron prepared by dissolving iron wire or filings 
in the acid, should alone be used in medicine. It 
is very astringent. Dose. From i gr. to 5 grs., in 
pills or solution. Commercial sulphate of iron 
(copperas) is used in dyeing, and for various other 
purposes in the arts. (See Copperas.) 

IRON, SULPHATE OF, (DRIED.) Syn. 
Ferri Sulphas exsiccatum, (P. E.) Prep. See 
Copperas, calcined, p. 219. It is used to make 
pills. 5 parts of the crystallized sulphate lose very 
nearly 2 parts by drying. 

IRON, SULPHURET OF. Syn. Chalybs 
cum Sulphure. Sulphuretum P'erri, (P. E. and 
D.) Prep. Expose a bar of iron to a full white 
heat, and instantly apply a €^t!id mass of sulphur 
to it, observing to let the melted product fall into 
water ; separate the sulphnret from the sulphur, 
dry, and preserve it in closed vessels. (P. E. dk. D.) 
It may also be made for pharmaceutical purposes, 
by heating a mixture of 1 part of sublimed sulphur 
and 3 parts of iron filings in a common fire, till the 
mixture begins to glow, and then removing the 
crucible and covering it, until the action shall come 
to an end. (P. E.) 

Remarks. Several other sulphurets of iron are 
prepared by chemists. The tetrasulphuret is 
made by transmitting hydrogen gas over dry disul- 
phate of peroxide of iron ; — the disulphuret by a 
like treatment of the dry protosulphate of iron. 
(Arfwedson.) — The protosulphuret of iron is 
made by heating 28 parts of iron filings with 16 
parts of sulphur in a crucible, in the way above 
described ; or by precipitating a solution of proto- 
sulphate of iron by hydrosulphate of ammonia. — 
The sesquisulphuret is made by dropping a solu- 
tion of perchloride of iron into another of hydro- 
sulphate of ammonia, when this compound falls as 
a black precipitate. — The bisulphuret of iron 
{iron pyrites) is found in large quantities in the 
mineral kingdom. — Magnetic iron pyrites is a mix- 
ed sulphnret of iron found in nature. All the com- 
pounds of iron and sulphur, except the bisulphuret, 
yield sulphureted hydrogen, when treated with 
sulphuric or muriatic acid ; hence their frequent 
employment in chemistry for that purpose. Equal 
parts of sulphur and iron filings" melted together in 
a covered crucible, form a compound frequently 
used for copying medals, &c. It melts easjiy, and 
takes sharp casts, and may be colored red with 
vermilion. Native iron pyrites is also called Brass- 
balls, Horse gold, Copperas-balls, Pyrites 
Ferri, &:c. 

ISATIC ACID. Prepared from isatine by so- 
lution in caustic potassa, the application of heat 
till the purple color passes into yellow, evaporation, 
and crystallization. The Isatate of Potassa thus 
obtained is then dissolved in alcohol, recrystallized. 



ITC 



382 



JAL 



. the crystals dissolved in water, the solution pre- 
cipitated with acetate of lead, and the white pow- 
der (IsATATE OF LEAD) diffused through water, 
and sulphureted hydrogen passed through the 
liquid, when a solution of isatic acid is obtained, 
which by spontaneous evaporation yields a white 
semi-crystalline powder. Isatic acid is soluble in 
cold water, but is decomposed when the solution is 
heated. It forms salts with the bases called Isatates. 

ISATINE. A product of the oxidation of indi- 
go, discovered by Erdman and Laurent. It is ob- 
tained by heating finely-powdered indigo with a 
mixture of equal parts of sulphuric acid and bichro- 
mate of potash in 25 parts of water ; a deep brown 
liquid is formed, which, on cooling, deposites crys- 
tals of isatine. These are purified by recrystalliza- 
tion, first, in water, and then in alcohol. It forms 
lustrous orange red crystals, soluble in water and 
alcohol. Alkalis convert it into isatic acid, and 
chlorine into Chlorisatine and Bichlorisatine. 

ISATYDE. This name has been given by Erd- 
man to a yellowish powder obtained by dissolving 
isatine in hydrosulphuret of ammonia : it is deposit- 
ed as the liquor cools. 

ISETHIONIC ACID, AND ETHIONIC 
ACID. Two new acids obtained by Magnus, by 
treating alcohol with a hydrous sulphuric acid in 
the cold, diluting with water, neutralizing with 
carbonate of baryta, filtering, evaporating to a 
sirup, adding alcohol, and cautiously decomposing 
the whole precipitate (ethionate of baryta) with 
sulphuric acid, when a solution of ethionic acid is 
formed ; when this solution is boiled, it is convert- 
ed into sulphuric acid and isethionic acid. The 
latter acid may also be formed by saturating pure 
ether with dry sulphuric acid, adding water, sep- 
arating the stratum below the ether, neutralizing 
with barj^ta, evaporating (below 212°) till crystals 
begin to appear, adding absolute alcohol, dissolving 
hi water, again precipitating by alcohol, dissolving 
a third time in water, and then precipitating the 
baryta with sulphuric acid. The first acid forms 
salts termed Isethionates with the bases ; the lat- 
ter Ethionates. By cautious evaporation, isethi- 
onic acid forms a viscid oily liquid. 

ITACONIC ACID. Pyrocitric acid, obtained 
by the action of heat on aconitic acid. 

ITCH. Syn. Scabies, Psora, (Lat.) Gale, 
(Fr.) There are four varieties of itch, distinguish- 
ed by nosologists by the names scabies papulifor- 
mis, or rank itch ; scabies lymphatica, or watery 
itch ; scabies purulenta, or pocky itch ; scabies 
cacheciica, a species exhibiting appearances resem- 
bling each of the previous varieties. Our space 
will not permit more than a general notice of the 
common symptoms, and the mode of cure which 
is equally applicable to each species, and will not 
prove injurious to other skin-diseases simulating 
the itch. 

The common itch consists of an eruption of 
minute vesicles, principally between the fingers, 
bend of the wrist, &c., accompanied by intense 
itching of the parts, which is only aggravated by 
scratching. It is most readily cured by the re- 
peated application of suipliur ointmenl, (simple or 
compound.) which should be well rubbed in, once 
or twice a day, until a cure is eili-cted ; accompa- 
nying its use by the internal exhibition of a spoon- 
ful or more of flowers of sulphur, mixed with trea- 



cle or milk, night and morning. Where the ex- 
ternal use of sulphur is objectionable, on account 
of its smell, a lotion or bath of sulphuret of potas- 
sium, or of chloride of lime, may be employed in- 
stead. (See Baths, Lotions, and Ointments.) 



JAGGERIES. 1. Cocoa jaggery; Teim6 vel- 
lum.) Raw sugar made from cocoanut toddy by 
evaporation. — 2. Palmyra jaggery, (Pannay vel- 
lum,) from Palmyra toddy, as last ; 6 pints yield 
1 lb. — 3. Malabar jaggery, (Koondee panei vel- 
lum,) from Malabar toddy. — 4. Mysore jaggery, 
from Mysore toddy ; 1 7 gallons yield 46 lbs. All 
are used as raw sugar. 

JALAP. The jalap ipomaea (ipomcea purga vel 
jalapa) contains the following substances, which 
have been proposed as remedies : — 

JALAPIC ACID. Prep. Add an alcoholic 
solution of acetate of lead to a similar solution of 
jalap resin, collect the precipitate, and throw down 
the lead by means of sulphureted hydrogen. Solu- 
ble in alcohol and alkalis, and slightly so in ether. 
Jalap root contains 13§ of jalapic acid. 

JALAPIN. Syn. Jalapina. Prep. I. Add 
an alcoholic solution of acetate of lead to an alco- 
holic solution of jalap resin as long as a precipitate 
(jalapate of lead) is formed ; filter ; the liquid is 
a solution of acetate of jalapine, which, after the 
removal of the acetic acid and excess oi lead, and 
evaporation to dryness, yields jalapin. A trans- 
parent, colorless resin, very soluble in alcohoL 
Purgative. 

II. (Hume.) Digest coarsely-powdered jalap in 
strong acetic acid for 14 days, add ammonia in 
excess, agitate strongly, filter, wash the deposite in 
cold water, redissolve in acetic acid, reprecipitate 
by ammonia, wash, and dry. 

JALAP RESIN. Prep. I. (M. Planche.) 
Digest bruised or coarsely-powdered jalap in alco- 
hol or rectified spirit of wine for some days, then 
express the tincture, add water, wash the precipi- 
tated resin with warm water, dry in a water-bath, 
dissolve the resin in alcohol, add a little animal 
charcoal, agitate, filter, and evaporate to dryness. 

II. (M. A. Nativelle.) Digest jalap root in 
boiling water for 24 hours, then reduce it to thin 
slices, add more water, and boil for 10 minutes, 
agitating the mixture occasionally ; express the 
liquid in a tincture press, and repeat the boiling 
and pressing a second and a third time. These 
decoctions by evaporation yield aqueous extract of 
jalap. The pressed root is now placed in an alem- 
bic, and alcohol at 65° C. added, the whole boiled 
for 10 minutes, and then allowed to cool ; the 
tincture is next pressed out, and the boiling with 
fresh alcohol and expression is repeated twice ; a 
little animal charcoal is then added to the mixed 
tinctures, and, after thorough agitation, the latter 
are filtered ; the spirit is then distilled until nothing 
passes over, the supernatant liquor is next poured 
ofFthe fluid resin, and the latter dried by spreading 
it over the surface of the capsule, and continuing 
the heat. The product is a friable and nearly 
colorless resin, wliich forms a white powder re- 
sembling starch. 1 kilogramme of jalap root yields 
100 grammes of pure resin. 

*^* Earthenware, or well-tinned copper vessels 
must alone be used in the above piocess, as con 
tact with copper or iron turns the resin black and 



JAM 



383 



JEL 



this tinge can only be removed by re-solution in 
alcohol, the addition of animal charcoal, and re- 
evaporation. 

Remarks. Jalap resin is soluble in alcohol. It 
is a Jalapate of Jalapin (Buchner and Herber- 
ger.) The jalap resin of commerce is generally 
adulterated with scammony, gum guaiacum, or 
rosin. When in a state of purity, it does not form 
an emulsion with milk, but runs into a solid mass, 
which is not the case with scammony resin. It is 
also insoluble in fixed oils and turpentine ; whereas 
the common resins are freely soluble in those men- 
strua. Its alcoholic solution dropped on a piece 
of absorbent white paper, and exposed to the ac- 
tion of nitrous gas, does not acquire a green or 
blue color ; if it does, guaiacum resin is present. 
2§ of this adulteration may be thus detected. (M. 
Gobley.) Jalap resin is insoluble in ether ; but 
guaiacum resin, common resin, and some others 
are so ; the decanted ether should not become 
©Dalescent when mixed with water, and should 
evaporate without leaving any residuum. Powder- 
ed jalap resin placed in cold water does not dis- 
solve, but forms a semi-fluid, transparent mass, as 
if it had been melted ; this characteristic distin- 
guishes it from other resins. An energetic cathar- 
tic. Dose. 1 to 5 grs. 

JALAP RESIN, (FACTITIOUS.) A sub- 
stance frequently sold for jalap resin is made by 
fusing a mixture of pale yellow rosin (white rosin) 
and scammony resin, and adding, when coofed a 
little, but still semi-fluid, a few drops of balsam of 
Peru or tolu ; the mixture is then poured into small 
paper capsules or tin moulds. Its effects resemble 
those of jalap resin, but it inflames less. (X. Lan- 
derer.) 

JAMAICINE. Syn. Jamacina. A peculiar 
alkaloid obtained by Hiittenschmidt from cabbage- 
bark, {cortex ardirce inennis.) It is a brownish 
yellow, crystalline substance ; soluble in water 
and alcohol ; fusible, and very bitter tasted. It 
forms salts with the acids, which, in small doses, 
produce restlessness and trembling ; and in larger 
ones, purging. It is said to be vermifuge. 

JAMS. (In Confectionary.) Conserves of 
fruit and sugar. They are all made by boiling 
either the pulped or bruised fruit over the fire along 
with i its weight to an equal weight of loaf sugar, 
until the mixture jellies, when a little is placed on 
a cold plate. When sufficiently thick, the semi- 
fluid mass should be passed through a coarse hair- 
sieve while hot, to remove the stones and skins of 
the fruit, and then poured into pots or glasses. 
It is usual to tie paper over the latter dipped 
in brandy. The following are the principal 
jams : — 

Apricot jam. 6 dozen apricots, stoned and pared, 
or flesh of apricots, 2^ lbs. ; white sugar 2 to 3 lbs. ; 
yields about 4^ lbs. of jam. 

Cherry jam. Stoned cherries 4 lbs. ; white sugar 
2 lbs. ; about 2 lbs. of red currants, or a pint of 
currant juice improves it. 

Goos»herry jam. Picked and stalked gooseberries 
(red or yellow) 22 lbs. ; white sugar 12 lbs. Pro- 
duct. 26 lbs. 

Orleans plum jam. Equal weight of fruit and 
sugar ; the addition of a few ripe gooseberries and 
raspberries improves it. 

Raspberry jam. Picked raspberries and white 



sugar, of each 14 lbs. Product. 26 lbs. A littl© 
white or red currant juice improves this jam. 

Strawberry jam. As the last, either with or 
without the addition of currant juice. 

JAPAN, BLACK. Prep. I. Burnt umber 8 
oz. ; true asphaltum 3 or 4 oz. ; boiled linseed oil 
1 gallon ; grind the umber with a little of the oil ; 
add it to the asphaltum, previously dissolved in a 
small quantity of the oil by heat ; mix, add the re- 
mainder of the oil, boil, cool, and thin with a suffi- 
cient quantity of oil of turpentine. Flexible. 

II. Shellac 1 oz. ; wood naphtha 4 oz. ; lamp- 
black to color ; dissolve. Inflexible. Both are 
used for leather. 

JAPAN, TRANSPARENT. Prep. Oil of 
turpentine 8 oz. ; oil of laveflder 6 oz. ; camphor 
1 dr. ; bruised copal 2 oz. ; dissolve. Used for ja- 
panning tin ; quick-drying copal varnish is usually 
substituted. 

JAPANNING. (From Japan, the country 
where this art originated.) The art of covering 
paper, wood, or metal with a coating of hard, bril- 
liant, and durable varnish. 

Proc. The material is colored or painted with 
various devices, as may be desi/ed, next covered 
with a highly transparent varnish, (copal,) dried at 
a high temperature, and then polished. Wood 
and paper are first sized, polished, and var- 
nished. 

JAPONIC ACID. When catechine is exposed 
to the air in contact with caustic alkalis, black 
solutions (alkaline japonates) are formed ; with 
carbonated alkalis, red solutions, (alkaline rubi- 
nates ;) the acid of the former may be separated, 
and forms a black powder. (See Catechjne.) 

JATROPHIC ACID. Syn. Crotonic Acid. 
A peculiar fatty acid, constituting the cathartic 
and poisonous ingredient of croton oil and seeds. 
It is volatile, very acid, has a nauseous odor, 
solid at 23° F., and vaporizes at 35° F. It forms 
salts called Jatropates, or Crotonates with the 
bases. 

JAUMANGE. Prep. Isinglass 1 oz. ; boiling 
water 10 or 12 oz. ; dissolve ; add any white sweet 
WMue i pint, the yelks of 2 eggs beaten to a froth, 
and the grated yellow peel of 2 lemons ; mix 
well, and boil over the fire to thicken, stirring all 
the time. 

JAUNDICE. Syn. Icterus. In Pathology, 
a disease characterized by a yellow color of the 
eyes and skin, deep-colored urine, and pale alvine 
evacuations. It appears to arise from a disordered 
action of the biliary organs. Saline aperients, and 
small doses of blue-pill, followed by tonics, are the 
best remedies. Their action should be promoted 
by the copious use of diluents, (as saline waters,) 
and exercise in the open air. W^hen there is much 
pain and vomiting, anodynes (as opium, morphia, 
&.C.) may be administered. 

JELLIES. (See Gelatin, and the following 
articles.) 

*#* Jellies may be colored in the same way aa 
cakes, (see page 153,) and rendered transparent 
by clarification with white of egg. See Calves' 
FEET Jelly. 

JELLY, ALMOND. Syn. Gelatina a.>iyo- 
dalarum. Prep. Blanched siveet almonds and 
white sugar, of each 1 oz. ; water 4 oz. ; make aa 
emulsion, strain, and add melt.ed hartshorn jelly f 



JEL 



384 



JEL 



lb. ; orange-flower water 1 df. ; and essence of 
lemon 2 or 3 drops ; mix well. 

JELLY, ARROW ROOT. Syn. Made Ar- 
row Root. Gelatina marant^. Prep. Arrow 
root 1 oz. ; rub to a smooth paste with a spoonful 
or two of cold water, then gradually add of boiling 
water half a pint, stirring all the while. It may 
be thinned with more water, if required, and fla- 
vored with milk, wine, sugar, and spices, accord- 
ing to the palate of the consumer. Tous les mois 
JELLY is made in the same way. 

JELLY, BISCUIT. Prep. White biscuit, 
crushed beneath the rolling-pin, 4 oz. ; cold water 

2 quarts ; soak for some hours, boil to one half, 
strain, evaporate to 1 pint, add white sugar 1 lb. ; 
red wine 4 oz., and cinnamon 1 oz. Given in 
weakness of the stomach, and m dysentery and 
diarrhoea. 

JELLY, BREAD. Syn. Panada. Gelatina 
Panis. Prep. Cut a French roll into slices, toast 
them on each side, and boil in one quart of water, 
until the whole forms a jell;^, adding more water 
if required ; strain, and flavor as above. Very nu- 
tritious. It may be made with broth from which 
the fat has been skimmed, instead of water. 

JELLY, BROTH. Syn. Soup Jelly. Broth, 
or soup from which the fat has been skimmed, 
evaporated until it becomes gelatinous on cooling. 
See Soup, portable. 

JELLY, CALVES' FEET. (See p. 156.) 

JELLY, CEYLON MOSS. Syn. Gelatina 
Fuci Amylacel Prep. (Dr. Sigmond.) Boil Ceylon 
moss ^ss in water one quart, for 25 minutes, or till 
the liquid jellies on cooling ; strain and flavor. 

JELLY, CORSICAN MOSS. Syn. Gela- 
tina Helmintiiocorti. Prep. (P. Cod.) Corsican 
wormweed or moss §j ; water q. s. to yield §viij ; 
boil for one hour ; strain, add isinglass previously 
soaked in a little water, 3j ; refined sugar §ij ; 
white wine f §ij. Vermifuge. 

JELLY, GRAVY. By evaporating meat gra- 
vies. 

JELLY, HARTSHORN. Syn. Gelatina 
CoRNu Cervi. Prep. (P. Cod.) Hartshorn sha- 
vings ^viij ; wash in water, then boil in clean water 

3 pints, till reduced to one half; strain, press, add 
Bugar ^iv, the juice of one lemon, and the white of 
an egg beat up with a little cold water ; mix well, 
clarify by heat, evaporate till it jellies on cooling, 
then add the peel of the lemon, and set in a cool 
place. It may be flavored with wine, and any of 
the spices. Very nutritious. 

JELLY, ICELAND MOSS. S^/n. Gelatina 
^^ Lichenis. Prep. (P. Cod.) Iceland moss ^ij ; 
soak for 1 or 2 days in cold water, then boil for one 
hour in water q. s. to yield a strong solution ; 
Btrnin, decant the clear after repose, apply heat, 
dissolve therein isinglass 3j, evaporate to a proper 
consistence, put it into pots, and set them in a cool 
place. Nutritious. Recommended in phthisis. 
The jMly of Iceland moss and cinchona (Gelatina 
lichenis cum cinchona, P. Cod.) is made by adding 
§vj of sirup of cinchona to the above. 

JELLY, IRISH MOSS. Syn. Gelatina 
Chondri. Prep. Soak Irish moss (carrageen) in 
cold water, then boil in water one quart to a proper 
consistence; strain, and flavor. Nutritious. 

JELLY, LSIN(;LASS. Syn. Coneectton- 
er'b Jelly. Gelatina Iothyocoll/e. Prep. 



Isinglass dissolved in water by boiling, and evapo- 
rated till it jellies on cooling. To render it quite 
transparent, it should be clarified with white of 
egg. (See Calves' Feet Jelly.) Mi'k, wine, 
and spices may be added, according to taste. I^ 
oz. of good isinglass makes a pint of vcMy strong 
jelly. (See Blancmange.) 

JELLY, RESTORATIVE. (Dr. Radcliflfe.) 
Prep. Boil a leg of pork in water 3 gallons, till 
reduced to 1 gallon, pour off" the liquid, when cold 
remove the fat, add ^ oz. each of mace and nut- 
megs, again boil, and strain. 

JELLY, RICE. Syn. Creme de Riz. Rice 
3 spoonfuls ; boil in water, add 10 sweet and 5 bit- 
ter almonds, and enough sugar ; make an emul- 
sion, and flavor with cinnamon or orange-flower 
water. 

JELLY, SAGO. Soak sago in cold water one 
hour, strain, and boil in fresh water till it becomes 
transparent ; then add wine, sugar, clear broth, 
milk, or spices, to flavor. 1 oz. of sago makes a 
pint of jelly. 

JELLY, TAPIOCA. As the last. It may be 
flavored with lemon juice and peel, wine, or spices 
at pleasure. 1 oz. of tapioca makes a pint of 
jelly. 

JELLIES, FRUIT. These are all prepared 
by boiling the strained juice of the fruit mixed with 
about half its weight of refined sugar, until it jel- 
lies on cooling, observing to carefully remove the 
scum as it rises. The process should be conducted 
by a gentle heat, and it is preferable not to add the 
sugar until the juice is- somewhat concentrated, as 
by lengthened boiling the quality of the sugar is 
injured. 

Jellies are placed in pots or glasses, like jams. 
The following are the TprmapaX fruit j ellies : — 

Apple jelly. Strained apple juice 1 quart ; su- 
gar 1 lb. ; boil to a jelly. When apple juice can- 
not be obtained, the fruit may be boiled with suffi- 
cient water to cover it, and the liquor pressed out 
and used as juice. 

Barberry jelly. (Gelatina berberorum, P. E. 1744. 
Rob de berberis.) Ba"rberries and refined sugar 
equal parts ; as last. One pint of the strained 
juice to sugar 6 or 8 oz. makes a better jelly. 

Cherry jelly. 1. Cornelian cherry jelly, {Rob de 
cornis.) Cornelian cherries 1 lb. ; water \ pint ; 
bruise, boil, strain ; add sugar 6 oz., and boil till 
the liquid jellies. — 2. Kentish cherry jelly, (Rob de 
cerasis.) Strained juice 1 pint ; refined sugar 6 
oz. ; boil down as before. 

Currant jelly, (Rob de ribes.) 1. Juice of any 
variety of currants 1 pint ; white sugar 6 to 8 oz. ; 
as before. Black currant juice requires the most 
sugar ; some add twice the above quantity of sugeu: 
to either sort. — 2. Strained juice and powdered re- 
fined sugar equal parts ; mix, stir for 3 or 4 hours, 
and put it into glasses ; in about 3 days it will con- 
crete into a jelly. Other fruit juice may be treated 
in the same way, especially gooseberry juice. 

Elderberry jelly, (Rob of elderhcrries with su- 
gar. Rob baccarum sambuci cum saccharo.) 1. 
juice of elderberries 4 lbs. ; sugar 1 to 2 lbs. — 2. 
Juice 1 gallon ; sugar 5^ lbs. ; produces about one 
half the weight of jelly. 

Gooseberry jelly. Dissolve sugar in one third of 
its weight of water, by boiling ; it will be nearly 
solid when cold ; add an equal weight of goose- 



JUL 



385 



KAD 



berry juice, and boil as before. Much boiling pre- 
vents it gelati»izing. (See Currant Jelly.) 

Hybiscus jelly. Juice and sugar equal parts. 

Lemon jelly. Isinglass 2 oz. ; water 1 quart, 
boil, add sugar 1 lb.; clarify, and when nearly 
cold, add the juice of 5 lemons, and the grated yel- 
low rinds of 2 oranges and 2 lemons ; mix well, 
strain off the peel, and put it into glasses. 

Orange jelli/. Orange juice 1 pint; let it stand 
over the grated yellow rind of 3 or 4 of the orangos 
for a few hours, then strain, and add loaf sugar ^ 
lb. or more ; isinglass 2 oz., dissolved in water 1 
pint ; mix, and put it into glasses before it cools. 

Plum jel'y, (Rob prunorum acidorum.) Unripe 
plums ti lb.s. ; sugar 6 or 7 lbs. Ripe plums take 
less sugar. ^ 

Punch jelly. Isinglass 2 oz. ; sugar 1| lbs. ; wa- 
ter 1 pint ; dissolve, add lemon juice ^ pint ; the 
peels of 2 lemons and 2 oranges, and ^ pint each 
of rum and brandy ; keep it in a covered vessel 
until cold, then liquefy it by a very gentle heat, 
strain, and pour it into moulds. A pleasant and 
deceptive way of swallowing alcohol. 

Quince jelly, (Gelatina cydoniorum. Rob cy- 
doniorum, P. E. 1744.) Quince jelly 3 lbs.; re- 
fined sugar 1 lb. ; boil to a jelly. 

Rasphcrry jelly. Juice 2 lbs. ; sugar 1 lb. ; boil 
down. 

Sirrncherry jelly is made the same way. 

*if* The preceamg fruit jams and jellies are re- 
frigerant and laxative ; they are mostly employed 
as relishes, &,c. 

JERVIN. A peculiar alkaloid, found by Simon, 
associated with barytin, in the rhizomes of white 
hellebore. It forms salts with the acids. 

JUICE Syn. Succus, {Lat.) Sue ; Jus, 
{Fr.) The reader is referred to the article Vege- 
table Juices for the method of obtaining and pre- 
serving these liquids, especially the expressed 
juices employed in medicine, and termed alcoola- 
tures by the French. The principal juices of com- 
merce are — Citron Juice, (succus citri, acetositas 
citras,) chiefly imported from Italy in large casks; 
— Lemon Juice, (succus limonis.) from lemons 
that spoil before they can be sold ; also imported ; 
— Orange Juice, (succus auraniii,) obtained from 
the same sources as that of lemons. — Concentra- 
ted Orange Juice, (succus spissatus aurant-i, 
vet aurantiorum,) and Concentrated Lemon 
Juice, (succus spissatus limonum.) are prepared 
by evaporating the fresh juices of oranges and 
lemons, either alone or mixed with sugar, and are 
employed as substitutes for the fruit, where the 
latter cannot be obtained. 

JUICE, REFINED. Prep. Italian juice 4 
lbs. ; gum arable 1 lb. ; water q. s. ; dissolve, strain, 
gently evapcrttte to a pilular consistence, then roll 
into small cylinders, cut into lengths, and after- 
wards polish them by rubbing them together in a 
box. An inferior kind is made of equal parts of 
liquorice and common glue, but may readily be 
discovered by its less grateful taste. Expectorant ; 
used as a lozenge to allay coughs. (See Extract 
OF Liquorice.) 

JULEP. Syn. JuLAP. JcLAPiuM ; Julepus, 
[Lat.) Julep, (Fr.) This term was formerly 
applied to those preparations at present called mix- 
tures. (See Mixtures, and the following.) 

JULEP, A^ID. Syn. Julapium acidum. Prep, 
49 



(Fr. H.) Muriatic acid 3j ; simple sirup 5J ; wa« 
ter \ pint ; mix. Done. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 3 ot 
4 times a day, after a course of mercury. 

JULEP, AxNODYNE. ^^«. Jul.' Calmanb 
PoTio ANOUVNA. Prep. (P. Cod.) Lettuce wa- 
ter 5iv ; sirup of opium 3ij ; orange-flower water 
3vj ; to lull pain. 

JULEP, CAMPHOR. Syn. Jul. Camphor;b. 
Prep. (Collier.) Camphor 25 grs. ; powdered gum 
^ss ; simple or spearmint water §viij ; make an 
emulsion. Anodyne, sedative. Dose. 2 or 3 ta- 
blespoonfuls or more, in hysteria, chorea, stran- 
gury. &,c. 

JULEP, DIAPHORETIC. Syn. Jul. dia- 
pnoRETicuM. Prep. (E. H.) Compound mint wa- 
ter ^iv; solution of acetate of ammonia ^ij ; ses- 
quicarbonate of ammonia 3ij ; white sugar 3vj to 
|j. Dose. 1 tablespoonful in fevers, «Sl-c. 

JULEP, GUM. Syn. Jul. Gummosum. Potio 
GUMMOSA. Prep. (P. Cod.) Gum 3ij ; sirup of al- 
thea §j ; orange-flower water f ss ; water ^''J j 
mix. Demulcent. Dose. A tablespoonful ad li- 
bitum. 

JULEP, LEMON. Syn. Jul. Limonu.m. Prep. 
(Germ. H.) Barley-water 1^ pints ; lemon sirup 
§ij ; sweet spirits of nitre 20 drops ; mix. Demul- 
cent and diaphoretic. 

JULEP, ROSE. Syn. Jul. Rosatum. Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Sugar lb. ij ; rose-water Ib.j ; dissolve 
and filter. A pleasant demulcent, especially if 
mucilage ^iv be added. Violet^ Elder, and 
Orange-flower Juleps, as well as several others 
from demulcent or odorous flowers, may be pre- 
pared in the same way, regulating the flavor by 
properly apportioning the quantity of distilled wa- 
ter ; simple water being added, if required, to 
make up the deficiency. 

JULEP, SQUILL. Syn. Jul. Scill/e. Jui„ 
SciLLiTicuM. Prep-. Sirup of squills 3!] ; sweei 
fennel, aniseed, or pennyroyal-water ^iv ; mix. In 
coughs and hoarseness. Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoon 
fuls every 3 or 4 hours. 

JULEP, SEDATIVE. Syn. Jul. Sedati 
vuM. Prep. (Pierquin.) Camphor 6 grs. ; com 
pound spirit of sulphuric ether 3i8S ; n'lre 12 grs. ; 
orange-flower water 5iij ; sirup of aU;.ea 5iij ; si- 
rup of poppies 3ij ; mix. 

JULEP, TONIC. Syn. Jul. Tonicum. Prep. 
(Fr. H.) Sulphate of quinine 12 grs. ; water "^w ; 
add a i^tw drops of dilute sulphuric to effect solu- 
tion ; when dissolved, further add compound tinc- 
ture of gentian fj ; and sirup of orange-peel or 
roses q. s. to make a six-ounce mixture. Dose. 
A tablespoonful 2 or 3 times a day. 

JUNKET, DEVONSHIRE. Prep. Put warm 
milk into a bowl ; turn it with a little rennet ; then 
add some scalded cream, sugar, and cinnamon on 
the top, without breaking the ciard. 

KADODULE. (From kuk^, had, and <5^u;5r„ 
smell.) The theoretical radical of a series of com- 
pounds, the best known of which is Cadets fuming 
liquor. The following is a brief notice of the prin- 
cipal of these substances : — 

Oxide of Kadodule. (Alkarsine. CadeVa 
fuming liquor.) Acetate of potassa and arsenioas 
acid, equal parts ; mix ; slowly heat to redness in 
a glass retort, placed in a sand-bath, and connect- 
ed with a receiver placed in a freezing mixture 



KAL 



386 



KET 



Separate the heavier liquid that distils over, agi- 
tate it with water, and rectify it along with caustic 
potassa, in an atmosphere of carbonic acid. By a 
second rectification over lime or baryta it may be 
obtained anhydrous. A colorless liquid, boiling at 
300°, congealing at — 10° F., and evolving a very 
offensive odor, resembling arseniureted hydrogen. 
" It is highly poisonous in every shape." It pos- 
sesses feeble basic properties, is soluble in alcohol 
and ether, sparingly soluble in water, and inflames 
spontaneously by exposure to the air. — Sulphuret 
OF Kadodule is formed by distilling a mixture of 
chloride of kadodule and hydrosulphuret of sulphu- 
ret of barium ; a colorless fetid liquid, heavier than 
water, and very poisonous. — Cyanide of Kadodule 
is obtained by distilling a concentrated solution ol 
bicyanide of mercury, along with alkarsine ; fusible, 
volatile crystals. — Chloride of Kadodule is pre- 
pared by distilling alkarsine and bichloride of mer- 
cury ; a colorless liquid, depositing crystals of oxy- 
chloride of kadodule, when exposed to the atmo- 
sphere. — Iodide, Bromide, and Fluoride of Ka- 
dodule resemble the last, and are prepared in a 
similar manner. — Kadodylic Acid (Alkargen) is 
obtained when alkarsine is gradually exposed to 
the air, in the cold. As soon as a semi-solid mass 
is formed, it must be treated with cold water, the 
solution evaporated till it solidifies, and then press- 
ed in bibulous paper, to remove hydrarsine ; the 
residuum is dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol, 
and is again obtained in crystals as the liquid 
cools ; by repeating the process several times with 
alcohol, or by evaporating the aqueous solution in 
a water-bath, and subsequent treatment with hy- 
drated peroxide of iron, and a final crystallization 
from alcohol, pure kadodylic acid is obtained. 
Brittle, glossy, prismatic crystals, deliquescent, 
inodorous, tasteless, and soluble in water and al- 
cohol. 

*^* All the preparations of kadodule are exceed- 
ingly poisonous, and therefore great caution should 
be exercised in experimenting on them. Even 
very small quantities of their vapors cause vomit- 
ing, numbness of the extremities, fainting, and 
other alarming symptoms. They all evolve a most 
offensive odor, and this property has led Bunsen to 
propose the following test for arsenic and the 
acetates : — A metallic sublimate boiled with water 
containing air until dissolved, the solution mixed with 
potash and acetic acid, evaporated to dryness, and 
the residuum heated in a test tube, vvK evolve the 
horrible odors of alkarsine, if arsenic oe pi'esent. 
This odor is rendered even more offensive by the 
addition of protochloride of tin to the ignited mass. 
As a test for the acetates, the addition of potassa 
and arsenic must be added. (Vide Turner's Chem., 
7th ed., and also the Researches of Berzelius, and 
the more recent ones of Bunsen.) 

KALEIDOSCOPE. (From Ka\og, pretty ; 
«t5os, form ; and aKonem, I view.) A pleasing, 
philosophical toy, invented by Sir David Brewster, 
which presents to the eye a series of symmetrical 
changing views. It is formed as follows: — Two 
slips of silvered glass, from G to 10 inches long, 
and from an inch to an inch and a half wide, and 
rather narrower at one end than the other, are 
joined together lengthwise, by one of their edges, 
by means of a piece of silk or cloth, glued on their ■ 
backs ; they are then placed in a tube (tin or | 



pasteboard) blackened inside, and a little longer 
than is necessary to contain them, and are fixed, 
by means of small pieces of cork, with their faces 
at any angle to each other, that is an even aliquot 
part of 4 right angles, (as the one-sixth, one- 
eighth, one-tenth, &lc.) The one end of the tube 
is then closed with an opaque screen, or cover, 
through which a small eyehole is made in the cen- 
tre, and the other end fitted, first with a plate of 
common glass, and at the distance of about g of 
an inch, with a plain piece of slightly ground 
glass, parallel to the former ; in the intermediate 
space or cell are placed the objects to form the 
images. These consist of colored pieces of glass, 
glass beads, or any other colored diaphonous bodies, 
sufficiently small to move freely in the cell, and 
to assume new positions when the tube is shaken 
or turned round. A tube so prepared presents an 
infinite number of changing and symmetrical pic- 
tures, no one of which can be exactly reproduced. 
This toy is easily constructed, and is very inex- 
pensive ; as any common tube of tin or pasteboard 
may be used, and strips of glass smoked on one 
side will answer for mirrors. Kaleidoscopes are 
commonly called flower-glasses. 

KERMES MINERAL. Syn, Kermes Miner- 
ALis. Prep. I. Black sesquisulphuret of antimo- 
ny 4 lbs. ; carbonate of potash 1 lb. ; boil in water 
2 gallons, for half an hour, filter, and cool slowly ; 
the kermes will be deposited as the solution cools, 
and must be washed with water and dried. The 
undissolved portion of sesquisulphuret of antimony 
may be boiled again several times with fresh pot- 
ash and water. The liquor decanted off the kermes 
will yield the Golden Sulphuret of Antimony, 
on the addition of an acid ; the acetic being gener- 
ally used for this purpose. 

II. Sesquisulphuret of antimony 1 lb. ; carbon- 
ate of potash i lb. ; flowers of sulphur 1 oz. ; mix, 
melt, cool, powder, boil in water q. s. ; filter while 
hot ; the kermes is deposited as the liquid cools, 
and must be well washed with water. 

III. {CluzelVs kermes.) Sulphuret of antimony 
4 parts ; crystallized carbonate of soda 90 parts ; 
water 1000 parts ; boil for 30 to 45 minutes, filter 
while hot into a warm vessel, and cool very slow- 
ly ; in 24 hours collect the kermes, moderately 
wash with cold water, and dry at 70 or 80° F., 
folded up in paper, to exclude the air and light. 

Remarks. The first two formulae yield an or- 
ange-red powder ; the third a very dark crimson 
powder, of a smooth velvety appearance. It is a 
hydrated oxysulphuret of antimony, (Gay Lus- 
sac ;) a hydrated sesquisulphuret, (Berzeliust) 
Dose, i gr. to 4 grs. as a diaphoretic, cathartic, or 
emetic. It occupies in foreign practice the place 
of our James's Powder. 

KETCHUP. Syn. Catsup. Katchup. Prep. 
I. {Camp ketchup.) Old stroMg beer 2 quarts; 
white wine 1 quart ; anchovies 4 oz. ; mix, boil for 
10 minutes, remove it from the fire, and add of 
peeled slialotes 3 oz. ; mace, nutmegs, ginger, and 
black pepper, of each ^ oz. ; macerate for 14 days 
and bottle. 

II. {Cucumber ketchup.) From ripe cucum- 
birs, in the same way as mushroom ketchup 
Mixed with cream, or melted butter, it forms an 
excellent white sauce for fowls, &c. 

III. {For sea stores.) Stale strong beer 1 gal- 



KET 



387 



LAB 



Ion; anchovies IJ lbs.; peeled shalotes 1 lb. ^ 
bruised mace, mustard seed, and cloves, of each 
I oz. ; bruised pepper and ginger, of each i oz. ; 
mushroom ketchup and vinegar, of each 1 tjuart ; 
heat to the boiling point, put it into a bottle, cork, 
and macerate for 14 days, frequently shaking; 
then strain through flannel, and bottle for use. 
This, like the last, makes good white sauce, and 
keeps well. 

IV. {Mushrooyn ketchup.) — a. Sprinkle mush- 
room flaps, gathered in September, with common 
salt, stir them occasionally for 2 or 3 days, then 
lightly squeeze out the juice, and add to each gal- 
lon, bruised cloves and mustard seed, of each J^ 
oz. ; bruised allspice, black pepper, and ginger, of 
each 1 oz. ; gently heat to the boiling point in a 
covered vessel, macerate for 14 days, and strain ; 
should it exhibit any indications of change in a 
few weeks, bring it again to the boiling point, with 
a little more spice. — b. Mushroom juice 2 gallons ; 
pimento 2 oz. ; cloves, black pepper, mustard seed, 
and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz. ; salt 1 lb., or to 
taste ; shalotes .3 oz. ; gently simmer for 1 hour in 
a covered vessel, cool, strain, and bottle. — c. Juice 
100 gallons ; black pepper 9 lbs. ; allspice 7 lbs. ; 
ginger 5 lbs. ; cloves 1 lb. ; salt as required ; all 
bruised ; gently simmer in a covered tin boiler for 
1 hour. *^* A glazed earthenware, or well-tin- 
ned copper pan, should alone be used for heating 
this or any other ketchup in, as the salt and juice 
rapidly corrode the copper, and render the ketchup 
poisonous. 

V. {Oyster ketchup.) Pulp the fish, and to 
each pint add sherry wine, or very strong old ale, 
1 pint ; salt 1 oz. ; mace i oz. ; black pepper 1 dr.; 
boil 10 minutes, strain, cool, bottle, and to each 
bottle add a spoonful or two of brandy. Cockle 
Ketchup and Mussel Ketchup are made in th6 
same way. Used to flavor sauces when the fish 
are out of season. 

VI. {Pontac ketchup.) Elderberr}'' juice and 
strong vinegar, of each 1 pint ; anchovies ^ lb. ; 
shalote and spice to flavor ; boil for 5 minutes, cool, 
strain, and bottle. Used to make fish sauce. 

VII. {Tomato ketchup.) Prepared like mush- 
room ketchup, except that a little Chili vinegar is 
commonly added. 

VIII. (Walnut ketchup.) — a. Expressed juice 
of young walnuts, when tender, 1 gallon ; boil, 
skim, add anchovies 2 lbs. ; shalotes 1 lb. ; cloves 
and mace, of each 1 oz. ; 1 clove of garlic, sliced ; 
simmer in a covered vessel for 15 minutes, strain, 
cool, and bottle, adding a little fresh spice to each 
bottle, and salt as required. Will keep in a cool 
place for 20 years. — h. Green walnut shells 16 gal- 
lons ; salt 4 lbs. : mix, and beat together for a week, 
press out the liquor, and to every gallon add all- 
spice 4 oz. ; ginger 3 oz. ; pepper and cloves, of 
each 2 oz. ; all bruised ; simmer for half an hour. — 
c. Walnut-juice 1 gallon ; vinegar 1 quart ; Brit- 
ish anchovies (sprats) 3 or 4 lbs. ; pimento 3 oz. ; 
ginger \ oz. ; long pepper ^ oz. ; cloves 1 oz. ; 
shalotes 2 oz. ; boil and bottle. — d. Juice of walnut 
shells 30 gallons ; salt 1 bushel ; allspice and sha- 
lotes, of each 6 lbs. ; ginger, garlic, and horse- 
radish, of each 3 lbs. ; essence of anchovies 3 gal- 
lons ; simmer as before. 

IX. {Wine ketchup.) Mushroom or walnut 
ketchup 1 quart ; chopped anoho\'ies \ lb. : 20 



shalotes ; scraped horseradish 2 oz. ; spice as usual ; 
simmer for 15 minutes ; cool, add white and red 
wine, of each 1 pint ; macerate for 1 week, strain 
and bottle. 

KINIC ACID. Discovered by Hoffman in 
cinchona bark, in 1790. It may be obtained from 
kinate of lime, by the action of dilute sulphuric 
acid, filtration, and evaporation, to the consistence 
of a sirup, when crystals will be gradually deposit- 
ed. It is soluble in water and alcohol, and forms 
salts called Kinates. Kinate of lime is obtained 
from an acidulated infusion of cinchona bark, by 
adding an excess of lime, filtering, evaporating to 
a sirup, and setting the liquid aside, when crystals 
will form. 

KING'S YELLOW. Syn. Hartal. Sesqui- 
suLPHURET OF Arsenic. A beautiful golden yel- 
low pigment, prepared from orpiment by sublima- 
tion. The finest kind is imported from China, 
Japan, and Burmah. See Arsenic. 

KIXO, FACTITIOUS. Logwood 48 lbs. ; tor- 
mentil root 16 lbs. ; madder root 12 lbs. ; water q.s. ; 
make a decoction; add catechu 16 lbs.; dissolve, 
strain, and evaporate to dryness. Prod. 24 lbs. 
Extract of mahogany is also commonly solcf for 
j kino. 

KIRCHWASSER. Syn. Kirschexwasser. 
I A spirituous liquor distilled in Germany from 
j bruised cherries. From the rude manner in which 
! it is obtained, and from the distillation of the cher- 
, ry-stones (which contain prussic acid) with the 
I liquor, it usually has a very nauseous taste, and is 
I frequently poisonous. 

i KCECHLIX'S LIQUID. Prep. Copper filings 
; 96 grs. ; liquor of ammonia §ij ; digest till the li- 
quor turns of a full blue, filter, add muriatic acid 
' 5v 12 grs. ; distilled water 5 lbs. ; mix. Dose. 1 
to 2 teaspoonfuls daily in scrofula. 

KOMENIC ACID. A peculiar acid discov- 

\ ered by Robiquet, and most easily obtained by 

boiling meconic acid with strong muriatic acid. 

It forms cn,-stalline grains, and strikes a blood-red 

color with the persalts of iron. With the basis it 

j forms salts called Komenates. 

I KOUMISS. A liquor prepared by the Calmucs, 

I by fermenting mare's milk, previously kept till 

j sour, ami then skimmed. By distillation it yields 

a spirit called rack, racky, or araka ; 21 lbs. of 

fermented milk yield about | of a pint of low 

wines, and this, by rectification, fully :^ of a pint 

of strong alcohol. 

I KRAMERIC ACID. A peculiar substance 
found by M. Peschier, of Geneva, in rhatany root, 
I (Krameria triandria,) and to which he eiscribes its 
j stypticitv. 

I KUStlTIEN'S METAL. Prep. Malleable 
iron 1 lb. ; heat to whiteness, and add of antimo- 
ny 5 oz. : Molucca tin 24 lbs. ; mix under char- 
coal, and cool. Used to tin iron and other metals ; 
I it polishes without a blue tint, is hard, and is free 
from lead and arsenic. 



LABDANUM, FACTITIOUS. Prep. I. 
Gums anime, copal, lac, aud niastich, of each 2 
j lbs. ; gum arable 3 lbs. ; catechu and common 
I Spanish juice, of each 1 lb. ; sirup of tolu 8 oz. ; 
' essences of ambergris and musk, of each 2 oz. 
i melt together. 



LAC 



388 



LAC 



II. Yellow wax, rosin, and lard, equal parts ; 
melt, and color with powdered ivory black. 

LABELS, INSOLUBLE. Lay a coat of 
strained white of egg over the label, and imme- 
diately put the vessel into the upper portion of a 
common steampan, or otherwise expose it to a 
gentle heat till the albumen coagulates and turns 
opaque, then take it out and dry it in an oven, at 
a heat of about 212° ; the opaque white film will 
then become hard and transparent, and resist the 
action of oils, spirits, and water. (Chem., iii. 158.) 
The labels on bottles containing acids or alkaline 
solutions, should be either etched upon the glass 
by fluoric acid, or be written with incorrodible ink. 
(See Inks and Etching.) 

LABORATORY. Syn. Elaboratory. La- 
BORATOiRE, (Fr.) Laboratorium, (Lat., from 
lahoro, I labor.) A place fitted up for the per- 
formance of chemical operations. It was our in- 
tention to have described the best mode of fitting 
up a chemical and a pharmaceutical laboratory, 
both on the small and large scale, and also to have 
presented the reader with a copper-plate engraving 
of the laboratory of Giessen, but from want of 
room we are compelled to withdraw the article 
and illustrations. We must thereibi-e content our- 
selves with recommending the reader to consult 
the last edition of Faraday's " Chemical Manip- 
ulation,''^ a work replete with correct and valuable 
mforrnation. Among Portable Laboratories, 
the cheapest and best arranged are those of Mr. 
Robert Best Ede, of Dorking, which may be pur- 
chased at prices varying from 16s. to X6 or £8. 
That at the former price contains more than 40 
chemical preparations and appropriate apparatus, 
and is well adapted to amuse the juvenile experi- 
mentaliij and at the same time to afTord him a 
ready intivt^uction to chemical knowledge. The 
chemical laboratory, or portable chemical cabinet, 
at the higher price, contains upwards of 130 select 
chemical preparations and newly- invented appa- 
ratus, and is calculated for performing experiments 
both of demonstration and research, with perfect 
readiness and safety, either in the drawing-room 
or class-room. It is also very elegantly and com- 
pactly got up, and forms a suitable object for the 
side-table of every student. This cabinet has re- 
ceived the approval of Prof. Graham, which is no 
ordinary recommendation. 

LAC. Syn. Laque, (Fr.) Lack, {Ger.) Lac- 
CA, {Lat.) Stick lac, (lacca in ramulis, lacca in 
baculis ;) seed lac, (lacca in granis, lacca in 
seminis;) lump lac, {lacca in massis ;) shell lac, 
(lacca in tabulis.) All the preceding differ only 
in color and form. Shell lac is most generally 
used ; the palest is the best. They are all said to 
be calefacient, attenuant, aperient, diaphoretic, 
and diuretic. Lac is used in dentifrices, in var- 
nishes, lacquers, and sealing-wax, and to make 
toys and trinkets. 

LAC DYE. A coloring substance used to dye 
Bcarlet, imported from the East Indies in small 
cubical cakes. It is prepared by digesting ground 
Btick lac in water, and evaporating the colored in- 
fusion to dryness. 

LAC LAKE. Syn. Lac Color. East In- 
dian CociiiNKAL. A supi-rior kind of lac dye, 
also imported, and prepared by dissolving out the 
colo.'- of ground sM'.;k lac by means of a weak al- 



kaline solution, and then precipitating it along 
with alumina by adding a solution of alum. Ei- 
ther of the above dissolved in an equal weight of 
muriatic acid, (sp. gr. 1*19, and holding in solu- 
tion abovit Tj*^ of grain tin,) by digestion for about 
6 hour^, and then added to hot water, along with 
about as much tartar as lac dye, ^ that quantity 
of ground sumach, and about \ of solution of tin, 
dyes cloth of a brilliant scarlet color ; 1 lb. of good 
lac dye is sufficient for 10 lbs. of cloth. In some 
cases the stuff" is first yellowed with quercitron. 

LAC VARNISH, (AQUEOUS.) Prep. Pale 
shellac 5 oz. ; borax 1 oz. ; water 1 pint ; digest 
at nearly the boiling point until dissolved ; then 
strain. Equal to the more costly spirit varnish for 
many purposes ; it is an excellent vehicle for wa- 
ter colors, inks, <Slc. ; when dry it is waterproof. 

LAC, WHITE. Dissolve shellac in a lye of 
pearlash or caustic potassa by boiling ; filter, pass 
chlorine through it in excess, wash the precipitate 
and digest. Forms an excellent pale varnish with 
alcohol. 

LAC FERRATUM. Prep. (P.E. 1744.) Re- 
peatedly quench red hot iron in fresh milk. 

LACCIC ACID. A crystalline, wine-yellow 
colored, sour substance, soluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether, extracted by Dr. John from stick lac. 
It forms salts called Laccates with the bases. 

LACCINE. A substance discovered in shellac 
by Unverdorben. It is the portion left after all 
the matters soluble in water, ether, and alcohol, 
have been dissolved out. Brittle, yellow, translu- 
cent, soluble in caustic potassa and in sulphuric 
acid. 

LACQUER. Syn. Lacker. Laque, (Fr.) 
A solution chiefly of shellac in alcohol, tinged 
with saffron, annotto, aloes, and other coloring 
matters. It is applied to wood and metals to im- 
part a golden color. (See Varnish.) 

LACTIC ACID. (From lac, milk.) Syn. 
Acid of Milk. Nanceic Acid, (Braconnot.) 
Acid Lactique, (Fr.) Milchsaure, (Ger.) Aci- 
DUM Lacticum, (Lat.) A sour sirupy liquid dis- 
covered by Scheele in whey. Also found in some 
other animal fluids, and in several vegetable juices, 
especially in that of beet-root. 

Prep. I. Dissolve lactate of baryta in water, 
and precipitate the baryta with dilute sulphuric 
acid, carefully avoiding excess ; evaporate. 

II. (Scheele.) Evaporate sour whey to |, satu- 
rate with slaked lime, filter, add 3 or 4 times the 
quantity of water, cautiously precipitate the lime 
with oxalic acid, filter, and evaporate to dryness 
in a water-bath ; digest the residuum in strong 
alcohol, filter, and again evaporate. It may be 
then further purified by saturation with baryta, 
evaporation, crystallization, re-solntion in water, 
and the careful addition of dilute sulphuric acid 
as before ; lastly evaporate. 

III. (Boutron and Fremy.) Milk 3 or 4 quarts; 
sugar of milk 200 to 300 grs. ; n)ix, and expose 
for 2 or 3 days in an open vessel at 20 to 25° C. ; 
saturate with bicarbonate of soda, again expo.'^e at 
a moderate temperature, saturate with more bi- 
carbonato of soda, and repeat the process until 
the whole of the sugar of milk be decomposed ; 
then coagulat" the caseine by heat, filtrr, evapo- 
rate, extract the acid lactate of soda by alcohol 
of spk gr. O'BIO, and decompose it by the cautious 



LAC 



389 



LAK 



addition of dilute sulphuric acid ; again filter, dis- 
til off the alcohol, and evaporate. The acid may 
be further purified as last, if required. 

Remarks. The evaporation should be conducted 
at a very gentle heat, and finished over sulphuric 
acid, or in vacuo. When required very pure, the 
product of this evaporation may be dissolved in 
ether, filtered, and the ether removed by a very 
gentle heat. 

Prop. The sirupy fluid obtained as above, is 
HVDRATED LACT[C ACID ; it is a little heavier than 
water, tastes strongly acid, attracts moisture from 
the air, and is decomposed at a heat of 480°, with 
the production of concrete or sublimed lactic 
A.CID, which consists of small shining white crys- 
tals, possessing different properties to lactic acid. 
This new acid may be purified by pressure be- 
tween bibulous paper and solution in boiling alco- 
hol, from which it separates in dazzling white 
crystals on cooling. By solution in hot water and 
evaporation to a sirup, it becomes converted into 
pure hydrated lactic acid. With the bases lactic 
acid forms salts called Lactates, most of which 
may be directly formed by the solution of the hy- 
drates, hydrated oxides, or carbonates of the bases 
in the dilute acid. Lactates of ammonia potas- 
sa, soda, lime, baryta, alumina, zinc, nickel, 
lead, mercury, magnesia, iron, copper, silver, 
and of some other bases, have been formed, but 
only those of iron and zinc have been used in 
medicine. 

Uses. Lactic acid has been given in dyspepsia. 
In gout, phosphatic urinary deposites, &lc. &lc. 
From its being one of the natural constituents of 
the gastric juice, and ^vm its power of dissolving 
a considerable quantity of phosphate of lime, it 
appears very probable that it may prove beneficial 
in the above complaints. It is usually exhibited 
in the form of lozenges or solution in sweetened 
water. 

LACTOMETER. Syn. Galactometer. 
(From lac or ya^a, milk, and metrum or fierpov, a 
measure.) An instrument for ascertaining the 
quality of milk. The best way of testing milk is 
to place it in a rng graduated tube, and to allow 
it to remain unt.l all the cream has separated, 
then to decant off the clear whey, and to take 
its specific gravity ; the result of the two opera- 
tions, when compared with the known quantity of 
cream and density of the whey of an average 
sample of milk, will give the value of the sample 
tested. 

LACTUCARIUM. Syn. Lettuce Opium. 
Thridace. The inspissated milky juice of the 
lactuca sativa or common garden lettuce, obtained 
by incision from the flowering stems. It was in- 
troduced into medical use by Dr. Duncan of Edin- 
burgh as a substitute for opium, as it exercises the 
anodyne power without producing the injurious 
effects of the latter drug. Various methods have 
been recommended for obtaining lactucarium from 
the plant. M. Auberger has proposed the cultiva- 
tion of the lactuca altissima for this purpose. 
This variety grows to the height of upwards of 9 
feet, with a stalk 1^ inches in diameter, and af- 
fords plenty of juice, which yields 28 or 29§ of 
dry matter, (lactucarium.) M. Arnaud of Nancy 
recommends cabbage or Batavian lettuces for the 
production of lactucarium. He adopts the follow- 



ing method, which appears to be the most produc- 
tive and simple of any yet published : — Before the 
development of the lateral branches, the stems of 
twelve plants must be cut a little below the com- 
mencement of these branches ; the twelve plants 
being cut, and returning to the first, a milky exu- 
dation is found on the cut portion, and on that 
which remains fixed in the earth ; this milky exu- 
dation must be adroitly collected with the end of 
the finger, which is afterwards scraped on the 
edge of a small glass ; the same operation is per- 
formed on twelve other heads, and so on. On the 
third day it is repeated on every portion of plant 
remaining in the ground, a thin slice being first 
cut off the top : this is done every day until the 
root is reached. As soon as the lactucarium is 
collected, it coagulates ; the harvest of each day 
should be divided into small pieces, which should 
be placed on plates, very near each other, but 
without touching, and allowed to dry for two days, 
after which they may be set aside in a bottle. In 
this way 15 or 20 times the ordinary product is 
obtained. (Jour, de Pharm. et de Chim., and 
Chem., iii. 360.) 

Dose. 2 to 5 grs. and upwards, as an anodyne, 
hj^pnotic, antispasmodic, and sedative, in chronic 
rheumatism, colic, diarrhoea, asthma, troublesome 
coughs, &c. 

LACTUCIC ACID. Obtained from the strong- 
scented lettuce, (Lactuca virosa.) It resembles 
oxalic acid, but differs from it in precipitating the 
protosalts of iron green, and sulphate of copper 
brown. 

LACTUCIN. The active principle of lactuca- 
rium. It exists in the juice of several species of 
lettuce. It is dissolved out of lactucarium by al- 
cohol. It is scarcely soluble in water, has a saffron- 
yellow color, is almost odorless, very bitter, and 
combustible. 

LAENNEC'S CONTRA-STIMULANT 
DRAUGHT. Prep. Potassio-tartrate of anti- 
mony 2 grs. ; orange water f ^iss ; sirup of pop- 
pies f 3ij ; mix. Every two hours in pneumonia, &c. 

LAKE. Animal or vegetable coloring matter, 
precipitated in combination with oxide of tin or 
alumina ; usually the latter. The term was for- 
merly restricted to red preparations of this kind, 
but is now indiscriminately applied to all com- 
pounds of alumina and coloring matter. Lakes 
are made — 1, By adding a solution of alum, either 
alone or saturated with potash, to an infusion or 
decoction of the coloring substance, and after agi- 
tation, precipitating the mixture with a solution of 
carbonate of potash. — 2, By precipitating a decoc- 
tion or infusion of tho coloring substance made 
with a weak alkaline lye, by adding a solution of 
alum. — 3, By agitating recently-precipitated alu- 
mina with a solution of the coloring matter, until 
the liqwid becomes nearly decolored, or the alumi- 
na acquires a sufficiently dark tint. The frst 
method is usually employed for acidulous solutions 
of coloring matter, or for those whose tint is injured 
by alkalis ; the second, for those that are bright- 
ened, or at least uninjured by alkalis ; the third, 
for those coloring matters that have a great affinity 
for gelatinous alumina, and readily combine with 
it by mere agitation. By attention to these gen- 
eral rules, lakes may be prepared from almost all 
animal and vegetable coloring substances that yield 



LAK 



390 



LAK 



their color to watei ; many of which will be found 
to possess great beauty and permanence. The 
precise process adapted to each particular substance 
may be easily ascertained, by taking a few drops 
of its infusion or decoction, and observing the ef- 
fects of alkalis and acids on the color. The quan- 
tity of alum or alumina employed, should be nearly 
sufficient to decolor the dye liquor, and the potash 
should be so proportioned to the alum as exactly 
to precipitate it, without leaving free or carbonated 
alkali in the liquid. The first portion of the pre- 
cipitate has the deepest color, and the shade gradu- 
ally becomes paler. A beautiful tone of violet, 
red, and even purple, may be communicated to the 
coloring matter of cochineal by the addition of 
nitro- muriate or permuriate of tin ; the addition of 
arseniate of potash (neutral arsenical salt) in like 
manner, gives shades which may be sought for in 
vain with alum or alumina. Lake should bo care- 
fully dried, and when intended for sale, made up 
into conical or pyramidal drops, which is done by 
dropping the moist lake through a small funnel on 
a clean board. 

LAKE, BLUE. Prepared from some of the 
blue-colored flowers ; fugitive. The name is also 
applied to lump archel, (lacca coerulea,) to moist 
alumina colored with indigo, and to mixed solu- 
tions of pearlash and prussiate of potash, precipi- 
tated with another solution of sulphate of iron and 
alum ; permanent and beautiful. (See Blue, 
Saxon.) 

LAKE, BRAZIL WOOD. Syn. Drop Lake. 
Lacca in Globulis. Prep. I. Ground Brazil wood 
1 lb. ; water 4 gals. ; boil for 20 minutes ; add 1^ 
lbs. of alum dissolved in water ; mix well, decant, 
strain, add i lb. of solution of tin to brighten the 
color, and then precipitate with a solution of pot- 
ash or carbonate of soda, carefully avoiding excess. 
Product. Deep red. An excess of alkali turns it 
on the violet, and the addition of cream of tartar, 
on the brownish red. The tint turns more on the 
mellow violet red when the solution of tin is oniit- 
ted. Some persons use less, some more alum. The 
first portion of the precipitated lake has the bright- 
est color. 

II. Add washed and recently-precipitated alu- 
mina to a strong and filtered decoction of Brazil 
wood. Both the above must be carefully collected, 
dried, and made up into drops. 

LAKE, CARMINATED. Syn. Florence 
Lake. Florentine do. Paris do. Vienna do. 
Lacca Florentina. Prep. I. Boil the residuum 
of cochineal, left in making carmine, with repeat- 
ed portions of water till it ceases to yield color ; 
filter ; mix it with the liquor decanted off the car- 
mine ; filter ; add some recently-precipitated alu- 
mina, apply a gentle heat, and agitate well. As 
soon as the alumina has absorbed sufficient color, 
allow the mixture to settle ; decant the dear liquid, 
collect the lake on a filter, and carefully dry it. 
The decanted liquor, if still colored, may now be 
treated with fresh alumina until exhausted, and 
thus a lake of a seft,x.d quality may be obtained. 
Very fine. 

II. To the colored liquor obtained from the car- 
mine and cochineal as above, add a solution of alum, 
mix well, filter, and precipitate with a solution of 
potash ; collect the lake and dry it as before. Not 
quite so good as the last. 



Remarks. Some makers add a little solution of 
tin to the colored liquor before adding the alum or 
alumina ; this brightens the color. The above 
lake is a good glazing color with oil, but has little 
body. 

LAKE, GREEN. Made by mixing blu« and 
yellow lakes together. Seldom used. 

LAKE, MADDER. Syn. Lacca Coll mbina. 
Prep. I. (Sir H. C. Inglefield.) Dutch grappe 
or crop madder 2 ci. ; tie it up in a cloth, beat it 
well in a pint of water in a stone mortar, and re- 
peat the process with fresh water (about 5 pints) 
till it ceases to yield color ; boil the mixed liquors 
in an earthen vessel, pour it into a large basin ; 
add alum 1 oz. ; dissolve in boiling water 1 pint ; 
stir well, and while stirring pour in gradually of 
saturated solution of carbonate of potash (oil of 
tartar) about 1^ oz. ; let it stand to settle until 
cold, then pour off the supernatant yellow liquor, 
drain, agitate the residue with boiling water 1 
quart ; decant, drain, and dry. Product, ^ oz. 
The Society of Arts voted their gold medal to the 
author of the above formula. 

II. (Ure.) Ground madder 2 lbs. ; water 1 
gallon ; mix, macerate with agitation for 10 min- 
utes, strain off the water, and press the remainder 
quite dry ; repeat the same process a second and 
a third time ; then add water 3 qts., and alum ^ 
lb., and heat in a water-bath for 3 or 4 hours, add- 
ing water as the liquor evaporates ; filter, first 
through a flannel, and when sufficiently cold, 
through paper ; then add a solution of carbonate 
of potash as long as a precipitate falls, which must 
be washed, till the water comes off" colorless, and 
then dried. If the alkali be added in 3 successive 
doses, 3 different lakes will be obtained, successively 
diminishing in beauty. 

III. Add acetate of lead to a decoction of mad- 
der, to throw down the brown coloring matter, fil- 
ter, then add a solution of tin or alum, and pre- 
cipitate with a solution of carbonate of soda or 
potash. ■ 

LAKE, ORANGE. Prep. Best Spanish an 
notto 4 oz. ; pearlash lib. or less ; water 1 gallon ; 
boil for half an hour, strain, precipitate with alum 
1^ lbs., dissolved in water 1 gallon, observing not 
to add the latter solution when it ceases to pro- 
duce an effervescence or a precij>itate ; strain, and 
dry the sediment in small squares or lozenges. The 
addition of solution of tin turns this lake on the 
lemon yellow ; acids redden it. 

LAKE, RED. Prep. I. Coarsely-powdered 
cochineal 1 oz. ; water and rectified spirit of wine, 
of each 2 oz. ; digest for a week, filter, and pre- 
cipitate with a few drops of solution of tin, added 
every 2 hours, till the whole of the color is thrown 
down ; wash in distilled water, and dry. Very 
fine. 

II. Coarsely-powdered cochineal 1 lb. ; water 2 
gallons ; boil 1 hour, decant, strain, add a solution 
of pearlash 1 lb. or more, and precipitate with a 
solution of alum. If the alum be added first, and 
the lake precipitated with the alkali, the color will 
be slightly varied. Some persons use a solution of 
cuttlefish-bone in muriatic or nitric acid ; but this 
increases the expense, and yields ah inferior pro- 
duct. 

III. Pearlash 1 lb. ; clean shreds of scarlet 
cloth 3 or 4 lbs. ; water 4 or 5 gallons ; boil til' 



LAU 



391 



LEA 



the cloth is decolored, filter, and precipitate with a 
Bolutiou of akim. 

LAKE, YELLOW. Prep. Boil French ber- 
ries, quercitron, or turmeric 1 lb. and potash 1 oz. ; 
in water 1 gallon, till reduced to one half, strain, 
and precipitate with a solution of alum. — Or boil 
1 lb. of the dye-stufF with alum i lb. ; water 1 
gallon, as before, and precipitate with a solution of 
carbonate of potash. (See Lakk, Orange.) 

LAMPIC ACID. When tlie wick of a spirit- 
lamp is surrounded with a spiral coil of platinum 
wire, and after burning for a short time, is blown 
out, combustion still goes on, and a peculiar ac;d 
product results, which has been called lampic 
acid. It was first examined by Prof. Daniell. It 
may be more easily collected by placing a small 
bottomless retort over a heated platinum capsule, 
and gradually dropping in, from time to time, a 
little alcohol' or ether. (R. F. Marchand.) It 
consists of a mixture of acetic, formic, and alde- 
hydic acids, in variable proportions. (MM. Stass 
and Marchand.) Its most remarkable property is 
its power of reducing certain metallic solutions. 
With the bases it forms salts called lampates, 
which may be prepared by saturating the acid 
with the hydrated oxides or carbonates. (See 
Aldehydic Acid.) 

LAMPS. To prevent or lessen the smoking of 
lamps, the wicks should be well soaked, either in 
dilute muriatic acid, well washed in water, and 
dried, or in strong vinegar, when they will merely 
require drying. Large lamps, that emit much 
smoke, should be burnt under a funnel, to carry it 
off; or a large sponge, dipped in water, may be 
suspended over them ; in all cases, the wicks 
should not be put up too high. 

LANTANIUM, (from AavSavw, I lurk.) A 
rare metal, recently discovered by Mosander, 
associated with the oxide of cerium. (See Cerium.) 

LAPIS DIVINUS. Syn. Lapis ophthalmi- 
cus. Prep. Blue vitriol, nitre, alum, and cam- 
phor, equal parts, melted together, adding the 
camphor last. (Woolfuss.) Verdigris, nitre, and 
alum, equal parts, melted together. (Beer.) Alum, 
nitre, and blue vitriol 3 oz. ; camphor 1 dr. ; as 
last. (P. Cod.) Used to make an eyewater ; 1 
oz. to water 1 pint. 

LAPIS MEDICAMI'VTOSUS. Prep. (P. 
L. 1746.) Alum, litharge, Armenian bole, and 
colcothar, of each 3 oz. ; vinegar 4 oz. ; mix and 
evaporate. Used to make a lotion : 1 oz. to water 
1 pint. Astringent, detergent ; once a popular 
application to ulcers. 

LARD. Syn. Hogs' Lard. Auxunge. Aux- 
UNGiA. Adeps. Adeps Suillus. Adeps Porci. 
Adeps pr^paratus. The fat of the pig, melted 
by a gentle heat, and strained through a hair 
sieve or flannel. The fat about the loins yields 
the whitest and hardest lard. Used to make oint- 
ments, and in cookery. 

LARD, OXYGENATED. See Nitric Acid 
Ointment. 

LAUDANUM, QUINCE. Syn. Extractum 
Opii seu Laudanum Cydoniatum. Prep. Opium 
i lb. ; quince juice 6 lbs. ; digest, filter, evaporate 
to an extract, and add "hile warm, oils of cinna- 
mon, cloves, and mace^ uf each 10 drops. Milder 
than crude opium ; seldom used. 

LAUDANUM, FORD'S. Prep. Opium fj ; 



cinnamon and cloves, of each 3j ; rectified spirit 
of wine and water, of each, §viij ; digest for a 
week, and filter. This is merely an aromatized 
tincture of opium. Dose. 10 to 80 drops. 

LAUDANUM, LIQUID. Prep. 1. {Liquid 
quince laudanum. Laudanum liquidum cydo- 
niatum. Laudanum liquidum cydoniatum para- 
tum fermentatioiie.) Opium ^iv ; saffron ^ij ; 
quince juice 1 quart ; yeast 4 spoonfuls ; ferment, 
express the liquor, filter, and add cinnamon ^ij ; 
cloves, aloes wood, and yellow sandal wood, oi 
each, 3ij ; digest for 14 days, filter, and evaporate 
to one half. Narcotic, anodyne ; similar to black 
drop. Dose. 10 to 30 drops. Seldom used. 

2. (Neuman's.) Opium fermented with water, 
and evaporated to tlie consistence of honey. 
Similar to the aqueous extract of opium. 

3. (Sydenham's. Laudanum liquidum Syden- 
hami.) Opium §ij ; saffron §j ; cinnamon and 
cloves, of each, 3j ; white wine ff xvj ; digest. 
Contains | of opium. See Wine of Opium, P. 
L., which is always substituted. 

4. {Laudanum tartarized. Laudanum liquidum 
tartarizatuin.) Opium §ij ; saffron §j ; cinnamon, 
cloves, mace, nutmegs, and aloes wood, of each, 
3j ; tincture of salt of tartar f^xxxij ; digest, strain, 
and evaporate to one half. Seldom used. 

LAVENDER, SMITH'S BRITISH. Syn. 
Smith's Lavender Water. Prep. English oil of 
lavender 2 oz. ; essence of ambergris 1 oz. ; eau 
de Cologne 1 pint ; rectified spirit 1 quart ; mix. 
Very fragrant. 

LEAD. Syn. Plomb, {Fr.) Blei, {Ger:) 
Plumbum, {Lat.) ix6Xt(i6o5, {Gr.) Saturn, {Ale.) 
This metal, like gold, silver, and iron, appears to 
have been known in the most remote ages of an- 
tiquity : " Oh that my words were now written ! 
Oh that they were printed in a book ; that they 
were graven with an iron pen and lead in the 
rock for ever !" (Job, xix. 23-4.) 

Prep. Lead is only prepared on the large scale. 
It is usually extracted from galena, a natural sul- 
phuret of lead, by roasting the ore in a reverbera- 
tory furnace, and afterwards smelting it along 
with coal and lime. 

Prop. The common properties of lead are too 
well known to require notice. Its sp. gr., in a 
state of absolute purity, is 11-38 to 11-44, but or- 
dinary lead seldom exceeds 11-352 to 11-353. It 
melts at 612^ Fahr., (Crighton, 634° Kupfer,) and 
when very slowly cooled, crystallizes in octohe- 
drons. It is malleable and ductile, but devoid of 
elasticity. Lead is not dissolved by muriatic, sul- 
phuric, or the vegetable acids, unless by free con- 
tact with air, and then very slowly ; but nitric 
acid rapidly oxidizes it, forming a solution of nitrate 
of lead. Pure water, put info a- leaden vessel, 
and exposed to the air, soon corrodes it, and dis- 
solves the newly-formed oxide ; but river and 
spring water exerts no such influence, the carbon- 
ates and sulphates in such water destroying its 
solvent power. Many other neutral salts act in 
the same way. Among these, the most powerful 
preservatives are the phosphates, sulphates, chlo- 
r des, and iodides ; their power being in proportion 
to the relative insolubility of the compound which 
their acid is capable of forming with lead. It ha» 
been found that l-30,G00th part of phosphate 
of soda or iodide of potassium, dissolved in dis- 



LEA 



392 



LEA 



tilled water, prevents its corrosive action. (Chris- 
tison.) The lead in contact vi'ith such water, 
gradually becomes covered with a superficial film 
of an insoluble salt of lead, which adheres te- 
naciously, and all further chtir.p-e ceases. Thus 
ordinary water, which abounds in mineral salts, 
may be safely kept in leaden cisterns ; but dis- 
tilled and rain water, and water that contains 
scarcely any saline matter, speedily corrode, and 
dissolve a portion of lead, when kept in vessels of 
that metal. When, however, leaden cisterns 
have iron or zinc fastenings or braces, a galvanic 
action is set up, the preservative power of saline 
matter ceases, and the water speedily becomes 
contaminated with lead. Water containing free 
carbonic acid also acts on lead ; and this is the 
reason why the water of some springs, kept in 
leaden cisterns, or raised by leaden pumps, pos- 
sesses unwholesome properties. Free carbonic 
acid is evolved during the fermentation or decay 
of vegetable matter, and hence the propriety of 
preventing the leaves of trees falling into water- 
cisterns formed of lead. The neglect of this pre- 
caution gave rise to the violent ravages of colic 
that are recorded to have visited Amsterdam about 
the middle of the last century. (Dr. Frouchin.) 
The eau de rose and the eau d'orange of com- 
merce, which are pure distilled water, holding in 
solution small quantities of essential oil, and are 
imported in leaden canisters, always contain a 
small quantity of lead, and deposite a sediment, 
which is not the case when they are kept in glass 
or incorrodible vessels. Lead and all its prepara- 
tions are poisonous. 

Uses. The uses of lead in the arts are well 
Known. Some of its preparations are employed 
in medicine, generally externally. 

Ant. Administer an emetic of sulphate of zinc 
or copper, and tickle the fauces with the finger or 
a feather to induce vomiting. Epsom or glauber 
sa'ts, or alum, dissolved in water, tea, water gruel, 
01 barley water, are the proper antidotes, and 
should be taken as soon after the poison has been 
swallowed as possible. When the symptoms are 
those 'of lead colic, the treatment recommended 
at page 206 should be adopted. In paralysis 
arising from lead, small doses of strychnia, brucia, 
and their preparations, should be cautiously ad- 
ministered. A symptom of poisoning by lead is 
the formation of a narrow leaden blue line, about 
one-twentieth of an inch thick, bordering the 
edges of the gums, attached to the neck of two or 
more teeth of either jaw. (Dr. Burton.) 

Tests. 1. The salts of lead placed on charcoal 
all yield, by the blowpipe, a butter of lead. — 2. So- 
lutions of the salts of lead may be recognised by the 
color of the precipitates produced by the following 
tests: — a. Alkalis, alkaline carbonates, sulphates, 
prussiate of potash, infusion of galls, gallic acid, 
and sulphuric acid, produce white precipitates. — 
b. Chromate of potash, and iodide of potassium, 
yellow precipitates. — c. Hydrosulphates, sulphu- 
rets, and sulphureted hydrogen, black precipitates. 
— d. A piece of polished zinc precipitates metallic 
lead in an arborescent form, hence called the 
" leaden tree." *#* A solid supposed to contain 
lead should be dissolved in, or treated with nitric 
acid, evaporated to dryness, and rodissolved in 
water, when it may be tested as above. The 



susceptibility of sulphureted hydrogen as a test 
for lead ceases when the dilution reaches 500,000 
times, — chromate of potash at 100,000 times, — 
carbonates of soda and potassa at 60,000 times, 
— potassa at 20,000 times, — prussiate of potash 
at 18,000 times, — iodide of potassium at 10,000 
times, — and sulphate of soda at 5000 times. 
(Devergie, Med. Leg. ii. 779.) (See Ores.) 

LEAD, ACETATE. Syn. Neutral Ace- 
tate OF Lead. Sugar of Lead. Acetated 
Ceruse. Superacetate of Lead. Acetate de 
Plomb ; Sel de Saturne, {Fr.) Essigbaures 
Bleioxyd ; Bleizucker, (Ger.) Saccharum Sa- 
TURNi, (P. L. 1720.) Cerussa Acetata, (P. L. 
1788.) Plumbi Superacetas, (P. L. 1809.) Plum- 
Bi Saccharum. Plumbi Acetis. Plumbi Ace- 
tas, (P. L. E. and D.) Prep. (P. L.) Oxide of 
lead in powder (litharge) lb. iv f ij ; acetic acid and 
distilled water, of each 4 pints ; mix the fluids, add 
the oxide, dissolve by a gentle heat, strain, evapo- 
rate, and crystallize. The Edinburgh form is 
similar. 

II. (P. D.) Carbonate of lead 1 part ; distilled 
vinegar 10 parts ; as last. 

Prop., Use, ^c. Acetate of lead should be 
completely soluble in distilled water, and when 
the lead is exactly precipitated with dilute sul- 
phuric acid, or by sulphureted hydrogen, the clear 
supernatant liquid should be wholly volatilized by 
heat without residue. Sulphuric acid poured on 
acetate of lead evolves acetic vapors. (P. L.) Its 
tests have been already noticed. Acetate of lead 
is powerfully astringent. Dose. ^ gr. to 2 grs., 
(Collier ;) 1 or 2 grs. to 8 or 10 grs., twice or 
thrice a day, (Pereira ;) 3 grs. to 10 grs. every 6 
or 8 hours. (A. T. Thomson.) In pulmonary, 
uterine, and intestinal haemorrhage, colliquative 
diarrhoea, and phthisical sweats. It is usually 
combined with morphia or opium, or with acetic 
acid, to prevent it passing into the state of the 
poisonous carbonate in the stomach. Externally, 
as a coLLYRiuM, 10 grs. to water 8 oz., (A. T. 
Thomson,) as a lotion 20 grs., (A. T. Thomson,) 
3j (Collier) to water 8 oz. ; as an injection 40 
grs. to rose water 8 oz. The lotion is cooling, and 
is commonly used in excoriations, &-c. Acetate 
of lead is employed in calico printing. 

Remarks. Acetate of lead is usually prepared 
on the large scale by gradually sprinkling oxide 
of lead into strong vinegar, heated in a copper 
boiler rendered negative-electric by having a large 
flat piece of lead soldered within it, constant stir- 
ring being employed until the acid is saturated, 
when the mother liquors of a former process may 
be added, the whole heated to the boiling point, 
allowed to settle till cold, decanted, evaporated to 
about the sp. gr. 1"266 or 1"267, and then run into 
salt-glazed stoneware vessels to crystallize. The 
best proportions are, finely powdered litharge 13 
parts, and acetic acid sp. gr. 1-0482 to 1-0484, 23 
parts. These ingredients should .produce about 
38i parts of crystallized sugar of lead. A very 
(slight excess of acid should be preserved in the 
liquid during the boiling and crystallization, to 
prevent the formation of any basic acetate, which 
would impede the formation of regular cry.-^tals. 

Subacetate of Lead, (Trisacetate of Lead, 
Tersubacetate of Lead, Diacetnte of Lead,) is 
formed when a cold saturated solution of neutraJ 



LEA 



393 



LEA 



acetate of lead is mixed with one-tenth of its 
vohime of liquor of ammonia, and set aside ; anhy- 
drous crystalline needles are deposited. A solution 
of this salt is formed when a solution of the neutral 
acetate is digested on finely powdered litharge, till 
the undissolved oxide turns white. By evapora- 
tion out of contact with air, small crystals may be 
obtained. Goulard's extract, and the liquor of 
diacetate of lead of the pharmacopoeia, are solu- 
tions of this salt. 

Sesquibasic Acetate of Lead is prepared by 
gently fusing the neutral acetate of lead till it 
spontaneouslj' forms a white porous mass. By 
solution in water, evaporation to a sirup, and cool- 
ing slowly, crystals may be obtained. 

Sexbasic Acetate of Lead (sexsubacetate of 
lead) is a white crystalline precipitate, which forms 
when a solution of subacetate of lead is treated 
with liquor of ammonia. A hot saturated solution 
in water crystallizes on cooling. All the prece- 
ding acetates are soluble in water. The last two 
are neither employed in the arts nor in medicine. 

LEAD, ARSENIATE OF. Syn. Triarse- 
NiATE OF Lead. Plumbi Arsenias. Prep. Grad- 
ually add a solution of acetate of lead to another 
of arseniate of soda. A white insoluble powder. 

LEAD, BROMIDE. Syn. Plumbi Bromidum. 
A white crystalline powder, sparingly soluble in 
water, formed by precipitating a solution of'neutral 
acetate or nitrate of lead, with a solution of bro- 
mide of potassium. It fuses by heat into n red 
liquid, which turns yellow when cold. 

LEAD, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Muriate of 
Lead. Patent Yellow. Horn Lead. Plumbi 
CoRNEUM. Plumbi Murias. Plumbi Ciiloridum, 
(P. L.) Prep. Precipitate a solution of ^xix of 
acetate of lead in 3 pints of boiling distilled water, 
with a solution of §vj of chloride of sodium in 1 
pint of boiling water ; when cold wash and dry 
the precipitate, (P. L.) 

Remarks. Employed in the preparation of 
muriate of morphia. It is totally dissolved by boil- 
ing water, the chloride concreting almost entirely 
into crystals as the solution cools. (P. L.) 

LEAD, CHROMATE OF. In addition to the 
remarks on this article at page 192, it may be in- 
teresting to add that Aathon has found that when 
hot solutions of equal equivalents of acetate of lead 
(190 parts) and chromate of potash (100 parts, both 
neutral and in crystals) are mixed, the yellow 
precipitate when dried is anhydrous: but when 
the mixture is made at ordinary temperatures, the 
precipitate has a paler yellow, and when dried con- 
tains 1 eq., or nearly 5| per cent, of water. (Buch. 
Rept.) It thus appears that the shades of color 
of chrome yellow may be varied without any for- 
eign addition. 

LEAD DUST. Syn. Pulvis Plumbi. By 
melting new lead, adding bruised charcoal, and 
diiFusing the lead among it, then pounding and 
washing away the charcoal ; used by potters. 

LEAD, FLUORIDE. A white powder form- 
ed by precipitating a solution of neutral acetate of 
lead with hydrofluoiic acid. It is very sparingly 
soluble in water. 

LEAD, GRANULATED. By melting new 
lead, pouring it in small stream, from an iron ladle 
with a hole drilled in its bottom, into a pail of wa- 
ter. Used to make solutions and alloys. 
50 



LEAD, IODIDE OF. Syn. Ioduret of 
Lead. Plumbi Iodidum, (P. L.) Plumbi Iodu« 
RETUM. Prep. I. (P. L.) Acetate of lead ^ix 
water 6 pints ; dissolve ; iodide of potassium (pure) 
^vij ; water 2 pints, dissolve. Add the latter solu- 
tion to the former, wash and dry the precipitate. 

II. (P. E.) Iodide of potassium and fiitrate of 
lead, of each ^j ; dissolve each separately in J pint 
of water, mix, collect the precipitate in a calico or 
linen filter, and wash it with water ; then boil it 
in 3 gallons of water, soured with pyroligneous 
(acetic) acid f f iij, let the solution settle (still keep- 
ing the liquid near the boiling point,) and decant 
the clear ; as the water cools, the iodide will sub- 
side in brilliant golden yellow lamellae, or minute 
crystals. 

Remarks. The latter is the best process, as any 
adhering oxide of lead is dissolved out by the acid. 
" It is totally dissolved by boiling water, and, as it 
cools, separates in shining yellow scales. It melts 
by heat, and the greater part is first dissipated in 
yellow, and afterwards in violet vapors." (P. L.) 
The residuum is quite soluble in nitric acid. " 5 
grs. of iodide of lead are entirely soluble (by boil- 
ing) in f3j of pyroligneous acid, diluted with f^iss 
of water ; and golden crystals are abundantly de- 
posited as the solution cools." (P. E.) Dose. \ gr. 
to 4 grs. or more, made into a pill, in enlargements 
of the cervical, axillary, and mesenteric glands, 
and in scrofulous affections and scirrhous tumore, 
as a deobstruent and resolvent. (See Ointment, 
Iodide of Lead.) 

LEAD, NITRATE OF. Syn. Plumbi ni- 
TRAS. Prep. (P. E.) Litharge §ivss ; diluted ni- 
tric acid 1 pint ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set 
the solution aside to crystallize. Used to make 
the iodide of lead, P. E. 

LEAD, OXIDES OF. Prep. I. {Dioxide. 
Suboxide. Gray oxide.) Prepared by heating 
dry oxalate of lead to a low red in a glass tube out 
of contact with the air. Dark-gray, nearly black. 
It is also formed on the surface of metallic lead 
long exposed to the air. 

II. {Oxide. Protoxide. Yellow oxide.) This 
oxide is prepared on the commercial scale by heat- 
ing the gray film or dross that forms on the surface 
of melted lead exposed to the air, until it acquires 
a uniform yellow color, when it is called " massi- 
cot ;" when the heat is still further increased until 
it fuses or partially vitrifies, the term " litharge" 
is applied to it. It is obtained perfectly pure by 
expelling the acid from nitrate of lead, by exposing 
it to heat in a platinum crucible ; or, still better, 
by adding ammonia to a cold solution of nitrate of 
lead until the liquid becomes faintly alkaline, 
washing the precipitate with cold water, drying, 
and heating it to moderate redness for one hour, 
as above. Pure protoxide of lead has a lemon- 
yellow color, and is the base of all the salts of lead. 
It may be obtained in a crystalline state by expo- 
sing a concentrated solution of it in caustic soda to 
the air for some months, (M. Houton Labadilliere ;) 
or, still easier, by mixing an aqueous solution of 
neutral acetate of lead with a great excess of 
liquor of ammonia, filtering, and exposing the 
liquid for a few hours in a well -corked bottle to the 
sun's rays. If the same solution be kept in the 
dark for some days, stellated crystals of basic ace- 
tate of lead, with five atoms of base, are deposited 



LEE 



394 



LEM 



instead of oxide. (W. Behrens.) See Litharge 
and Massicot. 

III. {Red oxide. Plumbeous surozide. Red 
lead. Minium.) See Minium. 

IV. (Sesquioxide.) An insoluble reddish -yellow 
powder, formed by adding a solution of hypochlo- 
rite of soda to another of protoxide of lead in liquor 
of potassa. (Winkeiblech.) 

V. {Peroxide. Puce oxide. Plumbic suroxide.) 
Obtained by putting red lead into chlorine, or di- 
lute nitric acid ; or by fusing a mixture of protox- 
ide of lead and chlorate of potassa, at a heat a lit- 
tle below redness, and washing the powdered mass 
in water ; or by transmitting a current of chlorine 
gas through a solution of neutral acetate of lead. 

LEAD, OXIDE, (HYDRATED.) Syn. 
Plumbi oxydum hydratum. Prep. (P. L.) Solu- 
tion of diacetate of lead 6 pints ; distilled water 3 
gallons ; mix, and add liquor of potassa as long as 
a precipitate forms, avoiding excess ; wash well 
with water. 

Remarks. This is dihydrated oxide of lead. 
(Mitscherlich.) It is used in preparing disujphate 
of quinine. It is totally soluble in dilute nitric 
acid, (P. L.,) and in an excess of liquor of potassa. 
LEAD, OXY-IODIDE. Prepared by precip- 
itating subacetate of lead by iodide of potassium. 

LEAD, TANNi*TE. Syn. Plumbi tannas. 
Prep. Precipitate a solution of acetate of lead with 
an infusion of galls ; wash and dry the precipitate. 
Astringent. Dose. 1 gr. and upwards made into a 
pill. 

*^* Besides the preceding, various other prepara- 
tions of lead have been formed by chemists, but 
possess little importance in a practical point of 
view. (See Salts.) 

LEECHES. App. Leeches are most conveni- 
ently applied by means of a common pill box or 
a wine-glass. The part should be previously 
washed perfectly clean, and if covered with hair 
should be closely shaved. Sometimes leeches will 
not readily bite : in such cases, allowing them to 
crawl over a piece of dry linen or calico, rolling 
them in porter, moistening the part with a little 
milk or sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood 
by a slight puncture or scratch, will usually make 
them bite freely. To stop the bleeding from leech- 
bites, various plans are adopted, among which 
cauterizing with nitrate of silver, tne application 
of creosote, and gen^'e pressure for some hours, are 
most successful. (See Mattico.) 

Pres. Leeches are best preserved in water ob- 
tained from a pond, and occasionally changed ; 
when kept in spring water they soon die. The in- 
troduction of a hand, to which an ill-flavored med- 
icine or odor adheres, into the water in which they 
are kept, is often sufficient to poison them. The 
application of saline matter to the skin of leeches, 
even in very small quantities, immediately occa- 
sions the expulsion of the contents of the stomach : 
hence, a few grains of common salt are frequently 
sprinkled over them to make them disgorge the 
blood they have swallowed. According to Dr. 
Wagner, the taste of blood is necessary to render 
them fit for the purposes of reproduction. Ho re- 
commends the employment of two tanks, with the 
bottom of loam, clay, or turf, surrounded by an in- 
ner border of a similar substance, and an outer one 
of sand. Two such tanks should be kept — ^the 



one for leeches fit for medical use, — and the othei 
for breeding, or for such leeches as have been ap- 
plied. No leeches are to be taken frtm the breed- 
ing tank until a year has elapsed after their having 
been apphed and fed with human blood ; and their 
removal to the first tank should take place in Sep- 
tember or October, as by this time the breeding 
season is over. By this plan all leeches that have 
been applied are to be carefully restored to the 
breeding tank, without making them disgorge the 
blood they have swallowed. Leeches, to be able 
to grow and propagate, must, at least once a year, 
receive a plentiful supply of living blood. These 
conditions can only be fulfilled by restoring those 
that have been already employed. All artificial 
methods of feeding by bladders or sponges of blood 
have been found to fail. (AUgemeine Anzeiger der 
Deutschen.) 

II. (J. R. Kenworthy.) Make pure clay, ren- 
dered plastic with water, into balls, or preferably, 
irregularly-shaped lumps, about 2| inches in di- 
ameter ; place them in a deep, square, wooden 
box, or a clean five-gallon keg. The leeches on 
being put in will creep down the sides of the balls, 
and there remain. No cover is necessary. Changa 
the balls once a week. This method is simple and 
successful. (Ann. of Chym. and Pract. Phar.) 

III. (Fee.) Lay 7 inches of a mixture of moss, 
turf, and charcoal in a marble or stone trough, over 
which place some small pebbles. At one end of 
the trough, and about half way up, place a thin 
shelf of stone or marble, pierced with small holes, 
on which put first some moss, or portions of the 
equisetum palustre, or horse tail, and on this a 
layer of pebbles to keep it down ; then pour in 
water sufficiently high just to moisten the moss and 
pebbles, put in the leeches, and tie over the mouth 
of the trough with a cloth. 

*^* The frequent changing of the water in 
which leeches are kept is injudicious. Once a 
month in winter, and once a loeek in summer, is 
deemed sufficiently often by the large dealers, un- 
less the water becomes discolored or bloody, when 
it should be changed every day, or every other 
day. Clean pond water is preferable ; but where 
this cannot be got, clean rain water, that has been 
well exposed to the air, should alone be emploved. 

LEMON JUICE, ARTIFICIAL. Syn. Suc- 
cus LiMONUM FACTiTius. Prep. 1. Citric or tar- 
taric acid 2^ oz. ; gum ^ oz. ; pieces of fresh lemon 
peel I oz. ; loaf sugar 2 oz. ; boiling water 1 quart ; 
macerate with occasional agitation till cold, and 
strain. Excellent. 

II. Water 1 pint ; sugar 1 oz. ; essence of lemon 
30 drops ; pure acetic acid to acidulate. Inferior. 
Both are used to make lemonade. (See Ginger 
Bker.) 

LEMONADE. Syn. Lemon Sherbet. King's 
Cup. Prep. I. 2 lemons, sliced ; sugar 2 oz. ; boil- 
ing water 1 pint. Very fine. 

II. White sugar 5 oz. ; yellow peel of 1 lemon; 
water 1 quart ; squeeze in the juice of 3 lemons, 
macerate 2 hours, and strain. Used as a pleasant 
cooling beverage and astringent drink in fevers and 
putrid diseases. 

III. (Lemonade for icing. Lemon Sherbet.) 
Yellow peel of 3 or 4 lemons, rubbed ort'with hard 
sugar, as described at p. 191), (art. Citrons ;) loaf 
sugar 4 oz. ; juice of 3 or 4 lemons ; water I quart ; 



LIG 



395 



LIM 



ice as wanted. Orangeade, or Orange Sherbet 
FOR ICING, is made m the same way with oranges. 
LEMONADE, AERATED. Syn. Lemon- 
ade GAZEUSE. LiMONADUM AERATUM. Prep. (P. 

Cod.) Water, charged with 5 times its vohime of 
carbonic acid gas, 1 pint ; sirup of lemon §ij ; mix. 
Delicious. 

LEMONADE, LACTIC. Syn. Limonadum 
LACTicuM. Prep. (Magendie.) Lactic acid 3j to 
3iv ; srup ^ij ; water 1 pint ; mix. 

LEMONADE, PORTABLE. Prep. I. Tar- 
taric or citric acid 1 oz. ; finely-powdered loaf su- 
gar i lb. ; essence of lemon 20 drops ; mix ; 2 or 3 
teaspoonfuls make a very pleasant glass of extem- 
poraneous lemonade. 

IL Powdered sugar 4 lbs. ; citric or tartaric 
acid 1 oz. ; essence of lemon 2 dr. ; mix well. As 
last. Very sweet aud agreeable. 

LENSES. A description of these articles be- 
longs to a work on optics. It may, however, be 
useful to the chemical student to remark, that the 
Coddington or Stanhope lenses, which may now 
be bought at any of the opticians, neatly mounted 
and of great power, for a few shillings, will be 
found of the greatest service in examining minute 
crystals, precipitates, &c. ; and for all ordinary pur- 
poses offer a cheap and efficient substitute for more 
complicated microscopes. 

LEROY'S VOMITIF-PURGATIF. Prep. 
Tartar emetic, in fine powder, 3j ; white wine ^ 
pint ; sugar candy to color ; dissolve, and label the 
bottle" Vo?nitif." Next dissolve 3vij of resin of jatap, 
in alcohol ^ pint ; and label the bottle " Purga- 
tif." A popular nostrum in France, but its use 
requires ca;ution. 

LEUCIN. (From Xi»«of, white.) M. Bracon- 
not has given this name to a white pulverulent 
substance, obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric 
acid on muscular fibre." It combines with nitric 
acid, forming niiro-leucic acid. 

LEVIGATION. Syn. Levigatio, (Lat, from 
lavigo, to make smooth.) The process of redu- 
cing substances to fine powder, by making them 
into a paste with water, and grinding the mass up- 
on a hard smooth stone or slab, with a conical 
piece of stone having a fiat, smooth under-surface> 
called a " muller.^' Levigation is resorted to in 
the preparation of paints on the small scale, and in 
the elutriation of powders. 

LICHENIC ACID. A variety of malic acid 
found in some species of lichens. 

LICHENIN. A species of starch extracted 
from Iceland moss. (Citraria Islandica.) 

LICHEN GUM. A strained infusion or de- 
coction of several species of lichen, evaporated to 
dryness. It resembles gum arable : 1 cwt. of lichen 
coralloides yields 14 lbs. ; lichen esculentus, about 
13 lbs. (Gray.) 

LIGHT, INSTANTANEOUS. (See Chlo- 
rate Matches, Congreves, Lucifers, &c.) 

LIGNINFJ. Pure woody fibre. It forms about 
95§ of baked wood, and constitutes the woody por- 
tion of all vegetables ; its composition resembles 
starch, and by the action of oil of vitriol it is con- 
verted into dextrine, or sugar, and a new acid, 
(ligno-sulphuric acid.) Strong nitric acid dis- 
solves sawdust, and when the solution is diluted 
with water, a white insoluble powder is deposited, 
which explodes when heated. (Robiquet.) 



LIGNONE. A light inflammable Rix., tbtaJTA- 
ed with other products during the destructive dis- 
tillation of wood. It is a mixture of pyroxilic spirit 
and acetate of methule. (Berzelius.) 

LILACINE. Prep. (M. Meillet.) The leaves, 
or, preferably, the seed vessels, of syringa vulgaris, 
are bruised, boiled twice with water, the decoction 
is evaporated to one half, basic acetate of lead ad- 
ded, the liquor evaporated to a sirup, and treated 
with calcined magnesia in excess ; the whole is 
then dried, pulverized along with a little carbonate 
of magnesia, digested in water at from 86° to 104°, 
and the undissolved portion treated with boiling 
alcohol, sp. gr. 0-8295. The solution thus obtained 
is decolored with animal charcoal, filtered, evapo- 
rated to one half, and placed aside ; the lilacine 
crystallizes out as the spirit cools. Lilacine forms 
white fasciculi of acicular crystals, or prisms ; it 
has a bitter taste, and is insoluble in water and 
many acids. (Jour, de Pharm., 1842, p. 25.) 

LIME. Syn. Oxide of Calcium. Calx, Calx 
VIVA, Calx recens usta, {Lat., from kalah, Ara- 
bic, to hum.) An oxide of calcium, obtained by 
exposing limestone or chalk, which are carbonates 
of lime, to a red heat. The substance thus obtained 
is called " quicklime," or " stone lime." When 
water is sprinkled on quicklime it becomes very 
hot, and crumbles down into a dry white powder, 
which is " hydrate of lime" popularly known as 
" slaked" or " slacked lime." Oyster-shells, and 
other fish shells, are also converted into quick- 
lime by burning, which is then called "shell-lime," 
(calx e testis.) Milk of lime is slaked lime mixed 
up with water. 

Prop. Pure lime has a sp. gr. of about 2-3, and 
is soluble in 635 parts of water at 32°, but requires 
778 parts at 60°, 972 parts at 130, and 1270 parts 
at 212°, for its solution. (Wollaston.) A pint of 
water at 32° dissolves 13-25 grs. ; at 60°, 11-6 
grs ; and at 212°, 6-7 grs. (Phillips.) Hence will 
be seen the propriety of employing cold water for 
the solution of lime. Its aqueous solution is caus- 
tic and alkaline. When strongly heated, lime be- 
comes phosphorescent, and emits a brilliant light ; 
and on this account is sometimes employed for il- 
lumination, as in the Gurney, or Lime Light. 

Lime readily unites with the acids, and forms 
salts, nearly all of which may be made by directly 
neutralizing the acid with the hydrate or carbon- 
ate (chalk) of lime. They may also be made by 
double decomposition. 

Tests. 1. The alkaline carbonates, phosphates, 
oxalates, and sulphates, occasion white precipi- 
tates in solutions of lime. The precipitates occa- 
sioned by the first three tests are soluble in dilute 
nitric or muriatic acid ; that by the last is insolu- 
ble in those menstrua, but soluble in solution of 
salt, and not reprecipitated by dilute sulphuric 
acid. (Wackenroder.) Oxalate "of ammonia or 
potassa is the most delicate test of lime. If the 
substance under examination be a solid, dissolve it 
in muriatic acid, filter, evaporate to dryness, re- 
dissolve in water, and test as above. All the solu- 
ble salts of lime tinge the flame of alcohol of an 
orange color. 

Uses. Lime is corrosive, antacid, and depilato- 
ry. It is employed to make lime water ; to ren- 
der the alkalis caustic, and to make several cal- 
careous salts. It is largely used to make mortars 



LIN 



396 



LIN 



and cements, in farming, &c. In large doses it is 
poisonous. Tlie London College orders the lime 
of commerce in its Materia Medica, (calx recens 
usta,) bnt under the head of preparations of calci- 
um, {Preparata e calcio,) directs it to be prepared 
by burning chalk broken into pieces for 1 hour. 

LIME, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Oxymuriate 
OF Lime. Chloruret of Lime. Chloride or 
Chlorurkt of Oxide of Calcium. Chlorite of 
Lime. Chlorinated Lime. Hypochlorite of 
Lime. Tennants' bleaching Powder. Calx 
Chlorinata, (P. L. and E.y Calcis Hypochloris. 
Prep. (P. L.) Hydrate of lime lb. j ; spread it in 
a proper vessel and expose it to an atmosphere of 
chlorine gas until it is saturated. 

Remarks. The above are the instructions of the 
London College ; but chloride of lime is never 
made on the small scale, as it can be purchased of 
the large manufacturer of better quality and 
cheaper than it could possibly be made by the 
druggist. On the large scale the chlorine is gener- 
ated in leaden vessels, heated by steam, and the 
gas, after passing through water, is conveyed by a 
leaden tube into an apartment built of silicious 
sandstone, and arranged with shelves or trays, con- 
taining fresh-slaked lime, placed one above an- 
other, about an inch asunder. The process must 
be continued for 4 days to produce a good article 
of chloride of lime. During this time the lime is 
occasionally agitated by means of iron rakes, the 
handles of which pass through boxes of lime placed 
in the walls of the chamber, which act as valves. 
Tennants, of Glasgow, are the largest manufac- 
turers of this article in the United Kingdom. The 
exact chemical constitution of chloride of lime is 
undetermined. 

Qual. " Pale grayish white ; dry ; 50 grains 
are nearly all soluble in f § ij of water, forming a 
solution of the density 1-027, and of which 100 
measures, treated with an excess of oxalic acid, 
give oft" much chlorine, and if then boiled, and al- 
lowed to rest for 24 hours, yield a precipitate which 
occupies 19 measures of the liquid." (P. E.) Good 
chloride of lime should contain 25 to 30§ by weight 
of chlorme. 

Uses. It is principally employed as an antisep- 
tic and disinfectant. An ointment of chloride of 
lime has been used in scrofula, (Cima,) and a lo- 
tion or bath, moderately dilute, is one of the clean- 
est and readiest ways of removing the itch, and 
several other skin diseases. (See Chlorine, Dis- 
infectants, Fumigation, &l,c.) 

LIME, fSULPHURET OF. (See Calcium, 

SULPIIURET OF.) 

LINEN. Fruit stains, iron-moulds, and other 
spots on linen, may be removed by applying to the 
part, previously washed clean, a weak solution of 
chlorine, chloride of lime, spirits of salts, oxalic 
acid, or salts of lemons, in warm water, and fre- 
quently by merely using a little lemon juice. The 
part should be again thoroughly rinsed in clear 
warm water (without soap) and dried. Linen that 
has acquired a yellow or bad color by careless 
washing, may be restored to its former whiteness 
by working it well in water to which some strained 
solution of chloride of lime has been added, ob- 
serving to well rinse it in clean water, both before 
and after the immersion in the bleaching liquor. 
Never attempt to bleach unwished linen, and 



avoid using the liquor too strong, as in that case 
the linen will be rendered rotten. (See Chloro- 

METRY.) 

The presence of cotton in linen fabrics mdiy 
easily be ascertained by immersing for 2 or 3 
minutes a small strip (a square inch, for instance) 
of the suspected cloth in a mixture of equal parts 
of hydrate of potassa and water, when strongly 
boiling, after which it must be taken out and 
pressed between the folds of blotting paper. By 
separating 8 or 10 threads in each direction, their 
color may be readily seen. The dark yellow 
threads are linen, the white or bright yellow ones 
are cotton. A vessel of silver, porcelain, or hard 
glass, must be employed to contain the alkali. 
This process is simple and certain. (Dr. Boettger.) 

LINCTUS. (From lingo, I lick.) Syn. Loch. 
LoHocH. Lambative. Eclegma. Elegma. Elexis. 
EcLECTos. EcLEiTos. Illinctus. (In Pharmacy.) 
A medicine of the consistence of honey, intended 
to be licked off a spoon. This form of medicine is 
well adapted to females and children, but is not 
much used in England. (SeeLoHocn.) 

LINCTUS, ACID. Syn. Linctus Acidus. L. 
AciDi MuRiATicL Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Honey 
of roses 3x ; sirup of red poppies 3ij ; muriatic acid 
20 drops ; mix. Refrigerant. In putrid fever, sore 
throat, &LC. 

LINCTUS, DEMULCENT. Syn. L. De- 
MULCENs. Prep. Spermaceti and powdered traga- 
canth, of each §ss ; sirup of poppies, q. s. Dose. 

LINCTUS, EXPECTORANT. Syn. L. Ex- 
PECTORANs. Prep. Oxymel of squills, sirup of al- 
thea, and mucilage of gum arable, (thick,) of each, 
§ss. In coughs, &.C. Dose, A spoonful occasion- 
ally. 

LINCTUS OF BORAX. Syn. L. Boracicus 
Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Spermaceti 3iiss ; com- 
pound powder of tragacanth 3iij ; sirup of tolu §j ; 
borax, in fine powder, 3iiss ; conserve of roses 3v ; 
sirup of althea, to mix. In sore throat. Dose. As 
last. 

LINCTUS OF CACAO. Syn. Creme de 
Tronchin. Prep. Cocoa-nut butter ^ij ; white 
sugar and sirups of capillaire and tolu, of each, §j. 
Mix. 

LINCTUS OF IPECACUANHA. Syn. L. 
IpECACUANHiE. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Oil of 
almonds and sirup of lemons, of each, f fj ; pow- 
dered ipecacuanha 6 grs. ; confection of hips ^j ; 
compound powder of tragacanth 3iij ; make a 
linctus. Expectorant. In irritating coughs, &c. 

LINCTUS OF NITRE. Syn. L. Potass^ 
NiTRATis. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Powdered nitre 
3iss ; honey of roses f ^j ; oxymel f §iss. Mix. 

LINCTUS, OILY. Syn. L. Oleosus. Prep. 
Oil of almonds or olives, oxymel of squills, and 
sirup of poppies, equal parts. Demulcent. Dose. 
A teaspoonful ad libitum, in troublesome coughs, 

LINCTUS OF OPIUM. Syn. L. OriArus. 
Prep. Sirup t)f poppies f §ij ; thick mucilage f3J ; 
confection of hips ^iss ; laudanum 30 drops ; dilu- 
ted sulphuric acid 3j. Mix. To allay irritation. 

LINCTUS OF ROSES. Syn. L. Rose. Prep. 
Confection of red roses 5iij ; diluted sulphuric acid 
3j ; compound tincture of camphor fiss. Mix 
Anodyne and refrigerant. A spoonful occasionally 



LIN 



397 



LIN 



LINCTUS OF SQUILLS. Syn. L. Scill^. 
Prep. Oil of almonds §ij ; oxymel of squills and 
honey, of each §j ; mix. Expectorant. As last. 

LINCTUS OF TURPENTINE. Syn. L. 
Stimulans. L. Terebjntuin^. Prep, (llecam- 
bier.) Oil of turpentine 3ij ; honey of roses ^j to 
^iv ; mix. Dose. A teaspoonful night and morn- 
ing, followed by a draught of any weak drink. In 
worms. 

LINIMENT. Syn. Linimentum. (Lat., from 
lino, I anoint.) A :^emitiuid ointment, or soapy 
application to painful joints, swellings, burns, (SLc. 
The term is also extended to various spirituous and 
stimulating external applications. A medicine of 
a thinner consistence, hat similarly employed, is 
called an " embrocation." These terms are, how- 
ever, frequently confounded together, and are 
often misapplied. Liniments are applied by fric- 
tion with the fingers, or by laying a piece of linen 
rag dipped in them on the part. 

LINIMENT, ANODYNE. Syn. Linimentum 
Anodynum. Prep. (P. D.) Soap liniment f §iv ; 
tincture of opium f^'ij- (See Liniment of Opium.) 

LINIMENT, ACID. Syn. Lin. Acidum. Lin. 
AciDi MuRiATJCi. Prep. (P. C.) Honey of roses 
§j ; muriatic acid 20 drops ; mix. 

LINIMENT, ALKALINE. Syn. Lin. Al- 
KALiNUM. Prep. (Plenck.) Liquor of carbonate 
of potassa ^ij ; olive oil §iv ; yelks of 2 eggs ; 
make a liniment. 

LINIMENT, DIURETIC. Syn. Lin.4)iu- 
RETicuM. Prep. I. (Dr. Guibert.) Tinctures of 
squills, digitalis, and colchicum seeds, of each §ss ; 
liquor of ammonia §ss ; camphorated oil ^j ; mix. 

II. (Dr. Calini.) Powdered squills 3j ; gastric 
juice of a calf §ij ; vinegar of squills fss ; mix. 

LINIMENT, ESCHAROTIC. Prep. Honey 
4 oz. ; spirit of salt and verdigris, of each 1 oz. ; 
itiix. Used by farriers. 

LINIMENT FOR AMAUROSIS, (WARE'S.) 
Prep. Camphor liniment §j ; solution of carbonate 
of potassa 3j ; mix. 

LINIMENT FOR BURNS. Syn. Liniment 
OF Lime. Carron Oil. Lin. Calcis. Prep. (P. 
E.) Linseed (olive P. D.) oil and lime water, 
equal parts ; mix, and agitate well. For severe 
burns. 

LINIMENT FOR INFLAMED GLANDS. 
Prep. Spermaceti ointment 8 oz. ; camphor 1 oz. ; 
oil of origanum ^ oz. ; mix. Used by farriers to 
promote the suppuration of inflamed glands. 

LINIMENT FOR THRUSHES AND CAN- 
KER. Prep. Tar 4 oz. ; melt, and add verdigris ^ 
oz. ; dissolved in spirits of salts | oz. Used by far- 
riers. 

LINIMENT, HUNGARIAN. Syn. Lin. 
Hungaricum. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Powdered 
cantharides and sliced garlic, of each 3j ; camphor, 
bruised mustard seed, and black pepper, of each 
3iv ; strong vinegar ^vj ; rectified spirit §xij : 
macerate a week, and filter. Stimulant ; irritant. 

LINIMENT OF AMBER, (OPIATE.) Syn. 
Lin. Succini Opiatum. Prep. (P. C.) Rectified 
oil of amber and tincture of opium, of each §ij ; 
lard §j ; mix. Anodyne and stimulant. 

LINIMENT OF AMMONIA. Syn. Ammo- 
niated Oil. Ammoniacal Liniment. Volatile 
Liniment. Oil and Hartshorn. Lin. Ammonia, 
(V. L. E. & D.) Lin. Ammoni.«; Fortius. Oleum 



Ammoniatum. Prep. (P. L.) Liquor of ammonia 
f 5j (f 3ij, P. D. ;) oil of olives f ^ij ; mix and agitate 
well. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used in rheu- 
matism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat, spxsms, 
bruises, &c. When the skin is irritable, more oil 
should be added, or it should be diluted with a little 
water. (See Liniment of Sesquicarb<>nate of 

AMxMONIA.) 

LINIMENT OF AMMONIA, (CAMPHOR- 
ATED.) LiN. A.MMONiiE Camphoratum. Pvep. 
(P. C.) Camphorated oil §ix ; liquor of ammonia 
§iij ; mix well. Used as the last. 

LINIMENT OF AMMONIA, (COMP.) Syn. 
Dr. Granville's Counter-Irritant or Antidy- 
Nous LoTJON. Lin. Ammoni.« compositum. Prep 
(P. E,) Liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. 0-880) f§v; 
tincture of camphor f §ij ; spirits of rosemary f §j 
mix well. Counter-irritant, rubelacient, vesicant 
and cauterizing, according to the length of its ap 
plication ; in rheumatism, cramp, neuralgia, dis 
eased joints, headache, &c. A powerful and 
speedy remedy. It may be diluted with a mixturo 
of equal parts of the spirits of camphor and rose/» 
mary. 

LINIMENT OF AMMONIA AND TUR 
PENTINE. Syn. Lin. Ammonia cum Terebin- 
THiNA. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Liniment of am- 
monia (P. L.) §iss ; oil of turpentine ^ss ; mix. 

LINIMENT OF SESQUICARBONATE 
AMMONIA. Syn. Lin. Ammonite sesquicar- 
BONATis. Lin. Ammon. carbonatis. Prep. Solu- 
tion of the sesquicarbonate of ammonia, P. L. f ^j ; 
olive oil §iij ; mix, and agitate well. This resem- 
bles the liniment of ammonia, P. L., in its general 
properties, but it is much less active, owing to the 
alkali being carbonated. It is the ^^ oil and harts- 
horn" and the •' volatile linimenf^ of the shi. :vs. 

LINIMENT OF ARCEUS. Syn. Lin.'Ar- 
G^i. Compound elemi ointment. 

LINIMENT OF BELLADONNA. Syn. Lin. 
Belladonna. Prep. I. (Guy's H.) Soap liniment 
f^viij ; extract of belladonna §j ; mix. 

II. {Lin. belladonncB cam calce. Cazenave.) 
Lime-water §viij ; oil of almonds ^iv ; extract of 
belladonna 3ij ; mix. Both the above are excel- 
lent narcotics, stimulants, and resolvents, in vari- 
ous rheumatic complaints, affections of the skin 
and joints, tumors, &-c. 

LINIMENT OF BITUMEN. Syn. Tar 
Liniment. Lin. Bituminis. Prep. (P. C.) Barba- 
does tar §iss ; melt, and add liquor of ammonia 
^ss; mix well. Stimulant, irritant, and dispersive. 

LINIMENT OF CAJEPUT OIL. Syn. Lin. 
Cajeputi. Lin. Cajeputi stimulans. Prep. (Dr. 
Copland.) Soap and compound camphor liniment, 
of each f §iss ; oil of cajeput f ^j ; mix. Stimu- 
lant. 

LINIMENT OF CAJEPUT, (ETHERE- 
AL.) Syn. Lin. Cajeputi ethereum. Prep. 
(Tortuel.) Camphor 3j ; oil of cajeput 3ij ; sul- 
phuric ether §j ; mix, and keep it in a stoppered 
bottle in the cold. Very volatile. 

LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR. Syn. Cam- 
phor Liniment. Camphorated Oil. Oleum 
camphoratum, (P. D.) Lin. CamphorjE, (P. L. 
& E.) Prep. (P. L.) Camphor 3j ; olive oil ffiv; 
gently heat the oil, add the camphor, cut small, 
and agitate until dissolved. The Dublin College 
orders only ^ the above camphor Stimulant, an- 



LIN 



398 



LIN 



odyne, and resolvent ; in sprains, bruises, and 
rheumatic pains, glandular enlargement, &c. 

LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR, (COM- 
POUND.) Ward's Essence for the Headache. 
Lin. Camphor^e compositum, (P. L. «& D.) Prep. 
I. (P. L.) Liquor of ammonia f §viiss ; spirits of 
lavender 1 pint ; distil off 1 pint, add camphor 
^iiss, and dissolve. On the large scale this prep- 
aration is more conveniently made as follows : — 

II. Camphor (clean) 21 oz. ; English oil of lav- 
ender 3| oz. ; liquor of ammonia 2| lbs. ; mix, 
close the vessel, and agitate occasionally until the 
camphor is dissolved. Powerfully stimulant and 
rubefacient. 

LINIMENT OF CANTHARIDES. Syn. 
LiN. Lytt^. Lin. Cantharidis. Pi-ep. I. (P. 
U. S.) Powdered Spanish flies 3j ; oil of turpen- 
tine f f j ; digest 2 hours, and filter. 

II. (Collier.) Tincture of cantharides and soap 
liniment, equal parts ; mix. Both the above are 
irritant and stimulant, but should be used cau- 
tiously, lest they produce strangury. 

LINIMENT OF COD-LIVER OIL. Syn. 
Lin. Olei aselli. Prep. (Dr. Brach.) Cod-liver 
oil §j ; Jiquor of ammonia §ss ; mix. Resolvent, 
dispersive ; applied to glandular tumors. 

LINIMENT OF CROTON OIL. Syn. Lin. 
Crotonis. Prep. I. (Pereira.) Croton oil 1 part ; 
olive oil 5 parts ; mix. 

II. (Collier.) Croton oil 3j ; olive oil 3ij ; mix. 
Both the above are used as counter-irritants ; re- 
peatedly rubbed on the skin, redness and a pustu- 
lar eruption ensue. 

LINIMENT, GREEN. Syn. Lm. of Hem- 
lock. Lin. Viride. Lin. Conii. Prep. (Dr. 
Campbell.) Powdered camphor and extract of 
hemlock, oJ" each, f j ; compound spirit of ammo- 
nia ^ij ; oiive oil and liquor of ammonia, of each, 
§vj ; mix. 

LINIMENT OF IODINE. Syn. Lm. lom- 
Nii. Prep. I. (Dr. Manson.) Tincture of opium 
ff j ; tincture of iodine f3j. 

II. (Dr. Copland.) Soap liniment §j ; iodine 8 
to 10 grs. ; dissolve. In scrofula, glandular en- 
largements, rheumatism, &c. 

LINIMENT OF LEAD. Syn. Lin. Plumbi. 
Prep. (Gaozey.) Acetate of lead 40 grs. ; soft 
water Ib.j ; olive oil lb. ss; mix, and agitate well. 
Astringent, refrigerant. Useful in excoriations, 
especially when accompanied with inflammation. 

LINIMENT OF LIME. Syn. Lin. Calcis 
CAMi'HORATUM. Pre/). (W. Cooley.) Camphorated 
oil §ij ; lime water §j ; mix, and agitate well. For 
burns, chilblains, &c. 

LINIMENT OF LIME AND OPIUM. 
Syn. Lin. Calcis Opiatum. Prep. (W. Cooley.) 
Lime-water and camphorated oil, of each, §j ; ex- 
tract of opium 5 grs. ; mix. For severe burns, to 
allay pain, &c. 

LINIMENT OF MERCURY. Syn. Mer- 
CURIAL Liniment. Compound do. Lin. Hvdrar- 
GYRi, (P. L. 1809.) Lin. Hvdrargyri composi- 
tum, (P. L. 1824, and since.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Camphor ^j ; spirit of wine 3j ; sprinkle the latter 
on the former, powder, add lard and stronger mer- 
curial oinliiH'iil, of each, §iv ; rub well logeth(>r, 
then further add licpior of ammonia f^iv ; mix 
Well. Excitant ; resembles mercurial ointment, 
but is quicker in its operations. 



LINIMENT OF MURIATIC ACID. Syn 
Lin. Muriaticum. Lin. Acidi Muriatici. Prep. 
I. (Fr. H.) Olive oil §ij ; white wax 3ij ; dissolve 
by heat, cool, add balsam of Peru 3j ; muriatic 
acid 3ij ; mix well. An excellent application to 
chilblains before they break. 

II. (W. Cooley.) Olive oil f iij ; white wait and 
camphor, of each, 3ij ; mix as last, then add mu- 
riatic acid f 3iij ; mix well. Quite equal to the 
last and cheaper. 

LINIMENT OF MUSTARD. Syn. Lm. 
SiNAPis. Whitehead's Essence of Mi/otard. 
Prep. I. (P. C.) Bruised mustard seed lb. ss ; oil 
of turpentine lb. j ; camphor §iv ; digest Stimu- 
lant. A popular application in rheumatisms, chil- 
blains, &,c. 

II. Flour of mustard 2 oz. ; liquor of ammonia 
1 oz. ; mix, and add enough water to reduce it to 
a cream. Used by farriers to rub on the bellies 
of horses, &c., in inflammation of the bowels. 

LINIMENT OF NUX VOMICA. Syn. 
Lin. Nucis Vomica. Prep. (Majendie.) Tinc- 
ture of nux vomica f f j ; liquor of ammonia f 3ij ; 
mix. 

LINIMENT OF OPIUM. Syn. Anodyne 
Liniment. Lin. Opii, (P. L. & E.) Lin. Saponis 
CUM Opio, vel Lin. Anodynum, (P. D.) Prep. (P 
L.) Soap liniment f §vj ; tincture of opium f fij ; 
mix. An excellent anodyne in local pains, rheu- 
matism, neuralgia, sprains, &-c. 

LINIMENT OF PHOSPHORUS. Syn. Lin. 
Phosphoratum. Prep. (Hamb. Ph.) Camphor 10 
grs. ; phosphorus 6 grs. ; oil of almonds §j ; dis- 
solve with a gentle heat, cool, and add liquor of 
ammonia 10 drops; mix. 

LINIMENT OF SOAP. Syn. Soap Lini- 
ment. Opodeldoc. Balsam of Soap. Compound 
Tincture of Soap. Balsamum Saponis. Tinc- 
TURA Saponis composita. Tinctura Saponis cam- 
PHORATA. Lin. Saponaceum, (P. L. 1745.) Lin. 
Saponis compositum, (P. L. 1788 to 1824.) Lin. 
Saponis, (P. L. 1836, P. E. & D.) Prep. I. (P. 
L.) Castile soap §iij ; camphor §j ; spirit of rose- 
mary f^xvj ; mix and digest till dissolved. 

II. (P. E.) Castile soap ^iv; camphor ^U ; oil 
of rosemary f 5v ; rectified spirit of wine 1 pint, 
and f ^xij ; mix and dissolve. 

Remarks. When Castile soap is employed, the 
liniment is apt to become gelatinous in cold wea- 
ther, it is therefore a general plan with the drug- 
gists to substitute soft soap. The following for- 
mula is adopted by some wholesale druggists, and 
produces a very good article, though weaker than 
that of the pharmacopoeia: — Camphor, cut small, 
1:^ lb. ; soft soap (i lbs. ; oil of rosemary 2 oz. ; 
rectified spirit of wine and water, of each, 3^ gal- 
lons ; digest with occasional agitation for a week 
and filler. 

Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient, and lubri- 
cating, and is used in rheumatism, local pains, 
swellings, bruises, sprains, &:.c. 

LINIMENT OF SOAP AND LEAD. Syn. 
Lin. Saponis cum Plumijo, (P. C.) Soap liniment 
5ij ; liquor of diacetate of lead 3j ; mix. 

LINIiMEN'F OF SOAP, (lODURETED.) 
Syn. Lin. Ioduhf.tum Saponaceum. Prep. (Gui- 
hourl.) White soap 3x ; oil of almonds 3v ; melt 
together and add iodide of potassium oj, dissolved 
in water 5j. 



LIQ 



399 



LIQ 



LINIMENT OF SOA?, (STIMULANT.) 
Syn. Li.v. Saponis Stimulans. Prep. Soap lini- 
ment ^iiss ; tincture of lytta ^ss ; mix. 

LINIMENT OF SOAP, (SULPHURET- 
ED.) Syn. Li\. SuLPHURO-SAPONACEUM. Prep. 
(Jadelot.) Sulphuret of potassium ^iij ; soap Ib.j; 
water q. s. ; melt together, and add, olive oil Ib.j ; 
oil of thyme f 3j ; mix well. An excellent remedy 
for tlie itch and some allied skin diseases. 

LINIMENT OF SULPHUR AND SOAP. 
Syn. Lin. Sulphuris cum Sapone. Prep. (Lu- 
gol.) Soap 5' j ; water f vj ; dissolve by heat, and 
add flowers of sulphur fiij. (See Lin. of Soap, 

SULPHURETED.) 

LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE. Sijn. 
Lin. Terebinthin^. Prep. (P. L.) Soft soap ^ij ; 
camphor §j : oil of turpentine f §xvj ; shake them 
together until mixed. Stimulant in lumbago and 
cholera. 

IL (P. L 1824.) Resin cerate Ib.ss; oil of tur- 
pentine f §iv ; mix An excellent application to 
burns. 

LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE, (VITRI- 
OLIC.) Syn. Lin. Terebinthin.e Vitriolicum. 
Prep. (P. C.) Olive oil fx ; oil of turpentine f ^iv ; 
oil of vitriol 3iij ; mix well. In chronic affections 
of the joints and old sprains and bruises. 

LINIMENT OF VERATRINE. Syn. Lin. 
Veratri^. Prep. (Brande.) Veratria 8 grs. ; al- 
cohol f^ss; dissolve and add, soap liniment f§ss. 
In neuralgfic and rheumatic pains, gout, &c. "^ 

LINIMENT OF VERDIGRIS. Syn. Mel 
iEcYPTiAcuM, (P. L. 1746.) Unguentum ^gyp- 
tiacum, (P. L. 1720.) Oxymel tEruginis. (P. L. 
1788.) OxYMEL CupR. Subacetatis, (P. D.) Li- 
NiMENTU.M yERUGiMs, (P. L. 1809, and since.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Powdered verdigris §j ; vinegar 
ffvij ; dissolve, strain, "add clarified honey §xiv, 
and boil to a proper consistence. Stimulant, de- 
tergent, and escharotic. Applied to indolent ul- 
cers, especially of the throat, by means of a camel 
hair pencil, and diluted with water used as a 
gargle. 

*^* Avoid swallowing it, as it will induce vomit- 
ing and excessive pursuing. 

LINIMENT, SIMPLE. Syn. Lin. Simplex. 
Prep. (P. E.) White wax ^j ; olive oil f fiv ; melt 
together and stir till coL Emollient; resembles 
spermaceti ointment in all except its consistence. 

LINIMENT, VERMIFUGE. Syn. Lin. An- 
THELMiNTicuM. Prep. Castor oil 32 grammes ; 
essentialvoils of wormwood and tansy, of each 15 
grammes ; Dr. Peschier's ethereal tincture of pen- 
nyroyal buds 20 drops ; mix. Employed in fric- 
tions on the abdomen in cases of worms in chil- 
dren. Its activity may be still further increased 
by macerating a little bruised garlic in the oil of 
tansy (Jour, de Medecine.) An excellent medi- 
cine. 

LINIMENT, WHITE. Syn. Lin. Album. 

LINIMENTUM TRIPHARMACUM. Prep. 
(P. L. 1746.) Lead plaster and olive oil, of each 
liv ; melt, aiid add vinegar ^j ; stir till cold. Cool- 
ing ; desiccative. 

LI PIC ACID. One of a new series of acids, 
discovered by Laurent, and obtained by the action 
of nitric acid on oleic acid. See Adipic Acid. 

LIQUEUR DE PRESSAVIN. Prep. Oxide 
ti mercury freshly precipitated from a solution 



of nitrate of mercury, and cream of tartar, of 
each 1 oz. ; hot water 1 quart ; dissolve. For use 
add 2 spoonfuls of this liquor to 1 quart of water; 
and take a wine-glassful (2 oz.) 3 or 4 times a day 
avoiding the use of common salt at the same time 
This is simply a solution of potassio-turtrate of 
mercury, and may be taken where the use of mer- 
cury is indicated. 

LIQUEURS, {Fr.) Dilute alcohol, aromatized 
and sweetened. The French liqueuristes are pro- 
verbial for the superior quality, creamlike smooth- 
ness, and delicate flavor of their cordials. This 
chiefly arises from the employment of very pure 
spirit and sugar, and the judicious application of 
the flavoring ingredients. The French liqueuristes 
distinguish their cordials into two classes, viz. — 
waters, or liqueurs which, though sweetened, are 
perfectly devoid of viscidity — and creams, oils, and 
halms, which contain sufficient sugar to impart to 
them a considerable degree of consistence. The 
first part of the process is the preparation of the 
aromatized or flavoring essences. These are usu- 
ally prepared by infusion or maceration in very 
pure spirit, at about 2 to 4 u. p., (sp. gr. 0-922 to 
0*92.5,) placed in well-corked glass carboys, or 
stoneware bottles. The maceration is continued, 
with occasional agitation, for 4 or 5 weeks, when 
the aromatized spirit is drawn off", and either dis- 
tilled or filtered ; usually the former. These spirits 
are called, by the French, " infusions." The 
outer peel of cedrats, lemons, oranges, limettes, 
bergamottes, &lc., is alone used, and is obtained 
either by carefully peeling the fruit with a knife, 
or by rubbing it off with a lump of hard white 
sugar. (See Citrons.) Aromatic seeds and woods 
are bruised by pounding before being submitted to 
infusion. The substances employed by the French 
to color their liqueurs are, — for blue, sulphate c-. 
indigo nearly neutralized with chalk, or the juice 
of blue flowers or berries ; — fawn and brandy 
color, burnt sugar ; — green, spinage or parsley 
leaves digested in spirit ; also by mixing blue and 
yellow ; — red, powdered cochineal, either alone or 
mixed with a little alum ; — violet, blue violet pe- 
tals, or litmus ; — yellow, an aqueous infusion of 
safflowers or French berries, or a spirituous tincture 
of turmeric. See Cordials. 

LIQUID COLORS, (Laccc/«/(7a.) Prep.l. 
{Blue.) a. Dissolve litmus in water, and add ^ of 
spirit of wine. — b. Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate 
of indigo with water. If required for delicate 
work, neutralize the acid with chalk. — c. To an 
aqueous infusion of litmus add a few drops of vine- 
gar, till it turns full blue. 

II. {Purple.) a. Steep litmus in water and 
strain. — b. Add a little alum to a strained decoc- 
tion of logwood. — c. Add a solution of carmine 
{red) to a little blue solution of litmus or Saxon 
blue. 

III. {Green.) a. Dissolve crystallized verdigris 
in water. — b. Dissolve sap green in water, and add 
a little alum. — c. Add a little salt of tartar to a blue 
or purple solution of litmus, till it turns green. — d. 
Dissolve equal parts of crystallized verdigris and 
cream of tartar in water, and add a little gum 
arabic. Used as an ink for writing. 

IV. {Yellow.) a. Dissolve gamboge in water, 
and add a little gum arabic and alum. Used fof 
ink, to stain paper, color maps, &c. — b. Dissolve 



LIQ 



400 



LIQ 



gamboge in equal parts of proof spirit and water. 
.Golden colored. — c. Steep French berries in hot 
water, strain, and add a little gum and alum. — d. 
Steep turmeric, round zedoary, gamboge, or an- 
notto, in sph-its of wine. — e. Dissolve annotto in a 
weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or potash. All 
tlie above are used by artificial florists. 

V. {Red.) a. Macerate ground Brazil in vine- 
gar, boil a few minutes, strain, and add a little 
alum and gum. — b. Add vinegar to an infusion of 
litmus till it turns red. — c. Boil or infuse powdered 
cochineal in water ; strain, and add a little alum 
and gum. — d. Dissolve carmine in liquor of am- 
monia, or in weak carbonate of potash water ; 
the former is superb. 

Remarks. All the preceding, thickened with a 
little gum, are used as inks for writing, as colors to 
tint maps, foils, paper, artificial flowers, &c., and 
to paint on velvet. Some of them are very beau- 
tiful. It must be observed, however, that those 
made with strong spirit do not mix well with gum, 
unless diluted with water. 

LIQUID COLORS, {for druggists' show- 
hottles.) Prep. I. {Blue.) a. Blue vitriol 1 lb. ; 
water 1 gallon ; dissolve. — b. To the last add alum 
1 lb., and oil of vitriol to strike the color. Very 
dark. — c. Dissolve indigo in sulphuric acid, and 
dilute with water. — d. Dissolve pure Prussian blue 
in oxalic or muriatic acid, and dilute with water. 
(See Blue Inks and Writing-Fluids.) 

II. {Purple.) a. Verdigris 1 oz. ; spirits of harts- 
horn 1 lb. ; water 6 lbs. ; dissolve. — b. Infusion of 
logwood 1 gallon ; spirits of hartshorn q. s. — c. 
Sugar of lead 3 oz. ; powdered cochineal 1 dr. ; 
water q. s. — d. Add sulphate of indigo, nearly 
neutralized with chalk, to an infusion of cochineal, 
till it turns purple. 

III. {Green.) a. Verdigris 4 oz. ; water 2 
quarts ; mix, and add oil of vitriol or nitric acid q. 
s. — b. Crystallized verdigris 4 oz. ; strong vinegar 
i pint ; dissolve, and dilute with water. — c. Add 
distilled verdigris and blue vitriol to a strong decoc- 
tion of turmeric. — d. Dissolve blue vitriol in water, 
and add nitric acid till it turns green. 

IV. {Red.) a. Dissolve carmine in liquor of 
ammonia, and dilute with water. — b. Digest pow- 
dered cochineal in spirits of hartshorn or solution 
of sal ammoniac ; and when colored, dilute with 
water. 

V. {Yellow.) a. Sesquioxide or rust of iron ^ 
lb. ; muriatic acid 1 quart ; dissolve and dilute 
with water. — b. To a strong decoction of French 
berries add a little alum. — c. Dissolve gamboge or 
annotto in liquor of potassa ; dilute with water, 
and add a little spirit. Orange or deep orange, 
depending on the quantity of alkali present. 

Remarks. All the above require filtering through 
paper placed in a glass funnel, and usually need a 
second filtration after being exposed to the light for 
Bome weeks. 

LIQUID, SHAVING. Syn. Liquid Soap. 
Prep. Best soft soap 1 lb. ; rectified spirit of wine 
\\ pint ; mix. Used to raise a lather in shaving, 
by merely rubbing a ikiw drops on tne beard, and 
applying a little hot water with the finger or sha- 
ving-brush. Stronger than the esprit de savon 
and essence royal pour la barbe, sold for the same 
purpose. Some persons Bubstituto proof spirit for 
spirit of wine, and others use equal parts of water 



and spirit of wine as the menstruum. All answer 
well. 

LIQUODILLA. Prep. Yellow peel of 6 
oranges and 6 lemons ; brandy or plain spirit 1 
gallon ; digest a week, filter, and add loaf sugar 4 
lbs., dissolved in water 1 gallon, and the juice of 
the oranges and lemons which were peeled. Let 
it stand a month, and then bottle. A pleasant ami 
refreshing cordial. 

LIQUOR. Syn. Liqueur, {Fr) Liquor, 
{Lat., from liqueo, I become liquid.) This terra 
is applied in the London Pharmacopoeia to those 
aqueous solutions commonly, though improperly, 
called waters ; as, hquor of ammonia, {liquor am- 
monicB,) liquor of potassa, {liquor potasscB,) &c., 
which are simple solutions of pure potassa and 
gaseous ammonia, and would therefore be more 
correctly and intelligibly called " solutions." (See 
Solution.) 

The term " liquor" has also been applied of late 
years to some concentrated preparations, more cor- 
rectly termed "fluid extracts," as they merely 
differ from good extracts in their less consistence, 
and from ordinary extracts in containing less 
starchy matter, albumen, and gum. There is also 
usually a little spirit added to them, to prevent de- 
composition. Liquors of this kind may be made 
of the finest quality, by the same processes that 
are required for the preparation of good soluble ex- 
ti'acts ; observing to stop the evaporation as soon 
as the consistence of treacle is acquired, and when 
cold, to add l-4th or l-5th part of their then weight 
in rectified spirit of wine. The addition of 3 or 4 
drops of the oils of cloves and mustard seed, dis- 
solved in the spirit, will secure them from any risk 
of moulding or fermentation ; in fact, with this addi- 
tion many of them will keep well without spirit, 
provided they be evaporated sufficiently, and kept 
in a cool place. The liquors which are merely 
concentrated infusions or decoctions, and which in 
their consistence do not even approximate to ex- 
tracts, may be made in the same manner as those 
preparations. (See Infusions and Decoctions, 
CONCENTRATED, and EssENCEs.) The following 
formulae are introduced to illustrate the preparation 
of this class of medicines : — 

LIQUOR OF PALE CINCHONA. Syn 
Liquor CiNCHONiE pallida. Prep. I. Pale cin- 
chona bark, bruised, 56 lbs. ; boiling water, holding 
in solution 1 lb. of sulphuric acid, q. s. ; macerate, 
with occasional agitation in a covered earthen 
vessel for 48 hours ; press out the liquid, wash the 
residue with water, mix the liquors, strain, evapo- 
rate as rapidly as possible in earthenware, to ex- 
actly 6 lbs. ; add rectified spirit 1 lb. ; set it aside 
for a week, and decant the clear. Very rich in 
cinchona. It is 96 times as strong as the decoc- 
tion of cinchona, P. L., and 12 times as strong as 
the concentrated infusion or decoction of cinchona- 
This preparation resembles the liquor cinchonca 
pallidoB sold by Battley, at 24^. per lb., whole- 
sale. 

II. Exhaust the bark as above, by maceration 
in 3 successive waters without acid, filter, evapo- 
rate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and proceed as be- 
fore. Inferior to the last, and loss rich in cin- 
chona. Very thick ; scarcely liquid. 

LIQUOR OF ERGOT OF RYE. Syn. Es- 
sence OF Ergot. Liquor ERGOTifi. Liquor 



LIT 



401 



LIT 



Secalis cornuti. Concentrated Infusion of 
Ergot of Rye. Prep. Ergot 3 lbs. ; grind in a 
pepper-mill, add water 8 lbs. ; macerate for 12 
hours, add rectified spirit 2 quarts ; macerate for 
a week in a corked bottle, press out the liquor, 
and filter. Contains ^th ergot, is 8 times as strong 
as the ordinarj'^ infusion, and 2^ times as strong as 
the tincture of ergot of Apothecaries' Hall. *^* In 
the formula given at Ergot, the quantity of ergot 
is wrongly stated. 

LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn 
Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla. Liquor Sar- 
ZiE, &LC. Either the simple or the compound li- 
quor of sarsaparilla may be prepared by evapo- 
rating the corresponding decoction, carefully pre- 
pared, to a proper consistence, straining through 
flannel, and adding a little spirit. Jamaica sarza 
should be alone employed, as the other varieties, 
especially the Honduras, not only possess less 
virtue, and yield less extract, but are very liable 
to ferment, and get mouldy. 

LIQUOR OF TARAXACUM. Syn. Fluid 
Extract of Taraxacum. Do. do. of Dandelion. 
Liquor Taraxaci. Prep. I. Dried dandelion 
roots 28 lbs. ; rinse them in clean cold water, to 
remove dirt, slice them small, macerate in enough 
cold watei to cover them, for 24 hours, press out 
the liquid, allow the fecula to subside, decant the 
clear, heat it to 180° or 190°, to coagulate the al- 
bumen, filter while hot, and evaporate by steam, 
or preferably by a current of warm air, or in vacuo, 
till the liquid be reduced to 22 lbs. ; to this add 
rectified spirit of wine 6 lbs. ; mix well, set it aside 
in a corked bottle for a week or a fortnight, and 
decant the clear from any sediment that may have 
formed. A very fine article. It represents an 
equal weight of the roots. 

II. Heat the expressed juice of dandelion to 
near the boiling point, strain, evaporate as last, to 
a proper consistence, then add i or ] of spirit of 
wine, and proceed as before. Very odorous, and 
pale colored ; stronger, and preferable to the pre- 
ceding. (See Extract of Dandelion.) 

LIRIODENDRINE. A white crystalline 
substance, resembling boracic acid, found in the 
bark of the root of liriodendron tulipifera. It has 
a bitter taste, and is soluble in alcohol, and slightly 
so in water. 

LISBON DIET DRINK. Prep. Sliced sar- 
saparilla and china roots, of each §j ; the dried 
peels of 20 walnuts coarsely powdered ; antimony 
^ij ; powdered pumice stone §j ; water 10 pints; 
the antimony and pumice are to be tied in a cloth 
and boiled with the other ingredients, till the liquid 
be reduced to one half, when it must be strained. 
The above is said to be the original receipt for 
the Lisbon diet drink, but compound decoction of 
sarsaparilla is now universally used instead. 

LITHARGE. Syn. Lytharge. Oxide of 
Lead. Protoxide of Lead. Semi-vitrified 
Oxide of Lead. Litharge, (Fr.) Glatte, 
Bleiglatte, {Ger.) Litargiro, (Ital.) Litar- 
gireo, {Span.) Lithargyrum, (P. E.) Plumbi 
OxYDUM, (P. L.) Plumbi Oxydum Semi-vitreum, 

(P. D.) LiTIIARGYRUS. MoLYBDENA, (Pliny.) 

Ai^dpyvpov, (Hippocrates.) Litharge is prepared by 
scrapiaig off the dross that forms on the surface of 
melted lead exposed to a current of air, (dross of 
lead, plumbum ustum,) and healing it ^o a full red 
51 



to melt out any undecomposed metal. The fused 
oxide in cooling forms a yellow or reddish semi- 
crystalline mass, which readily separates into 
scales ; these when ground constitute the powder- 
ed litharge of the shops. Litharge is also prepared 
by exposing red lead to a heat sufficiently high to 
fuse it, and English litharge is obtained as a sec- 
ondary product by liquefaction, from argentiferous 
lead ore. The litharge of commerce is distinguish- 
ed by its color into Litharge of Gold, {Lithar- 
gyrum Auri,) which is dark colored and impure, 
and Litharge of Silver, (Lithargyrum Argenti,) 
which is purer, and paler colored. The dark co- 
lor of the former is chiefly owing to the presence 
of red lead. In grinding litharge about 1 lb. of 
olive oil is usually added to each 1 cwt., to prevent 
dust. 

Use. Litharge is employed in pharmacy, to 
make plasters and severil other p/eparations ol 
lead ; by painters as a ' drier^ for oils, and for 
various other purposes in the arts. 

Pur. " Almost entirely soluble in dilute nitric 
acid. The matter thrown down from this solution 
by liquor of potassa is white, and is redissolved by 
excess of it." (P. L.) " 50 grs. dissolve entirely, 
and without effervescence, in f^iss of pyroligneous 
acid ; and the solution precipitated by 53 grs. of 
phosphate of soda, remains precipitable by more of 
the test." (P. E.) Both of the above solutions 
should be colorless. It is of great importance to 
the pharmaceutist to obtain pure litharge, as the 
slightest impurity will often color and spoil his lead 
plaster, (emp. plumbi,) and solution of diacetate of 
lead, (liq. plumbi diacetatis.) 

LITHIA, (from \ide7os, lapideus.) Syn. Oxide 
OF Lithium. An alkali or alkaline earth, discov- 
ered in 1818, by M. Arfwedson, in a mineral 
called petalite. It has since been found in a few 
other minerals. 

Prep. (Berzelius.) Finely powdered petalite oi 
spondumene 1 part ; fluor spar 2 parts ; mix, add 
oil of vitriol 10 parts, and heat the mixture as long 
as acid vapors are evolved. The residuum must 
be dissolved in pure water of ammonia, boiled, fil- 
tered, the solution evaporated to dryness, and the 
dry mass heated to redness. The matter left is 
pure sulphate of lithia, from which pure lithia 
may be obtained by decomposing it by acetate of 
baryta, and by expelling the acetic acid from the 
filtered solution by heat. 

Prop., <^c. Lithia is caustic, alkaline, and spa- 
ringly soluble in water. It is distinguished from 
potassa and soda by its phosphate and carbonate 
being scarcely soluble in water, — from baryta, 
strontia, and /me, by forming soluble salts with 
sulphuric and oxalic acids, — and from magnesia, 
by the solution of its carbonate exhibiting an al- 
kaline reaction. Heated on platinum it tinges the 
flame of the blowpipe red. With the acids, lithia 
forms salts, most of which may be made by ^ts 
direct solution in the former. 

LITHIC ACID. (See Uric Acid.) 

LITHIUM. The metallic base of lithia, 
obtained by Sir H. Davy by exposing lithia, oi 
oxide of lithium, to galvanic action. Its existence 
as a metal was so transient, that its properties 
could not be examined. It is white colored, like 
Sodium. 

LITHOCHOLIC ACID. A new acid dis- 



LIT 



402 



LOB 



covered by Wohler in a biliary concretion. It 
possesses no practical interest. 

LITHOFELLIC ACID. An acid recently 
discovered by Gobel, in a biliary concretion. It 
forms the chief portion of the substances called 
hezoar stones. It w^as obtained by digesting the 
calculus in boiling alcohol of 98§, evaporating, and 
redigesting the residue first in cold and then in 
boiling alcohol ; from the latter solution the acid 
was obtained by slow evaporation. Colorless and 
crystalline when pure, forming salts with the bases. 

LITHOGRAPHIC INK. Prep. I. Mastich 
in tears 8 oz. ; shellac 12 oz. ; Venice turpentine 
1 oz. ; melt together, add wax 1 lb., tallow 6 oz. ; 
when dissolved, further add hard tallow soap, in 
shavings, 6 oz. ; when the whole is combined, add 
lampblack 4 oz. ; mix well, cool a little, and then 
pour it into moulds or on a slab, and when cold cut 
it into square pieces. 

II. (M. Lasteyrie.) Dry tallow soap, mastich 
in tears, and common soda in fine powder, of each 
30 parts ; shellac 150 parts ; lampblack 12 parts ; 
mix as last. Both the above are used for writing 
on lithographic stones. 

III. (Autographic.) a. White wax 8 oz., and 
white soap 2 to 3 oz. ; melt, when well combined 
add lampblack 1 oz. ; mix well, and heat it strong- 
ly ; then add shellac 2 oz. ; again heat it strongly ; 
stir well together, cool a Httle, and pour it out as 
before. With this ink lines may be drawn of the 
finest to the fullest class, without danger of its 
spreading, and the copy may be kept for years be- 
fore being transferred. 

b. White soap and white wax, of each 10 oz. ; 
mutton suet 3 oz. ; shellac and mastich, of each 5 
oz. ; lampblack 3^ oz. ; mix as above. Both the 
above are used for writing on lithographic paper. 
When the last one is employed, the transfer must 
be made within a week. 

Remarks. The above inks are rubbed down 
with a little water in a cup or saucer for use, in 
the same way as common water-color cakes, or 
Indian ink. In winter, the operation should be 
performed near the fire, or the saucer should be 
placed over a basin containing a little warin or 
tepid water. Either a steel-pen or camel's hair 
pencil may be employed with the ink. (See Lith- 
ography.) 

LITHOGRAPHIC PAPER. Prep. I. Starch 
6 oz. ; gum arabic 2 oz. ; alum 1 oz. ; make a strong 
solution of each separately, in hot water, mix, and 
apply it while still warm to one side of leaves of 
paper, with a clean painting-brush. When dry, a 
second and a third coat may be given ; lastly, press 
it, to make it smooth. 

II. Give the paper three coats of thin size, one 
coat of good white starch, and one coat of a solu- 
tion of gamboge in water ; the whole to be applied 
with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to dry 
before the other is applied. The whole of the so- 
lutions should be fresh made. 

Remarks. Lithographic paper is used to write on 
with lithographic ink. The writing may be trans- 
ferred by simply moistening the back of the paper, 
and evenly pressing it on the stone, when a re- 
versed copy is obtained, which may be used to 
print from, and will yield corrected copies, resem- 
bling the original writing or drawing. 

LITHOGRAPHY. (From X»0«s, a stone, and 



ypa<p£iv, to write or draw.) The art of engraving 
on stone. Want of space must limit our notice of 
this beautiful art to the following remarks, which 
are inserted to explain the method of using litho- 
graphic crayons, ink, and paper. 

There are two modes of lithography in general 
use. For the one a drawing is made on the litho- 
graphic stone, with a lithographic crayon, (see 
Crayons, Lithographic,) or with lithographic 
ink, and when the design is dry, a very weak so- 
lution of oil of vitriol, or muriatic acid, is poured 
upon the stone, which acts by removing the alkali 
from the chalk or ink used to draw the design, and 
thus leaves them in a permanent and insoluble 
form. The acid also removes a very small portion 
of the surface of the stone occupied by the lights 
of the drawing, and renders it more absorbent. In 
the other method, the design is made on litho- 
graphic paper, (see the last article,) which paper, 
on being moistened, laid on the stone, and passed 
through the press, leaves its design on the stone, 
which is then acted on by acid as before described. 
To print from stones so prepared, water is thrown 
on them, and the roller, charged with printing ink, 
passed over them, when the paper is applied, and 
a copy is obtained by the action of the press. The 
same process must be had recourse to for each 
copy. The nature of the stone is such that it re- 
tains with great tenacity the resinous and oily sub- 
stances contained in the ink or crayon employed to 
form the design, and also absorbs water freely ; 
this, combined with the pecuhar affinity between 
resinous and oily substances, and their mutual 
power of repelling water, occasions the ink on the 
printing roller to adhere to the design, or resinous 
portion, and to leave untouched the lights or wa- 
tered parts of the stone. The stones are prepared 
by polishing in the ordinary way ; the style of work 
for which they are intended determining the de- 
gree of labor bestowed lipon them. For crayon 
drawings, the surface should have a fine grain, but 
the finish of the stone must depend upon the de- 
sired softness of the intended drawing ; for writing 
or drawing on in ink, the surface must receive a 
higher polish, and must be finished off with pum- 
ice stone and water. The best lithographic stones 
are obtained from Solenhofen, near Munich, and 
from Pappenheim, on the banks of the Danube. 
The white lias which lies immediately under the 
blue, near Bath, also yields good lithographic 
stones. 

LIVER OF ANTIMONY. Syn. Hepar An- 
TiMONii. A crude oxysulphuret of antimony, pre- 
pared by roasting crude antimony to a dull gray, 
and then melting it. Another preparation, made 
by mixing and melting connnon antimony with 
twice its weight of potash, is also called liver of 
antimony, and is used by farriers as a strong purge 
for grease in horses' heels. 

LIVER OF SULPHUR. Fused halphuret of 
potassium. 

LOBELIANIN. This name has been given 
by Dr. Pereira to the butyraceous volatile oil ob- 
tained by distilling Indian tobacco 'lobelia injlata) 
along witb water. 

LOBELIC ACID. This name has been given 
to the acid existing in decoction of lobelia. The 
decoction reddens litmus, and is precipitated by 
several metallic salts. 



LOH 



403 



LOT 



LOBELINA. Syn. Lobelin. A soft brown 
substance, found by Colhoun in lobelia inflata. It 
is soluble in alcohol, and forms salts with the acids, 
and is said to resemble the nicotin of Berzelius. It 
may be obtained by the action of alcohol, evapora- 
tion, digestion of the residue in an acid, and subse- 
quent precipitation. 

LOBSTERS. The heavier fish are the best. 
When fresh, they have a lively color and pleasant 
smell. When boiled, the tail will be stiff, and pull 
up with a spring, if fresh. The cock lobster is pre- 
ferred, though smaller than the hen, and may be 
known by the narrow back part of his taiU and 
the two uppermost fins within it being stiff and 
hard ; those of the hen are softer and broader. 

LOCKSOY. Rice boiled to a paste and drawn 
into threads. Used to thicken soups. It is im- 
ported from China. 

LOCOFOCOS, (from loco foci, instead of a fire.) 
The American name for Congreve matches. From 
the following accident, these matches have given 
their name to the ultra-democratical party of 
America : — During a meeting of some of that party 
in 1834, at Tammany Hall, New York, the lamps 
suddenly became extinguished, when several per- 
sons present drew boxes of locofocos from their 
pockets and relighted them ; since which time the 
word has been equally applied to matches and 
ultra-democrats. 

LOGWOOD. Syn. Bois de Campeche ; Bois 
Bleu, {Fr.) Blauholz, (Ger.) H^mato^yli 
LIGNUM ; Lignum Campechense ; Lignum Campe- 
CHiANUM ; Lignum Campescanum ; Lignum Indi- 
cuM ; Lignum Sappan, (Lat.) The wood of hcBma- 
toxylon campechianum, (Linnaeus.) Logwood is 
largely employed in dyeing and calico printing for 
the production of reds, violets, purples, blacks, 
drabs, &,c. It readily yields its color both to spirit 
and boiling water. The color of its infusion is a 
fine red, turning on the purple or violet; acids turn 
it yellow, and alkali? deepen it. It dyes stuff pre- 
viously mordanted with alum, of various shades of 
violet and purple, according to the proportions of 
the materials. By using solution of tin as the mor- 
dant, various shades of red, lilac, and violet, may 
be obtained. The addition of a little Brazil wood 
is commonly made to brighten the red. With a 
mordant of sulphate or acetate of iron, it dyes 
black ; and with the addition of a little sulphate of 
copper, grays of various shades. It is, however, 
chiefly employed in conjunction with gall nuts for 
dyeing black, to which it imparts a lustre and vel- 
vety appearance. Silk is usually turned through 
the cold decoction, but for wool the decoction is 
used either hot or boiling. Logwood is one of the 
cheapest and most easily managed of the dye 
stuffs. 

LOHOCH, (ARAB.) Syn. Lohock. Looch. 
Loch. Linctus. A medicine licked off a spoon. 
(See Linctus.) 

LOHOCH, COMMON. Sijn. Lohoch com- 
mune. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Oil of almonds and 
sirup of tolu, of each, ^j ; powdered white sugar 
3ij ; mix. Demulcent ; in coughs and hoarse- 
ness. 

LOHOCH, DE:MULCEXT. Syn. L. De- 
MULCENS. Prep. I. (L. Tronchin.) Oil of almonds, 
sirup of capillaire, manna, and cassia pulp, of each 
5ij ; powdered gum tragacanth 16 grs. ; orange- 



flowor water f^ij ; mix. For coughs, &c. The 
above is the quantity for 2 days, which is as long 
as it will keep. 

II. Yelk of one egg ; oil of almonds 2 oz. ; sirup 
of althaea 1 oz. ; rose water 3 oz. ; mix. In coughw 
and hoarseness. 

LOHOCH, EXPECTORANT. Sijn. L. Ex- 
PECTORANs. Prep. (Zanetti.) Kermes mineral 
4 grs. ; manna ^vj ; oil of almonds, sirup of squills, 
and sirup of senega, of each 3ij ; mix. Laxative, 
demulcent, and expectorant ; in coughs, &c. 

LOHOCH, GREEN. Syn. L. Viride. White 
lohoch, colored with the sirups of saffron and 
violets. 

LOHOCH OF LINSEED. Syn. L. de Lino. 
Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Fresh linseed oil, and sirup 
of tolu, of each ^j ? sulphur and white sugar, of 
each 3ij ; mix. 

LOHOCH OF MANNA. Syn. L. de Man- 
na. Linctus demulcens et aperiens. Prep. 
(P. E. 1744.) Manna, oil of ain onds, and sirup 
of violets, equal parts ; mix. Laxc Ave and de- 
mulcent. A good medicine in the coughs of chil- 
dren. 

LOHOCH OF OIL OF ALMONDS. Syn. 
L. Oleosum. Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Oil of almonds, 
powdered gum, and orange-flower water, of each 
3iv ; sirup of althaea ^j ; mix. 

II. Oil of almonds, powdered gum, sirup of al- 
thaea, and rose water, of each 1 oz. ; mix. Both 
are demulcent : in coughs, «Si:c. 

LOHOCH OF SOAP. Syn. L. Saponis. Prep. 
(P. E. 1744.) Castile soap 3j ; oil of almonds ^j ; 
sirup of tolu §iss ; mix. Demulcent. In coughs 
and hoarseness attended by indigestion. 

LOHOCH OF SPERMACETI. Syn. L. Ce- 
TACEi. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Spermaceti 3ij ; yelk 
of one egg ; triturate together, then add oil of 
almonds ^ss ; sirup of tolu ^j- -A- bland demul- 
cent. 

LOHOCH, PECTORAL. Syn. Fox lungs. 
LoH. E PULMONE VuLPiuM. L. Pectorale. Prep. 
Spermaceti and Spanish juice, of each 8 oz. ; wa- 
ter q. s. to soften the liquorice ; make a thin elec- 
tuary, and add honey 3 lbs. ; oil of aniseed 1 oz. ; 
mix well. A popular and excellent demulcent in 
coughs. It formerly contained fox lungs, but 
spermaceti is now substituted. 

LOHOCH, WHITE. Syn. L. Album. Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Jordan almonds 3ivss ; bitter almonds 
3ss ; blanch by steeping in hot water and removing 
the skins, add white sugar ^ss ; gum tragacanth 
15 grs. ; beat to a smooth paste, and further add, 
oil of almonds and orange-flower water, of each 
3iv ; pure water f fiv ; make a lohoch. A very 
pleasant demulcent in coughs, &c. 

Remarks. A spoonful of any one of the prece- 
ding lohochs may be taken ad libitum. 

LOTION. Si/n. Lotion, (Fr.) Lotio, (Lat., 
from lavo, I wash.) In Medicine, a solution of 
medicinal substances in water, employed as an 
external application. Lotions may be made of 
any soluble medicaments that are capable of exert- 
ing their action by contact with the skin. Lotions 
have been divided into classes, as sedative, ano- 
dyne, stimulant, &c. Sedative and refrigerant 
lotions are commonly employed to allfiy inflamma- 
tion, — anodyne and narcotic lotions to relieve 
pain, — stimulant lotions to induce the maturalion. 



LOT 



404 



LOT 



of tumors, &g., — detergent lotions, to clean foul 
ulcers, &c., — repellent and resolvent lotions, to 
discuss tumors, remove eruptions, &c. Lotions 
are usually applied by wetting a piece of linen 
with them, and keeping it on the part affected, or 
by moistening the part with the fingers previously 
dipped into them. Lotions are more agreeable if 
made with rose water. 

LOTION, ACID. Syn. Lotio Acida. Prep. 
I. (Collier.) Strong nitric acid f§ss; water 1 pint ; 
mix. Dr. Collier says that he has cured lepra of 
14 years' standing by the use of this lotion, ac- 
companied by proper doses of the solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate, F. L. 

II. (Guy's H.) Nitric acid 38 drops ; water 1 
pint. Used in mortification. 

III. (Copland.) Nitromuriatic acid 3j ; water 
f §xvj ; mix. In mortification and liver complaints. 

LOTION, ALKALINE. Syn. L. Alcalina. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) Carbonate of potash §ij ; rose 
water 1 quart ; mix. Detergent, stimulant. 

LOTION, ANTIPHLOGISTIC. Syn. L. 
Antiphlogistica. Prep. (Copland.) Solution of 
diacetate of lead (P. L.) 3vj ; liquor of acetate of 
ammonia ^iv ; water 1 quart ; mix. Refrigerant, 
sedative, repellent. Used to allay inflammation. 

LOTION, ANTIPSORIC. Syn. L. Anti- 
PSORicA. Prep. (Cazenave.) Sulphuret of potas- 
sium 3j ; soap (soft) 3ij ; water §viij ; dissolve. An 
excellent remedy for the itch. It leaves but little 
smell behind, and does not soil the linen. 

LOTION, ASTRINGENT. Syn. L. astrin- 
GENS. Prep. I. Alum ^ oz. ; water 1 pint ; dis- 
solve- 
XL Muriate of iron, or blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water 
^ pint. Some use less water. The last is used 
for horses and cattle. 

LOTION, CAMPHORATED. Syn. L. Cam- 
PHORA'T^A. L. Plumbi biacetatis camphorata. 
Prep. L -luted solution of diacetate of lead, P. L., 
§viij ; spirit of camphor 3ij ; mix, and shake well. 
Refrigerant and anodyne, employed in erysipela- 
tous inflammations, burns, contusions, sprains, ex- 
coriations, &c. 

LOTION, DISINFECTING. L. Disinfec- 
TANs. L. Chlorinii. Prep. (Majendie.) Liquor 
of chloride of soda f ^j ; water ^ pint. 

II. Chloride of lime 3iij ; water 1 pint ; dis- 
solve. Both are good washes for foul ulcers, the 
itch, the teeth, to sweeten the breath, and remove 
the smell of tobacco smoke, and for various similar 
purposes. 

LOTION, EVAPORATING. Syn. L. I>vap- 
ORANS. Prep. (Copland.) Sulphuric ether, rec- 
tified spirit of wine, and solution of acetate of 
ammonia, of each f^iss; rose water f^iiiss; mix. 
Some add solution of diacetate of lead (diluted) 
3vj. Refrigerant, if allowed to evaporate by free 
exposure ; stimulant, if the evaporation is prevent- 
ed by covering the part with the hand. Useful in 
nervous headache, «Stc. 

LOTION FOR TENDER-MOUTHED 
HORSES. Prep. Powdered alum or borax 1 oz. ; 
honey \ lb. ; infusion of roses 1 lb. To be used 
with a syringe. 

LOTION FOR GREASE. Prep. \. Sugar 
of lead \ lb.; vinegar ^ pint; water 1^ pints; 
mix. — •2. Ahun (i oz. ; blue vitriol 1 oz. ; water 1 
quart. — .'3. Alum 1 oz. ; oil of vitriol 1 dr. ; water 



1 pint. — 4. Corrosive sublimate ^ oz. ; spirits o! 
salts 1 oz. ; water 1 quart. The first three are 
used when the horses' heels are inflamed and 
irritable ; the last, when the discharge is verj 
fetid. 

LOTION FOR INFLAMMATORY TU- 
MORS, &c. Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Sal am- 
monia 3j ; rectified spirit f ^j ; soft water f §v ; mix, 
and dissolve. 

LOTION FOR SWELLED JOINTS, &c. 
Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Opium 3ij ; distilled 
vinegar f §vj ; triturate together. To allay pain. 

LOTION FOR OPHTHALMIA. Prep. (A. 
T. Thomson.) a. Sulphate of zinc and acetate of 
lead, of each 10 grs. ; rose and elder-flower water, 
of each f §iij ; mix. To be applied either alone or 
diluted with water, after local bleeding. — h. Sugar 
of lead 9 grs. ; distilled vinegar f 3iij ; rectified 
spirit f 3j ; rose water f §vss; mix. Used in the 
acute stages. 

LOTION FOR GALLS, «fcc. Prep. L Vin- 
egar and spirit of wine, of each 4 oz. ; sugar of 
lead ^ oz. ; water ^ pint ; mix. — 2. Soap liniment, 
and solution of acetate of ammonia, equal parts. — 
3. Sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; muriatic acid 3 dr. ; wa- 
ter 1 pint. Used by farriers for saddle galls or 
warbles. 

LOTION FOR MANGE. Prep. I. Corro- 
sive sublimate \ oz. ; spirits of salt i oz. ; water 1 
quart. — 2. Corrosive sublimate 1 dr. ; sal ammo- 
niac ^ oz. ; water 1 pint. — 3. To the last add strong 
decoction of white hellebore ^pint. Used for mange 
in horses, cattle, and dogs, when sulphur ointment 
fails. 

LOTION FOR STRAINS. Sugar of lead 
1 oz. ; vinegar and water, of each ^ pint ; cam- 
phorated spirit \ oz. ; mix. Used by farriers. 

LOTION, GOWLAND'S. Prep. Blanched 
bitter almonds 1 oz. ; blanched sweet almonds ^ 
oz. ; beat to a paste, add pure water 1 pint, mix 
well, strain through a piece of coarse muslin, put 
it into a bottle, add corrosive sublimate in powder 
10 to 12 grs., dissolved in a teaspoonful or two of 
spirit of wine, and shake well. Used as a cosmetic 
to improve the complexion ; also as a wash for 
obstinate eruptions. For the latter purpose, the 
quantity of corrosive sublimate may be doubled : 
but the weight given above should not be exceeded 
when the lotion is intended for a cosmetic. As a 
beautifier of the complexion, it is employed by 
wetting the skin with it, either by means of the 
corner of a napkin, or the fingers dipped into it, 
and it is then gently wiped oft" with a dry cloth. 
(See Cosmetics, and Lotion of Bichloride of 
Mercury.) 

LOTION, MERCURIAL. Prep. I. {Black 
wash. Black lotion. Lotio nigra. Aqua mer- 
curialis nigra. L. hydrargyri nigra. Mild 
phagedocnic lotion. Aqua phagedcEnica initis.) 
1. Calomel 3j ; lime water 1 pint ; mix, and 
shake well. These are the usual proportions. — 2. 
(Guy's H.) Calomel 3j ; lime water ^viij ; mix 
as last. The bottle should be well shaken before 
the lotion is applied. Black wash is a favorite ap- 
plication to all kinds of syphilitic sores, 

II. {Yellow wash or lotion. Red do. Pha- 
gedoinic do. Lotio flava. Lotio or aqua pha- 
gedcenica. L. hydrargyri flava.) 1. Corrosive 
sublimate in powder 3ss ; lime water I pint ; mix, 



LOT 



405 



LOT 



and shake well. 2. (Guy's H.) Corrosive sub- 
limate 15 grs. ; water 1 pint. As last. It should 
be well shaken before use. A common applica- 
tion to syphilitic and scrofulous sores. 

LOTION OF ALUM. Syn. L. Aluminis. 
Prep. I. (St. B. H.) Alum 3ss ; water 1 pint ; 
dissolve. Astringent. Used for sore gums, nip- 
ples, &c. 

II. Alum and white vitriol, of each 3ij ; vine- 
gar f 5j ; water 1 pint ; mix, and dissolve. Used 
for chilblains. 

LOTION OF AMMONIA, (ACETATE.) 
Syn. L. A-MMONiiE acetatis Prep. (P. C.) 
Liquor of acetate of ammonia, rectified spirit of 
wine, and water, equal parts. Used in phlegmo- 
nous inflammation. 

LOTION OF AMMONIA, (MURIATE.) 
Sy;\ L. Salis ammoniaci. L. Ammonite mijhiatis. 
Prep. I. (Pereira.) a. Sal ammoniac §j to ^ij ; 
water f fxij ; dissolve. Spirit of wine f §iv is 
sometimes added. Used in contusions, ecchy- 
raosis, and cirsocele, when the skin is sound ; in 
chronic tumors of the breast, white swellings, 
chronic affections of the joints, hydrocele, chil- 
blains, &LC. — b. Sal ammoniac 5j lo 3iv ; water 1 
pint ; 4issolve. In itch, ulcers, &c., and as an in- 
jection and eye-water. 

II. (Justamond.) Sal ammoniac ^j; spirit of 
rosemary 1 pint. As above. 

III. (St. B. H.) Sal ammoniac fss ; water 
and spirit of wine, of each 1 pint. As above. 

LOTION OF AMMONIA, (OPIATED.) 
Syn. L. Ammonia opiata. Prep. (Dr. Kirkland.) 
Compound spirit of ammonia ^iiiss ; tincture of 
opium §ss ; water §iv ; mix. Anodyne and 
stimulant. 

LOTION OF BELLADONNA. Syn. L. 
Belladonna. Prep. (Graefe.) Extract of deadly 
nightshade 3j ; diluted solution of diacetate of 
lead (P. L.) 1 pint ; dissolve. Applied to tui '-s, 
and glandular enlargements. 

LOTION OF BORAX. Syn. L. Boracic^. 
Prep. (Copland.) Powdered borax 3j ; rose and 
orange-flower waters, of each ^iij ; dissolve. A 
fragrant and effective application to sore gums, 
sore nipples, excoriations, &c. 

LOTION OF BICHLORIDE OF MER- 
CURY. Syn. L. Hydrargyri Bichloridl L. 
Hydrargyri muriatis. Prep. 1. (P. C.) Cor- 
rosive sublimate 16 grs. ; muriatic acid 8 drops ; 
water f ^xvj ; mix. 

II. (St. B. H.) Corrosive sublimate 2^ grs. ; 
water 1 pint ; gum acacia ^ss ; mix. 

III. {Lotio hydrargyri amygdalina, St. B. H.) 
Corrosive sublimate 10 grs.; blanched bitter al- 
monds 5j ; water 1 pint. All the above are used 
in obstinate eruptions. This resembles Gowland's 
lotion, and may be used for it. The ingredients 
are mixed in the same way. 

LOTION OF CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
L. PoTASsii Cyanidl Prep. (Cazenave.) Cy- 
anide of potassium 3ss : emulsion of bitter al- 
monds f vj ; dissolve. (See Lotion of Prussic 
Acid.) 

LOTION OF ELDER-FLOWERS. Syn. 
L. Sambucl Prep. (Ryan.) Infusion of elder- 
flowers 1 pint ; spirit of camphor §viij ; mix. 
Emollient and anodyne. 

LOTION OF GALLS. Syn. L. Gall^. | 



Prep. (St. B. H.) Bruised galls 3ij ; boiling 
water 1 pint ; infuse an hour, and strain. As- 
tringent. An excellent application to sore nip* 
pies, or to strengthen them before suckling 
spirit of wine ^iij may be advantageoMsly added, 
and a like portion of water omitted. 

LOTION OF LIME. Syn. L. Calcis spirit- 
uosa. Prep. (P. C.) Spirit of wine ^iv ; lime 
water ^viij ; mix 

LOTION OF LEAD, (ACETATE.) Syn. 
L. Plumbi acetatis. Prep. (Collier.) Sugar of 
lead 3j ; pure water, or rose water ^viij ; dissolve. 
Astringent, refrigerant. Applied to excoriations, 
burns, sprains, contusions, &lc. (See Solution of 
Diacetate of Lead.) 

LOTION OF MYRRH. Syn. L. Myrrhs. 
Prep. (Dr. Kirkland.) Tincture of myrrh and 
lime water, equal parts ; mix. Applied to scor- 
butic ulcers and gums. 

LOTION OF MYRRH, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. L. Myrril-e composita. Prep. (P. C.) 
Honey of roses and tincture of myrrh, of each 3ij ; 
lime water f iiss ; mix. As last ; also Lsed as «» 
dentifrice. 

LOTION OF PRUSSIC ACID. Syn. L. 
AciDi hydrocyamci. Prep. I. (Majendie.) Med- 
icinal prussic acid 3j to 3iv ; lettuce water f §xxxvj ; 
mix. 

II. (A. T. Thomson.) Medicinal prussic acid and 
rectified spirit, of each f 3ij ; distilled water f ^viiss ; 
sugar of lead 16 grs. ; mix. 

III. (Sneider.) Medicinal prussic acid 3iss ; 
rectified spirit and water, of each f §vj ; mix. 
Lotions of prussic acid have been employed to 
allay pain and irritation in various chronic skin 
diseases, especially scaly and itchy eruptions, and 
in cancer, with variable success. 

LOTION OF OPIUM. Syn. L. Opil Prep. 
(St. B. H.) Opium 3iss ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
triturate and strain. Used for painful and irritable 
ulcers. 

LOTION OF SOAP. Syn. Liquid Soap. L. 
Saponis. L. Saponacea. Prep. (P. L. 1746.) 
Liquor of carbonate of potash ^ss ; olive oil §iv ; 
rose water ^xij ; mix, and agitate well. Emollient. 
Chiefly used as a cosmetic. 

LOTION OF SPIRIT, (CAMPHORATED.) 
Syn. L. Spirituosa camphorata. Prep. (Ware.) 
Elder-flowers ^ss : camphor 3ss ; rectified spirit 
§iv ; macerate 24 hours, then press out the liquor. 
Stimulant and fragrant. 

LOTION OF SULPHATE OF COPPER. 
Syn. L. CuPRi sulphatis. Prep. Blue vitriol 3j ; 
powdered camphor §j ; boiling water 2 quarts ; in- 
fuse in a close vessel 1 hour. For phagedtenic ulcers. 

LOTION OF SULPHATE OF ZINC. Syn. 
L. ZiNci. L. ZiNci suLPHATis. Pjep. I. (P. C.) 
Sulphate of zinc 3ss ; water ^viij ; dissolve. A' 
tringent. Used in some chronic skin diseases, as 
a wash for loose flabby granulations, and for 
ulcers that discharge profusely, &c. 

II. (Collier.) Sulphate of zinc 3ij ; water 1 
pint ; dissolve. As a counter-irritant in pains of 
the joints, periosteum, old sprains, &cc. 

LOTION, RUBEFACIENT. Syn. L. Robe- 
FACiENs. L. Anti.monii Potassio-tartratis. Prep. 
I. (Pereira.) Emetic tartar 3j ; boiling water 
f iss ; dissolve. Employed as a local irritant in- 
stead of the ointmei t. 



LOZ 



406 



LOZ 



II. (Sir Wm. Blizard.) Emetic tartar 20 grs. ; 
boiling water ^j ; dissolve. Used to cleanse foul 
ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts, in 
ringworm, &c. 

III. (Ger. H.) Emetic tartar 3j ; water 1 
pint ; tincture of camphor ^ss ; mix. All the 
above are rubefacient and irritant. The last one, 
diluted with twice or thrice its weight of water, is 
employed as a coliyrium in chronic ophthalmia, 
and in specks on the cornea. 

LOTION, TAR. Syn. L. Picis liquids. 
Prep. (Saunders.) Quicklime ^vj ; water f ^xlviij ; 
slake, add tar §iv, and boil to one half. This 
liquid consists of a solution of pyrolignite of lime, 
and pyrogenous oil and resin. It may be ad- 
vantageously employed in various chronic skin 
diseases, especially those affecting the heads of 
children. 

LOZENGE. Syn. Tablette, (Fr.) Tro- 
CHiscus, (Lat.) In Pharmacy and Confection- 
ary, a small round tablet, or flattened cylinder, 
chiefly composed of sugar, starch, or gum, and 
employed either as a simple demulcent or sweet- 
meat, or for the commodious exhibition of certain 
medicines. In the preparation of lozenges, the 
ingredients are first mixed, and well beaten into a 
stiff paste, which is next rolled out to a proper 
thickness, and cut into pieces of the desired shape 
by means of a small cylinder or punch of steel or 
tin. The newly-formed lozenges are then dried 
by placing them on an inverted sieve in a dry 
and airy situation, and frequently turning them, 
until they become hard and brittle ; observing 
carefully to preserve them from the dust. To 
prevent the mass from sticking either to the 
fingers or utensils, a little pov/dered starch, or a 
very little olive oil scented with the same aro- 
matic as that contained in the lozenges, may be 
used. Mucilage of gum arable, or gum tragacanth, 
or the strained white of eggs, are the substances 
usually employed to make the pulverulent materials 
adhere together. All the ingredients should be re- 
duced to a fine powder before mixing. 

Lozenges made by melting one half of the 
sugar in a brass or iron pan, lipped to the right, 
with a little flavored water, then adding the other 
half of the powdered sugar, previously warmed, 
and dragging small portions of the grouty mass 
out by a wire, so as to fall on a stone or metal 
slab or plate, rubbed with a little powdered starch 
or sweet oil, are called " drops" by the con- 
fectioners, and " pastilles" (pastilli) by the French. 
(See Drops, Confectionary.) 

Ambergris is the most suitable perfume for lozen- 
ges and tablettes for the mouth. 

LOZENGES, ANTIMONY. Syn. Morsuli 
Stibii Kunkelii. Trochisci Antimonii. Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Prepared sulphuret of antimony and 
powdered cardamom seeds, of each ^j ; blanched 
almonds §ij ; powdered white sugar ^xiij ; powder- 
ed cinnamon 3iv ; mucilage of tragacanth q. s. ; 
mix as above, and divide into lozenges of 15 grs. 
each. One of the best modes of exhibiting sul- 
phuret of antimony as an alterative. 

LOZENGES, BARK. Syn. Tro. Cinchona. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered cinciiona ^ij ; do. cin- 
namon 3ij ; do. white sugar ^xiv ; mucilage of gum 
tragacanth q. s. ; mix as above, and divide into IG 
gr. lozenges. Tonic. 



LOZENGES, BISMUTH. Syn. Tro. Bisbiu 
Tm. Prep (Trousseau.) Trisnitrate of bismuth 
3ij ; white s! gar ^iiss ; mucilage to mix. For 120 
lozenges. Tonic aifd antispasmodic. 1 to 3, sucked 

2 or 3 times daily, in dyspepsia, &c. 
LOZENGES, BORAX. Syn. Tro. Boracis. 

Powdered borax f ss ; do. white sugar ^j ; mucilage 
of gum tragacanth to mix. For 60 lozenges. 

LOZENGES, CALOMEL. Syn. Tro. Calo- 
melanos. Prep. (P. Cod.) Calomel 3j ; powdered 
sugar 3xj ; mucilage of tragacanth to mix ; divide 
into 12 gr. lozenges. Alterative. A simple way 
of introducing mercury into the system. During 
their use, salt food and acid liquors should be 
avoided. 

LOZENGES, CATECHU. Syn. Tro. Cate- 
chu. Prep. I. {Tro. de terra Japonica, P. E. 
1744.) Powdered catechu §ij ; do. tragacanth ^ss ; 
do. white sugar §xij ; rose water to mix. 

II. {Tro. Catechu et Magnesia, P. Cod.) Mag- 
nesia ^ij ; powdered catechu ^j ; do. sugar ^xiij ; 
mucilage of gum tragacanth made with cinnamon 
water, q. s. to mix. 

III. (Cachou Lozenges.) — a. Powdered catechu 

3 oz. ; sugar 12 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth 
to mix. — b. {Cachou a VAmhre gris.) To the 
last add ambergris 8 grs., or a sufficient quantity 
of the essence or tincture. — c. {Cachou Musque.) 
The same, with musk 8 grs. ; or essence q. s. — d. 
{Cachou a lajleur d^ Oranges.) The same, with 
essence of neroli 8 drops. — e. {Cachou d la Rose.) 
The same, with otto of roses 6 drops. — ■/. {Cachou 
a la Violette.) The same, with powdeied orris 
root (best) \ oz. ; or essence of violets 1 oz. ; — g. 
{Cachou d la reglisse.) Catechu 2 oz. ; pure eX' 
tract of liquorice 1 oz. ; sugar 10 oz. ; mucilage of 
tragacanth to mix. — h. {Cachou d la Canelle.) 
Catechu 3 oz. ; powdered cinnamon \ oz. ; sugar 
1 lb. ; mucilage of tragacanth to mix. — i. {Cachou 
Aromatique. Cachou Aromatise.) Powdered 
catechu 3 oz. ; oil of cinnamon 15 drops ; oil of 
cloves 2 drops ; essence of ambergris ^ dr. ; pow- 
dered sugar 1 lb. ; mucilage of tragacanth made 
with rose or orange-flower water, q. s. to mix. 

Remarks. All the above are taken in diarrhoea, 
in relaxation of the uvula, in irritation of the 
larynx, and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth, and 
disguise a stinking breath. The one containing 
magnesia (No. II.) is also sucked in dyspepsia and 
heartburn. 

LOZENGES, CAYENNE. Syn. Tro. Cap- 
sici. Prep. 1. Powdered sugar 1 lb. ; mucilage of 
tragacanth q. s. to mix ; add essence, tincture, or 
vinegar of cayenne, or a little soluble cayenne 
pepper dissolved in water to flavor. 

11. ( Acidulated.) To the last add tartaric acid 
i oz. Both are used in dyspepsia, and to promote 
digestion and create an appetite. 

LOZENGES, CHALK. Syn. Heartburn 
Lozenges. Tro. Cret^e. Tro. Cardialgici. Prep. 
(P. E.) Powdered prepared chalk ^iv ; do. gum 
arable §j ; do. nutmeg 3j ; do. white sugar ^vj ; 
beat to a mass with water (rose or orange flower) 
and cut into lozenges. Antacid, absorbent, and 
astringent. 3 or 4 sucked ad libitum in heartburn, 
dyspepsia, diarrhoea, acidity of the stomach and 
bowels, &c. A simple and excellent remedy. 

LOZENGES, CHARCOAL. Syn. Tro. Car- 
bonis. Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Finely powdered pre- 



LOZ 



407 



LOZ 



pared charcoal ^'v ; do. white sugar ^xij ; mucilage 
to mix. Have been given with advantage in diar- 
rhoea, cholera, and dyspepsia. 

II. {Tro. Carbonis cum Chocolata. M. Cheval- 
lier.) Charcoal as above, and white sugar, of each 
5J ; chocolate ^i'j ; mucilage of gum tragacanth to 
mix. Nutritious. 

LOZENGES OF CHLORIDE OF LIME. 
Syn. 'T'ao. Calcis chloridi. Tro. Calci? chlo- 
RiNAT.*. Prep. Chloride of lime, dry and ui fine 
powder, \ oz. ; white sugar \ lb. ; mucilage of tra- 
gacanth to mix. Used to sweeten the breath and 
whiten the feeth. They will not keep long. 

LOZENGES, CHING'S. Prep. I. (Yelloio.) 
Saffron ^ oz. ; boiling water 1 pint ; infuse, strain, 
add calomel 1 lb. ; powdered white sugar 28 lbs. ; 
mix well, then make a mass with tragacanth mu- 
cilage, and divide into 7000 lozenges. %* Too 
much care cannot be taken to thoroughly incor- 
porate the ingredients, so that the calomel may be 
equally diffused through the mass. Dose. 1 to 6 
over night, as a vermifuge, followed by an equal 
number of the brown lozenges (see below) next 
morning, fasting. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of 
calomel. 

II. (Broicn.) Calomel 7 oz. ; resinous extract 
of jalap 3^ lbs. ; w^hite sugar 10 lbs. ; mix as last, 
with mucilage of tragacanth, and divide into 6125 
lozenges. Each lozenge contains ^ gr. of calomel. 

LOZENGES, CINNAMON. Syn. Tro. cix- 
NAMOM. Prep. I. Finely powdered cinnamoti 4 
oz. ; do. sugar 12 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth 
to mix. 

II. Finely powdered lump sugar 7 lbs. : oil of 
cinnamon (cassia) | oz. : mucilage of gum traga- 
canth q. s. Stomachic. Cassia lozenges are made 
in the same way- 

LOZENGES, CITRATE OF IRON. Syn. 
Tro. Ferri citratis. Prep. (Beral.) Ammonio- 
citrate of iron 3j ; water §ss ; dissolve, add sugar 
fiiss ; evaporate to dryness, powder, make a mass 
with mucilage q. s., and divide into 15-gr. lozen- 



ges. 



Tonic. 



LOZENGES, CLOVE. Syn. Tro. Caryo- 
PHYLLi. Prep. I. Powdered cloves 2 oz. ; sugar 
3 lbs. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth to mix. Divide 
into 150 lozenges. 

II. Powdered white sugar 7 lbs. , do. gum tra- 
gacanth 2 oz. ; oil of cloves ^ oz. ; mix with rose 
water. Stomachic. Both are used as restoratives 
after fatigue, added to chocolate to improve its fla- 
vor or render it stomachic, and sucked to sweeten 
the breath. 

LOZENGES, COPAIBA. Syn. Tro. Co- 
paib.«. Prep. Lump sugar 1 lb. ; balsam of co- 
paiba 1 oz. ; oil of peppermint 20 drops ; mix with 
mucilage. 

LOZENGES, COUGH. Syn. Tro. Anti- 
Catarrhales. Tablettes de Tronchin. Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Powdered gum arable ^viij ; oil of ani- 
seed 6 drops ; extract of opium 12 grs. ; Kerme's 
mineral 5j : pure extract of liquorice §ij ; white 
sugar ^xxxij ; mix with water, and divide into small 
lozenges. 

LOZENGES, CROTON OIL. Syn. Tro. 
Crotonis. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Croton oil 5 drops ; 
powdered starch 3j : do. white sugar 3j ; choco- 
late 3ij ; mix and divide into 30 lozenges ; 5 or 
more generally prove cathartic. 



LOZENGES. EMETIC. Syn. Tro. EMF.rrNa 
EMETici. Prep. (Majendie.) Impure or colored 
emetina 32 grs.; or pure emetina 8 grs.; whiU» 
sngar ^ij ; mucilage to mix ; divide into 64 loz- 
enges, 1 for a child, and 4 for an adult, as an 
emetic. 

LOZENGES, GINGER. Syn. Tro. Zingi- 
BERis. Prep. I. Finely powdered Jamaica ginger 
1 oz. ; white sugar 1 lb. ; mucilage of tragacanth 
to mix. 

II. (Soubeiran.) Powdered ginger ^j ; white 
sugar '^y'ij; mucilage to mix; divide into 15-gr. 
lozenges. Both the above are stomachic. Useful 
in flatulency and dyspepsia, and to create an ap- 
petite. 

LOZENGES, GOLD. Syn. Tro. Auri. Tro. 
SoDii AURo-CHLORiDi. Prep. (Chrestien.) Soda 
muriate of gold 4 grs. ; white sugar §j ; mucilage 
of tragacanth to mix. For 60 lozenges. In 
scrofula, cancer, &,c., 1, or at most 2 lozenges for 
a dose. 

LOZENGES, GUM. Syn. Tro. Acacia, 
(P. E.) Tro. Gummosi. Prep. (P. E.) Powdered 
gum arable §iv ; do. starch ^j ? do. white sugar 
Ib.j ; mix with rose water, and divide into lozen- 
ges. The Paris Codex substitutes orange flower 
for rose water. Pectoral ; demulcent. Useful to 
allay tickling coughs. 

LOZENGES, GUM TRAGACANTH. Syn. 
Tro. Glmmi Tragacanth^. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) 
Sugar Ib.j ; compound tragacanth powder §iij ; rose 
water ^iv ; mix. Similar to the last. 

LOZENGES, HEARTBURN. Syn. Tablet- 
tes cardialgie. See Lozenges, Chalk and Mag- 
nesia. 

LOZENGES, ICELAND MOSS. Syn. Tro. 
LiCHEXis. Prep. Iceland moss gelatin, dried and 
powdered, Jij ; sugar ^iv : gum acacia 3iss ; water 
q. s. to mix. Resemble gum lozenges. 

LOZENGES, INDIAN HEMP. Syn. Tro. 
Cannabis. Prep. (M. Ebriard.) Extract of In- 
dian hemp 12 grs. ; sugar ^iij ; mucilage of traga- 
canth to mix ; divide into 144 lozenges. (See Ex- 
tract OF Indian Hemp.) 

LOZENGES, IPECACUANHA. Prep. 1. 
(Tro. IpecacuanhcB, P. Cod.) Powdered ipecacu- 
anha f j ; white sugar lb. iv. ; mucilage of gum 
tragacanth to mix ; divide it into 12-gr. lozenges. 
Each lozenge contains \ gr. of ipecacuanha. 
Produces, if properly made, 1920 lozenges. 

II. (T. Ipecac, cum chocolata, P. Cod.) Choc- 
olate (^ la vanille) ^xij ; liquefy by a gentle heat, 
add powdered ipecacuanha §j ; mix perfectly, and 
form it into 12-gr. lozenges, while warm. Both 
the above are pectoral and expectorant, and useful 
to alhiv tickling coughs, hoarseness, «fec. 

LOZENGES, KERMES. Syn. Tro. Ker- 
METis. Prep. (P. Cod.) Kermes mineral 3ij ; pow- 
dered white sugar Jxvij ; do. gum acacia ^j ; or- 
ange-flower water f ^j ; mix, and divide into 12-gr 
lozeiiirps. Each lozenge contains one-sixth of a 
gr. of Kermes mineral. Diaphoretic and expec- 
torant. 

LOZENGES, LACTATE OF IRON. Syn. 
Tro. pEfiRi Lactatis. Prep. (M. Cap.) Lactate 
of iron 3ss ; white sugar 3vj ; mucilage of gum 
tragacanth q. s. ; mix, and divide into 30 lozenges. 
Tonic. Useful in debility accompanied with & 
diseased state of the organs of digestion. 



LOZ 



408 



LOZ 



LOZENGES, LACTIC ACID. Syn. Tro. 
AciDT Lactici. Prep. (Majendie.) Lactic acid 
5ij ; powdered sugar ^j ; oil of vanilla 4 drops, (or 
essence 3ss ;) mucilage of tragacanth q. s. ; mix, 
and divide into 3ss lozenges. (See Lactic Acid.) 

LOZENGES, LACTUCARIUM. Syn. Tro. 
Lactucarii, (P. E.) Prepared with lactucarium 
in the same manner as the opium lozenges, P. E. 
Each of these lozenges contains one-sixth to one- 
seventh of a grain of lactucarium. Anodyne, 
Used to allay tickling coughs. 

LOZENGES, LEMON. Syn. Tro. Limonis. 
Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Essence of lemon 3j ; white 
sugar §xij ; make them into drops, (pastilles,) as 
before directed, or into lozenges with mucilage of 
gum tragacanth. 

II. Acidulated, a. (Tro. Acidi CitrifV. Cod.) 
Citric acid 3iij ; white sugar f xvj ; essence of lem- 
on 16 drops; mucilage of tragacanth q. s. ; mix, 
and divide into 12-gr. lozenges, b. (Tro. Acidi 
Tartarici, P. E.) Tartaric acid 3ij ; white sugar 
^viij ; essence of lemon 10 drops ; mucilage to 
mix. The last two may be made into drops in- 
stead of lozenges, when they will form ' acidula- 
ted lemon drops.' Lemon lozenges and drops are 
agreeable sweetmeats, and those that are acidu- 
lated, very useful to promote expectoration, (" cut 
the phlegm," as it is commonly called,) in coughs, 

LOZENGES, LIQUORICE. Syn. Black 
Lozenges. Tro. Glycyrrhiz^, (P. E.) Tro. 
Glycyrrh. Glabra. Tro. Bechici Nigrl Prep. 
(P. E.) Extract of liquorice and gum acacia, of 
each, §vj ; white sugar Ib.j ; dissolve in water, 
evaporate to a paste, and form into lozenges. 
Pectoral ; demulcent. Usef id to allay tickling 
coughs, and remove hoarseness. 

LOZENGES, MAGNESIA. Syn. Tro. 
Magnesia, (P. E.) Prep. Carbonate of magne- 
sia §vj ; powdered white sugar §iij ; oil of nutmeg 
20 drops ; mucilage of tragacanth to mix. Useful 
in heartburn and indigestion. The confectioners 
generally omit the nutmeg, and use only half the 
above quantity of magnesia, and make their mu- 
cilage with rose or orange -flower water. It is 
also an improvement to use calcined magnesia, 
which is about twice as strong as the carbonate, 
and consequently less need be employed. 

LOZENGES, MANNA. Syn. Tro. Mann^. 
Prep. (Van Mons.) Powdered tragacanth 3j ; do. 
white sugar §xij ; manna ^iij ; orange-flower wa- 
ter to mix. 

LOZENGES, MARSHMALLOW. Syn. 
Tablettes de Guimauve. Tro. At.thjE^. Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Powdered marshmallow root 5'j j do. 
sugar §xiv ; mucilage of tragacanth made with 
orange-flower water q. s. ; mix, and divide into 
lozenges. Demulcent and expectorant. Useful to 
allay the irritation in cough, &c. 

LOZENGES, MORPHIA. Syn. Tro. Mor- 
PHiiE. Prep. (P. E.) Muriate of morphia 3j ; 
tincture of tolu f^ss; powdered white sugar §xxv; 
dissolve the muriate in a little warm water, mix it 
with the tincture and the sugar, make a mass 
with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and divide into 
15-gr. lozenges, each of which will contain about 
one-fortieth of a grain of uuiriute of morphia. 
Used as opium lozenges, but are pleasanter. The 
Ittorphia lozenges of the shops generally contain 



one twenty-fourth of a gr. of muriate of morpleti. 
(Pereira.) 

LOZENGES, MORPHIA AND IPECAC- 
UANHA. Syn. Tro. Morphia et Ipecacuan- 
ha. Prep (P. E.) To the last, add ipecacuanha 
3j ; each lozenge contains about one-fortieth of 
a gr. of muriate of morphia, and one -thirteenth 
of a gr. of ipecacuanha. Very useful to allay 
tickling coughs. 

LOZENGES, NITRE. Syn. Tro. Nitrl 
Tro. e Nitro, (P. E. 1783.) Prep. Nitre §iij, 
white sugar fix ; mucilage of tragacanth to mix. 
Diuretic. Commonly sucked without swallowing, 
to remove incipient sore throat. 

LOZENGES, NUTMEG. Syn. Tro. My- 
ristica. As Cinnamon Lozenges. 

LOZENGES, OPIUM. Syn. Tro. Oph. 
Prep. (P. E.) Opium (strained) 3ij ; tincture of 
tolu §ss ; tritura+e together, add powdered sugar 
§vj ; extract of iM.uorice (soft) and powdered gum 
acacia, of each, §v ; mix, and divide into lO-gr. 
lozenges ; each of which will contain one-sixth or 
one-seventh of a gr. of opium. Used to allay 
tickling cough, and irritation of the fauces. 

LOZENGES, ORANGE. Syn. Tro. Au- 
RANTii. Prep. 1. As lemon lozenges, substituting 
essence of orange for essence of lemon. 

II. (P. Cod.) Powdered sugar lb. j ; neroli 3j ; 
orange-flower water q. s. ; make it into drops, 
(pastilli,) or omit the water and make it into 
lozenges with mucilage of tragacanth made with 
orange-flower water. Very agreeable. 

LOZENGES, ORRIS. Syn. Tro. Iridis 
Prep. Powdered orris 1 oz. ; powdered sugar 1 lb. ; 
mucilage of tragacanth to mix. Used to perfume 
the breath. 

LOZENGES, PECTORAL. Syn. Tro. Pec- 
TORALES. Prep. I. (Dr. Grunn.) Powdered squills 
4 parts ; do. ipecacuanha 18 parts; extract of let- 
tuce 8 parts ; manna 125 parts ; sugar 250 parts ; 
mucilage of tragacanth to mix. 

II. (Majendie.) Pure emetine 8 grs., or impure 
do. 32 grs. ; powdered sugar §iv ; mucilage q. s. : 
mix, and divide into 256 lozenges. 

III. (Yellow. Tro. Bechici Flavi.) Powdered 
orris root 3vj ; starch 3iv ; liquorice powder 3iij ; 
saffron 3ij ; sugar fviij ; mucilage of, tragacanth 
to mix. Each of the above is used in coughs, 
&c. 

LOZENGES, PEPPERMINT. Syn. Tro. 
Mentha Piperita. Prep. I. (Best) Lump su- 
gar, in fine powder, 14 lbs. ; Mitcham oil of pep- 
permint (best) 1 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth 
to mix. Very fine. 

II. (^d Quality.) Sugar 12 lbs. ; starch 2 lbs. ; 
oil of peppermint | oz. ; mucilage to mix. 

III. (3d Quality.) Sugar 7 lbs. ; powdered 
starch 4 lbs. ; oil of peppermint ^ oz. ; mucilage 
to mix. 

IV. (Common.) Sugar 8 lbs. ; starch 4 lbs. ; 
plaster of Paris 2 lbs. ; oil of peppermint to flavor ; 
mix. 

V. ( Trochisci menthcB piperitce, P. Cod.) Pow- 
dered sugar fxvj ; oil of peppermint 3j ; mix, and 
divide into 12-gr. lozenges. The peppermint drops 
(pastilles) of the French Pharmacopoeia are made 
with sugar fxij ; oil of peppermint 3j ; and pep- 
permint water q. s. 

Remarks. The best peppermint loienges are 



LOZ 



409 



LUT 



made of the very finest double refined sugar, 
and of English oil of peppermint, carefully mixed 
up with very clean mucilage. The commoner 
qualities are made by employing inferior lump su- 
gar and foreign oil of peppermint, or what is bet- 
ter, English oil of peppermint, but in a less pro- 
portion than for the better sorts. The addition of 
a very small quantity of blue smalts, reduced to 
an impalpable powder, is commonly made to the 
sugar, to increase its whiteness. Transparent 
peppermint lozenges are made from the same 
materials as the opaque ones, but the sugar is not 
reduced to quite so fine a powder, and the cake is 
rolled thinner before cutting it. A little oil of 
almonds or olives is also occasionally mixed with 
the ingredients, to promote the transparency, but 
tends to render the lozenges less" white. Pepper- 
mint lozenges and drops are useful in flatulency. 

LOZENGES, PONTEFRACT. (See Ex- 
''RACT OF Liquorice.) 

LOZENGES, POPPY. Syn. Tro. Papave- 
Ris. Prep. Extract of poppies 3 oz. ; sugar 15 
oz. ; powdered gum tragacanth 2 oz. ; rose water 
to mix. Used in coughs. 

LOZENGES, QUININE. Syn. Tro. Qui- 
nine suLPHATis. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Sulphate of 
quinine 32 grs. ; white sugar 1 lb. ; mucilage of 

fum tragacanth q. s. ; divide into 15-gr. lozenges, 
'onic, febrifuge, and stomachic. 

LOZENGES, RHUBARB. Syn. Tro. Rhei. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered rhubarb f j ; do. sugar 
^xj ; mucilage of tragacanth q. s. ; mix, and di- 
vide into 12-gr. lozenges. Stomachic and laxa- 
tive. Sucked before dinner they excite the appe- 
tite. 

LOZENGES, ROSE. Syn. Tro. Ros^. Prep. 
I. (P. L. 1 746.) Powdered red rose leaves ^j ; su- 
gar lb. j ; mix with weak mucilage. 

II. (Pate de rose lozenges. Pati-rosa lozenges.) 
Sugar 2 lbs. ; otto of roses 10 drops ; mix with 
mucilage. Very fine. Some add starch 4 oz., 
substitute oil of rhodium for otto of roses, and use 
mucilage made with rose water. If wanted red, 
make the mucilage with an infusion of cochineal, 
or red rose leaves. 

LOZENGF^s. SAFFRON. Syn. Tro. Croci. 
Powdered hay saffron 1 oz. ; do. white sugar 1 lb. ; 
mucilage of gum tragacanth to mix. Anodyne, 
pectoral, and emmenagogue. 

LOZENGES, SODA. Syn. Tro. Sod^ bi- 
CARBONATis. Prep. (P. E.) Bicarbonate of soda 
f j ; powdered sugar fiij ; do. gum arable ^ss ; mix 
with mucilage. Antacid. Useful in heartburn, 
&c. (See Chalk Lozenges.) 

II. (Pastilles de Vichy, P. Cod.) Bicarbonate 
of soda 5j ; powdered sugar §xix ; mucilage of gum 
tragacanth q. s. ; mix, and divide into 20-gr. loz- 
enges. 

LOZENGES, SPONGE. Syn. Tro. Spongi.«. 
Tro. Spongi^ ust^e. Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered 
burnt sponge ^iv ; sugar ^xij ; mucilage of traga- 
canth q. s. ; mix, and divide into 12-gr. lozenges. 
Taken in scrofula, &-c. 

LOZENGES, STARCH. Syn. Tro. Amyli. 
Tro. Bechici albi. Prep. (P. L. 1788.) Pow- 
dered starch §iss ; do. liquorice 3vj ; do. orris root 
3iv ; do. sugar lb. iss ; mucilage of tragacanth to 
mix. Demulcent. 

LOZENGES, STEEL. Syn. Tro. Ferri. 
52 



Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Finely powdered iron filings 
§j ; do. sugar ^x ; do. cinnamon 3ij ; mucilage of 
tragacanth q. s. ; mix, and divide into 480 lozen- 
ges. Tonic. 

II. (Aromatic.) Sulphate of iron 3iij ; sugar 
^xvj ; tincture of cantharidis §j ; essence of orange 
30 drops; mucilage of tragacanth q. s. ; mix, and 
divide into 280 lozenges. 

LOZENGES, SULPHUR. Syn. Tro. Sul- 
pnuRis. Prep. (P. Cod.) Sulphur (pure precipi- 
tated) §ij ; sugar §xvj ; mucilage of tragacanth 
made with rose water to mix. Useful in piles and 
some skin diseases. 

LOZENGES, TOLU. Syn. Tro. Tolutanl 
Prep. (P. Cod.) Dissolve balsam of tolu §j, in rec- 
tified spirit §j ; add water §ij ; mix and filter . 
make a mucilage with the filtered liquid, and gum 
tragacanth ^iv ; add sugar ^xvj ; make a paste 
and cut it into lozenges. Pectoral. The confec- 
tioners usually employ only half the above propor- 
tion of balsam of tolu. 

LOZENGES, VANILLA. Sijn. Tro. Vanil- 
la. Prep. (Guibourt.) Sugar §vij ; vanilla §j ; 
mix, powder together, and make it up with muci- 
lage of gum tragacanth. Odorous ; stomachic. 
Used to sweeten the breath, to flavor choco- 
late, &c. 

LOZENGES, VIOLET. Syn. Tro. Viol^. 
(See Lozenges, Orris.) 

LOZENGES, ZINC. Syn. Tro. Zinci. Prep. 
Sulphate of zinc 3iv ; powdered sugar lb. ij ; mu- 
cilage of tragacanth q. s. ; mix, and divide into 
12-gr. lozenges. Tonic, and in quantity emetic. 

LUPININ. A gummy substance, obtained by 
M. Cassola from lupines. 

LUPULINE. Syn. Lupulite. The aromatic 
bitter principle of hops, (humulus lupulus.) It may 
be obtained by treating the aqueous extract of the 
yellow powder, or lupulinic grains of the strobiles, 
along with a little lime, with alcohol, evaporating 
the filtered tincture to dryness, redissolving in wa- 
ter, filtering, again evapoi-c^ting to dryness, and di- 
gesting in ether. It is a yellowish-white, bitter, 
uncrj'stallizable substance, soluble in 20 parts of 
water, very soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in 
ether. The yellow powder above alluded to is 
also, though improperly, called lupulin. 

LUCIFERS. Matches tipped with a mixture 
of sulphuret of antimony and chlorate of potash, 
(both in fine powder.) made into a paste with a 
solution of gum. They are inflamed by friction 
against a piece of emery, sand, or glass paper. 
(See Chlorate Matches and Congreve.) 

LUTE. Syn. Lut, (Fr.) Kitte ; Beschlage, 
(Ger.) LuTUM ; C^mentum, (Lat.) A composi- 
tion emploj^ed to secure the joints of chemical ves- 
sels, or as a covering to protect them from the vio- 
lence of the fire. For the joints of vessels, as 
stills, &c., not exposed to a heat much higher 
than 212° F., linseed meal, either alone or mixed 
with an equal weight of whiting, and made into a 
stiff paste with water, may be employed. Ground 
almond cake, from which tho oil has been pressed, 
may also be used for the same purpose. For the 
joints of small vessels, as tubes, &lc , '^specially 
of glass or earthenware, small rings of Indian rub- 
ber slipped over and tied above and below the 
joint, are very convenient substitutes for lutes, and 
have the advantage of lasting a long time, aud 



MAD 



410 



MAG 



bearing uninjured the heat at which oil of vitriol 
boils. For joining crucibles to be exposed to a 
strong heat, a mixture of fine clay and ground 
bricks, mixed up with water, or preferably with a 
solution of borax, answers well for most purposes. 
As a coating for vessels, to preserve them from in- 
jury from exposure to the fire, nothing is better 
than a mixture of ordinary pipeclay and horse 
dung, made into a paste with water. This compo- 
sition is used by the pipe-makers, and will stand 
unharmed the extremest heat of their kiln for 24 
hours. It is applied by spreading it on paper. 

LUTEOLINE. This name has been given to 
a yellow coloring matter, discovered by Chevreul 
in weld. It is crystalline and volatile. 

MACARONI. This only difl:ers from vermi- 
celli in the size of the pipes, which are about as 
large as a goose quill. A pleasant dish may be 
made by boiling macaroni in water until soft, 
either with or without salt, draining off the water, 
and then stewing it with a little butter, cream, and 
grated cheese, adding spice to palate. It may be 
made into a form and browned before the fire. 

MACARONS, CREME DE. Prep. Clean 
spirit at 24 u. p. (about 0-945) 2 gallons ; bitter al- 
monds, blanched and bruised, 1 lb. ; cloves, cinna- 
mon, and mace, in coarse powder, of each 1^ dr. ; 
infuse for 10 days, filter, and add white sugar 8 
lbs. ; dissolved in pure water 1 gallon. Color violet, 
with infusion or tincture of litmus and cochineal. 
An agreeable nutty flavored cordial, but from con- 
taining so much bitter almonds, should be drunk 
with caution. The English use only half the above 
quantity of almonds. 

MACAROONS, ENGLISH. Prep. Sweet 
almonds 1 lb. ; blanch, beat to a paste, add lump 
sugar H lb. ; whites of 6 eggs ; the grated yellow 
peel of 2 lemons ; mix well, make into forms, 
cover with wafer paper, and bake in a moderate 
heat. 

MACERATION. Syn. Einweichen, (Ger.) 
Maceration, (Fr.) Maceratio, (Lat., from ma- 
cero, to soften by water.) In Chemistry and 
Pharmacy, the infusion of a substance in water, 
for the purpose of extracting the portion soluble 
in that menstruum. The word is also frequently 
applied to the infusion of organic substances in 
alcohol, ether, or water, either alkalized or acidu- 
lated. 

MACKEREL. This fish is very apt to disa- 
gree with the stomach, and occasionally induces 
symptoms resembling those of poisoning. It keeps 
worse than any other fish. It is in season in May, 
June, and July. (See Fish.) 

MADDEN'S VEGETABLE ESSENCE, 
(CONCENTRATED.) Compound infusion of 
roses, made strongly acidulous by the addition of 
more acid. It is astringent and refrigerant. 

MADDER. Syn. Dyer's Madder. Radix 
RuBiA. Radix Rubi.t; Tinctorum, \^Lat.) Gar- 
ANCE, (Gr.) FARitEKRfiTME, (Ger.) The root of 
the rubia tinctorum, (Linn.) The best madder 
has the siz<^ of a common goose quill, a reddish ap- 
pearance, and a strong odor. As soon as the roots 
are taken from the ground they are picked and 
dried ; and before use, they are ground in a mill. 
Levant, Turkey, and Smyrna madder, is imported 
whole, — French, Dutch, and Zealand niadder 



ground. The finest quality of ground madder ia 
called " crop" or " grappe /" " ombro" and " ga- 
mene" are inferior sorts, and " muir' the worst.. 

Madder contains several distinct principles ; as 
madder red, (see Alizarine,) madder purple, 
(see Purpurin,) madder orange, a substance very 
soluble in ether and in hot alcohol ; madder yel- 
low, very soluble in water and alcohol ; madder 
brown, a substance but little known. 

Uses. Madder has been given in jaundice and 
rickets, and as an emmenagogue. Dose. ^ dr. to 
2 dr. twice or thrice a day. It is principally em- 
ployed as a dye stuflf. (See Red Dyes.) 

MAGISTERY. Syn. Magisterium, (Lat, 
from magister, a master.) A term formerly ap- 
plied to precipitates obtained by diluting certain 
solutions with water; as magistery of bismuth, 
trisnitrate of bismuth, which is prepared by adding 
water to a solution of bismuth in nitric acid The 
following are the principal substances to which this 
term has been applied •.—Magisterium murcasitcB, 
trisnitrate of bismuth. — Ludolph^s magistery of 
opium, (magisterium opii Ludovici,) prepared by 
precipitating an acetic solution of opium with sub- 
carbonate of potash, filtering, and drying the pre- 
cipitate ; — magistery of alum, hydrate of alumi- 
na ; — magistery of diaphoretic antimony, (mate- 
ria perlata,) the precipitate obtained by adding an 
acid to the water used to wash diaphoretic anti- 
mony ; — magistery of lapis calaminaris, hydrated 
oxide of zinc. 

MAGNES ARSENICALIS. Arsenical mag- 
net. Prep. Common antimony, sulphur, and 
white arsenic, equal parts ; mix and fuse together 
till they form a kind of glass. Corrosive. Once 
used as a caustic. 

MAGNESIA. Syn. Oxide of Magnesium. 
Calcined Magnesia. Burnt do. Caustic do. 
Talc earth. Bitter do. Magnesie ; Magne- 
siE CAusTiQUE, (Fr.) Talkerde ; Bitter erde ; 
Gebrannte Magnesia, (Ger.) Magnesia calci- 
nata. Do. usTA. (P. L. 1788.) Magnesia. (P. 
L. E. &L D.) A light, white substance, classed 
with the earths. It occurs both in the organic 
and inorganic kingdoms. It was discovered, or at 
least first chemically distinguished from lime, by 
Dr. Black, in 1755. The ancient chemists apj)lied 
the term magnesia to substances that they con- 
ceived to have the power of abstracting any prin- 
ciple from the air. Thus an earth, which on ex- 
posure to the air increased in weight and yielded 
vitriol, they called magnesia viiriolata. For a 
similar reason, because nitrous acid was separated 
during the old process for obtaining magnesia, it 
was called magnesia nitri, and afterwards from 
its color, magnesia alba. Pure magnesia (calci- 
ned) is properly the oxide of the mtXaAmagnesiumf 
— carbonate of magnesia, the same oxide combi- 
ned with carbonic acid, and sulphate of magnesia, 
(Epsom salts,) the same oxide combined with sul- 
phuric acid or oil of vitriol. 

Prep. (P. L. E. «& D.) Expose carbonate of 
magnesia in a crucible to a full red heat for 2 
hours, or till the powder suspended in water does 
not effervesce on the addition of niuriatic acid. 

Remarks. On the large scale, covered crucibles 
made of porous earthenware, are employed as the 
containing vessels, and the heat is applied by pla- 
cing them in a sort of furnace, or rather oven, 



MAG 



411 



MAG 



heated with coke. The process is known to be 
complete wlien the magnesia presents a peculiar 
luminous appearance. Product. About 5U§. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. A very light, white, odorless, 
tasteless powder ; sp. gr. 2-3 ; when moistened it 
slightly acts on turmeric paper; soluble in 5,142 
parts of cold water, and in 36,000 parts of hot wa- 
ter. It slowly absorbs carbonic acid from the at- 
mosphere. With the acids it forms salts, most of 
which may be made by the direct solution of the 
earth, or its hydrate or carbonate. As a medicine 
it is antacid and laxative, and is exhibited in heart- 
burn, diarrhoea, constipation of children, &c. Its 
continued use is not unaccompanied with danger, 
as instances are recorded in which it has accumu- 
lated in the intestines, and produced serious incon- 
venience. Dose. As an antacid, a teaspoonful ; 
as a purgative, ^ dr. to 2 dr. or more. Combined 
with rhubarb it is a favorite purge for infants. 

Pur. " It dissolves in hydrochloric acid without 
effervescence. Neither bicarbonate of potassa, nor 
chloride of barium, throws down any thing from 
the solution. It turns turmeric paper brown" (P. 
L.) when moistened. " Fifty grains are entirely 
soluble in muriatic acid f ^j ; an excess of ammo- 
nia occasions in the solution only a scanty precip- 
itate of alumina : the filtered liquid is not precip- 
itated by oxalate of ammonia." (P. E.) 

Tests. Magnesia is precipitated — 1. As a bulky 
white hydrate, by pure alkalis. — 2. As a bulky 
white carbonate, by the carbonates of potassa and 
soda. Both the above precipitates dissolve in 
nitric and muriatic acid, forming salts which are 
very deliquescent, and soluble in alcohol. — 3. So- 
lutions of magnesian salts are not precipitated 
by the alkaline sulphates or sulphuric acid, and 
when dilute by oxalate of ammonia. By these 
tests it may be distinguished, and separated from 
lune. 

MAGNESIA, CARBONATE OF. Syn. 

SUBCARBONATE OF MaGNESIA. MaGNESIA AlBA, 

(P. L. 1788.) Magnesia Subcarbonas, (P. L. 
1824.) Magnesia Carbonas, (P. L. E. & D.) 
CoMiTiss^ Palm^ Pulvis. Carbonate de Mag- 
NEsiE, {Fr.) Kohlensaure Magnesia, (6rer.) 
Prep. I. (P. L.) Epsom salts lb. iv ; carbonate of 
soda lb. iv, §viij ; water 4 gallons ; dissolve the 
salts and soda, each separately in one half the wa- 
ter, strain, mix and boil the liquors, constantly 
stirring for 15 minutes ; after subsidence decant 
the clear, wash the precipitate with boiling water, 
and dry it. The formula of the P. E. is essential- 
ly the same, but the P. D. orders carbonate of 
potash instead of soda. 

II. Add a solution of carbonate of potassa or 
soda to the bittern of the sea salt works, and well 
wash and dry the precipitate as before. Both the 
preceding processes yield the light carbonate of 
magnesia of commerce. 

III. {Heavy carbonate of magnesia. Magne- 
sia ponderosa.) — a. Saturated solution of Epsom 
salts 1 part; water 3 parts; hsat to the boiling 
point, then add cold saturated solution of carbonate 
of soda 1 part, (all by measure ;) boil, with constant 
agitation, till effervescence ceases, then add boiling 
water 100 parts, agitate well, decant off the clear 
liquid, drain and wash the precipitate with hot 
water, in a linen cloth, and finish the drj'ing by 
heating it in an iron pot. Product, very superior. 



b. Epsom salts 12 parts ; crystallized carbonate 
of soda 13 parts ; dissolve each sepurately in as 
little cold water as possible, then heat separately 
each solution to the boiling point, mix and boil till 
etfervescence ceases ; wash and dry, as before. 
Product, superior. 

Remarks. The carbonate of magnesia of com- 
merce is usually made up into cakes or dice, while 
drying, or is permitted to drain and dry in masses, 
which are then cut into shapes with a thin knife. 
It is powdered by rubbing it through a wire sieve. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Carbonate of magnesia is a 
white, inodorous, tasteless powder, possessing similar 
properties to calcined magnesia. Dose. As an 
antacid, ^ to a whole teaspoonful 3 or 4 times 
daily ; as a laxative, i dr. to 2 dr. It is common- 
ly taken in milk. It is apt to produce flatulence, 
but in other respects is preferable to calcined mag- 
nesia. An ounce measure is filled by 48 grs. of 
the light, and 160 grs. of the heavy carbonate, 
lightly placed in it. 

Pur. " The distilled water it has been boiled in 
should not discolor turmeric paper. The addition 
of chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver, effects no 
precipitation. By solution in dilute sulphuric acid, 
100 parts lose 36-6 parts, by weight. When the 
effervescence has ceased, bicarbonate of potassa 
produces no precipitate." (P. L.) 

MAGNESIA, CITRATE OF. Syn. Mag- 
nesia Citras. Prep. Saturate a solution of citric 
acid with carbonate of magnesia, (about 20 grs. of 
acid to 14 grs. of the base.) It is usually drunk 
while effervescing. A pleasant saline draught. 

Remarks. The dry white powder sold as citrate 
of magnesia in the shops, is quite a dilferent prep- 
aration to the above, and does not contain 1 par- 
ticle of citric acid. The following formula is that 
of a wholesale London drug house that does large- 
ly in this article : — 

Calcined magnesia \\ lbs., (or carbonate 2 lbs. ;) 
powdered tartaric acid 1^ lbs. ; bicarbonate of soda 
1 lb. ; dry each article by a gentle heat, then mix, 
pass the mixture through a sieve, and keep it in 
well-corked bottles. Some persons add a few 
drops of essence of lemon, and 3 lbs. of finely -pow- 
dered sugar to the above quantity. This addition 
renders it more agreeable. 

MAGNESIA, HENRY'S. This is ordinary 
carbonate of magnesia, the washing of which has 
been finished with a little rose water. 

MAGNESIA, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Phy- 
siCAL Salt. Epsom Salts. Vitriolated Mag- 
nesia. Bitter purging Salt. Sal Epsomensis. 
Sal Catharticus amarus. Sal Anglicum. Sal 
Seidlitzense. Sal Catharticum. Magnesia 
vitriolata. magnesiie sulphas, (p. l. e. &• d.) 
Sulphate de Magnesie, {Fr.) Bjttersalz ; El- 

SAMERSALZ ; ScHWEFELSAURE MaGNESIA, {Ger.) 

This salt is only prepared on the large scale, either 
from magnesian limestone or bittern. 

Prep. I. {From Dolomite or magnesian lime- 
stone.) — a. Heat the mineral with sufficient dilute 
sulphuric acid to convert all its carbonate into sul- 
phate of lime, wash out all the sulphate of mag- 
nesia with hot water, and, after defecation, evapo- 
rate and crystallize. — b. Dissolve out all the car- 
bonate of lime with muriatic acid, then well wash 
with water, and dissolve the remaining carbonate 
of magnesia in dilute sulphuric adid, and proceed 



MAG 



412 



MAL 



as before. Tliis method is very economical where 
muriatic acid can be obtained almost gratuitously, 
as in the neighborhood of soda works. — c. Instead 
of sulphuric acid employ sulphate of iron to neutral- 
ize the magnesia. 

II. {From bittern.) a. Boil the residual liquor, 
or mother-water of sea salt, for some hours, skim, 
and decant the clear, then concentrate by evapo- 
ration, and run the solution into wooden coolers ; 
in 1 or 2 days | part of Epsom salts will have 
crystallized out. This is called " singles.^' By 
re-solution in water, and recrystallization, " dou- 
bles," or Epsom salts, fit for the market, are ob- 
tained. Bittern yields about 5 parts of sulphate of 
magnesia for every 100 parts of common salt that 
have been previously obtained from it. 

6. Boil a sufficient quantity of calcined magne- 
sian limestone in bittern, to displace the muriatic 
acid from the magnesia ; evaporate as before. This 
is the most economical process. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Sulphate of magnesia is an 
excellent cooling purgative, and sometimes proves 
diuretic and diaphoretic. Dose. ^ oz. to 1^ oz. as 
a purgative or antidote in poisoning by lead. Large 
doses should be avoided. Dr. Christison mentions 
the case of a boy 10 years old, who swallowed 2 
oz. of salts, and died within 10 minutes. (Treatise 
on Poisons.) A small quantity of Epsom salts, 
largely diluted with water, (as a drachm to ^ pint 
or I pint,) will usually purge as much as the com- 
mon dose. This increase of power has been re- 
cently shown by Liebig to result rather from the 
quantity of water than the salt. Pure water is 
greedily taken up by the absorbents ; but water 
holding in solution saline matter is rejected by 
those vessels, and consequently passes off by the 
intestine? 

Pur. Pure Epsom salts are soluble in their own 
weight of water at 60° F., by which they may be 
distinguished from Glauber salts, which are much 
less soluble. Shaken in the cold with water and 
carbonate of baryta or lime, an alkaline solution 
of carbonate of soda will be obtained if Glauber 
salts be present in the sample. When digested in 
alcohol, the filtered liquid should not yield a pre- 
cipitate with nitrate of silver, and should evaporate 
without residue. " Sulphuric acid dropped into the 
solution should not expel any fumes of hydrochlo- 
ric acid. 100 grs. dissolved in water, and mixed 
with a boiling solution of carbonate of soda, yield 
34 grs. of carbonate of magnesia when dried." 
(P. L.) 

Caution. Epsom salts and oxalic acid may be 
readily distinguished from each other by the fol- 
lowing properties : — 



EPSOM SALTS. 

Taste bitter. 
Odorless. 

Turn opaque and white 
when dissolved and 
mixed with carbonate 
of soda or potassa. 

Do not alter vegetable 

blues 
Have no action on ink 

spots or iron-moulds. 



OXALIC ACID. 

Tastes sour. 

Smells slightly nitrous, 
(generally.) 

Effervesces when mixed 
with carbonate of soda 
or potassa, and the li- 
quid afterwards be- 
comes transparent. 

Turns vegetable blues 
red. 

Removes ink spots and 
iron-moulds. 



MAGNESIAN APERIENT. Prep. Epsom 
salts 2 lbs. ; dry by a gradually increased heat, 
powder, add tartaric acid (also dried) 1^ lb. ; cal- 
cined magnesia ^ lb. ; finely-powdered white sugar 
3 lbs. ; bicarbonate of soda (dried without heat) 
1 lb. ; essence of lemon 1 dr. ; mix well, rub it 
through a sieve, in a dry situation, put it into bot- 
tles, and cork down immediately. Dose. ^ to 2 
dessert-spoonfuls thrown into a tumbler 3 parts 
filled with water, rapidly stirred, and drunk while 
effervescing, early in the morning fasting, or be- 
tween breakfast and dinner. An excellent medi- 
cine for habitual constipation and stomach com- 
plaints. 

MAGNESIUM. The metaUic base of the 
earth magnesia. The existence of this metal was 
demonstrated by Sir H. Davy in 1808, but was 
first obtained in suflScient quantity to examine its 
properties, by Bussy in 1830. 

Prep. Introduce 5 or 6 pieces of potassium 
about the size of peas, into a glass tube retort, and 
over the potassium lay a sufficient number of 
small fragments of chloride of magnesium to cover 
it. The latter must then be heated to near its 
point of fusion, when the flame of the lamp must 
be applied to the potassium, so that its vapor may 
pass through the stratum of heated chloride. As 
soon as the vivid incandescence that follows is 
over, throw the mass into water, and collect the 
insoluble metallic portion. 

Prop., ^c. Color and lustre resemble silver, 
malleable and fusible at a red heat, unaffected by 
dry air and water ; burns with brilliancy in oxygen 
gas, yielding oxide or protoxide of magnesium, 
or magnesia, and inflames spontaneously in chlo- 
rine, yielding chloride of magnesium^ It dissolves 
in the acids with the evolution of hydrogen gas, 
and pure salts of magnesia result. Chloride of 
magnesium is best prepared by dissolving magnesia 
in muriatic acid, evaporating to dryness, adding 
an equal weight of muriate of ammonia, project- 
ing the mixture into a red-hot platinum crucible, 
and continuing the heat till a state of tranquil fu- 
sion be attained. (Liebig.) On cooling it forms a 
transparent, colorless, and very deliquescent mass. 
Iodide, fluoride, and bromide of magnesium may 
be prepared by dissolving magnesia in hydriodic, 
hydrofluoric, and hydrobromic acids. 

MAHOGANY STAIN. Prep. I. Pure So- 
cotrine aloes 1 oz. ; dragon's blood J oz. ; rectified 
spirit 1 pint ; dissolve, and apply 2 or 3 coats to 
the surface of the wood ; finish off with wax or oil 
tinged with alkanet. 

II. Wash over the wood with strong aquafortis, 
and when dry, apply a coat of the above varnish ; 
polish as last. 

III. Logwood 2 oz. ; madder 8 oz. ; fustic 1 oz. ; 
water 1 gallon ; boil 2 hours, and apply it several 
times to the wood boiling hot ; when dry, slightly 
brush it over with a solution of pearlash 1 oz., in 
water 1 quart ; dry and polish as before. 

MAHOGANY FURNITURE. Stains and 
spots may be take" out of mahogany furniture by 
the use of a little aquafortis, or oxalic acid and 
water, by rubbing the part with the liquid, by 
means of a cork, till the color is restored ; observ 
ing afterwards to well wash the wood with water 
and to dry and polish as usual. 

MALEIC ACID. A peculiar acid obtained 



MAL 



413 



MAL 



by distilling malic acid with a quick fire ; a solu- 
tion of maleic acid passes over into the receiver, 
from which crystals may be obtained by evapora- 
tion. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, 
and possesses a sour taste. Heat resolves it into 
water and anhydrous maleic acid. If kept long 
fused at a low temperature, it passes into a crys- 
talline mass oi fuinaric acid. It forms salts with the 
bases termed maleates, which are mostly insoluble. 

MALIC ACID. Syn. Acide mamque, {Fr.) 
Aepfelsaure, (Ger.) Acidum malicum, (Lat.) 
Prep. (Winkler.) Juice of the fruit of the moun- 
tain ash, (sorbus aucuparia,) immediately after it 
has turned red, but still unripe, q. s. ; heat it to 
the boiling point, skim, filter, nearly neutralize 
with ammonia, and precipitate with a solution of 
1 part of acetate of lead to every 72 parts of juice ; 
filter, and again precipitate with nitrate of lead ; 
allow the whole to stand until it forms a mass of 
crystals, then well wash, dry, powder, suspend in 
water, and decompose by a current of sulphureted 
hydrogen ; again filter, neutralize with ammonia, 
decolor w^ith animal charcoal, a second time pre- 
cipitate with nitrate of lead, and decompose the 
resulting nitrate of lead by sulphureted hydrogen ; 
lastly, filter, evaporate, and crystallize. Product. 
6 oz. of crystallized malic acid from 296 oz. of juice. 

Re7narks. Liebig first converts the impure solu- 
tion of the acid into acid malate of ammonia by 
neutralizing one half, and mixing it with the other 
half unneutralized. This salt forms larger crys- 
tals than the neutral malate, and is easier decol- 
ored Mr Everett has lately proposed the juice 
of the leaf-stalks of garden rhubarb as a source of 
roalic acid. One imperial gallon of this juice con- 
tains 11,139^ grs. of dry malic acid. The stalks 
should be peeled before pressing out the juice, as 
the cuticle contains miich color. 20,000 grs. of 
the peeled stalks yield 12,500 grs. of juice. Mr. 
Everett's process is as follows : — neutralize with 
hydrate of lime, boil, filter, precipitate with nitrate 
of lead, allow it to stand for a few hours, boil, 
cool, filter, decompose the precipitate with sul- 
phuric acid, avoiding excess, throw down the ex- 
cess of lead from the supernatant portion with 
sulphureted hydrogen, evaporate, and crystallize. 
(Proc. of the Chem. Soc.) 

Prop., 6j-c. Malic acid is very soluble in water, 
has a pleasant acidulous taste, and, when neutral- 
ized with the bases, forms salts called malates. 
When kept fused for some time at a low heat, it 
is converted into paramalic or fumaric acid ; and 
when quickly distilled, it yields malic acid, while 
fumaric acid is left in the retort. Malic acid may 
also be obtained from the juice of apples, and sev- 
eral other sorts of fruit. 

MALT. Syn. Malt, {Fr.) Malz, {Ger.) 
Byne. Boasium ; Maltum, {Lat.) Evvrj, {Gr.) 
Grain which has become sweet in consequence of 
incipient germination. Barley is the grain usually 
malted, and the process consists in exposure to 
warmth and moisture. The grain is steeped in 
water contained in iarge wooden or stone cisterns, 
for a period of from 40 to 60 hours, depending on 
the temperature of the weather, or until it becomes 
sufficiently swollen and soft enough to be easily 
pierced with a needle, or crushed between the 
thumb and finger without yielding a milky juice. 
As soon as the grain has been sufficiently soaked, 
\ 



the water is drawn off, and the swollen barley ]» 
laid upon the stone floor of a suitable apartment 
called the couch, to the depth of 12 to 16 inches, 
where it is allowed to remain till the acro.npire, or 
rudiments of the plumula, shoot forth. During 
the period the grain remains in the couch, it is at 
first turned every 24 houra, and afterwards 2 or 3 
limes a day, and at each turning the layer is 
spread out more and more till it is reduced to the 
depth of about 3 or 4 inches. The sprouted grain 
is next removed to the malt kiln, and dried in a 
thin layer, at a temperature of from 90 lo 100° F., 
until quite hard. It now constitutes pale malt; 
when all the moisture has exhaled, and the heat, 
is raised to from 120 to 125°, yellow, or amber 
malt, is formed ; and when the heat is further 
raised to from 145 to 165°, amber brown, or pale 
brown malt, is obtained. When the grain is dried 
at a still higher temperature, it forms brownmalt; 
and when the heat is sufficient to blacken or dis- 
color it, it is know'i as patent malt. In the prep- 
aration of the last variety, the heat is sometimes 
pushed as high as 430 to 435° F. By the process 
of drying, the vitality of the seed is destroyed- 
Both brown and patent malts are merely employed 
to color the worts produced from pale malt. 1 lb. 
of patent malt, mashed with 79 lbs. of pale malt, 
will impart to the liquor the color and flavor of 
porter. The paler varieties of malt contain the 
largest quantity of saccharine matter. After the 
malt has been kiln-dried, the acrospire and roots 
may be removed by means of a sieve. Before malt 
is mashed for beer, it is ground in a mill. Product. 
Good barley yields 80§ by weight, and 109§ by 
measure, of dried and sifted malt. 

Choice. Good malt should have an agreeable 
smell, and a sweet taste, should be round and full 
in the grain, and should be moderately brittle be- 
tween the teeth. The admixture of unmalted 
with malted grain may be discovered by throwing 
a little into water ; — malt floats on water, but raw 
barley sinks. 

Uses, ^c. Malt is chiefly employed in the arts 
of brewing and distillation. An infusion or decoc- 
tion of malt (sweet wort) is laxative, and has been 
recommended as an antiscorbutic and tonic. It 
has been given with advantage in scur^^^. (See 
Brewing, Distillation, Fermentation, &;c.) 

MALT LIQUORS. The qualities of ale, 
beer, and porter, as beverages, and the methods 
of preparing them, have been already described, 
(see Ale, Beer, Brewing, Mum, Porter, &c. ;) 
the present article will therefore be confined to a 
short notice of the cellar management, and the 
diseases of malt liquors generally. 

Bottling. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles, and 
sound and good corks, should be had in readiness. 
The liquor to be bottled should be perfectly clear ; 
and if it be not so, it must be submitted to the 
operation of ^'fining." When quite fine, and in 
good condition, the bung of the cask should be left 
out all night, and next day the liquor should be put 
into bottles, which, after remaining 24 hours mere- 
ly covered with sheets of paper to keep out flies 
and dust, must be securely corked down. Porter 
is generally wired over. If the liquor is intended 
for exportation to a hot climate, th? bottles should 
remain filled for three days or more before corking 
them. The stock of bottled liquor should be stored 



MAL 



414 



MAN 



in a cool situation, and a small quantity to meet 
present demands should also be set on their sides 
in a warmer place to ripen. October beer should 
not be bottled before midsummer, nor March beer 
till Christmas. 

Ripening. The addition of a small lump of 
white sugar to each bottle of ale or beer, and a 
teaspoonful of moist sugar to each bottle of porter 
at the time of corking, will render it fit for drink- 
ing in a few days in ordinary weather. A raisin 
or lump of sugar candy is often added to each bot- 
tle with a like intention. The Parisians bottle 
their beer one day, and sell it the next. For this 
purpose, in addition to the sugar as above, they add 
2 or 3 drops of yeast. Such bottled liquor must, 
however, be drunk within a week, or else stored in 
a very cold place, as it will otherwise burst the 
bottles, or blow out the corks. 

Age. The addition of a very little diluted sul- 
phuric acid to new beer will give it the appearance 
of being 1 or 2 years old. Copperas, alum, sliced 
lemons, Seville oranges, and cucumbers, are also 
fr'^niiently employed by brewers for the same pur- 
pose. These additions subject the public brewer 
and seller to a fine, but private persons may em- 
ploy them at pleasure. 

Heading. This is added to thin and vapid beer 
to make it bear a frothy head. (See Heading, 
p. 350.) 

Preservation. See the end of the article Brew- 
ing. 

Improving. Cut half a quartern loaf into slices, 
toast them brown, place them in a coarse linen 
bag, along with 2 oz. of hops, and 1 oz. each of 
bruised ginger, cloves, and mustard seed, suspend 
the bag by means of a string a few inches below 
the surface of the beer, and bung close. For a 
hogshead. 

Cloudiness. Add a handful of hops, boiled in 
1 gallon of the beer, and in a fortnight fine it 
down. 

Sourness. Add a little powdered chalk or car- 
l)onate of soda to the beer, until the acidity is 
nearly removed, then rummage in 4 or 5 lbs. of 
moist sugar or treacle to every hogshead. Such 
beer should be soon put on draught, as it is apt to 
get flat by keeping. Oyster and egg shells are 
also frequently used by brewers for the same pur- 
pose. 

Vamping. Half fill casks with the old liquor, 
fill them up with some newly brewed, and bung 
close for 3 weeks or a month. 

Mustiness. To each hogshead add 1 lb. of new 
hops boiled in a gallon of the liquor, along with 7 
lbs. of newly-burnt charcoal coarsely bruised, and 
a 4 lb. loaf of bread cut into slices and toasted 
rather black ; rouse well every day for one week, 
then rummage in moist sugar 3 or 4 lbs., and bung 
down for a fortnight. 

Flatness. Rummage a few pounds of moist 
sugar or treacle (foots) into each hogshead ; fer- 
mentation will ensue in a few days, and the liquor 
become brisk. On the small scale, the addition of 
a few grains of carbonate of soda or prepared chalk 
to each glass will make the liquor brisk and carry 
a head ^ out it must be drunk within a few minutes, 
else it becomes again fiat. This is an excellent 
method when home-brewed beer becomes sour and 
vapid 



Recovering. This is said of unsaleable beer when 
rendered saleable, by giving it " head" or removing 
its " tartness." 

Frosted beer is best recovered by the addition 
of a few hops boiled in a httle sweet wort ; or by 
adding a little moist sugar or treacle to induce a 
fresh fermentation. 

Foxing or bucking. Add some fresh hops, along 
with some bruised mustard seed, to the beer. Some 
persons add a little made mustard, or solution of 
alum or catechu, or a little diluted sulphuric acid, 
and rummage well ; and in a week or 10 days 
afterwards, further add some bean-flour, treacle, 
or moist sugar. 

Ropiness. Add a little infusion of catechu and 
some fresh hops to the beer, and in a fortnight 
rummage well, and the next day fine it down. 

MANDARINS, THE DELIGHT OF THE. 
Prep. Spirit, 22 u. p., 1 gallon ; wat. ^ ^ gallon ; 
white sugar 4 lbs. ; anisum chinae and ambrette or 
musk seed, (hibiscus abelmoschus,) of each, bruised, 
i oz. ; safilower -J oz. ; place the whole in a car- 
boy or stone bottle capable of holding double, cork 
close, and agitate well every day for a fortnight, 
then decant and strain. A pleasant cordial li- 
queur. 

MANGANESE. Syn. Manganium ; Manga- 
NEsiuM, (Lat.) Manganese, {Fr.) Mangan ; 
Braunsteinmetal, {Ger.) A hard, brittle, gray- 
ish-white metal, having the sp. gr. 8*013, discover- 
ed by Gahn in the black oxide of manganese of 
commerce. 

Prep. Reduce oxide of manganese to fine pow- 
der, make it into a paste with oil, place the mix- 
ture in a Hessian crucible lined with charcoal, lute 
on the cover, and expose it to the strongest heat 
of a smith's forge for 2 hours. 

Prop., Uses, <^c. Manganesium unites with 
oxygen, forming 5 oxides and 2 acids, and with 
chlorine, fluorine, and sulphur, forming chlorides, 
fluorides, and sulphurets. The protoxide or 
green oxide (Mn -\- O) is formed when either of 
the other oxides of manganese is mixed with cliar- 
coal, and exposed in a covered crucible to a white 
heat for some time. It possesses strong basic prop- 
erties, and readily dissolves in the liquid acids, 
forming salts. The sesquioxide, or second oxide, 
(2 Mn -\- 30,) is brown or brownish-black, and is 
found ready formed in the mineral kingdom. It is 
the residuum left in the retort when the black 
oxide is heated to moderate redness in the process 
of making oxygen gas. The peroxide, or third 
oxide, (Mn -}- 20,) is the well-known black oxide, 
or binoxide of commerce, and is also found in the 
mineral kingdom. (See Manganese, Black Ox- 
ide OF.) The red, or fourth oxide, (oxidum man- 
ganoso-manganicum, 3 Mn -j- 40,) is another 
natural oxide of manganese. It may be prepared 
artificially, by exposing the peroxide or sesquioxide 
to a white heat. Varvacite (4 Mn -j- 70) is an- 
other oxide which occurs as a mineral production. 
Manganic, or Manganeseous acid, (Mn + '^^^^ 
is formed when nitre, potassa, or carbonate of po- 
tassa, is heated to redness along with black oxide 
of manganese, either in close or open vessels. It 
has never been isolated. Manganesic, or perman- 
ganic acid, (2 Mn + 70,) may be obtained by 
mixing 8 parts of peroxide of manganese with 7 
parts of chlorate of potassa, both in fine powder, 



MAN 



415 



MAN 



adding 10 parts of hydrate of potassa, dissolved in 
a small quantity of water, evaporating to drj'ness, 
powdering, exposing the powder to a low red heat 
in a platinum crucible, dissolving the mass in a 
large quantity of water, decanting, evaporating, 
and crystallizing. These crystals are permanga- 
nate of potassa, from which the acid may be ob- 
tained byconversion mio permanganate of baryta, 
and by careful decomposition by dilute sulphuric 
acid, (Gregory.) It has a fine red color, bleaches, 
and is rapidly decomposed by organic matter. — 
Protochloride of manganese is made by heating 
the chloride to redness in a glass tube, surrounded 
by an atmosphere of muriatic acid. — Perchloride 
may be obtained by mixing permanganic and mu- 
riatic acid, and conducting the evolved gas through 
a tube cooled to — 4° F- It is gaseous at a higher 
tempei^ature, and is decomposed by moisture. — 
Sulphuret of manganese is a natural mineral pro- 
duction, but may also be procured by igniting a 
mixture of 1 part of sulphate of manganese and 1 
part of charcoal. — Fluoride of manganese has 
been formed b}' Dumas and Wohler. 

The salts of manganese may all be prepared 
from the black oxide of commerce by dissolving 
the latter in muriatic acid, evaporating the solu- 
tion to dryness, redissolving in water, adding car- 
bonate of soda sufficient to precipitate the iron 
present, digesting the mixed precipitate in the re- 
mainder of the liquid, filtering, adding hyd^osul- 
phuret of ammonia till it produces a flesh-colored 
precipitate, and then precipitating the solution 
with carbonate of soda. The carbonate of manga- 
nese thus obtained, after being well washed in 
water, may be redissolved in the acids to form 
salts, most of which are soluble, and many crys- 

MANGANESE, BLACK OXIDE OF. Syn. 
Manganese. Binoxide of Manganese. Tritox- 
IDE OF do. Peroxide of do. Oxide of do. 
Magnesia nigra. Manganesii binoxydum, (P. L.) 
Do. oxiDUM, (P. E. &L D.) Oxide de Manganese, 
(JFr.) Braunstein, (Ger.) This is the only oxide 
of manganese that is directly employed in the 
arts. It is a very plentiful mineral production, 
and is found in great abundance in some parts of 
the West of England. The manganese of the 
shops is prepared by washing, to remove the 
earthy matter, and grinding in mills. The blackest 
samples are esteemed the best. It is chiefly used 
to supply oxygen gas, and in the manufacture of 
glass and chlorine ; in dyeing, and to form the 
salts of manganese. It has been occasionally 
employed in medicine, chiefly externally, in itch 
and porrigo, made into an ointment with lard. It 
has recently been highly recommended by Dr. 
Erigeler in scrofula. 

Pur. and tests. Heat disengages oxygen. It 
is almost entirely aoluble in muriatic acid. The 
per centagp value of commercial manganese may 
be readily found by digesting 50 grs. of the sam- 
ple in muriatic acid 1^ oz., diluted with ^ oz. of 
water,- adding portions of protosulphate of iron 
from a weighed sample, at first in excess, and 
afterwards in smaller doses, till the liquid ceases to 
produce a blue precipitate with red prussiate of 
potash, and to evolve the odor of chlorine. Heat 
should be employed towards the end. The quanti- 
ty of protosulphate used must now be ascertamed 



by weighing the unconsumed portion. If the 
binoxide be pure, 317 grs. will have been con- 
sumed, but if otherwise, the per centage of pure 
oxide may be obtained by the rule of three ; as, 
suppose only 298 grs. of the sulphate were con- 
sumed, 

then— as 317: 100:: 298: 94, 
and the richness of the sample in pure black oxide 
would be 94g-. The per centage value of the 
oxide for evolving chlorine may be obtained by 
multiplying the weight of the consumed sulphate 
of iron by 0-2588, which, in the above case, would 
give 7fi§ of chlorine. Both for this purpose and 
chlorimetry the sulphate of iron is best prepared 
by precipitation from its solution with alcohol, and 
drying it till it loses its alcoholic odor. (Prof. 
Otto.) See Oxygen and Chlorimetry. 

MANHEIM GOLD. Syn. Similor. Prep. 
Copper 7 oz. ; brass 3 oz. ; melt together. Some 
add tin ^ dr. (See Brass.) 

MANNA. A factitious article of manna, made 
of a mixture of sugar, starch, and honey, with a 
very small quantity of scammony to give it odor 
and flavor, and to render it purgative, has been 
lately very extensively offered in trade. 

MANNITE. Syn. Manna Sugar. Grena- 
dine. Prep. Digest manna in boiling alcohol ; as 
the solution cools, crystals of mannite will form. 
White, odorless, sweet, soluble in water and 
alcohol. It is laxative. Dose. 1 to 2 drs. for a 
child ; i oz. to 1 oz. for an adult. It is found in 
several othei vegetable productions besides manna. 
Mannite differs from the other sugars in being in- 
capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. 

MANURES. (In Agriculture.) Substances 
added to soils to increase their fertility. " The 
food of vegetables, as far as their organic structure 
is concerned, consists entirely of inorganic com- 
pounds ; and no organized body can serve for the 
nutrition of vegetables, until it has been, by the 
process of decay, resolved into certain inorganic 
substances. These are carbonic acid, v/ater, and 
ammonia, which are well known to be the final 
products of putrefaction. But, even when these 
are supplied to vegetables, their growth will not 
proceed unless certain mineral substances are 
likewise furnished in small quantities, either by 
the soil, or the water used to moisten it. Almost 
every plant, when burned, leaves ashes, which 
commonly contain silica, potash, and phosphate of 
lime ; often, also, magnesia, soda, sulphates, and 
oxide of iron. These mineral bodies appear to be 
essential to the existence of the vegetable tissues ; 
so that plants will not grow in soils destitute of 
them, however abundantly supplied with carbonic 
acid, ammonia, and water." According to Liebig, 
the carbon of plants is wholly derived from car- 
bonic acid, which is either absorbed from the 
atmosphere and rain water, by the leaves, or 
from the moisture and air in the soil by the roots. 
Its carbon is retained and assimilated with the 
body of the plant, while its oxygen is given out in 
the gaseous form ; this decomposition being al- 
ways effected under the action of light at or- 
dinary temperatures. The hydrogen and oxygen 
of vegetables, which, when combined with carbon, 
constitute the ligneous, starchy, gummy, sac- 
charine, oily, and resinous matters of plants, are 
I derived from water chiefly absorbed by the roots 



MAN 



416 



MAR 



from ths soil. The nitrogen of vegetables is de- 
rived chiefly, if not exclusively, from ammonia, 
which is supplied to them in rain, and in manures, 
and which remains in the soil till absorbed by the 
roots. Ordinary manures may be regarded more 
valuable according to the quantity of azotized 
matter which they contain ; and also in proportion 
as the decomposition of quaternary substances 
acts gradually, and agrees with the progress of 
vegetation. Thus, it is the azote in combination 
contained in manures which is especially useful ; 
and the proportion of this, when ascertained, in- 
dicates the richness of such substances as fer- 
tilizing agents. In reference to the mineral con- 
stituents of soils, it appears that a soil is fertile or 
barren for any given plant according as it con- 
tains those mineral substances that enter into its 
composition. " Thus the ashes of wheat-straw 
contain much silica and potash, while the ashes of 
the seeds contain phosphate of ammonia and mag- 
nesia. Hence, if a soil be deficient in any one of 
these, it will not yield wheat. On the other hand, 
a good crop of wheat will exhaust the soil of these 
substances, and it will not yield a second crop till 
they have been restored, either by mauure or by 
the gradual action of the weather in disintegrating 
the subsoil. Hence the beneiit derived from fal- 
lows and from the rotation of crops. 

" When, by an extraordinary supply of any 
one mineral ingredient, or of ammonia, a large 
crop has been obtained, it is not to be expected 
that a repetition of the same individual manure 
next year will produce the same effect. It must 
be remembered, that the unusual crop has ex- 
hausted the soil probably of all the other mineral 
ingredients, and that they also must be restored 
before a second crop can be obtained. 

" The salt most essential to the growth of the 
potato is the double phosphate of ammonia and 
magnesia ; that chiefly required for hay is phos- 
phate of lime ; while for almost all plants potash 
and ammonia are highly beneficial. 

" From the principles above mentioned we may 
deduce a few valuable conclusions in regard to the 
chemistry of agriculture. First, by examining the 
ashes of a thriving plant, we discover the mineral 
ingredients which must exist in a soil to render it 
fertile for that plant. Secondly, by examining a 
soil, we can say at once whether it is fertile in re- 
gard to any plants the ashes of which have been 
examined. Thirdly, when we know the defects 
of a soil, the deficient matters may be easily ob- 
tained and added to it, unmixed with such as are 
not required. Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c., of 
any plant, must be the best manure for that plant, 
since every vegetable extracts from the soil such 
matters alone as are essential to it. This important 
principle has been amply verified by the success 
attending the use of wheat-straw, or its ashes, as 
manure for wheat, and of the clippings of the vines 
as a manure for the vineyard. Where these are 
used, no other manure is required. Fifthly, in the 
rotation of crops, those should be made to follow 
which require different materials ; or a crop which 
extracts little or no mineral matter, such as peas, 
should corno after one wiiich exhausts the soil of 
its phosphates and potash. 

" Of the chemical manures now so much used, 
bone-dust supplies the phosphates which have been 



extracted by successive crons of grass and corn, 
the whole of the bones of the cattle fed on these 
crops having been derived from the soil ; its gelatin 
also yields ammonia by putrefaction. Guano acts 
as a source of ammonia, containing much oxalate 
and urate of ammonia, with some phosphates, 
Nightsoil and urine, especially the latter, are 
most valuable for the ammonia they yield, as well 
as for phosphates and potash ; but are very much 
neglected in this country, although their impor- 
tance is fully appreciated in Belgium and China. 
Bran is a very valuable manure, especially for po- 
tatoes, as it contains much of the ammoniaco-mag- 
nesian phosphate. 

" Nitrate of soda probably acts by its alkali re- 
placing potash, but it is possible that its acid may 
also yield nitrogen to plants, although we possess 
at present no evidence of this, and, indeed, no evi- 
dence that plants can derive their nitrogen from 
any other source than from ammonia." 

Manures may be made of all organic substan- 
ces, preference being, however, given to those 
abounding in nitrogen, and which readily decay. 

The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes of 
plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their com- 
position and comparative value, is not easily per- 
formed by the inexperienced chemist ; but a rude 
approximation to their contents, suflSciently accu- 
rate for all practical purposes, may be generally 
made with proper care and attention. See Liebig's 
Agricultural Chemistry ; 7th Edit, of Turner's 
Chem. ; the Memoirs of MM. Boussingault and 
Payen ; and the articles Soils, Agriculture, 
Farming. 

MANUS CHRISTI. Prep. 1. (Manus christi 
perlatcB.) Drops, or pastilles, made of pearls, sugar, 
and rose water. — 2. {Manus christi simplices.) 
Rose drops, or pastilles, made into flat cakes. 

MAPLE SUGAR. Prepared from the juice of 
the sugar maple, like birch sugar. Average pro- 
duct from each tree about 6 lbs. per season. 

MAPS may be tinted with any of the simple 
liquid colors mentioned at page 400. To prevent 
the colors sinking and spreading, which they will 
usually do on common paper, the latter should be 
wetted 2 or 3 times with a sponge dipped in alum 
water, (3 or 4 oz. to the pint,) or a solution of white 
size ; observing to dry it carefully after each coat. 
This will tend to give lustre and beauty to the 
colors. The colors themselves should also be thick- 
ened with gum. Before varnishing maps after 
coloring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should be 
applied with a brush. (See Card Work and 
Paper.) 

MARASQUIN DE GROSEILLES. Prep. 
Ripe gooseberries 1 cwt. ; black cherry leaves 14 
lbs.; bruise, ferment, distil, and rectify the spirit; 
and to each pint of the product add sugar 1 lb. ; 
dissolved in water 1 pint. A pleasant liqueur. 

MARBLE. Syn. Limestone. Hard Carbon- 
ate OF Lime. Marmor ; Carbonas Calcis dub us, 
(P. L.) White Marble, (P. E.) Maumor album, 
(P. D.) Marbre ; Pierre a chaux ; Chaux ckk- 
BONATEE, (Fr.) Kalstein ; Weisse Marmor, {(Jer.) 
White marble is employed for the preparation of 
carbonic acid, and some of the salts of lime. 

Marble is best cleaned with a little clean soap 
and water, to which some ox-gall may be ad<ie(L 
Acids should be avoided. Oil and greas? may be 



MAR 



417 



MAR 



generally removed by following a similar plan to 
that mentioned at art. Boards. 

Marble may be stained or dyed of various colors 
by applying their solutions co the stone made suffi- 
ciently hot tc- make the liquid just simmer on the 
surface. The foilovving are the substances usually 
employed for this purpose : — 

Blue. Tincture or solution of litmus, or an alka- 
line solution of indigo ; — Brown, Tincture of log- 
wood ; — Crhnson, A solution of alkanet root in oil 
of turpentine ; — Flesh color, Wax tinged with al- 
kanet root, and applied to the marble hot enough 
to melt it ; — Gold color, A mixture of equal parts 
of white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and verdigris, all in 
fine powder, carefully applied ; — Green, An alka- 
line solution or tincture of sap green, or wax strong- 
ly colored with verdigris, or stain the stone first 
blue, and then yellow ; — Red, Tincture of dragon's 
blood, alkanet root, or cochineal ; — Yellow, Tinc- 
ture of gamboge, turmeric, or saffron. Remarks. 
Success in the application of the above colors re- 
quires considerable experience. By their skilful 
use a pleasing effect, both of color and grain, may 
be produced. 

MARBLING OF BOOKS. This is performed 
by laying the color on the covers or edges with a 
brush, or by means of a wooden trough and gum 
water as follows : — Provide a wooden trough, 2 
inches deep, 6 inches wide, and the length of a 
super-royal sheet ; boil in a brass or copper pan 
any quantity of linseed and water until a tliick 
mucilage is formed ; strain it into the trough, and 
let it cool ; then grind on a marble slab any of the 
following colors in small beer. For blue, Prussian 
blue or indigo ; — red, rose-pink, vermilion, or drop 
lake ; — yellow, king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. ; 
— white, flake white ; — black, ivory or burnt 
lampblack ; brown, umber, burnt do., terra di 
sienna, burnt do. ; black, mixed with yellow or 
red, also makes brown ; — green, blue and yel- 
low mixed ; — orange, red and yellow mixed ; — 
purple, red and blue mixed. For each color you 
must have two cups, one for the color after grind- 
ing, the other to mix it with ox-gall, which must 
be used to thin the colors at discretion. If too 
much gall is used, the colors will spread ; when 
they keep their place on the surface of the trough, 
when moved with a quill, they are fit for use. All 
things being in readiness, the colors are successive- 
ly sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the 
trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn 
about with a quill or stick, according to taste. 
When the design is thus formed, the book, tied 
tightly between cutting boards of the same size, is 
lightly pressed with its edge on the surface of the 
liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. 
The covers may be marbled in the same way, only 
letting the liquid colors run over them. The film 
of color in the trough may be as thin as possible, 
and if any remains after the marbling, it may be 
taken off" by applying paper to it before you pre- 
pare for marbling again. This process has been 
called French Marbling. 

To diversify the effect, colors are often mixed 
with a little sweet oil before sprinkling them on, 
by which means a light halo or circle appears round 
each spot In like manner, spirits of turpentme, 
sprinkled on the surface of the trough, will make 
white spots. By staining the book covers with any 
53 



of the liquid dyes, and then dropping on them, or 
running over them, drops of liquid mordants, a 
very pleasing effect may be produced. Thus 
vinegar black, or a solution of green copperas, let 
fall or run over common leather, producfs black 
spots or streaks, and gives a similar effect with 
most of the light dyes. A solution of alum or tin 
in like manner produces bright spots or streaks, 
and soda and potash water dark ones. This style 
has been called Egyptian marble. — Soap marbling 
is done by throwing on the colors, ground with a 
little white soap to a pliable consistence, by means 
of a brush. It is much used for book edges, sta- 
tionary, sheets of paper, ladies' fancy work, &c. — 
Thread marble is given by first covering the edge 
uniformly of one color, then laying pieces of thick 
thread irregularly on diff'erent parts of it, and giv- 
ing it a fine dark sprinkle. When well managed 
the eff'ect is very pleasing. — Rice marble is given 
in a similar way to the last by using rice. — Tree 
marble is done on leather, book covers, &c., by 
bending the board a little in the centre, and run- 
ning the marbling liquid over it in the form of vege- 
tation. The knots are given by rubbing the end 
of a candle on those parts of the cover. — Wax 
marble is given in a similar way to thread marble, 
but using melted wax, which is removed after the 
book is sprinkled and dried, or a sponge charged 
with blue, green, or red, may be passed over. This 
is much used for stationary work, especially folios 
and quartos. The vinegar black of the bookbind- 
ers is merely a solution of acetate of iron, made by 
steeping rusty nails or iron filings in vinegar. All 
the ordinary liquid colors that do not contain strong 
acids or alkalis may be used, either alone or thick- 
ened with a little gum, for marbling or sprinkling 
books. — Sprinkling is performed by dipping a stiff"- 
haired painter's brush into the color, and suddenly 
striking it against a small stick held in the left 
hand over the work. By this means the color is 
evenly scattered without blotting. (See Bookbind- 
ing, Inks, Liquid Colors, and the various dyes.) 

MARGARIC ACID. Syn. Margarulic Acid, 
(from liapyapiTTi, a pearl.) A fatty acid obtained by 
the saponification of oils. Prep. I. Dissolve olive 
oil soap in water, precipitate with a solution of 
neutral acetate of lead, filter, wash, and dry the 
precipitate, (margarate of lead.) digest in ether, 
and decompose the residuum by boiling-hot muri- 
atic acid ; lastly, wash the acid, dissolve in boiling 
alcohol, and evaporate. 

II. Heat hydrated stearic acid with its own 
weight of nitric acid for some minutes ; press the 
fatty acid which separates between folds of paper, 
and purify by repeated crystallizations from alco- 
hol, till its melting point becomes 140° F. 

Remarks. Margaric acid forms pearly scales, 
soluble in ether and alcohol. With the bases, it 
forms salts called margarates. 

MARGARINE. Syn. Margarate of Oxide 
OF Glycerule. The solid fatt^ matter of certain 
vegetable oils, and the principal ingredient of hu- 
man and goose fat. A hot alcoholic solution of 
either of these fats, or of the concrete portion of 
olive oil, deposites, as it cools, a mixture of marga- 
rate and oleate of glycerule. 

MARGARITIC ACID. Obtained by the sa- 
ponification of castor oil, along with another oily 
acid. The former melts at 266°, and for^as soapy 



MAR 



418 



MEA 



salts with the alkahs, (margaritates ;) the latter is 
an oily liquid at ordinary temperatures. 

MARGARONE. A peculiar fatty substance 
obtained by distilling a mixture of quicklime and 
margaric acid. It forms pearly crystalline scales. 

MARRIAGE. Dr. Casper, of Berlin, has cal- 
culated that the mortality among bachelors, from 
the age of 30 to 45 years, is 27 per cent., while 
among married men of the same age it is only 18 
per cent. For forty-one bachelors who attain the 
age of 40 years, there are seventy-eight married 
men who attain the same age. The advantage in 
favor of married life is still more striking in persons 
of advanced age. At 60 years there remain but 
twenty-two bachelors for forty-eight married men ; 
at 70 yea.rs, eleven bachelors for twenty-seven 
married ; and at 80 years, three bachelors against 
nine married men. (Jour, de Chimie Med.) 

MARMALADES. (From marmello, Portu- 
guese, a quince.) Properly a conserve made of 
quinces and sugar. The term is now, however, 
commonly applied to other fruit conserves made by 
cooks and confectioners. Marmalades are either 
made by pounding the pulped fruit in a mortar with 
an equal or a larger quantity of powdered white 
sugar, or by mixing them together by heat and 
passing them through a hair sieve while hot, and 
then putting them into pots or glasses. The fruit 
pulps are obtained by rubbing the fruit through a 
fine hair sieve either at once, or after it has been 
softened by boiling. When heat is employed in 
mixing the ingredients, the evaporation should be 
continued until the marmalade jellies on cooling. 
(See Conserves, Confections, Electuaries, 
Jams, and Jellies.) The following are the chief 
marmalades met with in the shops: — 

Apricot marmalade, from equal parts of pulp 
and sugar. 

Barberry marmalade, from equal parts of pulp 
and sugar. 

Citron marmalade, made as orange do. 

Marmalade of hips, from the pulp of the hips 
of rosa systyla or arvensis, and sugar, in the same 
way as the confection. 

Mixed marmalade, from plums, pears, and ap- 
ples, variously flavored to palate. 

Orange marmalade, from oranges, (either Se- 
ville or St. Michael's,) by boiling the peels in sirup 
until soft, then pulping them through a sieve, add- 
ing as much white sugar, and boiling them with 
the former sirup and the juice of the fruit to a 
proper consistence. A still finer marmalade is 
made by melting the confection of orange peel, 
P. L., either with or without the addition of orange 
juice, and passing it through a sieve. 

Candied orange marmalade, from candied or- 
ange peel, boiled in an equal weight each of sugar 
and water, and then passed through a sieve. 

Quince marmalade, (diacydonium,) from quince 
flesh, or pulp and sugar equal parts ; or from the 
juice, {miva cydoniorum, gelatina do.,) by boiling 
it to one-half, adding an equal quantity of white 
wine, and two-thirds of sugar, and gently evapo- 
rating. 

Scotch marmalade. 1. Seville orange juice 1 
quart ; yellow p(>x'l of the fruit, grated ; honey 2 
lbs. ; boil to a proper consistence. — 2. Seville or- 
anges 8 lbs. ; peel them as thinly as possible, then 
squeeze out the juice, and boll it on the yellow 



peels for 1 hour, strain, add white sugar 7 lbs., and 
boil to a proper consistence. 

Transparent marmalade. Orange marmalade, 
well strained or clarified while hot. 

Marmalade of sloes. Conserve of sloes. As- 
tringent. 

Tomato marmalade. Like apricot marmalade, 
adding a few slices of onions and a little parsley. 

Wood sorrel marmalade. (Conserva foliorum 
lujelae.) Wood sorrel leaves 1 lb. ; powdered white 
sugar 3 lbs. ; beat together in a mortar. Pleasant, 
cooling, and acidulous ; has a fine red color. 

MARSHALL'S CERATE. Prep. (CoUier.) 
Palm oil §v ; calomel §j ; sugar of lead ^ss ; oint- 
ment of nitrate of mercury §ij ; mix. 

MASSICOT. Syn. Masticot. Protoxide 
OF Lead. Ochra Plumbaria factitia. The dross 
that forms on melted lead exposed to a current of 
air, roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow color. 
Used as a pigment. (See Lead, Oxides of.) 

MASTICATORIES. Syn. Viu& Mastica- 
TORi^. Medicines taken by chewing. They are 
chiefly used as cosmetics or stimulants. 

Prep. 1. (Indian.) A mixture of betel leaf, 
areka nut, and lime. — 2. (Hartman.) Mastich and 
pellitory of Spain, equal parts. — 3. (Augustin.) 
Mastich, white wax, and ginger, equal parts. — 4. 
(Quincy.) Mastich §iij ; pellitory of Spain and 
stavesacre seeds, of each 3ij ; angelica root 3ss ; 
cubebs and nutmegs, of each 3j ; make into small 
bal'ls with white wax q. s. — 5. Opium, ginger, rhu- 
barb, mastich, pellitory of Spain, and orris root, of 
each 3j ; musk and ambergris, of each 1 gr. ; 
melted white wax or spermaceti to mix. 

MASTICHIC ACID. Syn. Soluble Mas- 
tich Resin. The portion of mastich soluble in al- 
cohol. It forms about 90£of the resin. According 
to Johnstone, it forms salts with the acids. 

MASTICINE. Syn. Neutral or Insoluble 
Mastich Resin. The insoluble portion left from 
preparing the last article. It is soluble in the alco- 
holic solution of the preceding resin. 

MATTHEW'S PILLS. Prep. Extract of 
black hellebore, powdered myrrh, Castile soap, 
opium, saffron, and oil of turpentine, equal parts ; 
beat into a mass with sirup of buckthorn. Ano- 
dyne ; alterative. Dose. 3 to 10 grs. 

MATHIEU'S VERMIFUGE. This consists 
of two electuaries ; the one for killing the worms, 
and the other for expelling them. 

Prep. 1. Tin filings §j ; fern root 3vj ; worm 
seed 3iv ; resinous extract of jalap and sulphate of 
potash, of each 3j ; honey to mix. Dose. A tea' 
spoonful every 3 hours, for 2 days. 

2. Jalap and sulphate of potash, of each 9ij ; 
scammony 9j ; gamboge 10 grs. ; honey to mix. 
Dose. A teaspoonful every three hours, until it op- 
erates well ; the preceding electuary having been 
previously taken as directed. 

MATTICO. The leaves have been employed 
with considerable success as an external styptic ; 
applied to leech-bites, and pressed on with the 
fingers, they seldom fail to arrest the bleeding. 
(Prov. Med. and Surg. Jour., June, 1842.) 

MAYDEW. Syn Ros Majalis. Collected by 
sponges off' the grass. Used as a cosmetic. 

MEAD, Syn. Vinum Hydromeli. (From 
mccde, Dut.) An old English li(juor, made from 
the combs from which the honey has been drained 



MEA 



419 



MEA 



out, by boiling in water and fermenting. It is 
commonly confounded with metlieglin. (See Me- 
THEGLiN.) Some persons add 1 oz. of hops to each 
gallon; and, after fermenting, a little brandy. It 
is then called Sack Mead. 

MEALS, RESOLVENT. (Quatuor Fari- 
NiB RfsoLVENTEs, of old pharmacy.) Barley, bean, 
linseed, and rye meals. 

MEASLES, THE. Syn. Rubeola. Mor- 
BiLLi. Symp. Feverishness, chilliness, shivering, 
head-pains, swelling and inflammation of the eyes, 
defliixion of sharp tears, with painful sensibility to 
light, oppressive cough, difficulty of breathing, 
and sometimes vomiting or diarrhoea. These are 
followed about the fourth day by an eruption of 
small red points or spots, perceptible to the touch, 
and which, after four or five days, goes off with 
desquamation of the cuticle ; but the fever, cough, 
&,c., continue for some time. 



Treat. When there are no urgent local symp- 
toms, mild aperients, autimonial diaplioretics and 
diluents should be had. recourse to ; but when the 
inflammatory symptoms are emergent, and the 
lungs are weak, especially in plethoric habits, 
blood may be taken. The cough may be re- 
lieved by expectorants, demulcents, and small 
doses of opium ; and the diarrhoea by the ad- 
ministration of the compound powder of chalk 
and opium ; the looseness of the bowels, however, 
had better uqt be interfered with, unless it be ex- 
treme. 

MEASURE. Syn. Mensura, {Lat.) The 
unit or standard by which we estimate extension, 
whether of length, superficies, or volume. Our 
notice must be confined to the imperial meeisure 
of England, and the usual French measures that 
are mentioned in works on the arts and sciences, 
or are used in prescribing. 



I. French Decimal Measures of Length. 



Names. 


Eq. in Metres. 


Inches. 


Eq. in English Measures. 


Milliinetre. ................. .... 


0-001 
0-01 
0-1 
1- 
10- 
100- 
1000-- 
10000 • 


•03937 

•39371 

3-93708 

39-37079 

393-70790 

3937-07900 

39370-79300 

393707-90000 


Miles. Fur. Yds. Feet. Inches. 
10 2 9-7 
109 1 1078 
4 213 1 10-3 
6 1 156 9-17 






Watt ^ 


Decametre 









Remarks. The unit of the above table is the 
metre, which has been determined to be 39-37079, 
at 32° F., (Capt. Kater ;) the English foot is ta- 
ken at 62° F. It may be observed that all the 
divisions and multiples are decimals, and hence 
the term decimal system has been given to these 



measures, as well as to those of a similar descrip- 
tion below. It will be perceived that the principle 
of nomenclature adopted in applying the names, 
was to prefix the Greek numerals to the decimal 
multiples, and the Latin numerals to the decimal 
subdivisions. 



II. Measures of Volume.- 



-1. Imperial Standard, and the relative value of its Divisions, including 
those used in Medicine. 



m 


f3 


f! 


o. 


Oij. 


c. 








Minims 


Fluid 


Fluid 














uf drops. 


Drachms. 


Ounces. 


Pints. 


Quarts. 


Gallons. 


Pecks. 


Bushels. 


Quarters. 


I 


0-01666666 


0-00208333 


0-00010416 


0-00005208 


0-00001302 











60 


1* 


0-125 


0-00625 


0-003125 


0-00078125 











480 


8- 


1- 


0-05 


0-025 


0-00625 











9600 


100- 


20- 


I- 


0-5 


0-125 


0-0025 


0-015625 


0-0019.53125 


19200 


320- 


40- 


2- 


1- 


0-25 


0-125 


0-03125 


0-00390625 


76800 


12R0- 


160^ 


8- 


4- 


J. 


0-5 


0-125 


0-015625 





2560- 


320 • 


16- 


8^ 


2- 


1- 


0-25 


0-03125 








1280- 


64^ 


32- 


8- 


4- 


1^ 


0-125 











512- 


256 • 


64- 


32- 


8- 


1- 



Remarks. The standard unit of the above table 
is the ga'lon, which has a capacity equal to 
277-274 cubic inches, and is capable of holding 
exactly 10 lbs. (avoird.) of distilled water at 60° 
F., and 30 inches of the barometer. It is one- 
fifth larger than the old icine gallon, and one- 
fiixtieth smaller than the old beer gallon. 

%* A TEA OR COFFEE-SPOONFUL (cochleorium 
pammm) of 
sirup contains 3j to 3ij ; 
ordinary aqueous fluids 3iss to 3ij ; 
spirits or tinctures 9j to 9iss ; 



light powders (as magnesia) 3ss to 9j ; 
heavy do. (as sulphur) 3iss to 3ij ; 
metallic oxides 3j to 9iiij. 

A DESSERT-SPOONFUL {cochlearium mediocre) of 
water 3ij. 

A TABLESPOONFUL (cochlearium magnum vel am- 
plum) of 
sirup ^ss ; 

ordinary aqueous fluids 3iij to 3iiij ; 
spirits or tinctures 3ij to 3iii 

A TfiAcuPFui (vasculum pro thea) f iij to ^iv. 



MEG 



420 



MED 



A. WINE-GLASSFUL {scyphus vcl cyuthus pro vino) 

f iss to §ij. 
A. THIMBLEFUL {clypeola metalUca pro digitis) a 

teaspoonful. 
A CUBIC INCH OF WATER woighs 252*456 grs. 



A CUBIC FOOT OF WATER wcighs 62*3206 lbs. (av ) 

A FLUID OUNCE «? WATER Contains 

1*73298 cubic inches. 



A TROY OUNCE . , 

2. French Decimal Measures of Volume. 



1-9013214 do. 



Names 


Eq. in Litres. 


Eq. in Cubic In. 


Measure. 




0-001 
0-01 
0-1 
1- 
10- 
100* 
1000- 
10000- 


0-06112 

0-61120 

6-11208 

61-12079 

611-20792 

6112-07920 

61120-79208 

611207 92080 


Gallons. Pints. 
= 1-76377 
= 2 1-4464 
= 22 0-2640 
= 220-47 
r^ 2204-71 


npntilitrp 


Decilitre 


Litre 

Decalitre 




Myriolitre 



Remarks. The standard unit in the above table 
is the litre, or the cube of the one-tenth of a 
metre. The cubic inch is calculated at 252-5 grs. 
of water at G2° F. 

*jie* The French centiare contains 1 square 
metre ; the are, 100 do.; the hectare, 10,000 do. 

tj-t The capacity of solids and aeriform fluids 
is taken in cubic inches, or feet, in England. In 
France, the stere, or metre cube, equal to 35*31658 
English cubic feet, is the standard unit. 

MECHLOIC ACID. This name has been 
given by Couerbe to the crystalline mass obtained 
by passing chlorine gas over fused meconine. It 
is purified by removing the chlorine by oxide of 
silver. Before being purified, blood red ; when 
pure, white crystals' strongly acid. 

MECONIC ACID. Syn. Acidum meconi- 
CUM, {Lot., from /iriKwv, a poppy.) A peculiar 
acid discovered in opium. Prep. Dissolve pure 
meconiate of potassa 1 part, in 21 parts of hot 
water, add 3 parts of strong muriatic acid, and 
mix well. Acid meconate of potassa is deposited 
as the solution cools, which being treated a second 
time in the same way, yields pure meconic acid. 
Meconate of lime may be substituted for the pot- 
ash salt. Its purity may be ascertained by its 
leaving no residue when heated in a platinum or 
glass capsule. 

Remarks. Meconic acid forms beautiful pearly 
scales, possessing a sour astringent taste, and i 
soluble in water and alcohol. Its solution is de- 
composed by boiling, and by animal charcoal. At 
a heat of 248° it is decomposed, and pyromeconic 
acid formed along with other products. It is 
characterized by — 1. Precipitating the sesquisalts 
of iron red, and the color not being destroyed by 
the action of corrosive sublimate. — 2. Precipitating 
a weak solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper 
green. — 3. With acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, 
and chloride of barium, it gives white precipitates. — 
4. It is not reddened by chloride of gold. The 
above precipitates are all mcconates of the given 
bases. Mkconatk oi' Lime is obtained by heating 
a solution of chloride of calcium with an infusion 
of opium made with cold water, and collecting the 
precipitate. By dissolving 1 part of this impure 
salt in a mixture of 20 parts of water, and 3 parts 
of strong muriatic acid at near 2 12°, silvery crys- 
tals of monobasic meconate of lime will be depos- 



ited as the liquid cools. (Gregory.) The meco- 
nate of potassa may be prepared by direct solution 
of the base in the impure acid obtained from me- 
conate of lime till the liquor turns green, heat be- 
ing applied, when the salt crystallizes out as the 
liquid cools ; it may be purified by pressure, and 
recrystallization. 

MECONINE, (from firjKuv, a poppy.) A white 
crystalline, odorless solid, discovered by Couerbe 
in opium. It remains in solution when an aqueous 
infusion of opium is precipitated by ammonia. It 
may be obtained by evaporation, and may be puri- 
fied by alternate solution in alcohol, water, and 
ether. It forms white prisms. It is distinguished 
from codeia and morphia by the absence of alka- 
line properties, and also from the latter by its fusi- 
bility, its greater solubility in water, and not being 
turned blue by the sesquisalts of iron. Chlorine 
gas passed over fused meconine turns it blood red. 
Neither meconine nor meconic acid appears to ex- 
ercise any important physiological action on the 
human frame. 

MEDALS, and similar objects are very conve- 
niently and accurately copied by electricity, (see 
Electrotype,) but still more quickly by the fol- 
lowing means : — Reduce recently-precipitated and 
well-washed oxide of copper by means of hydrogen 
passed over it at a gentle heat ; the operation be- 
ing conducted in a glass tube, the one end being 
left partially open to permit of the escape of the 
newly-formed water. The process should be con- 
tinued till the oxide be wholly decomposed, and the 
powder assumes a fine copper-red color, when it 
must be immediately removed, and kept in a well- 
stoppered bottle. For use, the medal is placed on 
a layer of smooth sand, at the bottom a small 
white iron cylinder, and the sifted copper powder 
poured on to the depth of about 10 or 12 lines, and 
then gently compressed with a massive iron cylin- 
der, after which the whole must be placed on an 
anvil, and struck with a heavy hammer till the 
powder is no farther compressible. The icvvly- 
formed cast is then removed from \ii.i cylinder, 
and heated to a red-white heat in a small copper 
box, well luted with clay to exclude the air, after 
which the whole is left to cool. A solid copper 
medal is thus vsry quickly obtained. The re- 
cently reduced oales of other metals may be sub- 
stituted for copp«:' G. Osann, the discoverer of 



MEL 



421 



MER 



this method, succeeded well with copper, silver, 
and lead, which were the only ones he tried. (Bib- 
Uotheque Universelle de Gen6ve, No. 82.) 

MEDECINE NOIR. A celebrated French 
nostrum, consisting of a mixture of tamarinds, man- 
na, glauber salts, and senna. 

MEDULLIN. The porous pith of the sun- 
flower. It is soluble in nitric acid. (Dr. John.) 

MEERSCHAUM, {Ger.Joam of the sea.) Syn. 
EcuME DE Mer ; Magnesie carbonatee silici- 
FERE, (Fr.) A silicated magnesia mineral. The 
fiilBst qualities are found in Greece and Turkey. 
It is used by the Tartars for washing linen. Its 
principal consumption is, however, in the manu- 
facture of tobacco-pipes. The Germans prepare 
their pipes for sale by first soaking them in tallow, 
then in white wax, and finally polishing them with 
shavegrass. Genuine meerschaum pipes are dis- 
tinguished from mock ones by the beautiful brown 
color which they assume after being smoked for 
some time. 

MEGGELLUP. Syn. Magilp. Prep. Mastich 
varnish 1 lb. ; pale drying oil 2 lbs. ; mix. Used 
by painters to apply their glazings with. It may 
be thinned by adding turpentine. Artists often 
vary the proportions according to their work. 

MELAM. A white insoluble powder discover- 
ed by Liebig. It is prepared by fusing sulpho- 
cyanide of ammonia, or a mixture of 2 parts of 
sal ammoniac, and 1 part of sulphocyanide of po- 
tassium. The residuum in the retort, after being 
washed with water, is melam. 

MELAMINE. A basic substance discovered 
by Liebig. It is prepared by dissolving melam in 
a mixture of hydrate of potassa 1 part, and water 
20 parts, evaporating till crystalline scales begin 
to form, and slowly cooling. The resulting crys- 
tals must be purified by re-solution and recrystal- 
lization. Yellow transparent crystals, soluble in 
hot water. It combines with the acids, and forms 
crystallizable acidulous salts. 

MELAMPYRINE. A tasteless, neutral, crys- 
tallizable substance, extracted by Hiinefeldt from 
vhe melampyrum nemorosum. 

MELANGALLIC ACID. Syn. Metagallic 
Acid. Obtained by distilling tannic acid by a 
quick fire till it froths, melts, and becomes black 
and solid, then dissolving in an alkali, filtering, 
and precipitating by an acid. A black powder. 

MELANIC ACID. A black powder discover- 
ed by Piria, and formed when saliculite of potassa 
is exposed to the air till it turns black. In this 
state the mass consists of acetic and melanic 
bcids. 

MELASSIC ACID. Prep. Pour a hot satu- 
rated solution of baryta, or caustic potassa or soda, 
on melted grape sugar, dissolve, and continue the 
heat till the mixture turns deep brown, then precip- 
itate with an excess of muriatic acid, and wash 
the resulting black powder, first with dilute muri- 
atic acid, and then with water. 

MELLITIC ACID. Discovered by Klaproth 
in melilite or honey stone. It may be obtained by 
boiling the powdered stone in 70 times its weight 
of water, filtering, evaporating, and crystallizing. 
It forms salts with the bases termed melilates. 

MELLON. A compound of carbon and nitro- 
gen, discovered by Liebig. It remains at the bot- 
tom of the retort, under the form of a yellow pow- 



der, when bisulphocyanide of mercury is exposed 
to heat. It may in like manner be obtained by 
exposing melam, ammeline, ammelide, or dry sul- 
phocyanogen to a red heat. It is insoluble in al- 
cohol, water, and dilute acids. It is decomposed 
by concentrated acids, alkalis, and a strong red 
heat. 

MELTING-BAG. (Dr. Breslau.) Prep. Iodide 
of potassium 10 grammes ; sal ammoniac 80 gram- 
mes ; dry, reduce each separately to fine powder ; 
mix by trituration, and enclose them in a small 
bag. As a resolvent to indolent tumors. It should 
be worn ou the part for some time. 

MENISPERMIC ACID. Boullay has applied 
this name to a crystalline substance found in coc- 
culus indicus. 

• MENISPERMINE. Syn. Menispermia, Me- 
NispERMiNA. A neutral btisic substance discovered 
by Pelletier and Couerbe in cocculus indicus. It 
may be obtained by the action of alcohol. It is 
insoluble in water. P aramenispermine is another 
similar substance, but differs from the preceding 
by not forming salts witn the acids. Neither of 
the above exercise any marked physiological ac- 
tion. 

MERC APT AN, (from its energetic action on 
mercury.) Syn. Hydrosulphuret of Sulphuret 
OF Ethule. An ethereal liquid, smelling strongly 
of garlic, discovered by Zeise. Prep. Saturate 
liquor of potassa, sp. gr. 1*28, with sulphureted hy- 
drogen, then mix it with a solution of the same 
density of sulphovinate of lime. The distilled liquid 
must be digested, first on a little chloride of cal- 
cium, and then agitated and rectified with a little 
red oxide of mercury. 

MERCURY. Syn. Quicksilver. Quik. Hy- 
drargyrus. Mercurius. Argentum vivum. Aqua 
Argentea. Aqua Metallorum. Hydrargyrum, 
(P. L. E. and D.) Mercure, Mercure coulant, 
ViF-ARGENT, {Fr.) QuECKsiLBER, {Ger.) 'X6pdp 
yvpoi, "Apyvpos xurdj, (Gr.) A liquid metal having 
a tin white color. Mercury was known to the an- 
cients. It is mentioned by Aristotle, Theophras- 
tus, Pliny, and Dioscorides, but it is not alluded 
to, either in the Old Testament or in the writings 
of Herodotus. TL ^ principal sources of this metal 
at the present time are the mines of Idria, in Car- 
niola, and Almaden, in Spain, where it exists un- 
der the form of cinnabar, from which the pure 
metal is obtained by distilling that ore with lime or 
iron filings in iron retorts, by which the sulphur it 
contains is seized and retained, while the mercury 
rises in the state of vapor, and is condensed in 
suitable receivers. Quicksilver is imported in cy- 
lindrical iron bottles, containing from ^ cwt. to 1 
cwt. each. An importation of quicksilver was re- 
cently made from China. 

Prep. Mercury, as imported, -is usually very 
pure. The Dublin College orders it to be pre- 
pared for medical purposes by putting 6 parts in- 
to a retort and distilling off four parts. The 
whole of the mercury may, however, be safely 
drawn over. A strong earthenware or iron retort, 
with a low neck or tube dipping into a basin of 
water, may be used for this purpose. One of the 
quickest and best means of purifying mercury is 
to agitate it with a concentrated solution of nitrate 
of mercury, at a heat of 104° F. 

Prop. Sp. gr about 13-6 ; freezes and ervs- 



MER 



422 



MER 



tallizes at — 39° Fahr. ; when solid it is ductile, 
malleable, and tenacious ; boils at 662° Fahr. ; 
but volatilizes slowly at the ordinary temperature of 
the atmosphere, and when mixed with water at 
from 140° to 160°, it is volatilized in considerable 
quantities. (Stromeyer.) It unites vnth oxygen, 
forming two oxides ; and with chlorine, forming 
calomel and corrosive sublimate ; with the metals 
it forms amalgams. Its oxides form salts with 
the acids. The only acids that act on metallic 
mercury are the sulphuric and nitric ; but for this 
purpose the former must be heated. 

Uses. Mercury is applied to various purposes in 
the arts ; as the amalgamation of gold and silver, 
wash gilding, the silvering of looking-glasses, the 
manufacture of barometers and thermometers, 
and in the preparation of several valuable medi- 
cines. In its metallic state it appears to be inert 
when swallowed, unless there be much acidity in 
the alimentary canal ; its salts are, however, all 
of them more or less poisonous. 

Pur. It is totally dissipated by heat, and dis- 
solved by diluted nitric acid, but is insoluble in 
boiling muriatic acid. The acid poured off, and 
allowed to cool, is neither colored, nor yields a 
precipitate with sulphureted hydrogen ; sp. gr. 
13"5. (P. L.) " A globule moved about on a 
sheet of paper yields no trail ; pure sulphuric acid 
agitated with it (in the cold) evaporates when 
heated, without leaving any residuum." (P. E.) 

Tests. 1. Metallic mercury may be detected 
by its volatility, and when in a finely-divided or 
pulverulent state, by the microscope, or by stain- 
ing a piece of copper white when rubbed on it, or 
when heated beneath it. — 2. Solutions of the 
persalts of mercury yield — with caustic alkalis, 
yellowish or red precipitates — with alkaline car- 
bonates, a brick-red one — with iodide of potassium, 
a scarlet one. — 3. The protosalts of mercury 
yield a gray or black precipitate with alkalis, — a 
yellowish or greenish-yellow one with iodide of 
potassium, — a white one with muriate of soda. — 4. 
The salts of mercury are all volatilized at a dull 
red heat — give a white precipitate with prussiate 
of potash, — a black one with sulphureted hydrogen 
and hydrosulphurets, — an orange yellow one with 
gallic acid, and — with a plate of polished copper, a 
white coat of metallic mercury. Solid bodies 
may be tested by treating them with nitric acid, 
evaporating, redissolving in water, and then pro- 
ceeding as above. 

MERCURY, ACETATE. Syn. Hydrargyri 
AcETAS, (P. D.) Do. AcETis. Prep. I. (P. D.) 
Mercury 9 parts; diluted nitric acid 11 parts; 
dissolve, .then add it _ to a boiling solution of 
acetate oT potash 9 parts, dissolved in water 100 
parts, and acidulated with distilled vinegar ; filter 
while hot, let it coll, and wash and dry the 
cryslals that are deposited. 

II (P. L. 1788.) Dissolve protoxide of mer- 
cury in strong acetic acid, concentrate so that 
crystals may form as it cools. 

Remarks. The above is the protacctate of mer- 
cury, — the peracetate is formed by dissolving the 
red oxide in strong acetic acid. They both form 
white scales : said to be one of the mildest of tiie 
mercurials. Dose. 1 gr. night and morning, 
gradually increased. The peracetate is the active 
ingredient in the celebrated Keyset's pills. (Robi- 



quet.) A lotion is made with 9j of the protacetate 
to a pint of water ; and an ointment is prepared 
by dissolving 2 or 3 scruples in an ounce of olive 
oil. (Pereira.) 

MERCURY, BROMIDES OF. The proto- 
bromide (hydrargyri bromidum) is a white in- 
soluble powder, obtained by precipitating a solu- 
tion of protonitrate of mercury by bromide of 
potassium. The hihromide (hydrargyri bibromi- 
dum) is formed by dissolving peroxide of mercury 
in hydrobromic acid. 

MERCURY, CHLORIDES OF. Prep. L 
{Chloride of Mercury. Mercurius dulcis. Hy- 
drargyrum Muriaticum mite. Drago Mitigatus. 
Aquila alba. Manna Metallorum. Panchyma- 
gogum minerale. Calomelas, P. E. and D.) See 
Calomel. 

II. {Bichloride of Mercury. Perchloride of 
do. Oxyrnuriate of do. Corrosive muriate of 
do. Chloride of do. ? Muriate of do. ? Hy- 
drochlorate of do. ? Corrosive Sublimate. White 
Mercury. Mercurius Corrosivus Sublimatus, 
P. L. 1720, 1745. Hydrar gyrus Muriatus, P. 
L. 1788. Hydrargyri Oxymurias, P. L. 1809, 
1824. Hydrargyri Bichloridum, P. L. 1836. 
Sublimatus Corrosivus, P. E. Hydrargyri 
Murisis Corrosivus, P. D. Hydrargyri Marias ? 
Do. Hydrochloras 7 Acidum Chloro-hydrargy- 
ricum. Deuto-Chlorure de mercure ; Muriate 
de mercure corrosif, Fr. Doppelt-chloric Queck- 
silber ; Aetzendes quecksilber sublimat, Ger.) 

Prep. 1. (P. L.) Mercury lb. ij ; sulphuric acid 
lb. iij ; boil together in an iron pot to dryness, and 
when cold, triturate in a mortar with common 
salt (dry) lb. iss ; then sublime with a heat gradu- 
ally raised. The Edinburgh form is similar. 

2. (P. D.) Persulphate of mercury 5 parts ; 
dried muriate of soda 2 parts : triturate and sub- 
lime as above. 

Remark. The solution of the mercury is usually 
made in an iron pot set in a furnace under % 
chimney to carry off the fumes ; and the sublima 
tion is conducted in an earthen alembic placed it 
a sand bath ; or in an iron pot, covered with a 
semispherical earthen head. Corrosive sublimate 
may also be made by the direct solution of the 
red oxide in muriatic acid, or by bringing its con- 
stituents together in the state of vapor. The 
latter plan has been recently patented. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. The corrosive sublimate ot 
commerce occurs in semitransparent white masses. 
It possesses a strong coppery taste ; is soluble in 
about 19 parts of cold and 3 parts of boiling water, 
and in 7 parts of cold and 3^ parts of boiling al- 
cohol. It is also very soluble in ether. The ad- 
dition of muriatic acid, sal ammoniac, or camphor, 
increases its solubility in all these menstrua. It 
is decomposed by contact with metals, and in 
solution by various organic substances, and by ex- 
posure to light. Dose. ^ to 1 gr. twice a day. 
It acts quickly, but (it is said) not permanently. 
It is also used externally as a lotion in some skin 
diseases. It is given in pills or solution. It is 
powerfully poisonous. 

Pur. " It sublimes entirely by heat ; and its 
powder is completely and easily soluble in sul- 
phuric ether." (P. E.) " The yellow or red 
powder precipitated from its aqueous solution by 
potash or lime water, emits oxygen by heat, and 



MER 



423 



MER 



luns into globules of mercury. It is totally solu- 
ble in water." (P. L.) 

T:sts. 1. Mixed with potash and heated in a 
glass) tube over a spirit-lamp, metallic mercury 
Bublimes and condenses in globules on the cooler 
portion of the tube. — 2. Lime water and the 
alkaline carbonates occasion a brick-red precipi- 
tate in its solution. — 3. Pure alkalis an orange or 
red one. — 4. Iodide of potassium a scarlet one. — 5. 
Sulphureted hydrogen and hydrosulpliates a black 
one. — 6. Prussiate of potash a white one. Pro- 
tochloride of tin a white one, changing into a 
grayish powder or minute mercurial globules. — 7. 
The alkaline bicarbonates either do not disturb 
the solution, or only cause a slight degree of 
opalescence. — 8. Drop the suspected solution on a 
clean piece of gold or copper, (as a coin,) and 
apply a bright key, so that it may at once touch 
the edge of the coin and the solution, when a 
hydro-electric current will be produced, and a 
white spot of reduced mercury will appear on the 
surface of the metal. (See Engraving.) 




a. A coin. -^ 

b. Drop of suspected solution. 

c. A bright key. 

*5it* The preceding tests determine the substance 
examined to be a persalt of mercury ; but by fil- 
tering the solution, acidulating with dilute nitric 
acid, and testing with nitrate of silver, we may 
readily ascertain whether it contained chlorine. 
If a cloudy white precipitate be formed, and this 
precipitate be soluble in ammonia water, but insol- 
uble in nitric acid, corrosive sublimate was present 
in the original compound. 

Ant. White of egg, hydrated protosulphuret of 
iron, and gluten, are all powerful antidotes. White 
of egg has proved efficacious in numerous cases. 
(Christison, Ure, Th^nard, &c.) It requires the 
white of one egg to decompose 4 grains of corro- 
sive sublimate. (Peschier.) The recently precip- 
itated protosulphuret of iron is, however, according 
to M. Miaihe, the antidote par excellence, not only 
to corrosive sublimate, but to the salts of lead and 
copper. The gluten of wheat has also been rec- 
ommended, (Taddei.) or what is equally effica- 
cious, wheat flour mixed up with water. When 
any of the above are not at hand, copious draughts 
of milk may be substituted. Iron filings have been 
occasionally used as an antidote. All these sub- 
stances should be taken in considerable quantities, 
and the dose should be frequently repeated. Vom- 
iting should in all cases be induced, to remove, if 
possible, the poisonous matter from the stomach. 

MERCURY, FULMINATING. Syn. Ful- 
minate. Fulminate of Protoxide of Mercury 
FuLJUiNATE of Mercury. Prep. I. (Howard.; 
Mercury 1 part; nitric acid (1"36) 12 parts; dis- 
solve, and pour the solution gradually and cau- 
tiously into alcohol of 80 to 85-§, 1 1 parts ; a gentl*' i 
heat being applied ; cool, filter, dissolve in boiling i 
wate-, and again filter ; as the solution cools, crys- i 
tals of fu'minate are deposited. I 



II. (Berzelius.) Mercury 1 purt ; n'tric acid 
(1-375) 12 parts ; dissolve, add to this s)lutiou al- 
cohol (0-85U) 16-3 parts, (at intervals ;) apply heat 
till the eftervescence and cloud of gap disjpi>ear, 
adding gradually on the action beccuiiug violent 
16-3 parts more of alcohol. Product. 112g of the 
mer'^ury employed. 

III. (Ure.) a. Mercury 100 parti ; nitric acid 
(sp. gr. 1-4) 1000 parts, (or 740 by measure ;) dis- 
solve by a gentle lieat, and when the solution has 
acquired the temperature of 130° l'\, slowly pour 
it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol (sp. gr. 
0-830) 830 parts, (or lOOO by measure ;) as soon 
as the effervescence is over, and white fumes 
cease to be evolved, filter through double paper, 
wash with cold water, and dry by steam, (not 
above 212°,) or hot water. The fulminate is then 
to be packed in 100 gr. paper parcels, and these 
stored in a tight box or corked bottle. Product. 
130§ of the weight of mercury employed. 

b. Quicksilver 1 oz. ; nitric acid (1-4) 7^ oz., 
(fluid ;) alcohol (0-830) 10 oz., (fluid.) Proceed 
as last. 

Remarks. Dr. Ure's form is not only the cheap- 
est but the best. That of Berzelius is more ex- 
pensive and dangerous. There is also " no little 
hazard in pouring the alcohol into the nitric solu- 
tion ; for at each effusion one explosive blast takes 
place ; whereas, by pouring the solution into the 
alcohol, as originally enjoined by the Hon. Mr. 
Howard, the inventor, no danger whatever is in- 
curred." (Ure.) This preparation is used for pri- 
m ng the copper percussion caps for fowling-pieces, 
muskets, &c. Dr. Ure, in his first report to the 
Board of Ordnance, recommended the use of a 
spirituous solution of gum sandarach, as the best 
substance for diluting the fulminate, and fixing it 
in the caps ; but in a subsequent report to the same 
board, he states that a solution of mastich in spirit 
is to be preferred. Less than ^ gr. of the fulminate 
is sufficient for each cap. The French use a mix- 
ture of fulminate 10 parts, and gunpowder 6 parts, 
made into a dough with water, by grinding them 
on a smooth marble table with a wooden muller. 
2^ lbs. are employed to charge upwards of 40,000 
of the French caps. 

*** The fulminate should only be dried in small 
parcels at a time, and those should be placed at a 
distance from each other. The dreadful explosion 
at Apothecaries' Hall, by which Mr. Hennel, a 
talented chemist, lost his life, was occasioned by 
the spontaneous detonation of fulminating mer- 
cury. (See the article Fllminates, in Ure's Diet, 
of Arts, &.C., which is the most practical and val- 
uable paper or. this subject in our language.) 

MERCURY, IODIDES OF. Prep. I. {lo^ 
dide of tmrcury. Protiodide of do. loduret of 
do. Hifdrargyriiodidujn,F.h. Do. ioduretum. 
Proto-iodure de mercure, Fr. Quecksilber iodurey 
Ger.) 1. (P. L.) Mercur}^ ^j ; iodine 3v ; alco- 
hol q. s. ; triturate together ; dry in the dark, and 
keep it in a well-stoppered bottle, (in the shade.) 
(See BiNiODiDE of Mercury.) 

2. Precipitate a solution of protonitrate of mer- 
cury by another of iodide of potassium ; wash and 
dry in the shade. Both the above are greenish 
yellow powders, soluble in ether. Dose ^ to 1 gr 
and upwards in pills, in scrofula, &c. It is als<» 
used externally. It is very poisonous. 



MER 



424 



MER 



II. (Biniodide of mercury. Deutiodide of do. 
Red iodide of do. Hydrargyri hiniodidum, P. 
L. & E. Deuto-iodure de mhrcure, Fr. Dop- 
pelt iodi-quecksilber, Ger.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) 
Mercury ^j ; iodine 3x ; alcohol q. s., (2 to 3 drs, ;) 
triturate till the globules of mercury disappear, 
and the mixture assumes a scarlet color, then dry 
in the shade, and place it in a well-stoppered 



2. (P. E.) Mercury ^ij ; iodine ^iss ; spirit q. s, ; 
triturate together as last, and dissolve the product 
in concentrated solution of muriate of soda 1 gal- 
lon, by brisk ebullition, filter while boiling hot, and 
wash and dry the crystals that are deposited as 
the solution cools. 

3. Precipitate a solution of corrosive sublimate, 
or pernitrate of mercury, by another of iodide of 
potassium, avoiding excess of either precipitant ; 
wash and dry as before. 

Remarks. The last is the more convenient pro- 
cess ; but the Edinburgh form gives the most 
sightly preparation. When large quantities of 
mercury and iodine are triturated together, how- 
ever carefully, so much heat is evolved that a con- 
siderable portion of the iodine is volatilized, and 
the operator nearly suffocated with the fumes, by 
which means the proportions of the ingredients be- 
come altered, and the color of the product is con- 
sequently inferior. This method should therefore 
be only adopted on the small scale. It is a bright 
scarlet powder, soluble in alcohol, and in several of 
the iodides and chlorides. Dose. One-sixteenth to 
i gr., dissolved in alcohol, or made into a pill, in 
scrofula, syphilis, &,c. It is also used externally. 

III. (Sesquiodide.) The bright yellow powder 
that forms when a mixed solution of protonitrate 
and pernitrate of mercury (the latter in excess) is 
precipitated by another of iodide of potassium. 
The precipitate should be purified by digestion in 
a concentrated solution of common salt, and then 
washed and dsied. 

MERCURY, lOD 'RETED BICHLORIDE 
OF. Syn. HyoRARGYRi Bichloridum ioduretum. 
Prep. (Lassaigne.) Add a solution of corrosive 
sublimate to an alcoholic solution of iodine till the 
color disappears, gently evaporate, and crystallize. 

MERCURY, lODO-BICHLORIDE OF. Syn. 
Hydrargyri iodo-bichloridum. Prep. (BouUay.) 
Dissolve biniodide of mercury in a solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate, and crystallize. *^* Both the 
above preparations possess considerable remedial 
powers in certain complaints, but their precise ac- 
tion and doses have not yet been determined. 

MERCURY, NITRATES OF. Prep. I. 
(Protonitrate of mercury.) Digest mercury, in 
excess, in nitric acid dilutedwith 4 times its weight 
of water until the acid is saturated, evaporate and 
crystallize, leaving a globule of mercury in the 
liquid. By re-solution in water acidulated with 
nitric acid and spontaneous evaporation, the salt 
may be obtained perfectly pure. 

II. {Pernitrate of mercury.) By dissolving 
mercury in nitric acid in excess, by a gentle heat, 
and allowing the solution to cool slowly, prismatic 
crystals of this salt are obtained. 

HI. (Sulmitrate of mercury. Dinitrate of do. 
Hydrargyri suhnitras.) Prepared by saturating 
nitric acid with mercury by heat, and then throw- 
Uijj the solution into water, and collecting and dry- 



ing the precipitate. It is also formed when the 
crystallized pernitrate of mercury is put into hot 
water. 

Remarks. This preparation is a yellow powder, 
but the shade varies according to the heat of the 
water employed to effect the precipitation. It is 
largely sold by a certain metropolitan wholesale 
drug house, at an exorbitant price, and is recom- 
mended for the extemporaneous preparation of the 
ointment of nitrate of mercury, according to the 
formula on the following label which accompanies 
each bottle : — " Hybrarg. subnitras. Two scru- 
ples of the suhnitrate of mercury mixed with one 
ounce of simple cerate, make the ung. hydrarg. 
nitrat. of the London Pharmacopoeia." 

The difference, however, between such a prep- 
aration, and the ointment of the college, must be 
very evident, not only as to its appearance, smell, 
and general properties, but also as to its actual 
strength, arguing, merely, from the weight of the 
metal contained in each. In the one, the mercu- 
ry is combined with a large excess of nitric acid, — 
in the other, the mercury exists in the state of a 
subsalt. In fact, this newly -invented unguentum 
hydrargyri nitratis, P. L. (?) possesses neither the 
quantity of mercury, nor of nitric acid, employed 
in the preparation of the latter, besides wanting 
many of its most sensible and valuable properties. 
(Cooley, Chem., iv. 374.) 

MERCURY, OXIDES OF. Prep. I. (Oxide 
of Mercury. Protoxide of do. Suboxide of do. 
Black oxide of do. Gray do. do. Ash do. do 
Pulvis Hydrargyri Cinereus. Hydrargyri Oxy- 
dum Cinereum, P. L. 1809 and 1824. Hydrar- 
gyri Oxydum, P. L. 1836. Hydrargyri Oxydum 
Nigrum, P. D. Oxide gris de Mercure, Fi 
Schwarzes gesauertes Quecksilher, Ger.) 1. (P 
L.) Calomel ^j ; lime water 1 gallon ; mix, agitate 
well, decant the clear after subsidence, wast 
with distilled water, drain, and dry ; wrapped in 
bibulous paper, in the air. 

2. (P. D.) Sublimed calomel 1 part ; water of 
caustic potash 4 parts ; triturate together, wash 
and dry as above. 

3. (Donovan and Liebig.) Briskly triturate calo- 
mel in a mortar with pure potassa in excess ; wash 
with cold water, and dry in the shade. 

Remarks. The above oxide is a very dark gray 
or black powder, rapidly suffering decomposition 
when exposed to light, becoming olive colored, 
from a portion being resolved into metallic mercury 
and binoxide. When it has a gray color (as that 
of the shops usually has) it contains undecomposed 
calomel. The beautiful 6Z«e-black or dark slate- 
blue powder prepared by decomposing calomel 
with liquor of ammonia, or a mixture of the liquors 
of ammonia and potassa, as recommended by Mr. 
Tyson in the Pharmaceutical Journal, is not pure 
protoxide of mercury, but a mixture of that oxide 
in variab'e proportions with proto-amrnonio-chloride 
of mercury, and possesses much more power than 
the pure oxide. Pure protoxide of mercury^ 
"digested for a short time in dilute muriatic acid, 
remains undissolved, and the filtered liquor is not 
affected by solution of potassa or by oxalate of am- 
monia. It is totally soluble in acetic acid, and 
entirely dissipated by heat." (P. L.) As a medi- 
cine, pure protoxide of mercury is one of the mild- 
est of the mercurials, and is used both internally 



MER 



425 



MER 



and externally, but chiefly as a fumigant, or made 
inrto an ointment. Dose. ^ gr. to 3 grs. twice a 
day. 

11. (Binoxide of Mercury. Deutoxide of do. 
Peroxide of do. Red oxide of do.) Prep. 1. 
By precipitation. {Hydrargyri Oxydum Ru- 
brum, P. L. 1824. Hydrargyri Binoxydum, P. 
L. 1836.) Bicliloride of mercury ^iv ; water 6 
pints ; dissolve and precipitate with liquor of po- 
tassa f ^xxviij ; decant, drain, wash in distilled 
water, and dry by a gentle heat. (P. L.) 

Remarks. Binoxide of mercury prepared as 
above has a bright orange red color, and usually 
contains a little combined water ; hence its readier 
solubility in acids than the oxide prepared by heat. 
" When heated sufficiently, it yields oxygen, and 
the mercury either runs into globules, or is totally 
dissipated. It is entirely soluble in muriatic acid." 
(P. L.) The preparation of the shops has fre- 
quently a brick-red color, arising from too little 
alkali being used. In medicine, binoxide of mer- 
cury is occasionally used as an escharotic, either 
in powder or made into an ointment. Dose. To 
induce salivation, \ gr. to 1 gr., combined with 
opium. 

2. By calcination. (Red precipitate per se. 
Calcined Mercury. Coagulated do. Oxide de 
Mercure rouge par le feu, Fr. Rothes Queck- 
silber oxyd, Ger. Mercurius prcEcipitatus per se. 
Mercurius calcinatus, P. L. 1745. Hydrargyrus 
calcinatus, P. L. 1788. Hydrargyri Oxydum 
Rubrum, P. D. and P. L. 1809 and 1824.) Place 
mercury in a glass vessel having a narrow mouth 
and a broad bottom, and expose it to a heat of 
about 600° F., until it is converted into red scales. 

Remarks. The above process is very tedious 
and unsatisfactc as it requires considerable at- 
tention, and generally occupies several weeks to 
complete it. The product has the form of small 
brilliant scales of a ruby red color. 

3- By calcination of Nitrate of Mercury. 
{Nitric oxide of Mercury. Red precipitate. Red 
precipitated Mercury. Mercurius prcBcipitatus 
ruber. Do. do. Corrosivus, P. L; 1720. Mercu- 
rius corrosivus ruber, P. L. 1745. Hydrargyrus 
Nitratus Ruber, P. L. 1788. Hydrargyri Nitri- 
co-oxydum, P. L. 1809, 1824, 1836. Hydrargy- 
rum oxydum Rubrum, P. E. Do. do. Nitricum, 
P. D. Oxyde Mercure rouge par VAcide Ni- 
trique, Fr. Rather pracipitatat, Ger.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Mercury lb. iij ; nitric acid lb. iss ; distilled 
water 2 pints ; mix, dissolve by heat, evaporate to 
dryness, powder, and calcine in a shallow vessel, 
with a gradually -increased heat, until red vapors 
cease to arise. 

Remarks. The processes of the P. E. and D. are 
similar, except that the Dublin College directs the 
evaporation and calcination to be performed in the 
same vessel, without powdering or stirring the 
mass. The latter process is said by Mr Barker to 
yield the finest-colored product ; but Mr. Brande 
states, that " the nitrate requires to be constantly 
stirred during the process, which is usually per- 
formed in a cast-iron pot." (Manual of Chem.) 
On the large scale the evaporation is generally 
conducted in a shallow earthen dish, and as soon 
as the mass becomes dry, a second dish is inverted 
over it, and the calcination continued without dis- 
turbance until the process is concluded. The heat 
54 



of a sand-bath is employed. 100 lbs. of mercury 
and 48 lbs. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*48, yield 112 Ibe. 
of red precipitate. (Brande.) 

Prop., Uses, <^c. Red precipitate forms bright 
red crystalline scales, and usually contains a little 
undecomposed pernitrate of mercury ; in other re- 
spects it resembles the last two preparations. It is 
more generally used as an escharotic, and in oint- 
ments, than the precipitated oxide. " Entirely 
soluble in muriatic acid." (P. E.) It is volatilized 
by heat without the evolution of nitrous vapors. 
" Neither lime water nor sulphureted hydrogen 
produce any change in water in which it has been 
boiled." (P. L.) According to Mr. Brande, it 
must contain about 2i^ per cent, of nitric acid. 

MERCURY, PHOiSPHATE OF. Syn. Hy- 
drargyri Phosphas. Prep. (Prus. Ph.) Precipi- 
tate a solution of nitrate of mercury with another 
of phosphate of soda, acidulated with nitric acid ; 
wash and dry the precipitate. 

MERCURY, SULPHATES OF. I. {Sub- 
sulphate of Mercury. Yellow do. io. Turpeth's 
mineral. Turbith^s do. Queen's yellow. Tur- 
pethum minerale. Hydrargyri subsulphas. Do. 
do. flavus. Hydrargyri oxydum sulphuricum, 
P. D. Mercurius emeticus fiavus. Hydrargyrus 
vitriolatus. Subsulphate de mercure, Fr. Gelbes 
Schwefelsdures Quecksilberoxyd, Ger.) Prep. 
1. (P. D.) Persulphate of mercury 1 part ; warm 
water 20 parts ; triturate together in an earthen 
mortar, wash well with distilled water, drain and 
dry. 

2. Dissolve mercury in an equal weight of oil of 
vitriol by boiling to dryness, fling the mass into hot 
water, and wash and dry the resulting yellow pow- 
der. 

Remarks. The heat of the water used to de- 
compose the persulphate, influences the shade of 
color. It has usually a lemon yellow color, and is 
used both as a pigment and in medicine. Dose. 
As an alterative J gr. to 1 gr. ; as an emetic 3 to 
5 grs. ; as an errhine 1 grain, mixed with a pinch 
of liquorice powder or mild snuff", and sniffed up 
the nose. It is a powerful poison. 

II. (Persulphate of Mercury. Bipersulphate 
of do. Hydrargyri Persulphas, P. D. Do. Bi- 
sulphas.) Prep. (P. D.) Dissolve mercury 6 parts 
in a mixture of sulphuric acid 6 parts and nitric 
acid 1 part, by boiling in a glass vessel, and con- 
tinue the heat until the mass becomes perfectly 
dry and white. Used to make calomel. 

Remarks. When 2 parts of mercury are gently 
heated in 3 parts of sulphuric acid, protosulphate 
of mercury is formed ; but if the solution be ef- 
fected by a strong heat, and the liquid be evapo- 
rated to dryness, a bisulphate of the peroxide 
(bipersulphate) results. Wlien this sulphate is 
thrown into hot water, decomposition ensues, and 
the yellow subsulphate of mercury is precipitated, 
and a portion of the bisulphate, together with some 
free sulphuric acid, remains in solution (Liebig.) 
Either of the above sulphates should be entirely 
volatilized by heat. 

MERCURY, SULPHURETS OF. I. (Pro- 
TOSL'LPHURET.) Prep. Transmit sulphureted hy- 
drogen through a dilute solution of nitrate of mer. 
curj^ or through water in which calomel is sus- 
pended. A black powder. This is the pure black 
sulphuret or protosulphuret. 



MES 



426 



MET 



II. (Bisulphuret of mercury. Red sulphuret 
of do. Factitious cinnabar., Vermilion. Cin- 
nabaris factitia, P. L. 1745. Hydrar gyrus auL- 
phuratus ruber, P. L. 1788. Hydrargyri bisul- 
phuretum rubrum, P. L. 1809 & 1824. Hydrar- 
gyri sulphuretum, P. L. 1836. Kiwd^apt, Gr. 
Deuiosulphure de mercure ; sulphure de mercure 
rouge, Fr. Zinnober, Ger.) Prep. (P. L.) Mer- 
cury ib. ij ; sulphur §v ; melt together, and con- 
tinue the heat till the mixture swells up, then cover 
the vessel, remove it from the heat, and when 
cold, powder and sublime. The formulae of the 
other colleges are similar. 

Remarks. Bisulphuret of mercury has a dark- 
red semi-crystalline appearance in the mass, but 
acquires a brilliant scarlet color by powdering. It 
is tasteless, odorless, and insoluble. It is chiefly 
used as a pigment ; but it is occasionally used in 
medicine as a diaphoretic and vermifuge, and in 
some cutaneous diseases, and gout. Dose. 10 fb 
30 grs. ; as a famigative 9j or 9ij thrown on a 
red-hot iron. When pure, " it is totally dissipated 
by heat ; and on potash being added to it, runs 
into globules of mercury. It is insoluble in nitric 
or muriatic acid, but dissolves in a mixture of them. 
Spirit, water, or acetic acid digested on it, acquires 
no color, nor is either of these menstrua afterwards 
affected by iodide of potassium." (P. L.) See 
Vermilion. 

MERCURY, BLACK SULPHUR ET. Syn. 
Bisulphuret of Mercury with Sulphur. Ethi- 
ops Mineral, ^thiops mineralis, (P. L. 1745.) 
Hydrargyrus cum Sulphure, (P. L. 1788.) Hy- 
drargyrum Sulphuretum nigrum, (P. L. 1824 &- 
P. D.) Hydrargyri Sulphuretum cum Sulphure, 
(P. L. 1836.) Sulphure de Mekcure noir, (Fr.) 

SCHWARZES SCHWEFELQUECKSILBER, (Gcr.) This 

is properly a mixture of bisulphuret of mercury and 
sulphur, in variable quantities. The London and 
Dublin Colleges order it to be prepared by tritura- 
ting together in a mortar equal parts of mercury 
and sulphur until globules are no longe. visible. 
On the large scale, it is generally made by melting 
the ingredients together, and afterwards reducing 
the mass to fine powder in a mill or mortar. 

Pur., Uses, ^c. Ethiops mineral is a heavy 
black powder. It is frequently imperfectly pre- 
pared, and sometimes adulterated. If it contain 
free mercury, it will stain a piece of bright copper 
or gold white when rubbed on it ; if it contain 
charcoal, blacklead, or bone black, these will re- 
main behind when it is heated. Its sp. gr. will in- 
dicate whether it contains the proper quantity of 
mercury. When pure it is totally dissipated by 
heat, (without incandescence,) no charcoal or phos- 
phate of lime being left. (P. L.) It has been said 
to be vermifuge and alterative, and has been used 
in some cutaneous and glandular diseases, but ap- 
pears to be inert. Dose 5 to 30 grs. 

MESITULE. This name has been applied by 
Kane to tbe theoretical organic radical of which 
acetone is presumed to be the hydrated oxide. 
Chloride of mesitalc is made by actir^ on acetone 
with perchloride of phosphorus ; and this com- 
pound, by the action of pure polassa water, yields 
chloride of potassium and oxide of mesifule. Mc- 
titylene is obtained with other products when 
acetone is distilled with fuming sulphuric acid. 
(Kane.) 



MESOXALIC ACID. A new acid formed 
with other products when a saturated solution of 
alloxanate of baryta or strontia is heated to the 
boiling point. It possesses but little practical im- 
portance. 

METACETONE. A colorless, ethereal liquid 
obtained by distilling a mixture of 1 part of sugar 
and 8 parts of finely-powdered quicklime at a heat 
of about 285°, and adding water to the product. 

METALDEHYDE. The volatile prismatic 
crystals that form in aldehyde when' kept at ordi- 
nary temperatures. It is soluble in alcohol. 

METALLOIDS. (From iieTaWov, a metal, and 
eiSos, form.) In Chemistry, non-metS.llic inflam- 
mable bodies, as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The 
metallic bases of the alkalis and earths have also 
been called metalloids, but are more properly- 
termed metals. 

METALS. Syn. Metaux, (Fr.) Metalle, 
(Ger.) From metallum, or neraXXov, a metal. la 
Chemistry, metals are electro-positive bodies, 
which are distinguished by their weight, lustre, 
fusibility, and pov/er of conducting electricity. All 
the metals are chemical elements. Their individ- 
ual or distinctive characters will be found described 
in their alphabetical places. 

METAMARGARIC ACID. A new acid form- 
ed along with metoleic acid by the action of sul- 
phuric acid on twice its weight of olive oil. 

METAPHOSPHORIC ACID. Prepared by 
burning phosphorus in dry air or oxygen gas, or 
heating to redness a concentrated solution of phos- 
phoric, or pyrophosphoric acid. The latter mode 
of preparation yields a hydrated acid. It produ- 
ces precipitates in solutions of most of the bases, 
which are metaphosphates. The metaphosphate 
of soda is formed when pyrophosphate of soda is 
heated to low redness. It is deliquescent. 

METHEGLIN. (From 7neth, Ger., mead.) 
Syn. Hydromel vinosum. Prep. Honey 1 cwt. ; 
water 24 gallons ; mix in a cask, and stir daily 
until dissolved, then add yeast 1 pint, and hops 1 
lb., previously boiled in water 1 gallon, along with 
water sufficient to make the whole 1 barrel ; mix 
well, and ferment. Contains on the average about 
7 to 8^ of alcohol. Mead and metheglin are fre- 
quently confounded together. 

METHIONIC ACID. A sour liquid, obtained 
from methionate of baryta, in the same way as 
isethionic acid is from isethionate of baryta. 

METHIONATE OF BARYTA. Prep. Satu- 
rate ether with anhydrous sulphuric acid, at the 
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, dilute 
with water, neutralize with carbonate of baryta, 
and when nearly about to crystallize add an equal 
bulk of alcohol ; methionate of baryta will be pre- 
cipitated, and may be purified by re-solution and 
crystallization. Resembles chlorate of potash, and 
is soluble in water. 

METHULE. The hypothetical radical of py- 
roxilic spirit. Iodide, chloride, bromide, fluoride, 
and sulphuret of methule have been formed. (See 
Pykoxilic Spirit.) 

METHULE, OXIDE OF. Syn. Hydrate of 
Metiiyline. Metiiylic Ether. Prep. Distil a 
mixture of equal volumes of pyroxilic spirit and 
oil of vitriol, and pass the evolved vapors first 
through milk of lime, and then through a series of 
Woolf's bottles, containing water. The water 



MIL 



427 



MIN 



must then be gently heated, and the gas collected 
over mercury. It may be dried and deprived of 
undecomposed pyroxilic spirit by pure potassa. 
Water absorbs 37 times its volume of this gas. 
When this gas is brought into contact with the va- 
por of anhydrous sulphuric acid, it unites with the 
latter, forming sulphate of methale. 

METHYLAL. A peculiar ethereal liquid ob- 
tained along with other products by distilling a 
mixture of pyroxilic spirit, water, oil of vitriol, and 
manganese. 

METHYLENE. A peculiar liquid hydrocar- 
bon, obtained from pyroxilic spirit. 

MICROCOSMIC SALT. Prep. Mix equal 
parts of phosphate of soda, and phosphate of am- 
monia in solution, evaporate and crystallize. A 
slight excess of phosphate of ammonia aids the 
crvstallization. Used in blowpipe assays. 

MICROSCOPE. The use of a brilliant port- 
fire has been lately adopted with considerable suc- 
cess as a substitute for the lime-light of the oxy- 
hydrogen microscope. A clear and powerful light 
may be thus produced at very little expense and 
trouble. A single microscope may be very easily 
obtained by piercing a small round hole in a slip 
of metal, and introducing into it a drop of water, 
which will immediately assume a globular form on 
each side of the metal, and possess considerable 
magnifying power. The crystalline lens of the eye 
of a,minnow may also be used. 

MILK. Syn. Lac, {Lat.) Lait, (Fr.) Milch, 
{Ger.) The value of milk as an article of food is suffi- 
ciently evident from its being alone sufficient to sup- 
port and increase the growth of the young of every 
species of mammalia ; at once supplying materials 
for the formation of the osseous, fleshy, and liquid 
portions of the body. Cow's milk, of average 
quality, contains from 10 to 12§ of solid matter 
vs^hen evaporated to drj'uess by steam heat, and 
has the mean sp. gr. 1-030 ; while that of the 
skimmed milk is about 1-035 ; and of the cream 
1-0244. (Ure.) The average cream of cow's milk 
contains 4-5§ of butter, 3-5§ of curd, and 92§ of 
whey. (Berzelius.) The skimmed milk consists 
of water 92-9g, curd 2-8§, sugar of milk 3-5§, lac- 
tic acid, lactate of potash, and a trace of lactate 
of iron 0-G§, muriate and phosphate of potash and 
earthy phosphates (lime) 0-2§. (Berzelius.) 

Milk may be preserved in stout well-corked and 
wired bottles by beating them to the boiling point 
in a water-bath, by which the small quantity of 
enclosed air becomes decomposed. Milk, or green 
gooseberries, or peas, thus treated, will keep for 2 
years. Some persons add a few grains of calcined 
magnesia to each bottle of milk before corking it. 
(See Cows, Cream, Dairy, Cheese, &lc.) 

*^* Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc ves- 
sels, as it speedily dissolves a portion of those 
metals. 

MILK, ELEPHANT'S. Syn. Urine d'Ele- 
phant. Prep. Gum benzoin 2 oz. ; rectified spir- 
its of wine 1 pint ; dissolve ; add boiling water 2^ 
pints, agitate for 5 minutes in a strong corked bot- 
tle, and when cold, strain, and add lump sugar 

MILK OF ROSES. Syn. Lac Ros^. Prep. 
I. {English.) a. Liquor of potassa, oil of almonds, 
and hot water, of each 1 oz. ; agitate till perfectly 
mixed ; then add rose water 3 oz. ; and again agi- 



tate well. — b. To the last add orange-flower watei 
i oz. — c. To either the first or second add essence 
of bergamot 1 dr. — d. Blanched Jordan almonds 4 
oz. ; oil of almonds, Castile soap, and white wax, 
of each ^ oz. ; spermaceti 1 dr. ; make an emul- 
sion with rose water 1^ lb.; strain, and add oil of 
lavender 15 drops, dissolved in rectified spirit 8 oz. : 
mix. This keep? well. — e. Either of the last mti/ 
be diversified by adding a little tincture of benzoin, 
or bitter almonds, or by substituting elder-flower 
water for rose water. 

II. (French.) Rose water 1 quart ; tinctures of 
benzoin and storax, of each 1 oz. ; spirit of roses ^ 
oz. ; rectified spirit 2 oz. ; mix. 

III. (German.) Solution of diacetate of lead 
(P. L.) and spirits of lavender, of each 1 oz. ; rose 
water 6 oz. ; soft water 1 pint ; mix. 

Remarks. All the above are used as cosmetic 
washes. 

MINCE MEAT. (In Cookery.) Prep. Stoned 
raisins, currants, sugar, and suet, of each 2 lbs. ; 
sultana raisins, boiled beef, (lean and tender,) of 
each 1 lb. ; apples 4 lbs. ; juice of 2 lemons ; the 
rind of one lemon chopped very fine ; mixed spice 
^ lb. ; candied citron and lemon peel, of each 2 oz. ; 
brandy a glass or two ; chop the whole very fine. 
It may be varied by adding other spice or flavor- 
ing, and the addition of eggs, or the substitution of 
chopped fowl or veal for beef, according to fancy 

MINERAL MARMORATUM. I. Anhy- 
drous phosphoric acid 48 grs. ; pure caustic lime 52 
grs. ; both finely pulverized ; mix rapidly in a mortar. 

*^* This powder soon becomes moist ; it must 
therefore be brought as quickly as possible into the 
cavity of the tooth, which has been cleaned and 
dried ; the powder is to be well pressed into the 
cavity, smoothed off, and moistened on its surface. 
It is white and durable, and soon acquires great 
hardness. In its composition it resembles the nat- 
ural earthy matter of the teeth. (Lancet.) 

II. Mix a little finely-powdered glass with some 
mineral succedaneum. (No. II.) Inferior to the 
last, and dark colored. 

MINERAL METALLIC CEMENT. Prep. 
Add finely-levigated steel filings to some mineral 
succedaneum. (No. II.) Used to fill hollow teeth. 
Dark colored ; inferior to the mineral marmora- 
tum. 

MINERAL SUCCEDANEUM. Prep. L 
Heat gold in a bright iron ladle, and add enough 
pure mercury to render it of a doughy consistence 
at the heat of hot water. For use, a little must be 
kneaded as hot as possible in the hand and wedged 
into the cavities of the teeth. Keeps its color 
well. 

II. A mixture of tinfoil and quicksilver. As last. 
Turns dark. All the above are used by dentists. 

MINIUM. Syn. Red Lead. Red Oxide of 
Lead. Minium, (Fr.) Mennage, (Ger.) Plumbi 
oxYDUM RuBRuM, (Lat.) Prep. The best red lead 
is prepared by exposing ground and elutriated nias- 
sacot, or dross of lead, in shallow iron trays, (about 
12 inches square, and about 4 or 5 inches deep,) 
piled up on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, 
to a heat of about 600 to 650°, and occasionally 
stirring about till it acquires the proper color. The 
furnace employed for the preparation of massicot 
during the day, usually po>sesses sufficient residu- 
ary' heat durLig the night for this process, by which 



MIX 



428 



MIX 



fuel is saved. Lead for the above purpose should 
be as pure as possible. Used as a pigment, and 
to make plasters. 

MITfLRIDATIUM. Syn, Confectio Damo- 
GRATIS, (P. L. 1746.) This consisted of no fewer 
than foriy-five ingredients, and contained 1 gr. of 
opium in each fss. 

MIXTURE. Syn. Mistura, {Lat.) (In 
Pharmacy.) A compound liquid medicine, taken 
in divided doses. Mixtures are usually extempo- 
raneous preparations, and in prescribing them, care 
should be taken not to bring together substances 
that decompose each other, nor to order heavy 
powders that speedily separate by subsidence. 
Emulsions, juleps, and mucilages, are included un- 
der this head in the last edition of the London 
Pharmacopoeia. Mixtures are usually dispensed in 
flat octagonal G or 8 oz. bottles, with long necks, 
or in regular octagons, with short necks, having 
the doses marked on the glass, to which the strength 
j)f the medicine is made to correspond. (See 
Draughts, Emulsions, Juleps.) 

MIXTURE, ALKALINE. Syn. Mistura 
Alkalina. Prep. Liquor of potassa 3iss ; tincture 
of opium 3j ; spirit of nutmeg 3ij ; water §vss ; 
mix. Anodyne and antacid. Dose. 1 to 2 table- 
epoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day in flatulence, dyspep- 
sia, heartburn, «&c. 

MIXTURE, ALMOND. Syn. Milk of Al- 
monds ; Emulsion of do. M. Amygdala, (P. L.) 
M. Amygdalarum, (P. E. and D.) Lac Amyg- 
dalae. Prep. I. (P. L.) Confection of almonds 
^iiss ; distilled water 1 pint ; gradually mix, tritu- 
rating all the time in a mortar, then strain through 
linen. 

II. (P. E.) Sweet almonds f ij 3ij ; blanch, add 
white sugar ^v ; beat to a smooth paste, further 
add mucilage f ^ss, (or powdered gum 3iij ;) mix 
well, then triturate with water 1 quart, gradually 
added, and strain. 

III. (P. D.) Blanched sweet almonds 3iss ; do. 
bitter almonds 3ij ; sugar §ss ; water §xxxij. 

IV. (Pereira.) Blanched sweet almonds 3iv ; 
powdered gum 3j \ white sugar 3ij ; water f §viss. 

Remarks The last formula produces the article 
usually employed in dispensing in the shops. The 
addition of a little more sugar renders it pleasanter ; 
and a small quantity of bitter almonds, as in the 
Dublin form, or a drachm or two of rose or orange- 
flower water, may occasionally be added to diver- 
fiify the flavor. Dose. 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls ad li- 
bitum, as a demulcent and emollient in coughs and 
colds, or as a vehicle for more active medicines. 

MIXTURE, AMMONIA. Syn. M. Ammo- 
nite carbonatis. Prep. (St. B. H.) Carbonate 
of ammonia 9ij ; pimento water f §iv ; pure water 
f §vj ; mix. Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 3 or 4 
times a day, in heartburn, dyspepsia, headache, 
&c., accompanied by lowness of spirits. 

MIXTURE, ACETATE OF AMMONIA. 
Syn. M. Ammoni « Acetatis. Prep. A solution 
of acetate of ammonia ^iss ; nitre 9ij ; camphor 
mixture §vj ; rose sirup §ss ; mix. Dose. 1 to 3 
tablespoonfuls every third or fourth hour, as a dia- 
phoretic in inflammatory fevers, «fec. 

MIXTURE, AMMONIACUM. Syn. Milk 
of Ammoniacum. Emulsion of do. Lac Ammo- 
NiACL M. Ammoniaci, (P. L. and D.) Prep. (P. 
L.) Ammoniacum 3v ; water 1 pint ; gradually 



mix, by trituration, and strain through linen. Dose. 
f fss to f^j, either alone or combined with squills 
or ipecacuanha, as an expectorant and demulcent 
in chronic coughs, humoral asthma, «fcc. 

MIXTURE, ANODYNE. Syn. M. Anody- 
NA. Julep Calmans. Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Sirup 
of opium 3ij ; sirup of orange flowers 3vj ; lettuce 
water §iv ; mix. To allay pain, induce sleep, &c. 

II. Prepared chalk 3ij ; sirup of poppies ^j ; 
fetid spirit of ammonia 3iss ; oils of dill and ani- 
seed, of each 3 drops ; water ^ivss ; mix. Dose. 
A teaspoonful 3 or 4 times a day, in the diarrhoea 
of infants accompanied with pain. 

MIXTURE, ANTACID. Syn. M. Antaci- 
DA. Prep. I. (Ryan.) Solution of potassa f 3ij ; 
lime water f ^viij ; calcined magnesia 3j ; oil of 
peppermint 5 drops ; tinct. of opium f 3j ; mix. 
Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls 3 or 4 times daily in 
dyspepsia, heartburn, acidity, «fec. 

II. (Collier.) — a. Prepared chalk 3ij ; compound 
tincture of cardamoms §iss ; tincture of ginger f 3ij ; 
pimento water fvj ; mix. Stimulant, antacid. 
Dose. 2 tablespoonfuls every second or third hour, 
in diarrhoea accompanied with acidity, after sur- 
feits, &c. — h. Chalk mixture f^v; tinctures of cv 
techu and cinnamon, of each §ss ; mix. Dose. 
1 or 2 tablespoonfuls after every liquid dejection in 
diarrhoea. 

MIXTURE, ANTICROUPAL. Syn. M. Se- 
neg^. Prep. (Jadelot.) Infusion of senega §iv ; 
sirup of ipecacuanha 3j ; oxymel of squills 3iij ; 
tartarized antimony 1^ grs. ; mix. Dose. By 
spoonfuls in croup. 

MIXTURE, ANTI-EPILEPTIC. Syn. M. 
Anti-epileptica. Prep. (M. Lemoine.) Liquor 
of ammonia 12 drops ; sirup of orange flowers ^j ; 
distilled water of Linden flowers ^ij ; do. of cherry 
laurel §ss ; mix. According to M. Lemoine, this 
is a specific in epilepsy. 

MIXTURE, ANTIHYSTERIC. Syn. M. 
Antihysterica. Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Sirup of 
wormwood ^j ; tincture of castor 3ss ; valerian 
water and orange-flower water, of each ^ij ; ether 
3j ; mix. 

II. Asafoetida 3j ; peppermint water f vj ; tritu- 
rate together, then add ammoniated tincture of 
valerian 3ij ; tincture of castor 3iij ; sulphuric ether 
3iss ; mix. Dose, ^ss, 3 or 4 times daily. 

MIXTURE, ANTISCROFULOUS. Syn. 
M. Antisgrofulosa. Prep. Tincture of bichloride 
of gold 30 drops ; tincture of iodine 40 drops ; 
tincture of gentian 3j ; simple sirup 3vij ; rose 
water ^v ; mix. Dose. A dessert-spoonful 2 or 3 
times daily, observing to shake the bottle before 
pouring out the liquid. *^* The writer of this 
article has seen repeated instances of the excellent 
effects of this medicine in scrofula, syphilis, and 
various glandu'ir diseases. 

MIXTURE, ANTISPASMODIC. Syn. M. 
ANTispASMODicA. Prep. I. (Collier.) a. Asafoetida 
and camphor mixturws, of each f ^iiss ; tincture of 
valerian f ^j ; niix. Dose. 1 tablespoonful every 
third or fourth hour. h. Fetid spirit of ammonia, 
sirup of saffron, and tincture of valerian, of each 
f3iij ; camphor mixture f^viss; mix. Dose. 2 or 
3 tablespoonfuls as above. 

II. Tincture of castor 3j ; sulphuric ether and 
laudanum, of each 10 drops ; cinnamon water 
f f iss ; mix for a dose, to be taken thrice a day. 



MIX 



429 



MIX 



III. Volatile tincture of valerian, and tincture 
of castor, of each 3v ; tincture of henbane 3ij ; 
peppermint water and camphor mixture, of each 
^iiiss ; mix. Dose 1 tablespoonful 3 or 4 times a 
day. 

MIXTURE, APERIENT. Syn. M. Ape- 
RiENs. Prep. I (Abernethy.) Epsom salts 3iv ; 
manna 3ij ; infusion of senna f3\j ; tincture of 
senna f3ij ; spearmint water f^j ; pure water f^ij ; 
mix. Dose. A wine-glaissful or more. (See Black 

Dh AUGHT.) 

II. (Collier.) Sulphate of iron 3j ; Epsom salts 
5j ; pennyroyal water 1 pint ; dissolve. Dose. A 
wine-glassful twice a day in atonic amenorrhcea. 

MIXTURE, AROMATIC. Syn. M. Aro- 
MATiCA. Potion atiomatique, {Fr.) Prep. I. (P. 
Cod.) Sirup of clove-gillyflower §j ; spirits of 
cinnamon 5iv ; confection of hyacinth 3ij ; pep- 
permint and orange-flower water, of each §ij ; 
mix. 

II. (St. B. H.) Aromatic confection 3iiss ; pure 
water f ^v ; pimento water f ^iij ; mix. An ex- 
cellent aromatic in diarrhoea, heartburn, flatulence, 
acidity, &,c. Dose. A tablespoonful or two every 
2 or 3 hours. 

MIXTURE, ARSENICAL. Syn. M. arse- 
NiCALis. Prep. Liquor of arsenite of potassa, P. 
L. 3iij ; compound tincture of cardamoms 3v ; cin- 
namon water ^iij ; pure water §iv ; mix. Dose. 
^ss twice a day after a full meal, in agues, peri- 
odic headaches, lepra, psoriasis, chronic rheTima- 
tism. «fcc. *5t* It should be exhibited with cau- 
tion, and its effects watched. 

MIXTURE, ASAFCETIDA. Syn. Milk of 

ASAFCETIDA. M. AsAFCETID^, (P. L. (fe D.) LaC 

DO. Prep. (P. L.) Asafoetida 3v ; water 1 pint ; 
mix gradually, triturating all the while. The 
Dublin College orders only half the above quantity 
of asafoetida, and pennyroyal instead of pure wa- 
ter. Stimulant and antispasmodic. Dose, i to 
li oz., chiefly in hysteria. It is also used as an 
enema in flatulent colic, worms, hooping-cough, 
and convulsions of children. 

MIXTURE, ASTRINGENT. Syn. M. as- 
TRiNGENs. Prep. I. (Thomson.) Extract of ca- 
techu 3ij, (or tincture §j ;) cinnamon water §viij ; 
dissolve. Dose. 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls after every 
liquid dejection, in diarrhoea or dysentery. 

II. (Pradel.) Tannin 12 grs. ; tincture of rha- 
tany 3j ; simple sirup 3vij ; mucilage §j ; camphor 
mixture ^iv : mix. As last. 

MIXTURE, ATROPHIC. Syn. M. atro- 
PHicA. Prep. (Majendie.) Iodide of potassium 
3iv ; lettuce water ^viij ; peppermint water 3ij ; 
sirup of marshmallow ^j ; mix. 

MIXTURE, BALSAM OF PERU. Syn. 
M. Balsami Peruvian-!. Prep. Strained honey 
and balsam of Peru, of each 3ij ; mix by tritura- 
tion, and add gradually decoction of liquorice §vj, 
aromatic sulphuric acid 20 drops, tincture of 
orange-peel §ss ; mix well. Dose. 1 to 2 table- 
spoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day in debility. 

MIXTURE, BARLEY. Syn. M. Hordei, 
(P. E.) The same as the compound decoction of 
barlev, P- L. (See Decoctions.) 

MiXTURE, BRANDY. Syn. M. Spiritus 
ViNi Gallici, (P. L.) Egg Flip, (vulgo.) Prep. 
Brandy and cinnamon water, of each f ^iv ; yelks 
of 2 eggs ; white sugar ^ss ; oil of cumamon 2 



drops ; mix. A valuable stimulant and restorative 
in low fevers, and extreme exhaustion from hemor- 
rhages, &c. Dose. I to 3 tablespoonfuls occa- 
sionally. " Did the College practically test the 
quality of their ' egg-hot' before deciding q,a the 
formula?" 

MIXTURE, BRUCINE. Syn. M. Brucia 
PoTio stimulante. Prep. (Majendie.) Pure 
brucia 5 grs.; white sugar 3ij ; water f^ij ; mii 
carefully. Dose. ^ to a whole tablespoonful night 
and morning. 

MIXTURE, CAMPHOR. Syn. Camphor 
Julep. Do. Water. M. CAMPHORiE, (P. L. E. & 
D.) Prep. (P. L.) Camphor 3ss ; rectified spirit 10 
drops ; triturate together, then gradually add wa- 
ter 1 pint ; triturate and strain. The Edinburgh 
College orders camphor 9j ; sugar and sweet al- 
monds, of each ^ss ; water 1 pint. Dose. 2 to 4 
tablespoonfuls. It is chiefly used as a vehicle for 
other medicines. 

MIXTURE, CAMPHOR AND MAGNE- 
SIA. Syn. M. Camphors CUM Magnesia. Prep. (P. 
E.) Camphor 10 grs., (12 grs. P. D. ;) carbonate 
of magnesia 25 grs., (3s3 P. D. ;) triturate together, 
then add gradually water ffvj, still continuing the 
trituration. Antacid, antispasmodic, and anodyne. 
Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls. Used without strain- 
ing. 

MIXTURE, CAPSICUM. Syn. M. Capsicl 
Prep. (Collier.) Tincture of capsicum f 3ij ; infu- 
sion of roses f ^vj ; mix. Stimulant in dyspepsia, 
&c. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls half an hour be- 
fore dinner. 

MIXTURE, CARMINATIVE. Syn. M. 
Carminativa. Prep. (Dr. Paris.) Calcined mag- 
nesia 3ss ; peppermint water f 3iiss ; compound 
tincture of lavender f 3ss ; spirit of caraway f 3iv ; 
sirup of ginger f 3ij ; mix for 1 or 2 doses. An- 
tacid and carminative. 

MIXTURE, CASCARILLA. Syn. M. Cas- 
CARiLL^ composita, (P. L.) Prep. Infusion of 
cascarilla f §xvij ; vinegar of squills f ^j ; com- 
pound tincture of camphor f fij ; mix. Dose, f^j 
to f ^iss 2 or 3 times a day in chronic cough and 
asthma, and in the catarrh of elderly people. 

MIXTURE, CASTOR OIL. Syn. M. Ri- 
ciNi. Emulsio purgans. Prep. (P. Cod.) Castor 
oil 5j ; yelk of 1 egg ; peppermint water ^ss ; sirup 
§j ; pure water ^ij j make an emulsion. One of 
the best ways of exhibiting castor oil to persons 
who dislike it. 

MIXTURE, CATHARTIC. Syn. M. Ca- 
thartica. Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Sulphate of 
potash 3ij ; water f §vss ; tincture of jalap f 3iv ; 
mix. Dose. 2 tablespoonfuls every 2 hours. 

MIXTURE, CHALK. Syn. Cretaceous 
Mixture. M. Cret.«, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Prepared chalk ^ss ; sugar 3;ij ; gum mix- 
ture (mucilage) f ^iss ; triturate, then add cinna- 
mon water f^xviij; mix. The Ed. Ph. orders 
spirit of cinnamon f ^j to the above quantity. An- 
tacid, absorbent. Dose. 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, 
either alone or combined with aromatic confection, 
in heartburn, and in diarrhoea after every liquid 
motion. 

MIXTURE, CINCHONA. Syn. Bark Mix- 
ture. M. Cinchonas. Prep. I. (Copland.) Con- 
fection of red roses 3ss ; boiling decoction of bark 
f Jviij ; triturate, in 10 minutes straui, and add di- 



MIX 



430 



MIX 



luted sulphuric acid 3iss ; spirit of nutmeg 3iv ; 
shake well. Febrifuge, tonic, and stomachic. 
Dose. 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day. 

II. To the last add Epsom salts §ss ; Dose and 
uses as last. Slightly aperient. 

MIXTURE, COPAIBA. Syn. M. Copaib^. 
Prep. I. (Guy's H.) Balsam of copaiba 3iij ; li- 
quor of potassa 3iss ; triturate together, and grad- 
ually add barley-water, §viij. One of the best 
ways of exhibiting this drug. 

II. (St. B. H.) Balsam of copaiba f 3iij ; muci- 
lage f §iij ; triturate together, and make an emul- 
sion with pimento water f §ij ; pure water ff iv. 
Dose. Of either of the above, 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls 
3 or 4 times a day, in diseases of the urinary or- 
gans, &-C. 

MIXTURE, COPAIBA AND OLIBANUM. 
Syn. M. Copaiba cum Olibano. Prep. (P. C.) 
Balsam of copaiba §ss ; olibanum 3ij ; mucilage 
§iss ; honey §j ; cinnamon water ^v. As last. 

MIXTURE, COPAIBA, (VINOUS.) Syn. 
M. Copaiba vinosa. Prep. (Fuller.) Copaiba 
§ij ; yelks of 2 eggs ; triturate together, add sirup 
of tolu ^ij ; again mix well, then further add white 
mxiQ f fiv. Dose. A dessert-spoonful 3 or 4 times 
I day. 

MIXTURE, COSMETIC. Syn. M. Cos- 
METiCA. Prep. Oil of almonds, and oil of tartar, 
of each f ij, (or liquor of potassa f iij ;) rose water 
§v ; mix well. Used to clear the complexion. 

MIXTURE, CREOSOTE. Syn. M. Cre- 
AsoTi. M. Creazoti, (P. E.) Prep. Creosote 
and acetic acid, of each 16 drops; mix, then add 
compound spirit of juniper and sirup, of each f fj ; 
water f^xiv; agitate well together. Dose, f^j 
to f §ij in vomiting, especially to relieve or prevent 
sea-sickness. 

MIXTURE, CREOSOTE, (ALKALINE.) 
Syn. M. Creasoti alkalina. Prep. (Allnatt.) 
Creosote and solution of potassa, of each 3j ; 
white sugar 3ij ; triturate together, then add 
camphor mixture f ^vj ; mix well. 

MIXTURE, CUBEBS. Syn. M. Cubeb^. 
Prep. (Fr. H.) Powdered cubebs ^j, (or essence 
^ss ;) sirup and mucilage, of each ^iss ; triturate, 
then add cinnamon water f§vj. Dose. 2 table- 
spoonfuls in certain diseases of the urinary organs. 

MIXTURE, CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
Syn. M. PoTASSii Iodidi. Prep. Cyanide of 
potassium 1 gr. ; sirup §j ; water §v ; mix. Dose. 
1 dessert-spoonful. 

MIXTURE, DEMULCENT. Syn. M. De- 
MULCENs. Prep. I. (Collier.) Mucilage §j ; oil 
of ahiiouds and sirup of tolu, of each ^ss ; triturate, 
and add water f §vj ; mix well. 

II. (Thomson.) Decoction of marshmallow 
ffvj; sirup f ^j ; mix. 

III. Spermaceti 3ij ; yelk of 1 egg; triturate, 
add sirup ^j ; mucilage §ss ; cinnamon water ^ij ; 
pure water ^'v ; mix well. Ditse. Of each of the 
above 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls ad libitum ; in coughs, 
hoarseness,' calculus, irritation of the urinary 
organs, &c. 

MIXTURE, DIAPHORETIC. Syn. M. 
DiAPiioiurncA. Prep. Solution of acetate of am- 
monia ,^iij ; antimonial wine 3ij ; laudanum 3j ; 
camphor mixture ^iij j rn'x* Dose. 1 to 2 table- 
■poonfnls, in fevers, &c. 

IL To the last add sweet spirits of nitre ^ss. 



MIXTURE, DIARRHCEA. Syn. M. pro 
DiARRH(EA. Prep. Aromatic confection ^ss ; 
tincture of opium 3iss ; tincture of cardamoms 
(comp.) 3iiss ; peppermint or cinnamon water f v ; 
mix. Dose. 1 tablespoonful f,fter every liquid 
stool. 

MIXTURE, DIURETIC. Syn. M. Diuretica. 
Prep. I. (Guy's H.) Nitre 3iij ; peppermint 
water ^xss ; sweet spirits of nitre f 3iij ; lemon 
sirup §j ; mix. 

II. Infusion of digitahs ^vss ; tincture of di- 
gitalis 3ss ; acetate of potassa 3ij ; spirit of juniper 
§ss ; laudanum 3j ; mix. Dose. 1 to 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; in dropsy. 

MIXTURE, ELATERIUM. Syn. M. 
Elaterii. Prep. (Collier.) Elaterium 1 gr. ; 
soft extract of liquorice 3j ; triturate, and add 
gradually water (warm) f^vj. Dose. 1 to 2 
tablespoonfuls every 2 hours ; in dropsy, &:,c. 

MIXTURE, EMETIC. Syn. M. Emetica. 
Prep. I. — a. (Thomson.) Tartarized antimony 
8 grs. ; sirup of mulberries 3j ; water f §vj , -aix, 
and dissolve. — h. Ipecacuanha 3ss ; tartarized 
antimony 1 gr. ; tincture of squills f 3j ; water 
f §vj ; mix. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls, repeated 
every \ of an hour till vomiting be induced ; in 
dropsy, before exhibiting fox-glove. 

II. (Copland.) Sulphate of zinc 3ij ; ipe- 
cacuanha wine and tincture of serpentary, of 
each f3iv; tincture of capsicum 40 drops ; oil of 
chamomile 12 drops; peppermint water f^ivss; 
mix. An excitant emetic. 

MIXTURE, EMETINE. Syn. M. Eme- 
TiN^E. Melange Vomitif. Prep. (Majendie.) 
Pure emetine 1 gr., (or colored 4 grs. ;) acetic 
acid 8 drops ; sirup of marshmallow and orange- 
flower water, of each f §j ; pure water f §iss ; mix. 
Emetic. Dose. A dessert-spoonful, repeated at 
short intervals, till it operates. 

MIXTURE, EMMENAGOGUE. Syn. M. 
EiAiMENAGOGA. Prep. I. Compound steel mixture 
§iij ; cinnamon water fvj ; mix. Dose. 2 table- 
spoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day. 

II. Tinctures of sesquichloride ofiron and aloes, 
(comp.,) of each fss ; tincture of castor 3ij ; spirit 
of pimento 3ij ; chamomile infusion §v ; mix. 
Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

MIXTURE, ETHER AND TURPENTINE. 
Syn. M. ^THERis cum Terebinthina. Prep. 
(Orfila.) Sulphuric ether 3j ; oil of turpentine 
3ij ; white sugar 3iv ; triturate and add gradually 
water f ij. Dose, f 3ij every 15 minutes ; in 
poisoning b)^ nux vomica. 

MIXTURE, EXPECTORANT. Syn. M. 
ExPECTORANs. Prep. I. (Thomson.) Almond 
mixture f ^v ; ipecacuanha and tincture of squillsi 
of each f 3j ; sirup of tolu f 3vj ; mix. Dose. 1 
tablespoonful ; in humoral asthma, catarrh, «fcc., 
when the cough is urgent. 

II. (Collier.) Oxymel of squills and mucilage, 
of each §j ; sirup of marshmallows ^ij, (camphor 
julep §iij ;) mix. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls 2 
or 3 times a day ; in coughs, hoarseness, asth- 
ma, (fee. 

MIXTURE, FEBRIFUGE. Syn. M. Feb- 
RiFUGA. (See Mixture, Diaphoretic.) 

MIXTURE, GENTIAN, (compound.) Syn, 
M. Gentians CoMPOsiTA. Prep. {?. h.) Cira- 
pound infusion of gentian fsxij; compound in- 



iMIX 



431 



MIX 



fusion of senna f fvj ; compound tincture of carda- 
moms f ^ij ; mix. Tonic, stomachic, and aperient. 
Dose. 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls, in dyspepsia ac- 
companied with constipation. 

MIXTURE, GUAIACUM. Syn. M.Guaiaci. 
(P. L. & E.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Gum guaiacum 
3iij ; sugar ^ss ; triturate together, add mucilage 
f^ss, again triturate and further add cinnamon 
water ^'^xix; mix well. Dose. 1 to 3 table- 
spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day ; in chronic rheu- 
matism, gout, &LC. 

II. {Alkaline.) Guaiacum and quicklime, of 
each 1 oz. ; triturate together, and add water 1 
pint. 

III. {Ammoniated.) Guaiacum 3ij ; carbonate 
of ammonia 3iiss ; barley water ^viij. Dose. 1 to 
2 tablespooufuls 2 or 3 times a day. 

MIXTURE, GUM. Syn. Mucilage. Mu- 
cilage DE GOMME ArABIQUE, {Fv.) ScHLIEIM DE 

Arabicue Gummi, {Ger.) Mucilago, (P. E.) 
MisTURA Acacia, (P. L.) M. Gummi Arabici, 
(P. D.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Powdered gum acacia 
§x ; boiling water 1 pint ; rub together till dis- 
solved. The P. E.. & D. order the gum un- 
powdered. Used to render oily and resinous sub- 
stances iniscible with water. " Oils require | 
their weight ; balsams and spermaceti, equal 
parts ; resins 2 parts ; and musk, 5 times its 
weight," for this purpose. (Montgomery.) 

II. (M. AcacicB. P. E.) Mucilage f 3iij ; 
sweet almonds (blanched) ^j 3ij ; white sugar 3v ; 
water a quart ; make an emulsion or mixture, 
and strain through calico. Dose. 2 to 3 table- 
spoonfuls, as a demulcent and emollient, ad 
libitum, in coughs, &c. See Almond Mixture. 

MIXTURE, HARTSHORN. Syn. Harts- 
horn Drink. M. Cornu usti. Prep. Burnt 
hartshorn ^'j ; gum §j ;■ water 2^ pints ; boil to 
fxxxij, and strain. Demulcent. Dose. 2 to 3 
tablespoonfuls ad libitum, in coughs, hoarseness, 
&c. 

MIXTURE, HEMLOCK. Syn. M. Conii 
CoMP. Prep. (Copland.) Extract of hemlock 
3ss ; carbonate of soda 45 grs. ; decoction of li- 
quorice f^vss ; spirt of pimento f3iij;mix. Dose. 
1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, in hooping-cough and pul- 
monary irritations. 

MIXTURE, HOOPING-COUGH. Syn. M. 
CuPRi Sulphatis. Prep. (Chevasse.) Sulphate 
of copper 1 gr. ; aniseed water §iij ; sirup of pop- 
pies ^j ; mix. Dose. 40 drops to 3ij. 

MIXTURE, IODINE. Syn. M. Iodinil 
(Cum Decoct. Grarninis. lodureted Dog's 
Grass.) Prep. I. (Majendie.) Decoction of 
dog's grass §xxxij ; iodide of potassium 3j ; orange 
sirup |ij ; mix. 

II. {Cum Sarza.) Prep. (Majendie.) De- 
coction of sarsaparilla ^xxxij ; iodide of potassium 
3j ; orange sirup §ij ; mix. Both the above may 
be taken in doses of 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls 3 or 4 
times a day, in the usual cases in which iodine is 
administered. 

MIXTURE, MAGNESIA, (BICARBON- 
ATE.) Syn. M. Magnesia Bicarbonatis. 
Prep Liquid magnesia (Dinneford's or Mur- 
ray's) ^vj ; orange sirup, sirup of ginger, and 
compound tincture of cardamoms, of each 3ij ; 
aromatic spirit of ammonia f 3vj ; mix. Dose. 1 
to 3 tablespoonfuls every 2 or 3 hours in acidity, 



dyspepsia, heartburn, lowness of spirits, &c. An 
excellent medicine. 

MIXTURE, MARSHMALLOW. Syn. M. 
Alth^^. Prep. (P. E.) Marshmallow root 
^iv ; stoued raisins §ij ; water 5 pints ; boil to 3 
pints, and strain through linen. Demulcent 
Dose. A few spoonfuls ad libitum, so as to lake 1 
to 3 pints in the 24 hours ; in strangury, calculus, 
coughs, &-C. 

MIXTURE, MUSK. Syn. M. Moscm 
Prep. (P. L.) Musk, powdered gum, and sugar, 
of each 3iij ; triturate well together, then add 
gradually, rose water 1 pint, still continuing the 
trituration. Each fluid ounce contains 9 grains 
of musk. Dose. 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls, as a stimu- 
lant, antispasmodic, and anodyne ; in hysteria, 
epilepsy, chorea, tetanus, low fevers, &/C. 

MIXTURE, MYRRH. Syn. M. Myrrhs. 
Prep. (Copland.) Myrrh 3iss ; add gradually, 
triturating all the time, decoction of liquorice f §vj ; 
strain. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls twice or 
thrice a day, combined with carbonate of soda, 
dilute muriatic acid, or paregoric, in debility, and 
diseases of the digestive organs. 

MIXTURE, NARCOTIC. Syn. M. Nar- 
cotica. Prep. (W. Cooley.) Laudanum 3iss ; 
sirup of poppies, sulphuric ether, and spirits of cin- 
namon, of each ^j ; tincture of henbane, 3iiss ; 
water ^iiss ; mix. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls at 
the commencement of the hot fit of ague. 

MIXTURE, OIL. Syn. M. Olei Amygdala. 
Prep. (St. B. H.) Oil of almonds and mucilage, 
of each ^iss ; triturate, and add gradually water 
^v. Demulcent, emollient. Dose. 2 or 3 table- 
spoonfuls occasionally. The M. Olei cum Man- 
na is made by substituting manna §iss, for the 
gum. 

MIXTURE, OPIATE. Syn. M. Opiata. 
Prep. Laudanum f3ij ; solution of acetate of am- 
monia and water, of each §iij ; mix. Dose. 1 to 

2 tablespoonfuls to relieve pain, and procure sleep 
in fevers, &lc. 

MIXTURE, PHOSPHORUS. Syn. M. 
Phosphori. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Phosphorized 
oil 3ij ; mucilage 3iv ; triturate together, adding 
gradually sirup ^ij ; and peppermint water ^iij. 

MIXTURE, PRUSSIC ACID. Syn. M. Acidi 
Hydrocyanici. Prep. Medicinal prussic acid 15 
minims ; simple sirup §j ; water ^v ; mix. Dose. 
1 tablespoonful 2 or 3 times daily. Each dose 
contains 1^ drops of medicinal prussic acid. — 
*jt* Shake the bottle before pouring out the dose. 

MIXTURE, PURGING. Syn. M. Puroans, 
Prep. Any of the purging salts §ij ; infusion of 
senna §v ; sirup of orange-peel §j ; tincture of 
ginger §ss ; spirit of pimento 3ij ; mix. Dose. 1 
to 3 tablespoonfuls early in the morning ; in stom- 
ach complaints, &c. 

MIXTURE, REFRIGERANT. Syn. M. 
Refrigerans. Prep. Borax 3ij ; solution of ace- 
tate of ammonia §j ; lemon-juice f ivss ; sweet 
spirits of nitre 3iij ; mix and dissolve. Diuretic, 
diaphoretic, and cooling, in colds accompanied 
with fever, &c. Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 2 or 

3 times a day. 

MIXTURE, RHUBARB. Syn. M. Rh^e. 
Prep. I. {M. Rhcei Comp. Gregory's Mixture.) 
Compound powder of rhubarb (P. E.) 3iij ; pepper- 
mint water f ^xvj ; mix. 



MIX 



432 



MIX 



II. (Sprague.) Powdered rhubarb and carbon- 
ate of soda, of each 3iss ; decoction of liquorice 
f fviss ; tincture of orange peel (or ofenge sirup) 
3vj ; mix. Both the above are excellent stomach- 
ics and mild aperients. Dose. 1 to 3 tablespoon- 
fuls 2 or 3 times a day. 

MIXTURE, SALINE. (Febrifuge.) Syn. 
M. Salina febrifuga. Prep. Bicarbonate of po- 
tassa 3ij ; nitre ^ij ; sirup 3iij ; lemon -juice f §ij ; 
sweet spirits of nitre 3iss ; water ^iiiss ; mix. Dose. 
1 to 3 tablespoonfuls in fevers, &c. 

MIXTURE, SCAMMONY. Syn. M. Scam- 
MONii. Prep. I. (P. E.) Resin of scammony 7 
grs. ; unskimmed milk f §iij ; gradually mix, tritu- 
rating all the time, so as to form an emulsion. 
Purgative. Dose. One half. 

II. (Planche's Purgative Potion.) To the last 
add white sugar 3ij, and cherry laurel (or bitter 
almond) water 4 drops. This is the most tasteless 
and pleasant purgative that can be taken. 

MIXTURE, SEDATIVE. Syn. M. Seda- 
TiVA. Prep. Aromatic confection 3iij ; mucilage 
and spirit of sal volatile, of each 3ij ; tincture of 
asafoetida and sirup of poppies, of each §ss ; lauda- 
num and tincture of henbane, of each 3iss ; water 
f §iiiss ; mix. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls 2 or 3 
times a day. 

MIXTURE, SENNA. -Syn. Black Draught. 
M. Senn^. M. Senn^ Composita. Prep. (Guy's 
H.) Senna and mint, of each §j ; boiling water 
^xxxij ; infuse for 2 hours, strain, and add Epsom 
salts §vj ; shake till dissolved. Dose. 1 to 2 oz. 
Purgative. See Black Draught. 

MIXTURE, SQUILL. Syn. M. Scill^. 
PoTiOiN SciLLiTiQUE. Prep, (P. Cod.) Oxymel 
of squills 3iv ; hyssop water ^iij ; peppermint wa- 
ter f j ; sweet spirits of nitre ^ss. Expectorant. 
Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls 3 or 4 times a day, in 
coughs, asthma, &c. 

MIXTURE, STEEL. Syn. Griffith's Mix- 
ture. Compound Iron Mixture. M. Ferri 
Composita, (P. L. E. and D.) M. Ferri Protox- 
YDi. Prep. I. (P. L.) Carbonate of potash 3j ; 
powdered myrrh 3ij ; spirit of nutmeg §j ; triturate 
together, and while rubbing, add gradually sugar 
3ij ; rose water f §xviij ; mix well ; then add sul- 
phate of iron (powdered) 3iiss, and place it at 
once in a bottle, which must be kept closely cork- 
ed. Dose. 1 to 2 oz., 3 or 4 times a day, as a 
mild and genial tonic and stimulant, when there is 
no determination of blood to the head. 

II. (Donovan.) Sulphate of iron 3iv ; calcined 
magnesia 9ij ; water §vj ; tincture of quassia f 3ij ; 
mix in a bottle, cork close, and agitate. It must 
be kept from the air. Dose. I to 2 tablespoonfuls, 
as last. 

III. (M. Ferri Aromatica, P. D. Heberden's 
Ink. Atramentum Heberdil) Powdered cin- 
chona §j ; bruised calumba root 3iij ; bruised cloves 
3ij ; iron filings ^ss ; peppe-mint water §xvj ; di- 
gest in a close vessel for 3 days, agitating frequent- 
ly, then strain, and add tincture of cardamoms 
(comp.) ^i'j ; tincture of orange-peel 3iij. Bitter, 
stomachic, and aromatic. Dose. 1 or 2 table- 
spoonfuls, or more, 3 or 4 times a day. 

MIXTURE, STIMULANT. Syn. M. Stim- 
ulans. Prep. I. Carbonate of ammonia 3ss : pep- 
permint water ^v ; orange sirup 3vj ; tincture of 
cardamoms (comp.) 3ij ; mix. Dose. 1 table- 



spoonful for lowness of spirits, vapors, and wh« 
the patient is faint. 

II. Camphor julep §iv ; ether, spirit of aniseed, 
and tincture of cardamoms, (comp.,) of each 3iij ; 
sirup 5j ; tinctures of tolu and ginger, of each 3j ; 
peppermint water f iss ; mix. Dose. As last. In 
lowness of spirits, «&c., accompanied with heart- 
burn, colic, or flatulence. 

MIXTURE, STRYCHNINE. Syn. M. 
Strychnia. Prep. (Majendie.) Pure strychnine 
1 gr. ; white sugar 3ij ; acetic acid 3 drops ; wa- 
ter f ^ij ; mix. Dose. A teaspoonful night and 
morning; in palsy. Each f3 contains one-six- 
teenth gr. of strychnine. 

MIXTURE, TARTAR EMETIC. Syn. M. 
Antimonii Potassio-tartratis. Prep. Antimo- 
nial wine and simple sirup, of each §ss ; nitre 3ij ; 
camphor julep §v ; mix. Diaphoretic. Dose. 1 
dessert-spoonful every 2 hours. 

MIXTURE, TONIC. Syn. Strengthening 
Mixture. M. Tonica. Prep. I. (Collier.) De- 
coction of bark ffvss; tincture of do. f^iij ; aro- 
matic confection 9j ; aromatic spirit of ammonia 
f3j; mix. 

II. (Thomson.) Infusion of calumba f^vss; 
compound tincture of cinnamon and orange sirup, 
of each f 3ij ; mix. 

III. Infusion of cascarilla ^v ; tincture of or- 
ange peel 3vij ; aromatic sulphuric acid 3ij ; mix. 
Dose. I to 3 tablespoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day ; in 
debility of the digestive organs, to check severe 
vomiting, «fec. 

MIXTURE, TURPENTINE. Syn. M. Ter- 
EBINTHIN.E. Prep. (Carmichael.) Oil of turpen- 
tine §j ; yelk of one egg ; triturate together ; add 
confection of almonds |j ; again triturate, and fur- 
ther add, gradually, orange sirup §ij ; compound 
tincture of lavender f 3iv ; oil of cinnamon 4 drops ; 
water f §iv. In iritis. 

MIXTURE, VALERIAN. Syn. M. Vale- 
riana. Prep. (St. B. H.) Bruised valerian root 
3ij ; boiling water ^ pint ; macerate 2 hours ; 
strain, and add, powdered valerian 3iv. Anti- 
spasmodic. 

MIXTURE, WHORTLEBERRY. Syn. M. 
UViE Ursi. Prep. 1. Infusion of whortleberry 
leaves ^viiss ; carbonate of potash 3ij ; extract of 
hemlock 20 grs. ; sirup of poppies §j ; tincture of 
ginger 3iij ; mix. Dose. 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls in 
chronic diseases of the urinary organs. 

II. Infusion of whortleberry leaves ^viiss ; dilute 
sulphuric acid 3ij ; tincture of digitalis 3j ; sirup 
of poppies 5iij ; mix. Dose. As last. In chronic 
inflammation of the larynx, trachea, and mucous 
membranes of the urinary organs. 

MIXTURE, WORM. Syn. M. Vermifuga 
Prep. I. (Collier.) Sulphate of iron 3j ; infusion 
of quassia f §viij ; mix. Dose. Two tablespoon- 
fuls every morning fasting. 

II. (Richard.) Root of male fern ^j ? water 
^ix ; boil to §vj, strain, and add sulphuric ether 
3j ; sirup of tansy §j. 

III. (Copland.) Valerian 3ij ; wormseed 3iv ; 
boiling water §viij ; macerate 1 hour ; strain, and 
add, asafoetida 3j, previously triturated with the 
yelk of one egg. 

MIXTURE, ZINC. Syn. M. Zinci Sulpha- 
Tis. Prep. (Collier.) Sulphate of zinc 5 grs. ; 
sulphate of quinine 10 grs. ; compound infusion 



MOL 



433 



MOR 



of roses f ^ij ; mix. Tonic. *j(* " I have found 
this mixture very efficacious in the cure of bark- 
ing (gastric ?) coughs manifestly of a spasmodic 
character." (Collier's Pharm., p. 178.) Dose. 
A teaspoonful 2 or 3 times a day in a glass of 
water. 

MOCHLTQUE DES FRERES DE LA 
CHARITE. Prep. Finely-powdered glass of an- 
timony 1 oz. ; white sugar 2 oz. ; triturate together. 
Dose. 20 to 30 grs. ; said to be a specific in lead 
colic. 

MOIREE METALLIQUE. Syn. Crystal- 
lized Tin. This is produced by the action, for a 
few seconds, of dilute nitro-muriatic acid on tin 
gently heated, then washing in hot water, drying, 
and lacquering. The degree of heat and the 
strength of the acid modify the appearance. The 
following is the most approved method of produ- 
cing this effect :— The plate iron to be tinned is 
dipped into a tin-bath, composed of SCO parts of 
pure tin, 3 parts of copper, and 1 part of arsenic. 
Thus tinned, the sheet iron is then submitted to 
the seven following operations: — 1. Immersing in 
lye of caustic potassa, and washing. — 2. Immersing 
in diluted aqua regia, and washing. — 3. Immersing 
in lye of caustic potassa, and washing. — 4. Quick- 
ly passing through nitric acid, and washing. — 
5. Immersing in a lye of caustic potassa, and 
washing. — 6. Immersing in aqua regia, and wash- 
ing. — 7. Immersing in a lye of caustic potassa, 
and washing. The coat of oxide must be entirely 
removed at each washing, and the last washing 
should be in hot water. The varnish recommend- 
ed is copal in spirit. (Herberger.) , 

MOLUCCA, BALM OF. Prep. Clean spirit 
(22 u. p.) 1 gallon ; bruised cloves ^ oz. ; bruised 
mace | dr. ; infuse for a fortnight in a corked bot- 
tle or carboy, then filter, color with burnt sugar, 
and add lump sugar 4^ lbs., dissolved in pure 
water i gallon ; mix well and bottle. A pleasant 
cordial. 

MOLYBDENUM. Syn. Molybdena. Mo- 
LYBDENE, (Fr.) MoLYBDAN, {G-er.) Molybdenum, 
{Lat., from fio\v66oi, lead, because its ore was first 
supposed to be plumbago.) A very rare metal, 
having a white color, and the sp. gr. of about 8*625. 
It is brittle and very infusible. It was discovered 
by Hielm in 1782. It is obtained by exposing rno- 
lybdic acid, mixed with cl^arcoal and placed in a 
covered crucible, to the strongest heat of a smith's 
forge. With oxygen it forms a protoxide and 
binoxide, and Jtiolyhdic acid. With chlorine it 
forms a protochloride and bichloride. With sul- 
phur it unites to form 2 or more sulphurets. The 
only one of the above that possesses any practical 
interest is molybdic acid. 

MOLYBDIC ACID. Syn. Acidum Molybdi- 
GUM. Prep. I. Digest finely-powdered sulphuret 
of molybdenum ore in nitromuriatic acid until 
completely decomposed, then briskly heat the 
residue. A white heavy powder. 

II. Well roast native sulphuret of molybdena ; 
powder, dissolve in water of ammonia, and precip- 
itate with nitric acid. Small white scales. 

Prop. J c^c. Soluble in 570 parts of water, and 
the solution reddens litmus paper ; dissolves in the 
alkalis forming alkaline molybdates, from which 
t is again precipitated by strong acids. It is used 
In the preparation of molybdenum blue. 
55 



MONOCHROMATIC LAMP. A lamp fed 
with a mixture of a solution of common salt and 
spirit of wine. It gives a yellow light, and makes 
every object illuminated by it, appear either yel- 
low or black. (Brewster.) 

MOxNTANIN. The bitter principle of St. Lu- 
cia bark. 

MORDANTS, (IN DYEING.) Substances 
employed to fix the coloring matters of dye-stuffs 
on organic fibres. The principal mordants are 
alumina, and the oxides of iron and tin. See Dye- 
LMG and Calico Printing. 

MOROXYLIC ACID. A sour principle ob- 
tained by Klaproth from the bark of the white 
mulberry, (morus alba.) It is found under the form 
of moroxylate of lime. 

MORPHIA. Syn. Morpiiina. Morphium. Mor- 
phine, {Fr.) Morphin, (Ger.) Moiiphia, {Lat., 
from Morpheus, the god of sleep.) The hypnotic 
principle of opium. It was discovered by Ludwig 
in 1688, but it was first obtained pure, and its pre- 
cise nature pointed out by Sertuerner in 1804. 
Morphia is peculiar to the poppy tribe. 

Prep. I. (P. L.) Muriate of morphia ^j ; water 
1 pint ; dissolve and precipitate with liquor of am- 
monia f3v, (or q. s.,) previously diluted with water 
§j, employing agitation ; wash the precipitate in 
distilled water, and dry at a gentle heat. 

Remarks. By a similar process morphiate may 
be obtained from its other salts. Good opium 
yields from 10 to 13§ of morphia. 

II. (Merck.) Precipitate a cold aqueous infusion 
of opium by carbonate of soda in excess, wash 
the precipitate first with cold water and then with 
co/c^ alcohol of 0"85 ; dissolve in weak acetic acid, 
filter through animal charcoal, precipitate with 
ammonia, again wash with cold water, dissolve in 
alcohol, and crystallize. A good process where al- 
cohol is cheap. (See Opium.) 

Prop. As prepared above, it is a snow-white 
crystalline powder ; but when crystallized in alco- 
hol, it forms brilliant prismatic crystals of ada- 
mantine lustre. It exerts an alkaline reaction on 
test paper, and imparts a perceptible bitter taste to 
water. It is scarcely soluble in water and ethsr, 
but freely so in alcohol ;Jt also dissolves in the 
fixed and volatile oils, and in solutions of the alka- 
lis. With the acids it forms salts, which are most- 
ly soluble. These may be made by the direct sio- 
lution of the alkaloid in the dilute acid. The only 
ones of importance are the acetate, sulphate, and 
muriate. 

Uses. Morphia and its salts are exhibited either 
in substance, made into pills, or in solution ; or ex- 
ternally, in fine powder applied to the dermis, de- 
nuded of the cuticle. They are principally em- 
ployed as anodynes and hypnotics in cases in 
which opium is inadmissible. Dose. | to :i gr. ; 
externally ^ to 1 ^ grs. Pure morphia is chiefly 
used to make the acetate and its other salts. 

Pur. Pure morphia is scarcely soluble in cold 
water, sparingly so in boiling*water, and readily so 
in alcohol. This solution is alkaline to test paper, 
and by evaporation leaves crystals, which are 
wholly dissipated by heat. It is soluble in pure 
potassa. (P. L.) 

Tests. Morphia and its salts are, — 1. Reddened 
by nitric acid, and form orange red solutions, 
darkened by ammonia in excess, and ultimately 



MOR 



434 



MOR 



turning yellow, with the production of oxalic acid. 
— 2. They are turned blue by sesquichloride of 
iron, either at once, or on the addition of an alkali, 
and this color is destroyed by water, and by alka- 
lis, or acids in excess. — 3. Iodic acid added to their 
solutions, turns them yello vish brown, by setting 
iodine free, and the liquid forms a blue compound 
with starch. — 4. Alkaline carbonates produce a 
white precipitate soluble in acetic acid. — 5. The 
pure alkalis also produce a white precipitate solu- 
ble in acetic and in excess of the precipitant. 

MORPHIA, ACETATE OF. Sijn. Morphia 
AcETAs, (P. L. and E.) Prep. (P. L.) Morphia 
3vj ; acetic acid f 3iij ; distilled water f^iv; dis- 
solve the morphia in the mixed fluids, filter, gently 
evaporate, and crystallize. 

Remarks. The acetate of morphia of commerce 
is usually in the form of a whitish powder, and is 
prepared by the mere evaporation of the solution 
to dryness' by a gentle heat. During the process 
a portion of the acetic acid is dissipated, and hence 
this preparation is seldom perfectly soluble in wa- 
ter, unless it be slightly acidulated with acetic 
acid. Anodyne, and hypnotic. Dose. | to ^ gr., 
in fevers and other inflammatory disorders where 
opium is inadmissible. 

Pur. " 100 measures of a solution of 10 grs. in 
f fss of water, and 5 mjnims of acetic acid, heated 
to 212° and decomposed by a very slight excess 
of ammonia, yield by agitation a precipitate which, 
in 24 hours, occupies 15^ measures of the liquid." 
(P.E.) 

MORPHIA, HYDROCHLORATE OF. Syn. 
Muriate of Morphia. Morphia Hydrochloras, 
(P. L.) Morphine Murias, (P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Macerate sliced opium lb. j, in v.^ater 4 pints for 30 
hours, then bruise it, digest for 20 hours more, and 
press it ; macerate what remains a second and a 
third time in water until exhausted ; mix the 
liquors, evaporate at 140° to the consistence of a 
sirup, add water 3 pints, and after defecation de- 
cant the clear ; gradually add to this liquid crys- 
tallized chloride of lead f\j, (or q. s.,) dissolved in 
boiling water 4 pints, till it ceases to produce a pre- 
cipitate ; decant the clear, wash the residuum with 
water, and evaporate the mixed liquids as before, 
that crystals may form. Press the crystals thus 
obtained in a cloth, then dissolve them in water 1 
pintj'add freshly-burnt animal charcoal ^iss, digest 
at 120°, filter, wash the residue of charcoal, and 
cautiously evaporate the mixed liquors, that pure 
crystals may form. To the decanted liquor, from 
which the crystals were first separated, add water 
1 pint, and drop in solution of ammonia, frequent- 
ly shaking, till all the morphia is precipitated ; 
wash the precipitate with distilled water, saturate 
it with muriatic acid, digest with animal charcoal 
§ij, filter, wash the filter as before, and evaporate 
the mixed liquors, cautio-; sly, as above, that jpMre 
crystals may be produced. 

II. (P. E.) Exhaust opium ^xx, with water 1 
gallon, in the quantity of a quart at a time, as 
above ; evaporate the mixed liquors over the vapor 
bath to 1 pint, add muriate of lime §j, dissolved in 
water f ^iv, mix, and set the liquid aside to settle ; 
then docunt the clear, wash the sediment with wa- 
ter, add the washings to the other liquid, and evap- 
orate sulficiently as before, that it may .solidify on 
cooling ; /subject the cooled mass to very strong 



pressure in a cloth, redissolve the cake in warm 
water, add a little powdered white marble, filter, 
acidulate with muriatic acid, and again concen- 
trate in the vapor bath for crystallization ; subject 
the crystals as before to powerful pressure, redis- 
solve, and clarify with powdered marble and muri- 
atic acid, and concentrate and crystallize until a 
snow-white^nass be obtained. The above is the 
process of (j^-egory and Robertson, and is one of 
the easiest and most productive on the large scale. 
To procure the salt quite white, 2 to 4 crystalliza- 
tions are required, according to the power of the 
press employed. The Edinburgh College recom- 
mends, on the small scale, the solution after 2 
cr)'stallizations to be decolored by means of ani- 
mal charcoal, but, on the large scale, to purify the 
salt by repeated crystallizations alone. 

III. (Mohr.) Quicklime 1 part ; reduce it to a 
milk with water, and add it to a concentrated in* 
fusion of opium made with opium 4 to 6 parts ; 
boil for a short time, filter while hot through linen, 
gently evaporate till the solution becomes of only 
double the weight of the opium ''mployed, and 
while still hot, add powdered sal ;jnmoniac in 
slight excess, (about 1 oz. to each po.jnd of opium ;) 
on cooling, colored crystals of muriate of morphia 
will be deposited, and must be purified by a second 
solution in lime and precipitation by sal ammoniac. 
This process is remarkably simple, and in many 
points is preferable to either of the preceding, es- 
pecially on the small scale. 

Pur., Uses, <^c. Pure muriate of morphia is 
"snowy white; entirely soluble; solution color- 
less; loss of weight at 212° not above 13§ ; 100 
measures of a solution of 10 grs., in water f ^ss, 
heated to 2l2°, and decomposed with agitation by 
a faint excess of ammonia, yield a precipitate 
which, in 24 hours, occupies 12^ measures of the 
liquid." (P. E.) Dose. One-sixth to one-half gr., 
as an anodyne and narcotic. 

Remarks. The opium which yields the largest 
quantity of precipitate by carbonate of soda, yields 
muriate of morphia, not only in the greatest pro- 
portion, but also with the fewest crystallizations. 
Smyrna opium contains most morphia. The mu- 
riate of morphia of the shops is usually, like the 
acetate, under the form of powder. Of all the 
salts of morphia, the muriate appears to be the 
most suitable for medioal purposes. 

MORPHIA, MECONIATE OF. Prep. I. 
{Neutral.) Saturate meconic acid with morphia, 
evaporate, and crystallize. 

II. (Bhneconate.) Dissolve 288^ grs. of morphia 
in an aqueous solution of 202 grs. of meconic acid, 
evaporate and crystallize ; or merely gently evap- 
orate to dryness. 

Remarks. The meconic acid for this purpose 
may be obtained by precipitating a cold and filter- 
ed infusion of opium by acetate of lead, washing 
the precipitate with water, suspending in pure wa- 
ter, decomposing it by sulphureted hydrogen, fil- 
tering, evaporating, and crystallizing. Morphia 
exists in opium under the form of biincconaie, and 
hence this preparation has been preferred by some 
practitioners. A solution of this sail for medical 
purposes may be directly prepared from opium, by 
treating its infusion in cold water with a little ani- 
nuil charcoal, filtering, gently evaporating to dry- 
ness, redissolving in cold water, filtering, and re- 



MUC 



435 



MUR 



peating the treatment with animal charcoal. The 
dose of the dry bimeconate is \ gr. or more ; and 
of the meconate rather less 

MORPHIA, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Mor- 
phia Sulphas. Prep. Saturate very dilute sul- 
phuric acid with morphia, evaporate to one half, add 
a little animal charcoal, continue the evaporation 
for a short time longer at a gentle heat, filter while 
hot, and abandon it to spontaneous evaporation. It 
is decomposed by driving off the water of crystal- 
lization. Anodyne and narcotic. Dose, i to ^ gr. 

MORSULI ACETI. Prep. White sugar 1 
lb. ; form into lozenges with acetic acid 2 oz. 

MORSULI AROMATICI. Prep. White su- 
gar 1 lb. ; dissolve in a little water, boil to a full 
candy height, and when half cold, add blanched 
sweet almonds and orange peel, of each 1 oz. ; 
cinnamon ^ oz. ; ginger 9j ; all cut into small 
pieces ; form into drops or lozenges. 

MORSULI CITRI. Prep. White sugar 1 lb. ; 
lemon juice 2^ oz. ; eleosaccharum of lemons 4 
oz. ; mix, divide, and dry. 

Reinarks. The above morsuli are used as loz- 
enges or masticatories. The word morsulus signi- 
fies a little mouthful. 

MOSAIC GOLD. Syn. Or Molu. Prep. 
(^Parker and Hamilton'' s patent.) Copper and 
zinc equal parts ; melt together at the lowest pos- 
sible temperature at which copper will fuse, and 
stir so as to produce a perfect admixture of-the 
metals ; then add gradually, small portions of zinc 
at a time, until the alloy acquires the proper color, 
which is perfectly white, while in the melted state. 
It must then be at once cast into figured moulds. 
This alloy should contain from 52 to 55§ of zinc. 

MOUTH GLUE. Syn. Indian Glue. Colle 
A BoucHE. Prep. Best cake glue q. s. ; dissolve 
in a little water, add brown sugar a small quantity, 
and some essence or juice of lemons, pour it into 
greased moulds, and dry it. When used, it is 
wetted with the tongue, and rubbed on the paper 
to be joined. (See Glue, Portable.) 

MOXAS. Substances burnt upon the body, for 
the purpose of acting as counter-irritants, and al- 
laying deep-seated pains, and inflammation. They 
have been used in gout, rheumatism, &c. The 
small cone constituting the moxa, is placed upon 
the part, lighted, and allowed to burn to its base. 
The Chine.se moxas are made of the downy por- 
tion of the leaves of a species of wormwood, (arte- 
misia sinensis ;) but various other substances, as 
the pith of the sunflower, cotton, or paper, soaked 
in a weak solution of nitrate, chlorate, or chro- 
mate of potash, will answer as well. The actual 
cautery is said to be preferable. 

MUCIC ACID. Syn. Saccholactic Acid. 
An acid discovered by Scheele, and obtained in a 
state of purity by digesting 1 part of sugar of milk 
in 4 parts of nitric acid, (sp. gr. 1-42,) diluted with 
1 part of water, and applying heat till the effer- 
vescence ceases ; on cooling, the acid is deposited. 
Gum may be substituted for sugar of milk, but 
yields a less pure acid. Mucic acid is a white, 
crystalline powder, soluble in boiling water and in 
oil of vitriol, to which it imparts a crimson color. 
By dry distillation it yields pyromucic acid, and 
other products ; with the bases it forms salts called 
mucates. The alkaline mucates are soluble, — 
the earthy and metallic. mucates insoluble. 



MUCILAGE. Syn. Mucilago, {Lat.) An 
aqueous solution of guiA, or any similar sub- 
stance. 

MUCILAGE, GUM. (See Gum Mixture.) 

MUCILAGE, QUINCE. (See Decoction of 
Quince Seeds.) 

MUCILAGE, STARCH. (See Decoction op 
Starch.) 

MUCILAGE OF TRAGACANTH. St/h. 
Mucilago tragacanth.*. Prep. (P. E.) Traga- 
canth 3ij ; boiling water f ^ix ; macerate 24 hours, 
triturate, and press through linen. Used to make 
up pills, to suspend heavy powders in liquids, as 
an application to burns, &lc. 

MUDARINE. a peculiar substance possess- 
ing powerful emetic properties, found in the bark 
of the root of calotropis mudarii, (Mudar.) It 
is soluble in water and alcohol, and its aqueous so- 
lution gelatinizes when heated. 

MUFFINS. Prep. Flour 1 quartern ; warm 
milk and water 1^ pint ; yeast ^ pint ; salt 2 oz. ; 
mix for 15 minutes, then further add flour ^ peck, 
make a dough, let it rise 1 hour, roll it up, pull it 
into pieces, make them into balls, put them in a 
warm place, and when the whole dough is made 
into balls, shape them into muffins, and bake them 
on tins ; turn them when half done, dip them into 
warm milk, and bake to a pale brown. 

MULTUM. A mixture of extract of quassia 
and liquorice used by fraudulent brewers instead 
of malt and hops. 

MUM. A beverage prepared from wheat malt, 
in a similar way to ordinary beer from barley 
malt. It was formerly much drunk in England ; 
but its use at the present day is chiefly confined 
to Germany. 

MUMMY. The mixed resinous mass with 
which the Egyptian corpses have been preserved, 
reduced to powder. Used by artists ; a good 
glazing color, but dries slowly. Burnt Prussian 
blue, or a mixture of asphaltum and burnt sienna 
melted together, are good substitutes. 

MUREXIDE. Syn. Purpurate of Ammonia. 
Prep. Hydrated alloxan 7 grs. ; alloxantine 4grs. ; 
water 240 grs. ; dissolve by boiling, and add the 
solution to 80 grs. measure of a cold and strong 
solution of carbonate of ammonia ; crystals of mu- 
rexide will deposite as the liquid cools. It forms 
iridescent crystals, having a metallic lustre. It is 
soluble in boiling water, (Gregory and Liebig.) 
When murexide is dissolved in a solution of caustic 
potassa, heat applied till the blue color disappears, 
and dilute sulphuric acid added in excess, silky 
crystalline scales are deposited, which are called 
Murexan or Purpuric Acid. It is soluble in am- 
monia and the fixed alkalis, and its solution in the 
former by exposure to the air becomes purple, and 
deposites brilliant crystals of murexide. 

MURIATE. Syn. Hvdrochlorate. Mu- 
RiAs ; HvDROCHLORAS, {Lat.) A compound of a 
base and muriatic acid. From the discoveries of 
Davy, and the more recent researches of various 
continental chemists, it appears probable that the 
muriates or hydrochlorates are direct compounds 
of the bases and chlorine, or are in reality chlo- 
rides, of which hydrogen or water is not an essen- 
tial part. Most of the Muriates may be made by 
directly saturating the acid with the base, or with 
its hydrate, oxide, or carbonate, and evaporating 



MUR 



436 



MUR 



and crystallizing. (See Chlorides, Chlorine, 
and Muriatic Acid.) 

MURIATIC ACID. Syn. Hydrochloric 
Acid. Chlorohydric do. Marine Acid. Acid 
OF Salt. Spirit of Salt. Acidum Hydrochlo- 
RicuM, (P. L.) Do. Muriaticum, (P. E. &l D.) 
Spiritus Salis. Acide muriatique ; Acide hy- 
drochlorique ; Acide ciilorohydriciue, {Fr.) 
Salzsaure, {Ger.) An acid compound of chlorine 
and hydrogen, long known in the state of solution, 
under the name of marine acid or spirit of salt ; 
but first obtained in the pure or gaseous form by 
Priestley, in 1772. 

Prep. I. (P. L.) Sulphuric acid ^xx ; water 
f xij ; mix in a retort, and when cold add to it dried 
chloride of sodium lb. ij ; and gradually distil in a 
sand-bath into a receiver containing water f ^xij. 
Sp. gr. 1-160. 

II. (P. E.) Dried purified muriate of soda and 
pure sulphuric acid, of each 3 parts ; water 1 
part ; mix as last, and distil with a gentle heat 
into a well-cooled receiver containing water 2 
parts, as long as any liquid passes over. Sp. gr. 
1-170. 

III. (P. D.) Sp. gr. 1-160. 

IV. (Winckler.) Dry and pure chloride of so- 
dium 24 parts ; pure oil of vitriol 44 parts ; diluted 
with water 7 parts, and allowed to cool ; mix in a 
large retort, and connect it by a rectangular bent 
glass tube, at least 3 leet long, with a capacious 
receiver, containing 20 parts of water, and well 
cooled. Distil 44 oz. of 30§ by weight. 

V. (Gregory.) Dry and pure salt 60 parts ; pure 
sulphuric acid 98 parts, diluted with water to the 
sp. gr. 1-6 ; mix in an alembic furnished with a 
double-bent tube, the end of which is plunged 
about \ of an inch beneath the surface of the 
water in the receiver, (about 35 parts ;) the latter 
must be well cooled. Prod. The first f is a 
fuming acid, sp. gr. 1-21 — the last ^ about sp. gr. 
1-12. 

Remarks. The muriatic acid of commerce is 
now chiefly obtained from the manufacturers of 
carbonate of soda, who procure it as a secondary 
product. When, however, it is directly prepared 
from sea-salt, an iron or stoneware boiler, set in 
brickwork over an open fire, furnished with a 
stoneware head, and connected with a series of 
capacious double-necked stoneware bottles, usu- 
ally constitutes the distillatory and condensing ap- 
paratus. The arrangement resembles that em- 
ployed in the preparation of liquor of ammonia, 
(see page 58.) The formula of the London Col- 
lege is defective in ordering too little acid, by which 
means the product becomes contaminated with a 
portion of sulphuric acid, and the residue of the 
process rendered so hard and insoluble as to pre- 
vent its removal from the retort by ordinary means. 
The products of the other formulffi (II, IV, and V) 
are pure liquid hydrocliloric acid, provided the ma- 
terials employed be quite free from foreign admix- 
ture. Commercial muriatic acid may be purified 
by diluting it with an equal weight of water, gently 
healing it in a retort, and receiving the evolved 
gas into a fresh quantity of pure water. Iodine 
and arsenic may be removed by agitating it for a 



few minutes with some small pieces of bright cop- 
per foil previously to rectification. Commercial 
muriatic acid of the ordinary strength may bi* 
bought for 0|(Z. per lb. in quantity. 

P?-op. Pure muriatic acid is a colorless invisible 
gas, having a pungent odor and an acid taste, and 
fuming on coming into contact with air. It is irre- 
spirable and uninflammable. Its sp. gr. is 1-2695, 
(Berzelius. — 1-2847 Thomson.) Under a pressure 
of 40 atmospheres it is liquid. Water at 40° F. 
absorbs 480 times its volume of this gas, and ac- 
quires the sp. gr. 1-2109, (Davy.) One cubic inch 
of water at 69° F. absorbs 418 cubic inches, and 
the sp. gr. becomes 1-1958, (Thomson.) The gas 
is obtained by gently heating the liquid acid. It 
must be collected over mercury. 

Pure liquid muriatic acid is colorless, fumes in 
the air, evolves a strong odor of muriatic acid gas, 
is intensely sour, reddens vegetable blues, and 
erodes organic substances. It is entirely separated 
by heat from the water that holds it in solution. 
It dissolves many of the metals with the evolution 
of hydrogen gas ; it also dissoi ~^s metallic oxides, 
and the majority of the bases, t.ieir hydrates, and 
carbonates ; in each case forming the compounds 
termed chlorides, muriates, chiorohydrates, or 
hydrochlorates. The acid of the L. Ph. has the 
sp. gr. 1-160, and consists of 32-32§ of real muriatic 
acid, and 67-68§ of water. 100 grs. of it should 
exactly saturate 132 gi-s. of crystallized carbonate 
of soda. The muriatic acid of commerce has gen- 
erally a straw yellow color. 

Uses. Muriatic acid is used for various purposes 
in the arts, in chemistry, and in medicine. It is 
refrigerant, tonic, and antiseptic, in small doses 
diluted with water ; but corrosive and poisonous in 
larger doses, or undiluted. Dose. 10 to 20 drops 
in a sufficient quantity of any bland diluent, in 
stomach complaints, typhus fever, syphihtic affec- 
tions, worms, scrofula, &c. It is also used in gar- 
gles and lotions. 

Ant. Chalk, whiting, or magnesia, mixed with 
water, or milk, white of eggs, and demulcents. 

Pur. Pure muriatic acid is " colorless, and to- 
tally dissipated by heat. Largely diluted with dis- 
tilled water, the solution is unaifected by chloride 
of barium, (or calcium,) ammonia, or its sesqui- 
carbonate. It does not dissolve gold leaf even 
when heated. It does not bleach the solution of 
sulphate of indigo." (P. L.) Commercial muriatic 
acid usually contains iron and sulphuric acid, and 
frequently chlorine, nitrous acid, bromine, and 
sometimes selenious acid. The first may be de- 
tected by the precipitate it forms when the acid is 
supersaturated by ammonia, — the second, by giv- 
ing a white precipitate with chloride of calcium 
or barium, or with the nitrate of lime or baryta, — 
the third, fourth, diud fifth, by the power the acid 
possesses of dissolving gold leaf, and decoloring 
solution of indigo, — and the last, by the acid de- 
positing a reddish powder (selenium) when long 
kept. 

Estitn. The strength of muriatic acid is usually 
estimated from its specific gravity ; but it may be 
more correctly ascertained by the power it pos- 
sesses to saturate the bases. See Acioimetrt. 



MUS 



437 



MUS 



Table of Muriatic Acid, by Dr. Ure. 



Acid 
of 1-20 
in 100. 



100 
99 
98 
97 
96 
95 
94 
93 
92 
91 
90 
89 
88 
87 
86 
85 
84 
83 
82 
81 
80 
79 
78 
77 
76 
75 
74 
73 
72 
71 
70 
69 
68 
67 



Specific 
gravity. 



1-2000 

1-1982 

1-1964 

1-1946 

1-1928 

1-1910 

1-1893 

1-1875 

1-1857 

1-1846 

1-1822 

1-1802 

1-1782 

1-1762 

1-1741 

1-1721 

1-1701 

1-1681 

1-1661 

1-1641 

1-1620 

1-1599 

1-1578 

1-1557 

1-1536 

1-1515 

1-1494 

1-1473 

1-1452 

1-1431 

1-1410 

1-1389 

1-1369 

1-1349 



Chlorine 



39-675 

39-278 

38-882 

38-485 

38-089 

37-692 

37-296 

36-900 

36-503 

36-107 

35-70 

35-310 

34-913 

34-517 

34-121 

33-724 

33-328 

32-931 

32-535 

32-136 

31-746 

31-343 

30-946 

30-550 

30-153 

29-757 

29-361 

28-964 

28-567 

28-171. 

27-772 

27-376 

26-979 

26-583 



Muriatic 
Gas. 



40-777 
40-369 
39-961 
39-554 
39-146 
38-738 
38-330 
37-923 
37-516 
37-108 
36-700 
36-292 
35-884 
35-476 
35-068 
34-660 
34-252 
33-845 
33-437 
33-029 
32-621 
32-213 
31-805 
31-398 
30-990 
30-582 
30-174 
29-767 
29-359 
28-951 
28-544 
28-136 
27-728 
27-321 



Acid 
of 1-20 
in 100.1 



Specific 
gravity. 



Chlorine. 



66 
65 
64 
63 
62 
61 
60 
59 
58 
57 
56 
55 
54 
53 
52 
51 
50 
49 
48 
47 
46 
45 
44 
43 
42 
41 
40 
39 
38 
37 
36 
35 
34 
33 



1-1328 
1-1308 
1-1287 
1-1267 
1-1247 
1-1226 
1-1206 
1-1185 
1-1164 
1-1143 
1-1123 
1-1102 
1-1082 
1-1061 
1-1041 
1-1020 
1-1000 
1-0980 
1-0960 
1-0939 
1-0919 
1-0899 
1-08J9 
1-0859 
1-0838 
1-0818 
1-0798 
1-0778 
1-0758 
1-0738 
1-0718 
1-0697 
1-0677 
1-0657 



26-186 
25-789 
25-392 
24-996 
24-599 
24-202 
23-805 
23-408 
23-012 
22-615 
22-218 
21-822 
21-425 
21-028 
20-632 
20-235 
19-837 
19-440 
19-044 
18-647 
18-250 
17-854 
17-457 
17-060 
16-664 
16-267 
15-870 
15-474 
15-077 
14-680 
14-284 
13-887 
13-490 
13-094 



Muriatic 
Ga^5. 



26-913 
26-505 
26-098 
25-090 
25-282 
24-874 
24-466 
24-058 
23-650 
23-242 
22-834 
22-426 
22-019 
21-611 
21-203 
20-796 
20-388 
19-980 
19-572 
19-165 
18-757 
18-349 
17-941 
17-534 
17-126 
16-718 
16-310 
15-902 
15-494 
15-087 
14-679 
14-271 
13-863 
13-456 



Acid 
)f 1"20 
in 100. 



32 

31 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 



Specific 
gravity. 



1-0637 
1-0617 
1-0597 
1-0577. 
1-0557 
1-0537 
1-0517 
1-0497 
1-0477 
1-0457 
1-0437 
1-0417 
1-0397 
1-0377 
1-0357 
1-0337 
1-0318 
1-0298 
1-0279 
1-0259 
1-0239 
1-0220 
1-0200 
1-0180 
1-0160 
1-0140 
1-0120 
1-0100 
1-0080 
1-0060 
1-0040 
1-0020 



Chlorine. 


Muriatic 
Gas. 


12-697 


13-049 


12-300 


12-641 


11-903 


12-233 


11-506 


11-825 


11-109 


11-418 


10-712 


11-010 


10-316 


10-602 


9-919 


10-194 


9-522 


9-786 


9-126 


9-379 


8-729 


8-971 


8-332 


8-563 


7-935 


8-155 


7-538 


7-747 


7-141 


7-340 


6-745 


6-932 


6-348 


6-524 


5-951 


6-116 


5-554 


5-709 


5-158 


5-301 


4-762 


4-893 


4-365 


4-486 


3-968 


4-078 


3-571 


3-670 


3-174 


3-262 


2-778 


2-854 


2-381 


2-447 


1-984 


2-039 


1-588 


1-631 


1-191 


1-224 


0-795 


0-816 


0-397 


0-408 



MURIATIC ACID, DILUTE. Syn. Acidu.m 
Hydrochloricum DILUTUM, (P. L.) AciDUM 
Muriaticum DILUTUM, (P. E.) Prop. Muriatic 
acid f §iv ; distilled water f ^xij ; mix. Used for 
convenience in dispensing. Dose. 30 to 60 drops 
in simple infusion of roses or water. " The den- 
sity of this preparation is 1-050." (P. E.) 

MURIATIC ACID, HENRY'S. Prep. Mu- 
riatic acid diluted to sp. gr. 1-074. One measure 
will exactly saturate an equal quantity of his car- 
bonate of potash-water, or pure ammonia-water, 
or two measures of pure potash-water, pure soda- 
water, or carbonate of ammonia-water. Used in 
assaying mineral water, &c. 

MUSCLE POWDER. Oyster do. Made 
like cockle powder. Used to make sauces. 

MUSHROOMS. Edible fungi. The species 
commonly eaten in England are the agaricus cam- 
pestris, (common field or garden mushroom,) used 
to make ketchup, and eaten either raw, stewed, or 
broiled ; — the morchella esculenta, (common mo- 
rel.) used to flavor soups and gravies ; — and the 
tuber ciharium, (common truffle,) also used as a 
seasoning. The following are said to be tests of 
the wholesomeness of mushrooms : — 



1. Sprinkle a little salt on the spongy part or 
gills of the sample to be tried : if they turn yellow, 
they are poisonous ; if black, they are wholesome. 
— 2. False mushrooms have a warty cap, or else 
fragments of membrane adhering to the upper 
surface, are heavy, and emerge from a vulva or 
bag; they grow in tufts or clusters in woods, on 
the stumps of trees, &c. ; whereas the true mush- 
rooms grow in pastures. — 3. False mushrooms have 
an astringent, styptic, and disagreeable taste. — 4. 
When cut they turn blue. — 5. They are moist on 
the surface, and are generally of a rose or orange 
color. — 6. The gills of the true mushroom are of a 
pinky red, changing to a li%'er color. — 7. The flesh 
is white. — 8. The stem is white, solid, and cylin- 
drical. — 9. " Introduce a silver spoon, or a new 
shilling or sixpence, or an onion, into a vessel in 
which mushrooms are seething ; if, on taking either 
of them out, they assume a dark discolored ap- 
pearance, the circumstance denotes the presence 
of poison existing among them ; if, on the other 
hand, the metal or onion on being withdrawn from 
the liquor wears its natural appearance, the fruit 
mav be regarded as genuine, and of the right sort." 

The best antidote to poisonous mushrooms is 



MUS 



438 



MYR 



tannin, or an infusion or decoction of galls. A 
strong emetic should also be given to remove them 
from the stomach. 

MUSK. Syn. Muse, (Fr.) Moschus, {Lat. 
and Ger.) An odorous substance obtained from 
the musk deer, {moschus moschiferus,) an animal 
inhabiting the mountains of eastern Asia. It is 
imported from China, Bengal, and Russia. The 
Tonquin musk is most esteemed. Pod musk 
(Moschus in vesicis, Tonquin pods, China do., 
Moschos Chinensis, Do. Tonquinensis) is the 
bag in its natural state containing the musk. 
Grain musk {Moschus in granis) is the matter 
contained in the pods, and which constitutes true 
musk. The average w^eight of one of the pods is 
about 3vj ; that of the grain musk it contains about 
3ij 3ij. Musk is said to be antispasmodic in doses 
of 3 grains and upwards. 

Pur. The musk of the shops is generally adul- 
terated. Dried bullock's blood, or chocolate, is 
commonly employed for this purpose. The blood 
is rendered dry by heat, theii reduced to coarse 
powder, and triturated with the genuine musk in 
a mortar along with a iew drops of liquor of am- 
monia ; it is then placed in the empty pods, or put 
into bottles, and sold as grain musk. The writer 
of this article has seen many pounds of dry blood 
thus employed, and sold for musk. There are 
only two ways of detecting this fraud, viz. — by 
the inferiority of the odor, or by an assay for the 
iron contained in the blood. Genuine musk often 
becomes nearly inodorous by keeping, but recovers 
its smell on being exposed to the fumes of ammo- 
nia, or by being moistened with ammonia water. 
The perfumers sometimes expose it to the fetid 
ammoniacal efliuvia of privies for the same pur- 
pose. The following forms are current in trade 
for reducing musk, {moschus re ductus :) — 1. Musk 
3 oz. ; chocolate 2 oz. ; ivory black 1 dr. ; gently 
rub together in a mortar with a few drops of liquid 
ammonia. — 2. Musk and dried goats' or bullocks' 
blood, equal parts ; mix as last. — 3. To the last 
add an equal part of angelica root. — 4. Storax and 
aloes wood, of each 4 oz. ; musk and civette, of 
each 4 dr. ; mix as last. — 5. Nutmegs, mace, cas- 
sia, cloves, and Indian nard or spikenard, of each 
1 oz. ; dried blood or chocolate 4 oz. ; make a 
paste, dry, bruise to a proper fineness, and triturate 
it gently with ith of its weight of musk, adding a 
few drops of essence of musk, and ammonia wa- 
ter. — 6. Hard toasted bread, dried blood, chocolate, 
and musk, equal parts ; as last. *^* The Chinese 
are said to be the most skilful adulterators of 
musk. 

MUSK, FACTITIOUS. Syn. Moschus fac- 

TITIUS. Do. ARTIFICIALIS. ResIN OF AmBER. 

Resina SucciNi. Prep. Pour f3iiiss of the strong- 
est nitric acid upon f 3j of oil of amber placed in a 
glass tumbler ; digest ; an orange yellow resin 
remains, which is to be washed in water, and care- 
fully dried. 

Remarks. Eisner recommends the addition of 1 
part of rectified oil of amber to 3 parts of fuming 
nitric acid, in a glass or i)orcclain vessel, kept cold 
to prevent the oil being carbonized. It smells 
strongly of musk, and is said to be antispasmodic 
and nervine. A tincture is made by dissolving 3j 
m rectified spirit f3x. Dose. f3j, in hooping- 
cough, low fevers, &c. 



*j^* Dr. Collier mentions an artificial musk, pre- 
pared by digesting for 10 days nitric acid fss, on 
" fetid animal oil, obtained by distillation, §j ; and 
by then adding rectified spirit 1 pint, and digesting 
the whole for a month." (Collier's Phar., p. 184.) 

MUST. The expressed juice of grapes before 
fermentation. 

MUST, FACTITIOUS. Prep. White sugar 
2^ lbs. ; cream of tartar 1 oz. ; raisins chopped 
small, ^ lb. ; boiling water 1 gallon ; mix, and di- 
gest for 2 hours, and strain. 

MUSTARD. Syn. Flour of Mustard. Si- 
NAPis Farina. The powdered mustard of the 
shops is very frequently adulterated with wheat 
flour. When this is the case, it does not readily 
make a smooth paste with water, but exhibits con- 
siderable toughness, and somewhat of a stringy 
appearance. The common proportions employed 
by some grocers are, — dried common salt, wheat 
flour, and superfine mustard, equal parts, colored 
with turmeric, and sharpened with cayenne. Pure 
flour of mustard is used in medicine, to make 
poultices, &c. 

MUSTARD for the table, (ready made mus- 
tard,) is prepared as follows : 

1. (M. Soyes.) Steep mustard seed in twice its 
bulk of distilled vinegar for 8 days, then grind the 
whole to a paste in a mill ; put it into pots, and 
thrust a red-hot poker into each of them. Pat- 
ented. 

2. (M. Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard 2 
lbs. ; fresh parsley, chervil, celery, and tarragon, 
of each ^ oz. ; garlic, 1 clove ; 12 salt anchovies ; 
(all well chopped ;) grind well togemer, add salt 1 
oz. ; grape juice or sugar to sweeten, and suflicient 
water to form the mass into a thinnish paste by 
trituration in a mortar. When put into pots, a red- 
hot poker must be thrust in as above, and after- 
wards a little vinegar poured upon the surface. 

3. (Moutarde a Vestragon.) Black mustard 
seed dried till friable, and then finely powdered, 1 
lb. ; salt 2 oz. ; tarragon vinegar to mix. In a 
similar way the French prepare several other mus- 
tards, by employing dilFerent vinegars. 

4. (Patent.) Black ginger, bruised, 12 lbs. ; 
common salt 18 lbs, ; water 15 gallons ; boil, 
strain, and add to each gallon, flour of mustard 5 
lbs. 

5. (Moutarde superbe.) Salt 1^ lb.; scraped 
horseradish 1 lb. ; garlic 2 cloves ; boiling vinegar 
2 gallons ; macerate in a covered vessel for 24 
hours, strain, and add flour of mustard q. s. 

6. To the last add a little soluble cayenne pep- 
per, or essence of cayenne. 

7. Mustard 3 lbs. ; salt 1 lb. ; vinegar, grape 
juice, or white wine to mix. 

MYKOMELINIC ACID. A new acid discov- 
ered by Wohler and Liebig, and obtained by heat- 
ing to 212° a solution of alloxan with an excess of 
ammonia, adding dilute sulphuric acid, also iji ex- 
cess, and boiling for a few minutes. The new 
acid falls as a yellow gelatinous precipitate, which 
dries to a yellow porous powder. 

M YRICINE. The portion of wax which is in- 
soluble in alcohol. 

MYRISTICINE. The stdaropt^ne deposited 
by oil of nutmegs by keeping. 

MYRONIC ACID. Bussy ha!» given this name 
to an inodorous, bitter, non-crystallizable acid found 



NAP 



439 



NAR 



by him in black mustard. It is soluble in water and 
alcohol. 

MYROSYNE. Syn. Emulsion of Black 
Mustard. A name given by Bussy to a peculiar 
substance soluble in water, and which possesses the 
power of converting myronic acid into the volatile 
oil of mustard. 

MYROSPERMINE. The portion of the oil of 
balsam of Peru which is soluble in alcohol. 

MYROXILINE. The portion of the oil of bal- 
sam of Peru insoluble in alcohol. 

MYRRH. S,/n. Myrrua, (Lat.) The gum 
resin of balsamodendron niyrrha. To ascertain the 
purity of myrrh, triturate a small quantity of the 
powder of the suspected myrrh v/ith an equal 
amount of muriate of ammonia, adding water grad- 
ually ; if the whole is readily dissolved, the myrrh 
is true ; otherwise it is sophisticated with some 
other substance. (Giovanni Righiui.) 

MYRRHIC ACID. The hard resin of myrrh. 
It is soluble in the caustic alkalis, forming alkaline 
myrr hates. 



NAILS (THE) should be kept clean by the 
daily use of the nail brush and soap and water. 
After wiping the hands, but while they are still 
soft from the action of the water, gently push back 
the skin which is apt to grow over the nails, which 
will not only preserve them neatly rounded, but 
will prevent the skin cracking around their roots, 
(nail- springs,) and becoming sore. The points of 
the nails should be pared at least once a week ; 
biting them should be avoided. 

NANKEEN DYE. Prep. Annotto and pot- 
ash, equal parts ; water q. s. ; boil till dissolved. 
The proportion of potash is varied according to the 
shade required ; the alkali darkens it. Used to 
dye nankeen color, but chiefly to restore the color 
of faded nankeen clothing. 

NAPHTHA. Syn. Mineral Naphtha. Rock 
Oil. Huile Petrole, (Fr.) Steinol, (Ger.) 
Naphtha, (Lat., from ^acpda,) A limpid bitumen 
which exudes from the surface of the earth in va- 
rious parts of the world. It possesses a penetrating 
odor and a yellow color, but may be rendered col- 
orless by distillation ; it boils at about 160°, and is 
verj' inflammable. Sp. gr. 0'753 to 0-8.36. It does 
not mix with water, but imparts to that fluid its pe- 
culiar taste and smell. It mixes with alcohol and 
oils, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, camphor, 
iodine, most of the resins, wax, fats, spermaceti, 
and forms with caoutchouc a gelatinous varnish. 
It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine, 
but this fraud may be detected by the addition of 
some oil of vitriol, which will in that case thicken 
and darken it. Naphtha is chiefly employed for 
the purposes of illumination, as a solvent for Indian 
rubber, and in the preparation of a very superior 
black pigment. 

Remarks. According to the researches of Lau- 
rent, Pelletier, Walter, and others, mineral naph- 
tha is a compound of several hydro-carbons, to 
which the names paroffine, naphtha, iiaphthene, 
naphthoLe, «fcc., have been given. A similar fluid 
to mineral naphtha is obtained by the distillation 
of coal tar, {coal naphtha,) and is largely employed 
in the arts, in the preparation of coarse paints and 
▼amishes, and for the solution of Indian rubber. 



The term has also been very improperly extended 
to the pyroxilic spirit of commerce, {wood iiai>htha,) 
and also occasionally to pyroacetic spirit ; but 
these liquids difler from naphtha,. both in their com- 
position, odor, and boiling points, and in beino- mis- 
cible with watei, and incapable of dissolving Indian 
rubber. The confusion arising from the above 
misapplication of names, may be readily imagiii'^d, 
when the reader is informed, that a certain physi- 
cian who lately made himself conspicuous by the 
assertion that he had cured consumption with wood 
naphtha, and publicly stated that the kind he em- 
ployed was pure pyroacetic spirit, was in reality 
dosing his patients with commercial pyroxilic 
spirit, which is quite a diflerent article. Thus the 
doctor was using one compound, and from want of 
a practical knowledge of iie matter, was directing 
the profession to use another. 

NAPHTHALAMIDE. A compound obtained 
by the distillation of naphthalate of ammonia. 

NAPHTHALIC ACID. A crystalline sub- 
stance resembling benzoic acid, > btained by Laurent 
from naphthaline. 

NAPHTHALINE. A white, crystallizable, 
odorous, volatile substance, obtained by redistilling 
coal tar. It melts at 180° F., is soluble in alcohol 
and ether, and forms with sulphuric acid sulpho- 
naphthalic acid. , 

N ARC EI A. Syn. Narceina. Narceine. 
(From vdpKTi) stupor.) A peculiar vegeto-alkaline 
base discovered by Pelletier in opium. It is ob- 
tained from the aqueous solution of opium, alter it 
has been freed from morphia and narcotine by am- 
monia, and from the resulting meconate of ammo- 
nia by baryta. On boiling the filtered solution to 
expel the ammonia, and evaporating^ crystals of 
narceia are gradually deposited. It may be puri- 
fied by solution in hot alcohol and crystallization. 

*^* White acicular prisms. Inodorous, bitter, pun- 
gent ; soluble in 375 parts of water at 60°, and 230 
parts at 2l2° ; insoluble in ether ; imperfectly 
neutralizes the acids. It is distinguished from mor- 
phia by its easier fusibility, (198°,) and by its salts 
in a certain degree of concentration being blue, 
but on gradual dilution clianging to violet, and rose- 
red, and ultimately becoming colorless. It does 
not strike a blue color with sesquichloride of iron, 
like morphia, but forms a blue compound with 
starch. In opposition to its name, it appears to be 
nearly inert. 

NARCOTIC. Syn. Narcoticus. {Lat., from 
vapKoo), to stupify.) A medicine that produces 
drowsiness, sleep, and stupor. In small doses, 
narcotics mostly act as stimulants, but in large 
ones they produce calmness of mind, torpor, and 
even coma and death. Opium, henbane, hem- 
lock, tobacco, camphor, alcohol, ether, &c., are 
narcotics. 

NARCOTINA. Syn. Narcotlxe. Sel d'opi- 
UM ; Matiere de Derosne, (Fr.) (From vapAcwrc- 
Kbi, narcotic.) A peculiar crystalline substance 
found by Derosne in opium, and on which its .stim- 
ulant property was at first supposed to depend. It 
may be easily obtained from opium exhausted of 
soluble matter by cold water, by treating it with 
water acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid, 
filtering, neutralizing with ammonia, and dissolv- 
ing the washed precipitate in boiling alcohol, which 
will again deposite it as it cools. It may be fur- 



NIC 



440 



NIG 



ther purified by solution in ether. Narcotine may 
likewise be directly obtained by the action of ether 
on opium, previously exhausted by cold water. 
With the acids it forms salts. Narcotine is spa- 
ringly soluble in boiling water, but freely soluble in 
boiling alcohol, and in ether. It is distinguished 
froir^jnorphia by its insipidity, solubility in ether, 
insolubility in alkalis, and by giving an orange tint 
to nitric acid, and a greasy stain to paper, when 
heated on it over a candle. The physiological ac- 
tion of narcotine is differently stated by different 
authorities. 1 gr. dissolved in olive oil, killed a 
dog in 24 hours ; but 24 grs. dissolved in acetic 
acid were given with impunity. (Majendie.) In the 
solid state it is inert ; 129 grs. at a dose scarcely 
produce any obvious effects. (Bally.) Scruple 
doses have been given without injury. (Dr. Roots.) 
It has been recently proposed as a substitute for 
quinine in the cure of agues. For this purpose the 
sulphate is preferable. 200 cases of intermittent 
and remittent fevers have been thus successfully 
treated in India. (Dr. O'Shaughnessy.) 

NECTAR. Prep. I. Chopped raisins 2 lbs.; 
loaf sugar 4 lbs ; boiling water 2 gallons ; mix ; 
when cold, add 2 lemons, sliced ; proof spirit 
(brandy or rum) 3 pints ; macerate in a covered 
vessel for 4 or 5 days, occasionally shaking, strain, 
let it stand in a cold place for a week to clear, 
and then bottle. In ten days, or less, if kept in a 
very cold place, it will be excellent. 

II. Red ratifia 3 gallons ; oils of cassia and 
caraway, of each, 25 drops ; previously dissolved 
in brandy ^ pint ; orange wine 1 gallon ; sliced 
oranges 6 in no. ; lump sugar 2 lbs. ; macerate for 
a week, decant and bottle. Both are used as 
pleasant cordj^jils. 

NEGUS. Prep. I. (Red.) Port wine 1 bottle, 
(1^ pints ;) i nutmeg, grated ; the juice of two 
lemons, and the yellow peel of one ; lump sugar 
^ lb. ; put the whole into a bottle, add boiling wa- 
ter 3 pints, cork down close, and macerate with 
agitation. *^* Very excellent. The addition of 
a single drop of essence of ambergris, and 6 or 7 
drops of essence of vanilla, improves it. 

II. (White.) From ^ite wine, as the last. 
*^* A single glass of the above may be made by 
observing the same proportions. 

NERVOUSNESS. The cure of nervousness 
is best effected by restoring the healthy action of 
the stomach and bowels, and by the use of proper 
exercise, especially in the open air. The stomach 
should not be overloaded with indigestible food, 
and the bowels should be occasionally relieved by 
the use of some mild aperient. Abernethy's in- 
junction to a nervous and dyspeptic lady, " Dis- 
miss your servants, madam, and make your own 
heds," should be recollected by all as a proof of 
the importance that eminent surgeon attached to 
EXERCISE. (See Dyspepsia, Flatulency, Hypo 

CHONDRIASIS, HYSTERICS, &C.) 

NEUTRALIZATION. Syn, Neutraltsatio, 
(Lat.) The admixture of an acid and alkali in 
such proportions that neither shall predominate. 
A neutral compound neither turns turmeric paper 
brown, nor litmus paper red. 

NICKEL. A white, hard, malleable metal, 
capable of receiving the lustre of silver. Its sp. 
gr. when hammered is about 8-82. It is chiefly 
employed in the manufacture of Gorman silver. 



Prep. Roast powdered speise first by itself and 
then with charcoal powder, till all the arsenic is 
expelled, and a garlic odor ceases to be evolved ; 
mix the residuum with 3 parts of sulphur and I 
part of potash, melt in a crucible with a gentle 
heat, cool, edulcorate with water, dissolve in sul- 
phuric acid mixed with a little nitric acid, precipi- 
tate with carbonate of potash, wash, dry, mix the 
precipitate with powdered charcoal, and reduce it 
by heat. For chemical purposes pure nickel is 
best obtained by moderately heating its oxalate in 
a covered crucible. 

Props., ^c. Nickel is very infusible. Muria- 
tic and sulphuric acid act on it with difficulty un- 
less mixed with nitric acid. It is freply soluble in 
the latter menstruum. With oxygen it forms two 
oxides. The protoxide (gray oxide) may be ob- 
tained by heating the nitrate, carbonate, or oxa- 
late to redness in open vessels. This oxide forms 
salts with the acids, most of which have a green 
color. The peroxide (black oxide) is formed when 
chlorine is transmitted through water holding the 
hydrated protoxide in suspension. Chloride cf 
nickel is formed by the direct solution of the metal 
or its oxide in muriatic acid, from which it may 
be obtained in green crystals by evaporation. The 
salts of nickel are characterized by being precipi- 
tated white by prussiate of potash ; grayish white 
by infusion of galls ; black by hydrosulphurets 
and sulphureted hydrogen ; pale green by pure 
alkalis and alkaline carbonates, but redissolved by 
ammonia or its carbonate in excess. 

NICOTINE. Syn. Nicotina. A volatile base 
discovered by Reiman and Posselt in tobacco. 

Prep. (Ortigosa.) Infuse tobacco leaves for 24 
hours in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, 
strain, evaporate to a sirup, add one-sixth of its 
volume of strong solution of potassa, and distil in 
an oil bath at 288°, occasionally adding a little 
water to assist the process. Saturate the distilled 
product with oxalic acid, evaporate to dryness, di- 
gest in boiling absolute alcohol, evaporate to a 
sirup, decompose the oxalate of nicotine thus ob 
tained, by adding caustic potassa to it in a close 
vessel, and agitate the mass with ether, repeating 
the process with more ether till all the nicotine is 
dissolved out. Distil the mixed ethereal solutions 
in a water-bath. At first ether comes over, then 
water, and lastly nicotine, which towards the end 
of the process assumes a yellowish tint. 

Remarks. Nicotine is a colorless volatile liquid, 
smelling of tobacco, boiling at 375°, soluble in 
water, ether, alcohol, and oils, and combining 
with the acids forming salts, many of which are 
crystallizable. It is a frightful poison ; -Jth of a 
drop will kill a rabbit, and a single drop a large 
dog. Good Virginia tobacco yields 1§ of nicotine. 
(Thomson, Org. Chem.) 

NIGELLIN. A yellowish liquid obtained by 
Rensch from the seeds of the nigclla saliva. It 
is obtained by digestion in alcohol at 80°, distilling 
the tincture, separating the reddish brown from 
the lighter portion of the product, agitating the 
latter'with ether, and then with water, adding to 
the liquid when decanted, a little subacetate of 
lead, filtering and treating it with sulphureted hy- 
drogen. The aqueous liquid is then filtered and 
evaporated. 

NIGHTMARE Syn. Ephialtes, (Lai., from 



NIT 



441 



NIT 



KpaWofiai, to leap upon; because it was thought a 
demon leaped upon the chest.) The prevention 
of nightmare consists in the selection of. proper 
food, and in duly attending to the state of the 
stomach and bowels. Heavy and late suppers 
should be particularly avoided, as well as all arti- 
cles of diet that are of difficult digestion, or apt 
to induce flatulency. A spoonful of spirits of sal 
volatile, magnesia, or bicarbonate of soda, taken 
in a glass of cold water on going to bed, is a good 
Jind simple preventive. 

NIPPLES, SORE. Prep. Moisten them 2 or 
3 times a day for some weeks before suckling, 
with brandy or spirit, gently acidulated with di- 
lute sulphuric acid ; or instead thereof employ 
tincture of balsam of tolu, or compound tincture 
of benzoin. 

Cure. Chapped nipples are most quickly and 
safely cured by moistening them 2 or 3 'times a 
day with tincture of catechu, by means of a camel 
hair pencil. *^* All applications of an active or 
poisonous nature should be carefully avoided, as 
even though the part be washed, yet a portion 
will still remain concealed within the pores of the 
skin and be sucked off by the infant. 

NITRATE. Syn. Nitras, (Lat.) A salt of 
nitric acid. The nitrates are very easily. made by 
the direct solution of the base, or its oxide or car- 
bonate in nitric acid, which in most cases should 
be previously diluted with water ; by evaporation 
they may be obtained either in the pulverulent or 
crystalline state. The nitrates are characterized 
by deflagrating when thrown on red-hot coal, or 
when heated in contact with inflammable sub- 
stances. (See Nitric Acid.) 

NITRATE OF CAMPHOR. Syn. Oil of 
Camphor. Prepared by dissolving camphor in ni- 
tric acid. 

NITRATE OF POTASH. Syn. Saltpetre. 
Nitre. Nitru.m. Sal Petr^. Sal Nitri. Ka- 
li NiTRATUM. Potass.^ Nitras, (P. L. E. and D.) 
Nitrate de potasse, (Fr.) SalpetersjIures Ka- 
li, {Ger.) This salt is spontaneously generated in 
the soil, owing to the action of the atmosphere, 
and crystallizes upon its surface in various parts 
of the world, especially in the East Indies. It is 
also produced artificially by exposing a mixture 
of calcareous soil and animal matter to the at- 
mosphere, when nitrate of lime is slowly formed, 
and is extracted by lixiviation. The liquid is then 
decomposed by adding carbonate of potash, by 
which carbonate of lime is precipitated and nitrate 
of potash remains in solution. The British mar- 
ket is wholly supplied from India. The crude 
nitre {rough saltpetre) is extracted by lixiviation 
in the way above mentioned, but the alkaline base 
is supplied uzider the form of wood ashes, which, 
as is well known, contain a large quantity of pot- 
ash. It is purified by solution in boiling water, 
skimming, and after a short time being allowed 
for defecation, straining (while still hot) into crys- 
taUizing ve&sels. The crystals thus obtained are 
commonly called single refined nitre ; and when 
the process is repeated, double refined nitre. 

Use, <^c. Nitre is chiefly employed in the man- 
ufacture of gunpowder and nitric acid. It is also 
used in medicine as a refrigerant, diaphoretic, and 
cooling diuretic. Dose. 5 to 15 grains, every 2 
hours. A small piece dissolved slowly in the 
56 



mouth, frequently stops a sore throat at the com* 
mencement. In large doses, it is poisonous. The 
best antidotal treatment is a powerful emetic, fol- 
lowed by opiates. 

Pur. The Dublin College orders purified nitrate 
of potash {potasscB nitras purificala) to be made 
by dissolving nitre in twice its weight of hot wa- 
ter, filtering, and setting the liquor aside that 
crystals may form. Nitre occasionally contains 
muriates, sulphates, or calcareous salts. The first 
may be detected by its solution giving a cloudy 
white precipitate with nitrate of silver, — the sec- 
ond, by the muriate or nitrate of baryta or lime 
giving a white precipitate, — and the third, by ox- 
alate of ammonia, which also gives a white pre- 
cipitate. 

NITRATE OF SODA. Syn. Cubic Nitre. 
SoD^ Nitras. This salt is obtained in a similar 
way to the last, and is chiefly imported into Eng- 
land from America. It is largely employed eis a 
manure, and in the preparation of nitric acid. 

NITRIC ACID. Syn. Solutive Water. 
Aquafortis. Spirit of Nitre. Acidum Nitri- 
cuM, (P. L. E. &i, T>> Acide Nitrique, {Fr.) 
SALPETERsiiuRE, (Ger.. An acid compound of 
nitrogen and oxygen. Nitric acid was known to 
Geber in the 7th century', but its constituents were 
first shown by Cavendish in 1785, and subsequent- 
ly their proportions by Davy and Gay-Lussac. 

Prep. (P. L. &. E.) Dry purified nitrate of pot- 
ash and sulphuric acid, equal parts ; mix in a 
glass retort, and distil with a moderate heat into a 
cool receiver, so long as the fused materials con- 
tinue to evolve vapor. " The pale-yellow acid 
thus obtained may be rendered colorless, should it 
be thougrht necessary, by heating it gently in a re- 
tort." (P. E ) 

Remarks. On the large scale nitric acid is com- 
monly made by distilling a mixture of 168 lbs. of 
nitre and 93 lbs. of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-845, in 
an iron cylinder, connected with a series of 5 or 6 
double-necked stoneware bottles, about one-sixth 
part filled with water. The arrangement of the 
apparatus resembles that figured at page 57. The 
product of this process is the brown and fuming 
nitrous acid of commerce, {aquafortis, fuming 
nitric acid ; acidum nitrosum ; acidum nitricum 
fumans,) and has usually the sp. gr. 1-45. It is 
converted into colorless nitric acid by gently heat- 
ing it in a glass retort, when it forms commercial 
nitric acid, (sp. gr. 1*37 to 1*4.) The residuum of 
this process {sal enixum) is employed as a flux 
by the glass-houses, and in the manufacture of 
alum. Nitrate of soda is frequently used instead 
of nitrate of potash, and is more convenient in 
some respects, as the residuum is more easily dis- 
solved out of the retort or cylinder. The formula 
of the London or Edinburgh Pharmacopceia is the 
best process for obtaining a pure acid. By proper 
management nitre yields more than two-thirds of 
its weight of pure nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-500 ; and 
nitrate of soda its own weight of acid, sp. gr. 1-4. 

The nitric acid of commerce frequently contains 
chlorine, muriatic and sulphuric acids, and some- 
times iodine, from which it may be purified by the 
addition of a little nitrate of silver, as long as it 
produces any cloudiness, and after repose, decant- 
ing the clear acid, and rectifying it at a heat un 
der 212°. A perfectly colorless product cannot b« 



NIT 



442 



NIT 



obtained, unless a small portion of pure black ox- 
ide of manganese be put into the retort. (Murray.) 
Nitric acid may also be purified by rectification at 
a gentle heat, rejecting the first liquid that comes 
over, receiving the middle portion as genuine acid, 
and leaving a residuum in the retort. (Ure.) An- 
other method is to agitate it with a little red-lead 
before rectification. 

Props. Pure nitric acid is a colorless, corrosive 
liquid, and possesses powerful acid properties. At 
the sp. gr. 1-50, it cojitains 25§ of water, (Phillips ; 
— 20-3§, Ure.) The sp. gr. of the strongest liquid 
acid is variously stated by different authorities. 
According to some, it may be obtained as high as 
1*55, (Davy, Kirwin, &.c.,) or 1-62, (Proust ;) 
while, according to others, 1"503 to 1-510 is the 
greatest density at which it can be procured. 
(Phillips, Gay-Lussac, &c.) At 248° F. it boils, 
and when of less density than 1*42, parts with 
water and becomes stronger at lower tempera- 
tures ; but acid of higher sp. gr. is weakened by 
exposure to heat. It freezes when exposed to ex- 
treme cold. It rapidly oxidizes the metals, and 
unites with them and the other bases, forming 
salts called Nitrates. 

Uses. Nitric acid is employed in assaying, to 
dye silk and woollens yellow, and to form various 
salts. In medicine, it is used as a caustic to corns 
and warts ; and in doses of 1 to 10 drops in a 
tumbler of water, in liver complaints, fevers, dys- 
pepsia, syphilis, to remove the effects of mercury, 
or as a substitute for that drug in certain com- 
plaints, &c. 

Pur. Pure nitric acid is " totally dissipated by 
heat. When diluted with distilled water, neither 



nitrate of silver, nor chloride of barium, (or cal- 
cium,) produces a precipitate ; sp. gr. 1'50. 100 
grs. of this acid will saturate about 217 grs. of 
crystallized carbonate of soda." (P. L.) The rfoM- 
ble aquafortis of the shops (aquafortis duplex) 
has usually the sp. gr. 1"36 ; and the single aqua- 
fortis, (aquafortis simplex,) the sp. gr. 1*22. 

Tests. 1. It stains the skin yellow. 2. When 
mixed with a little muriatic acid or sal ammoniac, 
it acquires the power of dissolving gold leaf. 
3. When mixed with dilute sulphuric acid, and 
poured on a few fragments of zinc or iron in a 
tube, the evolved gas burns with a greenish white 
flame. (Balmain.) 4. Substitute alcohol for zinc 
in the last test. (Maitland.) 5. Morphia, brucia, 
and strychnia give it a red color, which is height- 
ened by ammonia in excess. 6. When placed in 
a tube, and a solution of protosulphate of iron cau- 
tiously added, a dark color is developed at the line 
of junction, which is distinctly visible when only 
2"T^w part of nitric acid is present. (Derbanius de 
Richemont.) 7. When mixed with a weak solu- 
tion of sulphate of indigo, and heated, the color is 
destroyed. 8. When saturated with carbonate of 
potash or soda, and evaporated to dryness, the re- 
siduum deflagrates when thrown on burning coals. 
9. The NITRATES may all be tested as above, by 
first adding a small quantity of pure sulphuric 
acid, which will liberate the nitric acid of the salt. 

Estiyn. The strength of nitric acid is usually es- 
timated by its sp. gr, ; but where very great accu- 
racy is required, it may be more correctly ascer- 
tained by the amount of carbonate of soda, or other 
salt of known cornposition, which is required to 
neutralize it. See Acidimetry. 









Table of Nitric 


Acid, by 


Dr. Ure. 








Specific 


Liq. 
Acid 
in 100. 


Dry Acid 


Specific 


Liq. 

Acid 
in 100. 


Dry Acid 


Specific 


Liq. 
Acid 
in 100. 


Dry Acid 


Specific 


Liq. 
Acid 
in 100. 


Dry Acid 


Gravity. 


in 100. 


Gravity. 


in 100. 


Gravity. 


in 100. 


Gravity. 


in 100. 


1.5000 


100 


79.700 


1.4189 


75 


59.755 


1.2947 


50 


39.850 


1.1403 


25 


19.925 


1.4980 


99 


78.903 


1.4147 


74 


58.978 


1.2887 


49 


39.053 


1.1345 


24 


19.128 


1.4960 


98 


78.106 


1.4107 


73 


58.181 


1.2826 


48 


38.256 


1.1286 


23 


18.331 


1.4940 


97 


77.309 


1.4065 


72 


57.384 


1.2765 


47 


37.459 


1.1227 


22 


17.534 


1.4910 


96 


76.512 


1.4023 


71 


56..587 


1.2705 


46 


36.662 


1.1168 


21 


16.737 


1.4880 


95 


75.715 


1.3978 


70 


.55.790 


1.2644 


45 


35.865 


1.1109 


20 


15.940 


1.4850 


94 


74.918 


1.3945 


69 


54.993 


1.2583 


44 


35.068 


1.1051 


19 


15.143 


1.4820 


93 


74.121 


1.3882 


68 


54.196 


1 .2523 


43 


34.271 


1.0993 


18 


14.346 


1.4790 


92 


73.324 


1.3833 


67 


53.399 


1.2462 


42 


33.474 


1.09.35 


17 


13.549 


1.4760 


91 


72.527 


1.3783 


66 


52.002 


1.2402 


41 


32.677 


1.0878 


16 


12.752 


1.4730 


90 


71.730 


1.3732 


65 


51.805 


1.2341 


40 


31.880 


1.0821 


15 


11.955 


1.4700 


89 


70.933 


1.3081 


64 


51.068 


1.2277 


39 


31.083 


1.0764 


14 


11.1.58 


1.4670 


88 


70.1.i6 


1.3030 


63 


50.211 


1.2212 


38 


30.286 


1.0708 


13 


10.361 


1.4640 


87 


69.339 


1.3579 


62 


49.414 


1.2148 


37 


29.489 


1.06.5.1 


12 


9.564 


1.4600 


86 


68.542 


1.3529 


61 


48.617 


1.2084 


36 


28.692 


1.0595 


11 


8.767 


1.4570 


85 


67.745 


1,3477 


60 


47.820 


1.2019 


35 


27.895 


1.0540 


10 


7.970 


1.4530 


84 


66.948 


1.3427 


59 


47.023 


1.1958 


34 


27.098 


1.0485 


9 


7.173 


1.4500 


83 


66.155 


1.3376 


58 


46.226 


1.1895 


33 


26.301 


1.0430 


8 


6..376 


1.4460 


82 


65.354 


1.3323 


57 


45.429 


1.1833 


32 


25.504 


1.0375 


7 


5.579 


1.4424 


81 


64.557 


1.3270 


56 


44.632 


1.1770 


31 


24.707 


1.0320 


6 


4.782 


1.4385 


80 


63.760 


1.3216 


55 


43.835 


1.1709 


30 


23.900 


1.0267 


5 


3.985 


1.4346 


79 


62.963 


1.3163 


54 


43.038 


1.1648 


29 


23.113 


1.0212 


4 


3.188 


1.4306 


78 


62.166 


1.3110 


53 


42.241 


1.1.587 


28 


22.316 


1.01.59 


3 


2.391 


1.4269 


77 


61.369 


1.3050 


52 


41.444 


1.1.526 


27 


21.519 


1.0106 


2 


1.594 


1.4228 


76 


60..572 


1.3001 


51 


40.647 


1.1465 


26 


20.722 


1.0053 


J 


0.797 


NITF 


JC A 


CID, (D 


[LUTED. 


) Syn 


. AciDUM 


NITR 


0-MI 


ICONIC 


ACID is 


forme 


d by the 


NITRICUft 


I DILU 


ruM, (P. L 


.) Prep. 


Nitric 


acid (P. 


action of 


stron< 


r nitric ac 


id on mec 


ouine 


at a g^W' 



L.) f §j ; water f ^ix ; mix. Kept for convenience 
in dispensing. Dose. 20 drops to f 3ij. 

NITRIC ACID, (HENRY'S.) Nitric acid dilu- 
ted to the sp. gr. 1-143 ; equal in saturating power to 
muriatic acid at 1074, and sulphuric acid 1-135. 
Used for assaying. See Henry's Muriatic Acid. 



tie heat. By solution in hot water, it is obtained 
in yellow crystals as the liquid cools, 

NITROGEN. Syn. Azote, {Fr. and Eirg.) 
Mephitic Air. Piilogisticated do. SricKsroFF- 
gas, {Ger.) Nitrogenium ; azotum, {Lai., the 
first from vlrpov, nitre, and yswdu), I generate ; ti. 



NIT 



443 



NIT 



second from a privative, and ^mn, life.) A 
gaseous substance discovered by Rutherford in 
1772, and found to be a constituent of the atmo- 
sphere by Lavoisier and Scheele in 1775. It has 
hitherto resisted all attempts at decomposition, 
and must therefore be considered as a chemical 
element. (See Chem. V. 3.) It is found both in 
the organic and inorganic kingdoms ; it forms 
about 79§ of the bulk of the atmosphere, and en- 
ters largely into the composition of most animal 
substances, and is a constituent of gluten, the al- 
kaloids, and other vegetable principles. 

Prep. I. Burn phosphorus in a jar filled with 
air, and standing over water in the pneumatic 
trough, and after the fumes have subsided, agitate 
the residual gas with water, or a solution of pure 
potassa. 

II. Expose nitrite of ammonia to heat in a re- 
tort, and collect the evolved gas. 

III. Transmit chlorine through pure ammonia 
water. 

IV. Digest lean flesh m nitric acid, gently 
heated. 

Remarks. Pure nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, 
tasteless gas, neither combustible nor capable of 
supporting combustion or respiration. It is neutral 
to test paper, does not affect lime water, and is 
only slightly absorbed by pure water. Its sp. gr. 
is 0-9722, (Liebig ; 0-976 BerzeHus.) In analysis 
it is recognised by its purely negative qualities, and 
by its forming nitric acid when mixed with ox^'^- 
gen, and exposed to the electric spark ; or when a 
jet of hydrogen is burnt in the mixed gases. The 
nitric acid thus formed may be tested in the way 
described under that article. 

NITROGEN, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Quad- 
ROCHLORiDE OF NiTROGEN. A compouud of nitro- 
gen and chlorine, remarkable for the feeble affinity 
by which its elements are united. It was discov- 
ered by Dulong in 1811, but its nature was first 
accurately determined by Sir H. Davy. 

Prep. Dissolve muriate of ammonia 1 oz. in hot 
water 12 or 14 oz., and as soon as the temperature 
has fallen to 90" F., invert a wide-mouthed glass 
bottle full of chlorine over it. The gas is gradual- 
ly absorbed, and the solution acquires a yellow 
color, and in the course of 15 to 20 minutes, yel- 
low oil-like globules form upon the surface of the 
liquid, and ultimately sink to the bottom. The 
globules as they descend should be received in a 
small leaden saucer, placed under the mouth of 
the bottle for the purpose. (Liebig.) 

Remarks. Chloride of azote is one of the most 
explosive compounds known, and should conse- 
quently be only prepared in very small quantities 
at a time. Both its discoverer and Sir H. Davy 
met with severe injuries while experimenting on it. 
Its sp gr. is 1-653 ; it volatilizes at 160° F., and 
at 200° explodes violently. Contact with combus- 
tible bodies at ordinary temperatures immediately 
causes detonation. The explosive power of this 
compound seems to exceed that of every known 
substance, not even excepting fulminating silver. 
A minute globule no larger than a grain of mus- 
tard-seed, placed on a platina spoon, and touched 
with a piece of phosphorus stuck on the point of a 
penknife, immediately explodes, and shivers the 
blade into fragments, at the same time that the 
*ressel that contained it is broken to pieces. Olive 



oil, naphtha, and oil of turpentine, have a similar 
effect. It has been suggested that this compound 
is the substance employed by Captain VVariu^r in 
his destructive machines, but such a supposition 
must necessarily be incorrect, from the uncontrol- 
lable nature of the chloride, and the imj)raclica- 
bility of safely procuring it in sufficient quantity 
by any known process. I conceive that Captain 
Warner employs fulminating antimony, either 
alone, or as an instrument for the ignition of com- 
mon gunpowder. At all events, if this is not the 
Captain's secret, it is capable of producing exactly 
the same effects. (See Iodide of Nitrogen, for 
another dangerous explosive compound.) 

NITROGEN, OXIDES 01\ Prep. I. (Ni- 
trous oxide. Protoxide of nitrogen. Dephlo- 
gisticated nitrous air. Laughing go-S. Protox- 
ide d'azote, Fr. Stickstoffoxydal, Ger.) Evap- 
orate a solution of nitrate of ammonia until a drop 
of the fused mass placed on a cold plate instantly 
solidifies ; cool, break the lump into pieces, and 
place it in a stoppered bottle. For use, a portion 
is introduced into a glass retort, and heat applied 
by means of a spirit lamp or charcoal chauffer. 
As soon as the heat reaches 480°, protoxide of 
azote is evolved, and may be collected in bladders, 
gas bags, a gasometer, or in the pneumatic trough. 
*5^* Should white fumes appear within the retort 
after the evolution of the gas has commenced, the 
heat should be lowered, as when heated to about 
600°, nitrate of ammonia explodes with violence. 
Nitrous oxide may also be made in the same way 
from crystallized nitrate of ammonia, or by ex- 
posing nitric oxide for some days over iron 
filings. 

Remarks. The above compound, familiarly 
known as laughing gas, is colorless, possesses an 
agreeable odor, and a sweetish taste. At 45°, and 
under a pressure of 50 atmospheres, it is liquid. 
Its sp. gr. is 1-5241, it supports combustion, and is 
absorbed by water. Its most remarkable property 
is its action on the system when inspired. A few 
deep inspirations are usually succeeded by a pleas- 
ing state of excitement, and a strong propensity to 
laughter and muscular exertion, which soon sub- 
side, without being followed by languor or depres- 
sion. Its effects, however, vary with different con- 
stitutions. A sailor that lately took this gas at a 
public exhibition immediately drew his knife, and 
stabbed one of the company. From 4 to 12 quarts 
may be breathed with safety. 

II. {Binoxide of nitrogen. Deutoxide of do. 
Nitric oxide. Nitrous gas. Deutoxide d'azote, 
Fr. Stickstqffoxyd, Ger.) This is most conve- 
niently prepared by pouring nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-2, 
on metallic copper. Effervescence ensues, and 
nitrous gas is evolved, and may be collected over 
water or mercury in the pneumatic troujrh. The 
residual liquid yields crystals of nitrate of copper 
on evaporation. 

Remarks. A colorless, tasteless, inodorous, ir- 
respirable, and incombustible gas. In contact with 
free oxygen, it produces dense orange or red va- 
pors of nitrous acid, which are freely absorbed by 
water. Its sp. gr. is about 1-04. 

NIJROGEN, PHOSPHORET. A snow- 
white powder formed by heating chloride of plios- 
phorus, previously saturated with dry ammoniacal 
gas, (Rose.) 



NOY 



444 



OIL 



NITROGEN, SULPHURET. A greenish 
yellow mass, obtained by the action of water on a 
compound of chloride of sulphur and ammonia. 
(Soubeiran.) 

NITRO MURIATIC ACID. Syn. Nitrohy- 

DROCHLORIC AciD. AqUA REGIA. AcIDUM NITRO- 
MURIATICUM, (P. D.) EaU REGALE ; AciDE NITRO- 
MURIATIQUE, {Fr.) SALPETER-SALZSaURES ; Ko- 

NiGswAssER, (Ger.) Prep. I. Nitric acid f §j ; mu- 
riatic acidf^ij; mix. Used to dissolve gold and 
platinum, and in medicine, in liver complaints, 
syphilis, exanthemata, &c., either internally, in 
doses of 5 to 15 drops in water, or externally, as a 
foot or knee-bath. See Bath. 

II. {Aqua regia with sal ammoniac.) Nitric 
acid (sp. gr. 1*2) f f xvj ; sal ammoniac f iv ; dis- 
solve. Occasionally used by dyers ; does not keep 
well. Nitre is sometimes substituted for sal am- 
moniac. Dissolves gold and platina. 

III. (Dyer's aquafortis.) Colorless nitric acid 
(sp. gr. 1-17) 100 lbs. ; muriatic acid (sp. gr. 1-19) 
5 lbs. ; mix. Used by dyers. " It dissolves tin 
without oxidizing it." (?) 

NITROUS ACID. Syn. Acidum nitrosum, 
(Lat.) AciDE NiTREUx, (Fv.) Salpetrige Sal- 
PETERsauRE, (Ger.) Prep. Distil perfectly dry 
litrate of lead in a coated glass retort, connected 
with a glass receiver placed in a freezing mixture, 
and furnished with a safety tube. A pungent, acid, 
corrosive liquid, colorless below zero, but yellow, 
or orange-colored at higher temperatures ; sp. gr. 
1-42 ; boiling point 82° F. It is a powerful oxidi- 
zing agent. When mixed with water, it is decom- 
posed: A mixture of nitrous and nitric acids forms 
the fuming nitric acid (aquafortis) of commerce. 
Its compounds with the bases are called Nitrites. 
Nitrite of potassa may be obtained by heating 
nitre to redness, and removing it from the fire be- 
fore the decomposition is complete. Both nitrous 
and hyponitrous acids contain no water, and are 
therefore dry liquids. (Ure.) 

NITROSALICULIC ACID. Small golden- 
colored crystals, obtained by gently heating sali- 
culous acid with moderately strong nitric acid, 
washing the mass with water, dissolving in alco- 
hol, and crystallizing. It forms crystallizable m- 
trosaliculates with the alkalis. 

NITROSACCHARIC ACID. A peculiar 
crystallized acid, formed by the union of nitric 
acid with the saccharine matter obtained by the 
action of sulphuric acid on gelatin. 

NORFOLK FLUID. Prep. Linseed oil 3 
pints ; yellow rosin 4 oz. ; fir rosin 2 oz. ; yellow 
wax 12 oz. ; melt, add neat's foot oil 1 quart ; oil 
of turpentine 1 pint. Used to preserve and soften 
leather. 

NOVARGENT. Freshly-precipitated muriate 
of silver dissolved in a solution of hydrosulphite 
of soda. Used to silver metals, especially to re- 
store old plated goods. 

NOVAURUM. A solution of neutral terchlo- 
lide of gold. (See Gold, liquid.) 

NOYEAU. Syn. Creme de Noyeau, (Fr.) 
Prep. I. Blanched bitter almonds 1 oz. ; proof 
spirit 1 quart ; lump sugar 1 lb. ; dissolved in wa- 
ter i pint ; digest and filter. 

II. Bitter almonds, blanched, .3 oz. ; coriander 
•eed ^ oz. ; cinnamon, ginger, and mace, of each, 
1 dr. ; proof spirit or plain gin 2 quarts ; white su- 



gar 2 lbs. ; dissolved in water 1^ pints ; macerate 
for a week, and fine down with alum (dissolved) 
i oz. 

III. (Creme de noyeau de Martinique.) Loaf 
sugar 24 lbs. ; water 2^ gallons ; dissolve, add 
proof spirit 5 gallons ; or orange-flower water 3 
pints ; bitter almonds 1 lb. ; essence of lemons 2 
dr. ; as above. A pleasant nutty -tasted liqueur, 
but should not be taken in large quantities. (See 
Cordials.) 

OATS. A large portion of the oats given to 
horses passes off undigested. It has been pro- 
posed to prevent this loss, by either coarsely 
bruising them in a mill, or by pouring boiling 
water over them, and allowing them to macerate 
till cold, when they are to be given to the horses 
without straining off the water. It is stated on 
good authority, that oats thus treated will not only 
fatten quicker, but go twice as far as without 
preparation. 

ODORS. (See Disinfectants and Fumiga- 
tion.) 

CENANTHIC ACID. This acid passes over, 
in small quantity, towards the end of the process 
when wine is distilled. By digestion with potash 
and decomposition with sulphuric acid, it may be 
obtained under the form of an oily liquid. (See 
Ether, (Enanthic.) 

(ENANTHYLIC ACID. A peculiar sub- 
stance obtained 'by Mr. Tilley, by the action of 
nitric acid on castor oil. 

(ENOTHIONIC acid. (From otvos, wine, 
and Seiov, sulphur.) Sulphovinic acid. 

OIL COLOR C^\KES. Prep. Grind the col- 
ors with oil of turpentine, in which has been dis- 
solved in the cold, about one-sixth of its weight 
of powdered mastich ; let them dry, then place the 
stone over a slow charcoal fire, so as to soften the 
color, and add of a warm solution of spermaceti 
in half its weight of poppy oil, q. s. to make the 
mass into a proper paste ; remove the heat, work 
till it begins to harden, then form the mass into 
pieces and mould them into cakes. Used by ar- 
tists, rubbed down with poppy, nut, or linseed oil, 
and turpentine as required. 

OIL COLORS, (in bottles or bladders.) Pre- 
pared with the same mixture as the last, but 
thinned sufliciently with any pale drying oil be- 
fore putting them into the cases. Used by ar- 
tists. 

OIL GAS. A mixture of several gaseous hy- 
drocarbons obtained by passing oil through red hot 
tubes, or dropping it on red hot stones or bricks 
1 gallon of whale oil yields 90 to lUO cubical feet 
of gas, which gives a more brilliant light than coal 
gas, and burns about 3 times as long. 

OILS. Syn. Huiles, (Fr.) Oele, (Ger.) 
Olea, (Lot., from olea, the olive.) Oils are com- 
pounds of carbon and hydrogen, (hydrocarbons.) 
or of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, (oxyhydro- 
carbons,) derived from the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms, and chiefly distinguished by a certain 
degree of consistence, (unctilosity,) insolubility in 
water, and power of supporting combustion with 
flame. Oils are divided into two great classes; 
viz.: fxed or fat oils, and volatile or essential 
oils. Olive, rape, ahnond, and castor oils, are ex- 
amples of the former ; and the oils of lavender, 



OIL 



445 



OIL 



lemons, bergamotte, and turpentine, of the latter. 
The term oil is also applied to various empyreu- 
matic products of the distillation of organic bod- 
ies, and to several unctuous mixtures in perfumery 
and pharmacy, as well as by iiqueuristes to their 
richer cordials. 

OILS, CORDIAL. (In the art of the liqueur- 
iste.) Dilute aromatized alcohol, holding in solu- 
tion a sufficient quantity of sugar to impart an 
oily consistence. The following is an example of 
this class of liqueurs: — 

Oil of Cedrat. (Creme de Cedrat.) Spirit of 
cedrat 1 quart ; spirit of citron 1 pint ; proof spirit 
3 pints ; lump sugar 5 lbs. ; dissolved in water 6 
pints ; mix, allow it to stand together for a week, 
then filter if required. (See Cordials, Cremes, 
Liqueurs, &.c.) 

OILS, COMPOUND. Syn. Mixed Oils. 
This term is commonly applied to various mix- 
tures of oils or other ingredients that possess an 
unctuous appearance. Where not otherwise di- 
rected, they are prepared by simply agitating the 
ingredients together, and after a sufficient time 
decanting the clear, and filtering if necessary. 
The following are some of the principal compound 
oils : — 

Oil, Acoustic. (Oleum terehinthin(B acousti- 
cum. Mr. Maule.) Almond oil 3iv ; oil of tur- 
pentine 9ij ; mix. Used for deafness. 

Oil, Black. Oil of turpentine 4 lbs. ; rape oil 
1 gallon ; oil of vitriol ^ lb. ; British oil \ lb. ; mix 
well, and in 14 days decant the clear. 

Oil, British. (Common oil of petre. 01. pe- 
trcB vulgare.) Oil of turpentine 2 lbs. ; Barba- 
does tar 1 lb. ; oil of rosemary 2 oz. ; mix well. 

Oil of Camphor. (01. camphorce nitricum, 
Fee.) Nitric acid 460 grs. ; camphor 200 grs. ; 
dissolve without heat and decant the oil. 

Oil, Camphorated. (Camphor liniment, lini- 
mentum camphorce, P. L. and E. OL campho- 
ratum, P. D.) Camphor fj ; olive oil ^'v ; dis- 
solve by a gentle heat. Anodyne ; discutient ; 
used for sprains, bruises, «fec. 

Oil, Chabert's. Oil of turpentine 3 parts ; 
Dippel's oil 1 part ; mix and distil 3 parts. Used 
in tapeworm. 

Oil, Darby's. Oil of amber, balsam of sulphur, 
and Barbadoes tar, equal parts. 

Oil, Exeter. (01. excestrense.) Green oil 2 
gallons ; euphorbium, mustard seed, castor, and 
pellitory, of each bruised, ^j ; macerate with occa- 
sional agitation for 10 days, and strain. 

Oil, Furniture. (Oil stain. Mahogany do.) 
Linseed oil 1 gallon ; black rosin 1 lb. ; alkanet 
root 12 oz., or less ; heat together until sufficiently 
colored. Some persons use boiled oil, and others 
add a little beeswax, and rose pink. 

Oil, Macassar. Olive oil 1 lb. ; oils of origa- 
num and rosemary, of each, 1 dr. ; .mix. Used to 
make the hair grow and curl. 

Oils, Mixed. (01. mixta.) Essences of berga- 
motte and lemons, of each, ^j ? o'ls of lavender 
and pimento, of each, ^ss ; used to scent sal vola- 
tile drops, smelling bottles, &c. 

Oil, Neat's foot. (Nerve oil. Trotter^s do. 
01. nervinuin. Auxungia pedum tauri.) From 
neat's feet and tripe by boiling ; does not harden 
by age ; used to soften leather and to fry frit- 
ters. 



Oil, Newmarket. Oils of linseed, turpentine, 
and St. John's wort, of each, 3 lbs. ; oil of vitriol 
1 oz. ; mix. For sprains in horses. 

Oils, Nine. (Mixed oils. 01. ex omnibus.) 
Train oil 1 gallon ; oil of turpentine 1 quart ; oil 
of bricks and amber, of each, 5 oz. ; camphorated 
spirit of wine 10 oz. ; Barbadoes tar 2^ lbs. ; oil 
of vitriol 1 oz. ; mix. Used by farriers. 

Oil, Phosphorated. (01. phosphoratum.) — 1. 
(Ph. Bor.) Phosphorus 12 grs. ; almond oil §j ; dis- 
solve by a gentle heat. Dose. 5 to 10 drops made 
into an emulsion. — 2. (Majendie.) Phosphorus 3j ; 
almond oil ^ij ; macerate in the dark for 14 days, 
and scent with bergamotte. Stronger than the 
former. *^* A bottle partly filled with oil satu- 
rated with phosphorus, will emit enough light in 
the dark, on the cork being taken out, to see the 
time by a watch. 

Oil for Quitters. Aquafortis 1 oz. ; spirit of 
wine, and oil of turpentine, of each, 3 oz. : red 
precipitate \ oz. ; mix. Used by farriers. 

Oil of Roses. 1. Olive oil } pint ; otto of 
roses i to 1 dr. ; mix. — 2. To th e .ast add oil of 
rosemary ^ dr. Either may be colored red by 
steeping a little alkanet root in the oil (with heat) 
before scenting it. Used for the hair. 

Oil, Shaving. Soft soap 6 lbs. ; rectified spirit 
of wine 1 gallon. 

Oil, Sheldrake's. Nut oil 1 pint ; ceruse 2 
oz. ; boil ; when dissolved, add copal varnish 1 
pint, and stir till the oil of turpentine has evapo- 
rated. Used to grind colors in, to brighten them. 

Oil of Spike. (Factitious.) 1. Oil of turpen- 
tine 3 pints ; oil of lavender 1 pint ; mix. Used 
by enamellers to mix their colors in. — 2. Oil of tur- 
pentine 1 gallon ; Barbadoes tar 4 oz. ; alkanet 
root 2 oz. ; digest a week. Used as a hniment for 
horses. 

Oil, Sulphurated. (01. Sulphuratum.) (See 
Balsam of Sulphur.) 

Oil, Toothache. (Toothache Drops.) 1. Oils 
of origanum and cloves, of each f 3iij ; camphor 
3j ; dissolve. — 2. To the last add creosote 3j. — 3. 
Tinctures of pellitory of Spain and colchicum, of 
each 5j ; creosote and oil of cloves, of each 3j ; 
mix. Dropped on a piece of lint and stuffed in the 
tooth, previously wetted with the drops by a camel- 
hair pencil. 

Oil, Wedel's. (01. Bezoardicum.) Almond oil 
^ij ; camphor 3ij ; essence of bergamot 3ss ; alka 
net root to color ; mix. 

Oil, Worm. (01. Vermifugum.) — 1. (Chabert.) 
Rectified oil of turpentine 3iv ; do. animal oil 3j ; 
mix. To be followed by a purgative. — 2. (For 
dogs.) Turpentine 3 to 4 dr. ; castor oil 1 oz. ; for 
1 dose. 

Oil, Watchmaker's. Prepared by placing a 
clean strip of lead in a small white glass bottle 
filled with olive oil, and exposing it to the sun's rays 
at a window for some time, till a curdy matter 
ceases to deposite, and the oil has become quite 
limpid and colorless. Used for fine work ; does 
not get thick by age. (See Olein.) 

OILS, EMPYREUMATIC. Oily fluids ob- 
tained by the dry distillation of various animal and 
vegetable substances. If the ingredients are of a 
liquid or pasty nature, or become so when heated, 
they are usually mixed with about twic(! their 
weight of sand, to divide them, and thus expose 



OIL 



446 



OIL 



them more ofFectually to the action of the fire. 
They are piirified by rectification, either alone or 
along with water. The following are the principal 
empyreumatic oils : — 

Animal Oil. {Empyreumatic animal oil. Dip- 
pel's do. 01. Animale. Rectified oil of harts- 
horn. O. Dippelii. O. cornu cervi Rectificatum.) 
Chiefly obtained as a secondary product in the 
manufacture of boneblack ; fetid black. A finer 
kind is made by slowly distilling oil of hartshorn 
and collecting only the first portion that comes 
over ; pale and thin ; discolored by light. Anti- 
spasmodic, anodyne, and diaphoretic. Dose. 10 to 
30 drops in water. 

Oil of Benjamin. (01. Benzoini.) From the 
residuum of the process of preparing benzoic acid. 
Used to make mock Russia leather. 

Birch Oil. {01. Betulce.) From birch-bark, 
by heating it in an earthen pot with a hole in the 
bottom to allow the oil to flow through into another 
jar sunk in the ground and luted to it. Thick, 
balsamic, odorous ; chiefly used to dress Russia 
leather. 

Oil of Bones. (01. Ossium.) Black, fetid ; pro- 
cured from the makers of boneblack : used to make 
lampblack. 

Oil of Box. {01. Buxi.) From boxwood with- 
out addition. Resolvent. 

Oil of Bricks. {01. Lateritium.) From olive 
oil mixed with brickdust, and distilled ; resolvent, 
in palsy and gout. — Factitious oil of Bricks. Lin- 
seed oil 1 lb. ; oil of turpentine ^ lb. ; (Jtt of harts- 
horn, or bones, and Barbadoes tar, of each 1 oz. ; 
mix. 

Oil, Coal. (See Naphtha,) 

Oil of Hartshorn. {01. Cornu Cervi.) From 
harts' horns, by distillation. 

Oil of Hemlock. {Pyroconia.) By the destruc- 
tive distillation of hemlock. 

Oil of Lettuce. {Empyreumatic.) From gar- 
den lettuce. 

Oil of Soot. {01. Fuliginis.) From wood soot ; 
fetid. Used in epilepsy. 

Oil of Tar. {Jeran. 01. Pini. O. Pini Ru- 
hrum. O. Tcedce. O. Picis liquidce.) From tar ; 
reddish ; colorless when rectified ; soon gets thick. 
Used as an application to ringworm ; contains cre- 
osote. 

OILS, FIXED. Syn. Fat Oils. Unctuous 
po. HuiLEs GRASSES, (Fr.) Fette Oele, {Ger.) 
Olea expressa, {Lat.) Compounds of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, {hydrocarbons,) obtained 
from the organic kingdom, and chiefly distinguish- 
ed by their in-.ipidity, unctuosity, insolubility in 
water, and being lighter than that fluid. Olive oil, 
obtained from the vegetable, and spermaceti oil, 
from the animal kingdom, may be taken as types 
of the rest. The fixed oils are chiefly found in the 
fruit and seeds of plants, and in thin membranous 
cells, in various purls of the bodies of animals. 
Some of those oils are solid at ordinary tempera- 
tures ; as palm oil, cocoa-nut oil, &c. ; but the 
majorily are Huid, except when considerably cool- 
ed, when they separate into two portions ; the one 
solid, consisting mostly of slearine, and the other 
liquid, consisting chiefly of oleinc. Nearly all the 
fixed oils, wIhmi freely exposed to the air, absorb 
oxygen, and either gradually harden, or become 
rancid The former are termed drying oils, and 



are used by painters ; the latter are used in cook- 
ery, for machinery, lamps, &c. The whole of 
these oils suffer decomposition at high temperatures, 
yielding various hydrocarbons ; when suddenly 
exposed to a red heat, they yield a gaseous product, 
{oil gas,) which is used for illumination. It is on 
this property that candles and lamps furnish their 
light The tallow or oil is first converted into gas 
in the pores of the vwick, ant" this gas, immediately 
on its formation, enters into combustion, with the 
production of heat and light. With caustic al- 
kalis and water the fixed oils form soap. When 
some of these oils are absorbed by porous bodies, 
and thus expose a vastly increased surface to the 
air, they absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to 
generate a considerable degree of heat. Paper, 
tow, cotton, wool, straw, shavings, &c., slightly 
imbued with oil, and left in a heap, freely exposed 
to the air or sun, will often spontaneously inflame. 
In this way many extensive fires have arisen. The 
above is especially the case with linseed, rape, and 
olive oils. The former made into a paste with man- 
ganese, rapidly becomes hot, and ultimately takes 
fire. 

Purification. Several fat oils, especially when 
recently expressed, are purified by violt. pi agitation 
with 1 to 2§ of concentrated sulphuric acid, when 
they assume a greenish color, and after about a 
fortnight, deposite a coloring matter and become 
paler, and burn with greater brilliancy, particu- 
larly if well washed with steam or hot water, and 
clarified by repose or filtration. — Another method 
is to mix the acid with hot water, and to blow 
steam through the mixture for some time. The 
above are generally employed for the glutinous 
vegetable oils. — Whale, seal, or other fish oil, is 
best purified by violent agitation with hot water or 
steam, by placing it in a deep vessel, and blowing 
steam into it at the bottom for some time. — Another 
method is to agitate it with a hot infusion of oak 
bark to remove the albumen and gelatin, next with 
steam and hot water, and then to filter it through 
animal charcoal. — Davidson treats whale oil, first 
with a solution of tan, next with water and chlo- 
ride of lime, and then with dilute sulphuric acid 
and warm water. — A very good method is to agi- 
tate the oil with a solution of blue vitriol and com- 
mon salt, and then to filter it through charcoal. — 
Olive, almond, castor, rape, nut, linseed, and some 
other oils, are readily bleached by exposure to the 
sun's rays in glass bottles, or by heating them in a 
wood or tin vessel along with filtering poivder, 1 
to 2 lbs. to the gallon, (see Powders,) agitating for 
some time, and then filtering them. Animal char- 
coal is also used in the same way. The first 
method is commonly employed by the druggists 
and colormen to whiten their castor and linseed 
oils ; and the second, by the perfumers for the 
preparation of their White Almond and Olive 
Oils, {01. aynygdalcc album. 01. oliva' alhum.) 
14 to 21 days' exposure to the sun in fine weather, 
is usually sufficient for castor oil, when placed in 2 
to 4 quart pale green glass bottles, and covered by 
gallipots inverted over them. The oil should be 
filtered before exposing it to the light, as, if only 
slightly opaque, it does not bleach well. Almond 
and olive oils are apt to acquire a slight sulphurous 
smell when treated as above; but this may b« 
readily removed by filtration through a little animal 



OIL 



447 



OIL 



charcoal, or by washing it with warm water. Not 
only the above, but all other oils, may be rendered 
perfectly colorless by the use of a little chromic 
acid, or by a mixture of a solution of bichromate 
of potash and sufficient sulphuric, muriatic, or ni- 
tric acid, to seize on all the alkali. — Mr. Watt's 
method for purifying fats and oils answers admira- 
bly for those intended for illumination. He em- 
ploys a mixture of dilute sulphuric acid with a lit- 
tle nitric acid and bichromate of potash, and some 
oxalic acid, which are added to the oil or fat 
in the steaming tub ; and after thorough admix- 
ture, by blowing steam through the mass, 1 lb. of 
strong nitric acid mixed with 1 quart of water, is 
added for every ton of fat, and the boiling contin- 
ued for half ail hour ; when a small quantity of 
naphtha or spirits of turpentine is mixed in, and 
the whole is finally well washed with water. — 
Rancid oil is easily purified by boiling it for 15 
minutes with a little water and calcined magnesia, 
or by filtering it through charcoal. 

Purity. The purity of tlie fixed oils is best as- 
certained from the sp. gr., and by the odor and 
taste. If pure olive oil be shaken in a vial only 
half filled, the " bead,'^ or bubbles, rapidly disap- 
pear ; but if adulterated with poppy or other oil, 
they continue longer before they burst. — Olive oil 
is also completely solidified when cooled by ice ; 
but poppy oil remains partly liquid, even when it 
forms less than one-fourth of the mass. — One part 
of nitrate of mercury (prepared by dissolving 12 
parts of mercury in 15 parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 
1"36) mixed with 12 parts of pure olive oil, and 
well agitated for some time, will form a solid mass 
in 24 hours, or less ; and the degree of hardness 
thus assumed may be taken as a measure of the 
purity of the oil. — When olive oil is " carefully 
mixed with one-twelfth part of its volume of a so- 
lution of ^iv of mercury in f fviij, 3vj of nitric acid 
sp. gr. 1-500, it becomes in 3 or 4 hours like a firm 
fat, without any separation of liquid oil." (P. E.) 
— Almond oil is frequently adulterated with poppy 
or nut oil, when its density is increased ; or by rape 
oil, when its density is lessened. — Pure castor oil 
is wholly soluble in strong alcohol. 

Prep. The fixed oils, except where otherwise 
directed, are obtained from the bruised or ground 
fruit or seed, by means of powerful pressure, in 
screw or hydraulic presses, and are either allowed 
to clarify themselves by subsidence, or are filtered. 
The following are the principal ^^'xecZ oils met with 
in commerce, or which are objects of interest or 
utility : — 

Oil of Almonds. {Oleum AmygdalcB, P. L. 
O. Amygdalarum, P. D.) By expression from 
either bitter or sweet almonds, usually the for- 
mer ; sp. gr. 0-916 to 0-918. Prod. 45§. De- 
mulcent ; emollient. 

Oil of Bays. (01. Laurinum. O. Lauri.) — 1. 
By expression from bay berries ; fluid, insipid. — 2. 
(Boiled Oil of Bays. Butter of do. 01. Lauri 
Nobilis. Do. do. Verum.) From bay berries by 
boiling ; green, buttery ; from Italy. 

Oil, Beech. (01. fagi.) From the nuts of 
fagus silvatica ; sp. gr. 0-9225 ; clear, keeps well ; 
used for salads. 

Oil of Belladonna Seeds. Bland ; used for 
lamps ui Sv>'abia and Wurt|mberg. 

Oil of Ben. (Oil of Behen.) From the nuts 



of Monnga aptera ; scentless, colorless ; keepi 
long without growing rank. By standing, it sepa- 
rates into two parts, one of which freezes with dif- 
ficulty. The latter is used in perfumer^'. 

Boiled Oil. (Drying Oil. 01. Desiccativum.) 
— 1. Nut or linseed oil 1 gallon ; litharge 12 oz. ; 
sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz. ; sim- 
mer and skim until a pellicle forms, cool, and when 
settled decant the clear. — 2. Oil 1 gallon ; litharge 
12 to 16 oz. ; as last. — 3. Old nut or linseed oil 1 
pint ; litharge 3 oz. ; mix, agitate occasionally for 
10 days, then decant the clear. — 4. Nut oil and 
water, of each 2 lbs. ; white vitriol 2 oz. ; boil to 
dryness. — 5. Mix oil with powdered snow or ice, 
and keep it for 2 months without thawing. Used 
for paints when wanted to dry quickly. 

Oil, Castor. (01. Castorei. O. Ricini, P. L. 
E. D.) The best (cold drawn) is prepared by 
pressing the shelled and crushed fruit (seeds) in 
hemp bags, in a hydraulic press, and heating the 
oil thus obtained with water in well-tinned vessels 
till the water boils, and the albumen and gum 
separate as a scum, which is removed, the oil fil- 
tered through flannel, and put into canisters. The 
commoner kinds are prepared by gently heating 
the shelled seeds, and pressing them while hot 
Another method is to put them into bags, and to 
boil thern in water, when the floating oil is skimmed 
ofF. Sp. gr. 0-9611 to 0-969. Prod. 25 to 30§. 
Chiefly used as a purgative. Tiie best is imported 
from the East Indies in square tin canisters. It is 
frequently adulterated with rape oil ; but this may 
be detected by its not dissolving in strong alcohol, 
and also by its less density. Pure castor oil is 
soluble in an equal weight of alcohol, sp. gr. 0-820. 

Oil, Cod's Liver. (01. Aselli. O. Jecoris 
Aselli. O. MorrhucB. Huile de Morue.) Drains 
from the livers of codfish, when exposed to the 
sun, and beginning to putrefy. Imported from 
Newfoundland. Mr. Donovan recommends the 
fresh livers to be heated to 192°, and then pressed, 
and the oil separated from the water, and filtered. 
Brownish yellow. Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 2 
or 3 times a day, in gout, rheumatism, scrofula, 
&c. It contains a small quantity of iodine and 
bromine. 

Oil of Colza, from the seeds of brassica cam- 
pestris oleifera. Sp.gr. 0-9136. Prod. 39§ ; burns 
well in lamps. 

Oil, Croton. , (01 Crotonis, P. E. O. Tiglii, 
P. L.) From the shelled seed of croton tiglium, 
(Molucca grains ;) chiefly imported from the East 
Indies. Yellow or brownish ; strongly cathartic. 
Dose. 1 drop. 

Oil, Cucumber. From the seeds of cucurbita 
pepo and melapepo, sp. gr. 0-9231 ; used in lamps. 

Oil, Garden Spurge. (01. Lathyris.) From 
the seeds of euphorbia lathyris ; cathartic. Dose. 

4 to 8 drops. Prod. 42§. Croton oil, mixed with 

5 or 6 times its weight of nut oil, is usually sold 
for it. 

Oil, Gingilie. (Benne OU. 01. Sesami.) From 
the seeds of sesamurn orientale ; used in salads, and 
in painting. 

Oil, Hemp. (01. Cannabis.) From hemp seed, 
(cannabis sativa.) Mawkish ; used for frying, 
mixing paints, making soap, &c. Sp. gr. 0-9276. 

Oil, Lard. (01. Adipis.) By separating the 
oleine from the stearine of lard by means of hot 



OIL 



448 



OIL 



alcohol. Largely made in America, where also- 
hol is cheap. 

Oil, Linseed. (01. Lini, P. L. E. D.)— 1. (Cold- 
drawn Linseed Oil. 01. Lini sine igne.) From 
the seeds of linum usitatissum et perenne, bruised 
or crushed, and tlien ground and pressed without 
heat. Pale, insipid, viscous ; sp. gr. 0-9347 ; does 
not keep so well as the next. Prod. 18 to 20§. — 
2. As last, but at a steam heat of 200° F. Am- 
ber-colored. Prod. 22 to 27§. Both are drying 
and cathartic. Used for painting, in varnishes, &c. 

Oil of Mace, expressed. {MyristiccB Adeps, 
P. E. 01. Myristic(B Expressum, P. L.) From 
nutmegs beaten to a paste, exposed to the steam of 
water, and pressed between heated plates. Orange- 
colored, fragrant, spicy ; buttery or solid. Prod. 
18 to 20§. When the last has grown discolored 
and hard by age, it is called Banda soap, (ol. macis 
in massis.) 

Oil, Mustard. (01. Sinapis.) From the hulls 
of black, mustard seed ; viscid, stimulant. Used in 
rheumatism. The oils from sinapis dichotoma, 
ramosa, linensis, glauca, and tori, are sweet, and 
used for the table ; sp. gr. 0*9160. Prod. Black 
mustard 18§, — white or yellow do. 36§. 

Oil of Myrtle. (Myrteum.) From the berries. 
Butyraceous, odorous. 

Oil, Nettle-tree. From the seeds of celtis 
Australis. Used in lamps. 

Oil, Nickar. From guilandina bonducella. Irri- 
tant ; used in convulsions and palsy. 

Oil, Nut. {01. Nucis.) From hazel nuts, 
(conglus avellana.) Pale, drying ; superior to 
linseed oil ; sold for oils of ben and almonds ; sp. 
gr. 0-9260. 

Oil, Olive. (Sweet Oil. Salad Oil. 01. Olivce'. 
01. Olivarum.) — 1. From olives by cold pressure, 
(virgin oil.) — 2. With the heat of boiliug water. 
— 3. By boiling the residuum or marc in water. 
. — 4. By allowing the bruised fruit to ferment be- 
fore pressing. The former are used for salads, but 
the last two for lamps, making soap, &lc. — Prov- 
ence Oil (ol. Provinciale) is the most esteemed ; 
Florence and Lucca Oils are also of very fine 
quality ; Genoa Oil comes next, and then Galli- 
poli Oil, which forms the mass of what is used in 
England ; Sicily Oil is inferior, and Spanish Oil 
the worst imported ; sp. gr. 0.9176. Prod. 32§. 
Sweet Oil droppings are the foots or deposites, 
and the drippings ; it is used for soap and ma- 
chinery. (See Oils, Fixed.) 

Oil, Palm. (01. Palma. Palm Butter.) Sp. 
gr. 0-968. Orange or red ; butyraceous ; smells 
of violets ; unchanged by alkalis ; bleached by the 
solar rays, age, exposure, sulphuric acid, chlorine, 
and chromic acid. Demulcent ; used to make 
soap, candles, and ointments ; for the latter chiefly 
because of its fine color. 

Oil of Pine Nuts. (01. Nucis Pini.) From 
ntone-pine kernels, (pinus pinea ;) inferior. Prod. 
30§. 

Oil, Pistachia Nut. Sweet ; used for salads. 

Oil of Plum Stores. From prunus domesti- 
cus ; sp. gr. 0*9127. Burned in lamps in Wurteni- 
burg. 

Oil, Poi'I'y. (Oliete. 01. Papavcris.) From the 
seeds of papavcr somniferum ; sp. gr. 0:9243. Used 
for salads, in painting, and for making soap ; dries 
and keeps well ; sold for almond oil. 



Oil, Rape. (01. Rapa.) From brassica napris 
and campestris ; sp. gr. 0-9128 to 0-9136. Dries 
slowly, makes soft soaps, good ointments, but bad 
plasters ; smokes in burning. — Summer Rapeseed 
Oil, from brassica praecox ; sp. gr. 0-9139. 

Oil, Pale Rape. (Refined Rape Oil.) From 
common rape oil, by violent agitation with 2§ of 
oil of vitriol, and 4 or 5§ of water, and after 8 or 
10 days' repose, decanting the oil, and filtering 
through flannel or felt. Used for lamps and black- 
ing. 

Oil, Seal. (01. Phocce.) Used in lamps. 

Oil, Spermacetl (01. Ceiacei.) From the 
head matter of the fish ; smells little, and burns 
well ; other pale fish oils, filtered through char- 
coal, are commonly mixed with it, or sold for it. 

Oil, Walnut. (01. Nucis Juglandis.) From 
Juglans regia ; soon gets rank. Used to make 
plasters and paints ; dries well ; sp. gr. 0-9260. 
Prod. 50§; when cold drawn, it is eaten with 
salads. 

Oil, Whale. (Train Oil. 01. Cetaceum.) 
From several varieties of the fish ; coarse, stink- 
ing ; sp. gr. 0-9231. Used for machines, in lamps, 
&-C. The southern whale oil is the best. 

Oil of Wine Stones. From the seeds of grapes ; 
sp. gr. 0-9202 ; bland, emollient, pale yellow. Prod. 
10 to \\%. 

Oil of Yelk of Eggs. (01. Ovi.) From yelks 
of eggs, boiled or fried hard, and then pressed ; or 
broken up, digested in hot alcohol, the tincture fil- 
tered, and the spirit distilled off. Commonly used 
to " kill" quicksilver on the Continent. 

OILS. (By infusion.) Syn. Olea infusa. 
Ol. cocta. These are generally prepared by 
e'ther digesting or gently boiling the ingredients in 
3 or 4 times their weight of olive oil till they 
become dry and crisp, when they are either press- 
ed or drained dry, and the oil either filtered or al- 
lowed to clarify by subsidence. The following 
are the principal oils that are prepared by in- 
fusion : — 

Oil of Belladonna. (01. Belladonncs, P. 
Cod.) Fresh leaves 1 lb. ; olive oil lb. ij. 

Oil of Chamomile. (01. Anthemidis, P. Cod.) 
Leaves and flowers 1 lb. ; olive oil 3 lbs. ; as last. 

Oil of Cantharides. (01. cum Ca7itharidibus, 
P. Cod.) Powdered flies ^'V ; olive oil ^^xxij ; 
digest 6 hours in a water-bath, and strain with 
pressure. Stimulant. 

Oil of Earthworms. (01. Lumhricorum.) 
From earthworms. 

Oil, Green. (Green Elder Oil. 01. Viride. 
O. Samhuci viride.) — 1. Green elder leaves 1 lb. ; 
olive oil 1 quart ; boil till the leaves are crisp, 
press out the oil, and again heat it till it turns 
green. — 2. As last, but by maceration under 
212°. — 3. Elder leaves 1 cwt. ; linseed oil 3 cwt 
The last is the form usually employed on the 
large scale. It is generally colored with verdigris 
i lb. to the cwt., the last thing before putting it 
into casks ; as, without great skill and the full 
quantity of leaves, a very deep green color can- 
not be obtained. The oil is got from the leaves 
by allowing them to drain in the pan or boiler, 
(with a cock at the bottom,) and well heated. 
Emollient ; used as a liniment. 

Oil op Hemlock. (01. Conii, P. Cod.) Ab oil 
of belladonna. 



OIL 



449 



OIL 



Oil of Henbane. {01. Hyoscyami, P. Cod.) ] 
As oil of belladonna. 

Oil of Mucilages. {01. Mucilaginum.) — 1. 
(P. L. 1746.) Marshmallow root lb. ss ; linseed 
and fenugreek seed, of each §iij ; water 1 quart; 
boil 1 hour, add olive oil 2 quarts, and boil till the 
water is consumed. — 2. Fenugreek seeds 8 oz. ; 
linseed oil 1 quart ; infuse a week, and strain. 
Emollient. 

Oil of Opium. \0l. Opiatum.) Olive oil ^vj ; 
opium 3j ; digest at a moderate heat for 2 hours. 

Oil of Roses. {01. Rosa;. 01. Rosaceum.) 
Rose petals, beat to a pulp, 4 or 5 oz. ; olive oil 1 
pint ; macerate in the sun or a warm place, in a 
covered vessel for a week, and press out the oil ; 
repeat the process with fresh roses till the oil 
smells sufHciently • strong, then filter. For the 
hair. 

Oil of St. John's Wort. {01. Hyperici. Bals. 
do.) Flowers 4 oz. ; sweet oil 2 lbs. ; infuse till 
well colored. A mixture of equal parts of rape 
and green oils is usually sold for it. 

Oil of Rue. {01. RutcB, P. Cod.) From the 
leaves, as oil of chamomile. 

Oil of Scorpions. {01. Scorpionum.) Live 
scorpions 30 in No. ; almond oil 2 lbs. ; expose to 
the sun or warmth for 40 days, and strain. Cen- 
tipedes are usually substituted for scorpions. Emol- 
lient, diaphoretic, and stimulant. 

Oil of Stramonium. {01. Stramonii, P. Cod.) 
As oii of belladonna. 

Oil of Tobacco. {01. Tabaci, P. Cod.) As 
the last. 

Oil of White Lilies. {01. Liliorum, P. Cod.) 
As oil of chamomiles. EmolHent. Olive oil is 
usually sold for it. 

OILS, VOLATILE. Syn. Essential Oils. 
Distilled DO. Olea -Distillata. Ole a vola- 
tile, {Lat.) HuifcEs voLATiLEs, {Ft.) Fluch- 
tige ; Aetherische oele, {Ger.) Volatile oils 
are chiefly obtained from the flowers, leaves, fruit, 
seeds, bark, and roots of plants, by distilling them 
with water. They are usually more limpid and 
less unctuous than the fixed oils ; but some of 
them are butyraceous or crystalline. The ma- 
jority, when perfectly pure, are colorless, though 
before rectification nearly the whole of them have 
a pale yellow tint, and some of them are brown, 
blue, or green. Their density fluctuates a little 
on either side of water, and they are sparingly 
soluble in that fluid, forming perfumed or medica- 
ted waters. The lightest oil is that of citrons, 
(sp. gr. 0-847,) and the heaviest that of sassafras, 
(sp. gr. 1*096.) They possess various degrees of 
volatility, and evolve the odor of the plants from 
which they are distilled. By exposure to the air 
they rapidly absorb oxygen, and become partially 
converted into resin. This is the cause of the 
deposite that usually forms in them, especially in 
the expressed oil of orange when kept in an ill- 
corked vessel. The essential oils are often called 
essences, and the same term is commonly applied 
to their alcoholic solutions. (See Essences.) 
Some volatile oils, as those of turpentine, lemons, 
and copaiba, are compounds of hydrogen and car- 
bon only, (hydrocarbons ;) but the majority con- 
tain oxygen as one of their constituents. They 
are chiefly used by perfumers and rectifiers, and 
in medicine : and some of the cheaper kinds are 
57 



largely employed as vehicles for colors, and in 
the manufacture of varnishes. The dose of the 
aromatic and carminative oils, is from 1 to 10 
drops, on sugar. 

Furity. The essential oils of commerce are 
often adulterated with fat oils, resins, spermaceti, 
balsam of copaiba, alcohol, or cheaper essential 
oils. Any of these, except the last two, may be 
detected by placing a drop of the suspected oil on 
a piece of paper, and exposing it to heat. If 
pure, the oil will be entirely evaporated ; but if 
adulterated, a greasy or translucent stain will be 
left on the paper. These substances will also re- 
main undissolved when the oil is agitated with 
thrice its volume of rectified spirit of wine. The 
presence of alcohol may be detected by agitating 
the oil with a few small pieces of dry chloride of 
calcium, which will remain unaltered in a pure 
essential oil, but will mix with one containing 
alcohol, and separating the latter, dissolve in it, 
forming a liquid stratum at the bottom of the 
vessel. When only a very little alcohol is present, 
the pieces change at least their form. (Bor- 
sarelli.) Another test is the milkiness occasioned 
by the addition of a little water, as well as the 
loss of volume of the oil when it separates. This 
species of adulteration is very common, especially 
in cold weather, when it is a general practice of 
the druggists to add spirit to their oils to render 
them transparent. Oil of cassia is very commonly 
treated in this way. The admixture of an in- 
ferior essential oil with one more costly, may be 
best detected by pouring a drop or two on a 
piece of porous paper or cloth, and shaking it in 
the air, when, if occasionally smelled to, the dif- 
ference of the odor at the beginning and the end, 
will show the adulteration, especially if it be 
turpentine. The latter may also be detected by 
agitating the oil with spirit of wine as above, 
when it will remain undissolved. The purity of 
essential oils may likewise be determined by 
taking their sp. gr. ; or, still more accurately, by 
measuring their index of refraction, as suggested 
by Dr. Wollaston. The adulteration of a heavy 
oil with a light one, or the reverse, may be de- 
tected by agitating the suspected oil with water, 
when the one will sink, and the other float. 

Prep. The volatile oils are generally obtained 
by distilling the articles along with an equal 
weight of water ; but some substances that give 
out their oil with difliculty, are first soaked for 24 
hours in twice their weight of water, to each 
gallon of which 1 lb. of common salt has been 
added, by which its boiling point is raised, and 
consequently the oil comes over more easily. In 
such cases a quick fire is used, and when one 
half the water has come over, it is returned into 
the still, and this cohobation is repeated until the 
distilled water ceases to come over mixed with 
oil. The heat of steam or a salt water-bath 
should be preferably employed ; but if a naked 
fire be used, the still should be deep and narrow, 
by which means the bottom will be more per- 
fectly covered with a small quantity of water, and 
empyreuma prevented. When the distilled water 
is to be repeatedly cohobated on the ingredients, 
a very convenient plan is to so arrange the ap- 
paratus that, after the water has separated frcnj 
the oil, it shall flow back again into the still, by 



OIL 



450 



OIL 



which much time and trouble will be saved The 
separation of the oil and water is e Fected by al- 
lowing the mixed liquids to drop into a Florentine 
receiver, (see engr.,) when the oil is the lighter of 
the two, by which means the latter accumulates 
at a, and the water flows over by the spout h. 




The same receiver may be employed for oils 
heavier than water, by reversing the arrange- 
ment ; but a glass separator (see engr.) will be 
found nrtore convenient. In this case the oil 
accumulates at the bottom of the vessel, and 
may be drawn oiF by the cock. The essential 
oils of lemons^ oranges, and some other fruits, are 
chiefly obtained by submitting the yellow rind to 




powerful pressure ; Vut in this way they are not 
so white, nor do ihey keep so well as when dis- 
tilled. 

The rectification of volatile oils is performed 
without water, by the careful application of a heat 
just sufficient to make them flow over pretty rap- 
idly, so that they may be kept heated for as short 
a time as possible. One-half, or at most, two- 
thirds only, is drawn off*; that left in the retort 
being usually mixed with raw oil, intended to.be 
«iold in that state. 

The following are the principal volatile oils 
that are articles of commerce, or objects of in- 
terest : — 

Oil of Acorus. {Oleum Acori. O. Calami 
Aroma tici.) From the fresh rhizomes or roots ; 
yellow; used to sc^nt snuffs, aromatic vinegar, 
&c. Product, i to i of 1§. 

Oil of Amisfr. (01. Succini. P. L. «fe D.) 
From coarse pieces o( amber in an iron retort, 
either alone, or powdered and mixed with sand. 
The oil is separated from the succinic acid and 
fetid liquor that passes over, and rectified by a 
gentle heat. Prod. 20-g ; sp. gr. 0-758 at 75° ; 
pale yellow ; stimulant, antispasmodic, and rube- 
facient. Used in rheumatism hooping-cough, 
&c. Scrapings of copal and ( amniar resin are 
frequently substituted for amber, and it is com- 
monly adulterated with mhieral naphtha. 



Oil of Aniseed. (01. Anisi, P. L. E. & D.) 
From the fruit, (seeds ;) nearly colorless ; when 
pure it congeals at 50°, and does not melt again 
below 63°; sp. gr., English, 0-9768— foreign, 
0-9903 ; alcohol of 0-84 dissolves 0-42 of its weight. 
Prod. Less than 2§. Carminative, much used in 
coughs, colds, &c. It is frequently adulterated 
with oil of almonds, when spermaceti or camphor 
is added to make it candy. (See above.) The 
water in the refrigerator should not be colder than 
65° F. 

Oil op Star-anise. (01. Badiani. 01. Anisi 
stellati.) From the capsules. Used to adulterate 
the last. Dose of both the above, 6 to 15 
drops. 

Oil of Balm. {01. MelisscB.) From the herb ; 
pale yellow ; odorous ; sp. gr. 0-975. Prod. j\ of 1§. 
Oil of lemons is usually sold for it. 

Oil of Bergamotte. {Essence of Bergamotte. 
01. Bergamii. 01. Bergamotte^.) By expression 
from the yellow rind of the bergamotte orange. 
Pale greenish yellow ; fragrant ; sp. gr. 0-885. 
From Italy. It may be obtained purer by distil- 
lation. Used as a perfume. 

Oil of Bitter Almonds. {Essential Oil of 
Almonds. 01. Amygdalcs Amarcs.) From 
ground bitter almond cake, from which the oil has 
been pressed out, soaked for 24 hours with twice 
its weight of water, and ^ or J its weight of salt, 
and the whole distilled, allowing the first half of 
the water that comes over to deposite its oil, and 
then run back into the still. Or by exposing the 
bruised almond cake on a sieve of frame over the 
water in the still, when the steam passes through 
it and carries off" the volatile oil, which condenses 
along with the water in the refrigerator. Pale 
golden yellow ; colorless when rectified ; tastes 
powerfully nutty; sp. gr. 1-0836; mixed with oil p 
of vitriol, it strikes a fine red color. Prod. Less f 
than i of \%. Poisonous. Used instead of prussic ' 
acid in some diseases, and dissolved in spirit, by 
cooks, confectioners, and perfumers, to impart a 
nutty taste or flavor. Dose. ^ to 1^ drops. It is 
4 times as strong as ordinary prussic acid. 

Oil of Cajeput. {OL Cajeputi. Kyapootie oil.) 
From the dried leaves of the melaleuca leucadron. 
Usually green, but white when pure; odorous; 
aromatic ; sp. gr. 0-925 ; when rectified, two oils 
come over, — the first colorless, sp. gr. 0-897 ; the 
second green, sp. gr. 0*920. Its green color is de- 
rived from chloride of copper, which may be recog- 
nised by the red precipitate occasioned by agita- 
ting the oil with a solution of prustjiate of potash. 
(Guibourt.) Dose. 3 to 5 drops on sugar, in rheu- 
matism and cholera. A spurious kind is made of 
oil of rosemary, flavored with camphor, and the 
oils of peppermint and cardamoms, and colored 
with verdigris. From the East Indies. 

Oil of Camphor. {01. Camphor a Volatile.) 
From the wood of the camphor tree of Borneo and 
Sumatra. Colorless when rectified; sp. gr. 0-91. 

Oil of Caraway. {01. Cariii, P. L. L. D.) 
From caraway seeds. Nearly colorless ; aromat- 
ic ; carminative ; sp. gr. 0-950. Prod. 5§. Fre- 
quently adulterated with oil of cumin. 

Oil of Cardamoms. {OL Cardnmomi Eisent.) 
From the seed ; sp. gr. 0-943. Prod. 5§. Colorless J 
fragrant ; carminative. 

Oil of Cassia. {01. Cassite, P. E.) I'rom 



OIL 



451 



OIL 



cassia buds or bark ; golden yellow ; aromatic ; 
odorous; sp. gr. 1-071 to 1*095. Prod. Buds, less 
than 1^. Nitric acid converts it into a crj'staljine 
mass. Frequently sold for oil of cinnamon. Chief- 
ly imported. 

Oil of Cedrat. (Essence of Cedra^ Do. of 
Cedrat. Oglio del Cedro. 01. Citrifinum. 01. 
Cedri.) From the external yellow rind of citrons, 
either by expression or distillation ; preferably the 
latter. The first portion of oil that comes over is 
colorless; the latter greenish. 100 citrons yield 
1 oz. of white and i oz. of green oil. Very fra- 
grant. 

Oil of Cil\momtle. {01. Anthemidis, P. L. E. 
O. ChamcBmeli. Do. do. Romani.) From the flow- 
ers ; blue, turning yellow and brown by exposure ; 
fragrant ; sp. gr., English, from the flowers, 
0-9083 ; foreign, 0-9289. Prod. 1 to 2§. Stimu- 
lant and antispasmodic. 

Oil of Cherry-laurel. {01. Lnuro-cerasi.) 
From cherry-laurel leaves. Resembles oil of bit- 
ter almonds. Poisonous. 

Oil of Cinnamon. {01. Cinnamoni, P. L. E. 
D.) From the bark macerated for several days 
in salt water. Yellow or reddish ; sp. gr. 1-035. 
Prod. 1§. Ver>' aromatic. It is chiefly imported 
from Ceylon, where it is distilled from bark that is 
unfit for exportation. The dark is usually rectified 
when two pale oils are obtained ; one lighter, and 
the other heavier than water ; but 10§ is lost by 
the process. *' Odor purely cinnamic ; nitric-acid 
converts it into a nearly uniform crystalline mass." 
(P. E.) 

Oil of Citrons. {Essence of Citrons. 01. 
Citri.) From the lees of citron juice ; or from the 
whole peels, either by distillation or expression. 
The latter does not keep well. Fragrant. 

Oil of Cloves. {Essence d'oeilettes. 01. Ca- 
ryophylli, P. L. & E. O. EugenicB Caryophyl- 
latce, P. D. 01. Caryophyllorum.) From cloves 
well soaked in and distilled with salt water ; the 
distilled water, after depositing its oil, being re- 
turned 3 or 4 times into the still on the same 
cloves. Colorless or pale yellowish ; strongly 
odorous and aromatic; sp. gr. 1055 to 1-061. 
Prod. 16 to 23f A heavy oil, sp. gr. 1-079, (CIo- 
vic acid, Eugenic acid, Caryophyllic acid,) comes 
over first, followed by a light oil, sp. gr. 0-918, 
{clove hydrocarbon;) by rectification, much of 
the light oil is lost, and the product becomes 
denser. (1-361, Bonastre.) Oil of cloves is fre- 
quently adulterated with inferior essences, espe- 
cially those of pinks and clove-gillyflowers, and 
often with castor oil. 

Oil of Copaiba. {01. CopaihcB.) Copaiba ^j ; 
water Oiss ; distil, returning the water into the 
still, until oil ceases to come over. (P. E.) On the 
large scale the' oil is usually obtained by distilling, 
the crude oil that separates during the manufac- 
ture of the specific solution of copaiba. Colorless ; 
ep. gr., when free from water, 0878. Prod. 50 to 
55§. Dose. 1 to 20 drops, on sugar, in the usual 
cases where copaiba is ordered. 

Oil of Coriander. {01. Coriandri.) From the 
seeds ; fragrant ; aromatic ; yellowish. 

Oil of Cumin. {01. Cumini. O. Cymini.) From 
the fresh fruit, (seed :) pale yellow ; smells of the 
seeds. Prod. 2i to 3g. 

Oil of Cubebs. {01. CubebcB, P. E.) From 



coarsely ground cubebs ; nearly colorless ; hot ; 
aromatic; sp. gr. 0929. Prod. 10 to llg. Dose. 
10 to 20 drops or more, where the use of cubebs is 
indicated. 

Oil of Dill. {01 Anethi, P. E.) From the 
bruised fruit or seed. Pale yellow ; sp. gr. 0-881 ; 
odorous ; carminative. Prod. 4§. 

Oil .OF Elder. {Otto of Elder Flowers. 01 
Sambuci, P. L.) From elder flowers ; buttery ; 
odorous. 

Oil OF Ergot. {01 Ergota.) Prepared by 
evaporating the ethereal tincture at a very gentle 
heat. Brownish yellow; lighter than water. Dose. 
10 to 50 drops, where the use of ergot is indi- 
cated. 

Oil OF Fennel. {01. Foeniculi vulgare.) From 
the fruit or seeds of the common or wild fennel. 
Pale yellow ; sp. gr. 0-997 ; congeals by cold. 

Oil OF Grape Spirit. {Brandy oil.) Obtained 
after the spirit has passed over, during the distilla- 
tion of the fermented residuum of expressed grapes. 
Odorous; acrid; soon turns yellow in the air; 6 
or 7 drops will spoil a hogshead of spirit. 

Oil OF Grain Spirit. Butyraceous. (See Fer- 
mentation.) 

Oil OF Hops. {Ol.Lupuli.) From hops by dis- 
tillation ; also collected during the brewing of beer. 
Odorous ; acrid ; narcotic ; soluble in water ; sp. 
gr. 0-910; chiefly used to increase the flavor of 
poor hops. 

Oil of Hyssop. {01. Hyssopi.) From hyssop 
leaves. Prod. ^ to i of 1§. 

Oil of Jasmin. {01. Jasmini.) By placing al- 
ternate layers of the flowers and cotton wadding, 
imbued with olive oil, in any suitable vessel, and 
renewing the flowers till the fixed oil becomes 
strongly odorous, and then distilling the wadding 
along with water. The oils of violets, tuberose, 
hyacinths, <^c., are also obtained in the same way. 
Used in perfumery. 

Oil of Juniper. {01. Juniperi, P. L. E. D.) 
From either the wood, tops, or berries ; the latter 
should be chosen fully grown, but still green, and 
should he bruised. Colorless, or nearly so ; sp'. gr. 
0-875 to 0-911. Prod. German berries i to 1§. 
Diuretic. It is frequently adulterated with oil of 
turpentine, but then its density is lessened. 

Oil, Krumholz. {Ol.Templinum.) From Hun- 
garian balsam. Fragrant ; golden yellow ; tastes 
oily acidulous. 

Oil OF Lavender. {Essence of Lavender. 01. 
LavandulcB, P. L. E. D. O. Lav. Spices.) From 
the flowers ; pale yellow ; very fragrant ; sp. gr. 
0-877 to 0-905 ; the lightest is the best. Prod. 1^ 
to 2§. English oil of lavender is the best ; the 
foreign oil (O. Lav. latifolcB) is inferior. When 
rectified by drawing off only §, its sp. gr. is 0-877 ; 
very fine. 

Oil of Lemons. {Essence of Lemons. 01. 
Limonis, P. L. E.) Obtained by exposing the 
yellow rinds to powerful pressure in hair bags. It 
may also be prepared by distillation. Nearly color- 
less ; very fragrant ; sp. gr. 0-878 ; or 0-847'at 72°. 
Carminative and diaphoretic. Chiefly from Italy. 

Oil of Lj mon Grass. From . Andropogca 
Schagnanthus. Very fragrant. The grass oil of 
Namur is obtained from Andropogon Calamus 
Aromaticus. Both are used in perfumery. 

Oil of Lemon Thyme. {Huile de Tain. 01 



OIL 



452 



OIL 



Serpylli.) Very odorous. Used to scent soaps. 
Product. 4 to 1 of \%. 

Oil of Mace, Essential. {01. Macidis. O. 
Macis Stillatitium.) Nearly colorless ; lighter 
than water ; very odorous. 

Oil of Marjoram. {01. Marjorana.) From 
sweet marjoram ; pale yellow ; odorous. Prod. 
J to i of 1%. 

Oil of Mustard, Volatile. {01. Sinapis Es- 
sent.) As oil of bitter almonds ; nearly colorless ; 
very pungent and acrid ; sp. gr. at 68°, 1-015. 
Rubefacient ; vesicant ; in palsy, &lc. The dis- 
tilled water is a good cure for the itch. 

Oil of Narcissus. {Essence of Jonquil. 01. 
Narcissi.) As oil of jasmine. Odorous. 

Oil of Nutmeg. {01. Myristica, P. L. E. O. 
Nucis moschatcB.) From nutmegs. Nearly color- 
less ; odoroul ; sp. gr. 0*948 ; by agitation with 
water it is separated into 2 oils ; one lighter, the 
other heavier than water ; the last is butyraceous. 
Imported. 

Oil of Orange. {Essence of Orange. 01. 
Aurantii.) From the yellow rind of the sweet 
orange, {Citrus Aurantium.) 

Oil of Orange Flowers. {01. Neroli. O. Na- 
phcB.) From the flowers of the sweet orange tree. 
Very fragrant. 6 cwt. only yield 1 oz. A similar 
oil is obtained from the flowers of the bigarade, or 
bitter orange. 

Oil of Bitter Orange. {Essence of Bitter Or- 
ange.) From the rind of the bigarade orange. 
*Slightly differs from the oil of the peel of the sweet 
orange. 

Oil of Orris. {Essence of Violets. 01. Iridis.) 
From Florentine orris root. Fragrant. 

Oil OF Pennyroyal. {01. Pulegii. O. Menthce 
Pulegii. P. L. E. D.) From the herb : pale ; car- 
minative ; sp. gr. 0-925 to 0-930. Prod. | to 1%. 

Oil of Pepper. {01. Piperis.) From black 
pepper. Colorless ; odorous ; not so hot as pepper, 
sp. gr. 0-9932. 

Oil of Peppermint. {01. MenthcB Piperita, 
P. L. E. D.) From the fresh herb. Nearly color- 
less ; odorous ; carminative ; cooling ; sp. gr. 0-902 
to 0-907. Prod, i to l^-g. English oil of pepper- 
mint is the best; and that -: 'stilled at Mitcham, 
Surrey, is most esteemed : it has usually a very 
pale greenish color ; foreign oil of peppermint is 
very inferior. It is improved by " redrawing" it. 
The oil of the shops is usually reduced with ^ 
epirit of wine. 

Oil of Pimento. {Oil of Allspice. 01. Pi- 
mentcB, P. L. E. D.) From bruised allspice, pale 
yellowish ; has a mixed odor of cloves and cassia ; 
sp. gr. 1-021. Prod. 5 to 8§. It contains 2 oils ; 
erne (light) which distils over first, and another (Pi- 
mentic Acid) which comes over afterwards. 

Oil of Potato Spirit. Obtained by continuing 
the distillation after most of the spirit has passed 
over. Colorless ; sp. gr. 0-823 ; burns well. (See 
Fermentation.) 

Oil OF RnoDKTM. {01. Rhodii.) From the wood 
of convolvulus scoparius ; fluid ; yellow ; fragrant. 
Prod. ^ to I of 1§ ; chiefly used to adulterate otto of 
roses ; oil of sandal wood is frequently sold for it ; 
from the Levant. 

Oil of Rosics. {01. Rosea.) — 1. From the flow- 
ers of the musk rose, as oil of cloves. Prod. 
aV to y'y of 1^. Oil of sandal wood is commonly 



sold for it. — 2. {Otto of Roses. Attar of do. 01. 
Rosce, P. E.) From the petals of rosa centifolia 
and sempervirens, by saturating the water, by re- 
turning it repeatedly on fresh flowers, and then 
exposing it to a low temperature. In the East it 
is obtained by stratifying gingilie seeds in alternate 
layers with rose leaves, for some days, and repeat- 
ing the arrangement with fresh roses till the seeds 
are saturated, when the oil is expressed and distilled 
along with water. In the neighborhood of Mecca 
the rose leaves are macerated in salt and water 
for 2 or 3 days, and then distilled, the water being 
received in separate receivers at different parts of 
the process. The water is afterwards exposed in 
porous earthenware vessels, tied over with linen, 
in trenches dug in the earth, and over which moist- 
ened straw is thrown, when in a short time the 
otto separates and floats on the surface. Pure otto 
congeals below 80°, and melts again at 85° F. ; 
sp. gr. at 90°, 0-832 to water 1-0 at 60° F. ; alco- 
hol at 0-806 dissolves less than 1§ ; imported. 
Otto of roses is frequently adulterated with the 
oils of rhodium and sandal wood, both of which 
render its taste biting, and with camphor and 
spermaceti. 

Oil of Rosemary. {01. Rorismarini, P. L. E. D. 
O. Anthos.) From rosemary tops ; colorless ; 
sp. gr. 0-897 to 0-910 ; odorous. Prod. About 1^. 
It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine, 
but is then only partially soluble in alcohol. 

Oil of Rue. {01. Rut a, P. E. D.) From the 
herb; pale yellow; acrid; bitter; sp. gr. 0-911. 
Prod. ^ to 1§. 

Oil of Sandal Wood. {01. Santali albi.) 4 lbs. 
yield 1 oz. ; sold for oil of rhodium and otto of , 
roses. 

Oil of Sassafras. {01. Sassafras, P. D.) From 
the wood of the lauras sassafras, as oil of olives ; 
pale yellow ; hot ; odorous ; sp. gr. 1-094 to 1-096, 
Prod. 2 to 2i § ; nitric acid turns it orange red, 
and water separates it into a light and heavy oil. 
Imported. 

Oil OF Savin. {01. Sahina, P. E. D ) From the 
fresh tops or leaves ; nearly colorless ; acrid ; sp. 
gr. 0-915 ; yields much oil ; emmenagogue ; rube- 
facient. 

Oil of Spearmint. {Oil of Green-mint. 01. 
MenthcB Vulgaris. O. Mentha Sativa. O. Men- 
tha Viridis, P. L. E. D.) From the herb ; pal© 
yellow ; odorous* ; carminative ; stimulant ; sp. gr. 
0-914, (0-9394 Brande.) Prod. ^ to i of Ig. 

Oil of Spike, True. {01. Lavandula stacha- 
dis. O. Spica Verum. Huile d'aspic.) From the 
flowers and seeds of Lavendula stachas, (French 
lavender,) inferior to English lavender. From 
France. Used by artists, and to make varnishes. 

Oil of Sweet Fennel. {01. Funiculi, P. E. D. 
O. Foeniculi Dulcis.) From the bruised seeds; 
odorous ; carminative ; sp. gr. 0-997. Prod. 3 
to 4g. 

Oil of Tansy. {01. Tanaceti.) From the herb ; 
pale greenish yellow ; odorous ; aromatic ; sp. gr 
0-946 to 0-952 ; bitter. 

Oil of Thyme. {01. Thymi. 01. Origani^ 
P. L. E. D.) From the herb origanum vulgare, 
(common marjoram ;) reddish ; colorless when 
rectified ; fragrant ; sp. gr. 0-867 to 0-877, (0940 
Baume.) Prod, i to | of \%. Used to relieve 
toothache, to make the hair grow, and as a stimu- 



OIN 



453 



OIN 



lating liniment. The oil of the shops is usually 
mixed with J oil of turpentine. 

Oil OF Tobacco. (01. Tabnci. Nicotianin. To- 
hacco Camphor.) From tobacco leaves ; 6 lbs. 
yield 11 grs. ; concrete. 

Oil of Turpentine. {Spirits of Turpentine. 
Essence of do. Turps. Camphene, Camphogene. 
Spiritus TerebinthincB. 01. do., P. L. E. D. O. 
pini volatile.) From a mixture of strained Amer- 
ican turpentine and water. The residuum in the 
still is rosin. Prod. 14 to 16§. The colleges or- 
der it to be rectified along with 3 or 4 times as 
much water, and not to draw over quite the whole ; 
but a better way is to agitate with an equal meas- 
ure of liquor of potassa, and then to distil the mix- 
ture. Dr. Nimmo recommends it to be purified by 
agitation with gth part of alcohol, to decant the 
spirit, and to repeat the process 3 or 4 times. Pure 
oil of turpentine is neutral to test paper ; dissolves 
one-fifth of alcohol, sp. gr. 0-830, and is soluble in 
8 parts of alcohol of 0'340 ; sp. gr. 0-872 at 60°, 
or 0-86 at 70° F. Used to make varnishes and 
paints ; under the name of Camphene, to burn in 
lamps ; and in medicine as a vermifuge, diuretic, 
iu rheumatism, &.c. Dose. 6 to 60 drops ; or for 
tapeworm, f^ss to f^iss. Gives a violet odor to 
the urine. 

Oil of Wax. From butter of wax. 

Oil of Wine. {Ethereal Oil. Sweet Oil of 
Wine. Do. do. of Vitriol. Sulphatic Ether. Sul- 
phate of Ht/drocarbon. Sulphate of Oxide of 
Ethule andEtherole. 01. Vini. 01. ^thereum. 
P. L. Liquor Mthereus Oleosus, P. D.) Recti- 
fied spirit, lb. ij ; sulphuric acid, lb. iv ; mix (cau- 
tiously) and distil till a black froth arises ; then 
remove the heat, collect the light supernatant li- 
quor, expose it to the air for 24 hours, agitate it 
with a mixture of f^j each of distilled w-ater and 
hquor of potassa, and after subsidence separate the 
ethereal oil. (P. L.) The Dublin College orders it 
to be prepared from the residuum of the distillation 
of ether, which must be distilled to one half, and 
the oil next be collected as before. 33 lbs. oi rec- 
tified spirit, and 64 lbs. of oil of vitriol, only yield 
17 oz. of this oil. (Hennel.) An oily liquid ; nearly 
colorless ; aromatic ; neutra' ; sp. gr. 1-05, (Hen- 
nel,) 1-13, (Serullas:) boiling at 540° ; soluble in 
alcohol and ether. Anodyne. 

Oil 'of Worsiwood. {01. Absinthii.) From 
the herb ; green, or brownish green ; odorous ; 
acrid : bitter ; sp. gr. 09703, (Brisson ;) 0-9725, 
(Brandes.) Prod. ^ to ^ of 1§. Nitric acid sp. 
gr. 1-25, colors it first green, then blue, and lastly 
brown. 

OINTMENT. Syn. Ungcentum, (Lot., from 
Ungo, I anoint.) Ointments are unctuous prepar- 
ations, that merely differ from cerates in consist- 
ence, being made and used in a similar manner. 
Their solidity should not exceed that of good but- 
ter, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. 
When the active ingredients are pulverent sub- 
stances, nothuig can be more suitable to form the 
mass of the ointment than good lard, free from 
Bait ; but when they are fluid, or semifluid, pre- 
pared suet, or a mixture of suet and lard, will be ne- 
cessary to give a proper consistence to the com- 
pound ; in some few instances, wax is ordered fbr 
this pur})0se. Unctuous preparations may be pre- 
Tented from getting rancid, by dissolving in the fat 



a little gum-benzoin or benzoic acid. (See Ce- 
rates.) 

OINTMENT, ACETATE OF LEAD. Syn. 
O. OF Sugar of Lead. Ung. Saturninum. Ung. 
Plu.mbi Acetatis, (P. E. & D.) Prep. (P. E.) 
Finely-powdered sugar of lead ^j ; simple ointment 
§xx ; triturate together. (See Cerates.) 

OINTMENT, ACONITINA. Syn. Ung. 
Aconitin-€. Prep. (Paris.) Aconitina 1 gr. ; lard 
5j ; mix. (See page 25.) 

OINTMENT, ALKALINE. Syn. Ung. Al- 
KALiNU.M. Prep. (Cazenave.) Subcarbonate of pot- 
ash 1 part ; lard 8 parts ; mix. Used in some skin 
diseases. Soubeiran adds wine of opium, i to 1 
part. 

*»* In the same way is made the ointment of 
balsam of Peru. {Ung. Peruviani.) 

OINTMENT, ALTHiEA. Syn. Marshmal- 
LOW Ointment. Dialth.^^e. Ung. Alth^e.*. 
Prep. I. (P. L. 1746.) Oil of mucilages lb. ij ; 
beeswax lb. ss ; yellow rosin 5'ij ? Venice turpen- 
tine f ss ; melt together, and stir till cold. 

II. Linseed oil 8 lbs. ; beeswax 2 lbs. ; yellow 
rosin 1 lb. ; palm oil ^ lb. ; as last. Emollient and 
stimulant. 

OINTMENT, AMMONIACAL. Syn. Pom- 
made de Gondret. Liparole d'Ammonique. Ung. 
Ammonle. Prep. (P. Cod.) Prepared suet and 
lard, of each §j : melt in a wide-mouthed bottle, 
add liquor of ammonia §ij, cork close, and agitate 
till cold. Rubefacient, vesicant, and counter-irri- 
tant. Rubbed on the skin and covered so as to 
prevent evaporation, it speedily raises a blister. 

OINTMENT, AMMONIA. Syn. Ung. Am- 
Mo^LE Sesquicarbonatis. Prep. Sesquicarbonate 
of ammonia 3ss ; simple cerate ^ss ; mix. For 
scrofulous sores. 

OINTMENT, ANTIMONIAL. Syn. Tar- 
tar Emetic Ointment. Ung. Antimoniale, (P. 
E.) Ung. Tartari Emetici, (P. D.) Ung. An- 
timonii Potassio-Tartratis, (P. L.) Prep. (P. L. 
& E.) Finely-powdered potassio-tartrate of anti- 
mony 1 part ; lard 4 parts ; mix. The Dublin 
ointment is only half as strong ; counter-irritant, 
in phthisis, chronic rheumatism, &c. A portion 
the size of a nut is rubbed on the skin night and 
morning, until a crop of pustules is produced. 

OINTMENT, ANTI-HERPETIC. Syn. 
Ung. Anti-herpeticum. Prep. I. (Chevallier.) 
Chloride of lime 3iij ; subsulphate of mercury 3ij ; 
almond oil 3vj ; lard ^ij ; mix. 

II. (Alibert.j Red sulphuret of mercury 3iss ; 
powdered camphor 3ss ; lard §iss ; mix. For 
herpes or tetters. 

OINTMENT, ANTI-PERIODIC. Prep. Lard 
95 grammes; sulphate of quinine 15 grammes; 
sesquioxide of iron 60 centigrammes ; powdered 
opium 15 centigrammes ; mix. Well rubbed on the 
vertebral regions every two hours for 3 or 4 days, 
in periodic fevers, especially those accompanied 
with vomiting. (Jour, de Chimie Med.) 

OINTMENT, ANTIPSORIC. Syn. Ung. 
A.NTIPSORICU.M. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Elecampane 
root and sharp-pointed wild dock leaves, of each 
^iij ; water 2^ pints : vinegar fxvj ; boil to i, 
press, add liquor of water-cresses ^-x ; lard lb. iv ; 
boil to dryness, and further add, beeswax and oil 
of laurel berries, of each fiv ; mix well. For itch, 
the ung. antivsoricum comp. was made by adding 



OIN 



454 



OIN 



§viij of strong mercurial ointment to the above. 
(See Itch Ointment.) 

OINTMENT, ARSENICAL. Syn. Ung. 
Arsenici. Prep. I. (P. U. S.) Arsenious acid in 
fine powder 9j ; simple cerate §j ; mix. Used for 
dressing cancerous sores. Poisonous. 

II. (Carmichael.) Arsenite of iron 3ss ; phos- 
phate of iron 3ij ; spermaceti ointment 3vj ; mix. 

III. (Sir A. Cooper.) White arsenic and sulphur, 
of each 3j ; spermaceti ointment ^j . -^^^ All the 
above must be used with caution. 

OINTMENT, ASTRINGENT. Syn. Ung. 
AsTRiNGENs. Prep. Lard 5 oz. ; finely -powdered 
alum 1 oz. ; mix. (See also the several lead oint- 
ments, and ointment of galls.) 

OINTMENT, BALSAM OF PERU. Syn. 
Ung. Peruviani comp. Prep. (Copland.) Lard 
^ij ; white wax §ss ; melt in a water-bath, add 
balsam of Peru 3ij, and oil of lavender 12 drops, 
and stir till stilF. Both this, and the simple oint- 
ment, are used to restore the hair. 

OINTMENT, BASILICON. (Green.) Syn. 
Ung. Basilicum Viride. Prep. (P. L. 1746.) 
Powdered verdigris 1 oz. ; olive oil |iij ; resin oint- 
ment §viij ; mix. Detergent ; used to keep down 
fungous flesh. 

OINTMENT, BELLADONNA. Syn. Ung. 
Belladonna. Prep. (Pereira.) Extract of deadly 
nightshade 3j to 3ij ; lard §j ; mix. To allay pain 
and nervous irritation. 

OINTMENT, BELLADONNA. (Camp.) Io- 
dine ointment (comp.) 3vij ; extract of belladonna 
3j ; mix. Dispersive. A most excellent applica- 
tion to all glandular swellings, especially when ac- 
companied with pain. The mixture of chloride of 
gold should also be taken at the same time. See 
Mixture, Antiscrofulous. 

OINTMENT, BICHLORIDE OF MER- 
CURY. Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri Muriatis. Prep. 
I. (P. C.) Corrosive sublimate 10 grs. ; yelk of 1 
3gg ; lard §j ; mix. 

II. Corrosive sublimate 9j to 3ss ; lard f j ; 
mix. 

OINTMENT, BINIODIDE OF MERCU- 
RY. Syn. PoMMADE DE Deuto-Iodure de Mer- 
CURE. Ung. Hydrargyri Biniodidl Prep. (P. L.) 
Biniodide of mercury §j ; white wax §ij ; lard §vj ; 
mix well. Applied to ill-conditioned sores, scrofu- 
lous ulcers, (fee. ; and when diluted with lard or 
almond oil, to the eyes in like cases. 

OINTMENT, BINOXIDE OF MERCU- 
RY. Syn. Ung. Hydr^gyri Binoxydi. Prep. 
(Cazenave.) Binoxide of mercury 3ss ; camphor 4 
grs. ; lard ^j. (See Ointment, Nitric Oxide of 
Mercury.) 

OINTMENT. BORAX. Syn. Ung. Boracis. 
Prep. Borax 3j ; spermaceti ointment 3vij. For 
excoriations, chaps, &c. 

OINTMENT, BLISTERING. Syn. Ung. 
Epipasticum Equinum. Prep. I. Lard or tallow 
5i lbs.; powdered euphorbium | lb.; powdered 
caiitharides 1^ lb. ; ^rtc/y-powdered corrosive sub- 
limate 6 oz. ; linseed oil \\ lb. ; oil of origanum 3 
oz. ; mix well. 

II. Cantharides 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine 2 oz. ; 
lard 8 oz. ; mix. 

III. Lard 6 oz. ; oil of origanum 2 dr. ; corrosive 
sublimate 1 dr., (dissolved in spirits of salt 2 dr. ;) 
powdered flies 1 oz. ; mix. 



IV. Yellow basilicon | lb. ; oil of origanum i oz. \ 
strong vinegar and linseed oil, of each 2 oz. ; pow- 
dered flies 4 oz. ; mix. All the above are used by 
farriers. 

OINTMENT, BISMUTH. Syn. Ung. Bis- 
muthi. Prep. (Pereira.) Trisnitrate of bismuth 
3j ; simple ointment 3iv ; mix. Used in some chro- 
nic skin diseases. 

OINTMENT, BROMIDE OF POTASSI- 
UM. Syn. Ung. Potassii Bromidi. Prep. (Ma- 
jendie.) Bromide of potassium 3ss ; lard §j ; 
mix. 

OINTMENT, BROMINE. Syn. Ung. Po- 
tassii Bromidi cum Brominio. Prep. (Majendie.) 
Bromide of potassium 9j ; lard ?j ; bromine 6 to 
12 drops ; mix well. Both the above are resolvent. 
Used in bronchocele, scrofula, &c. 

OINTMENT, BROWN. Syn. Ung. Fus- 
cum. Prep. (P. Cod.) Resin ointment §ij ; levi- 
gated red precipitate 3j ; mix. An excellent ap- 
plication in ophthalmia after the inflammatory 
stage is over, and to sore legs, &c. 

OINTMENT, CADMIUM. S-yn. Ung. Cad- 
mil Prep. (Rudius.) Sulphate of cadmium 1 to 
2 grs. ; lard 3j ; mix. For removing specks from 
the cornea, «Stc. 

OINTMENT, CALAMINE. Syn. Turner's 
Cerate. Ung. Calamine, (P. D.) Ung. Zinci 
Carbonatis Impuri. Prep. (P. D.) Prepared cal- 
amine Ib.j; ointment of yellow wax lb. v; mix. 
(See Cerate, Calamine.) 

OINTMENT, CALOMEL. Syn. Ung. Ca- 
LOMELANUS. Ung. Hydrargyri Chloridi. Ptep. 
(Guy's H.) Calomel 3j ; lard ^j ; mix. Dr. Un- 
derwood uses elder-flower ointment. " Were I 
required to name a local agent pre-eminently use- 
ful in skin diseases generally, I should fix on this. 
It is well deserving a place in the Pharmacopoeia." 
(Pereira.) 

OINTMENT, CAMPHOR. Syn. Ung. Cam- 
PHOR.<E. Ceratum do. Prep. Spermaceti oint- 
ment §j ; camphor 3ij ; dissolve by a gentle heat, 
and stir till cold. Used in psoriasis, &c. 

OINTMENT, CANTHARIDES. Prep. I. 
(Ung. Cantharidis, P. E.) Resinous ointment 
§vij ; cantharides in fine powder ^j ; mix. (See 
Cerate, Blistering.) 

II. (Ung. Cantharidis, P. L. Ung. Infusi 
Cantharidis, P. E.) Powdered cantharides ^j ; 
water '^iv, boil to one-half, strain, add resin ce- 
rate ^iv, and evaporate to a proper consistence. 
This ointment is milder, and usually preferred to 
the preceding. Both are used to keep blisters 
open, and to stimulate indolent ulcers. 

III. (Dupuytren.) Tincture of cantharides (made 
with flies 1, to proof spirit 8) 3j ; lard 3ix ; mix 
well. Used as a pommade to make the hair grow, 
for which purpose it may be colored or scented at 
pleasure. 

IV. (M. Cap.) Beef marrow ^ij ; alcoholic ex- 
tract of cantharides 8 grs. ; rose oil 3j ; essence of 
lemons 40 drops ; mix. For the hair. 

OINTMENT, CARBONATE OF LEAD. 
Syn. White Ointment. Ung. Albu.m. Ung. 
Plumbi Carbonatis, (P. E, & D.) Prep. (P. E.) 
Carbonate of lead 5j ; simple ointment '^v ; mix. 
Used in excoriations. The ung. album campho- 
ratum, P. L. 1745, (Ung. plumbi camph.,) is made 
by adding to the above camphor 3j. 



OIN 



455 



OIN 



OINTMENT, CATECHU. Sijn. Unq. Ca- 
techu. Prep. Finely powdered catechu a'nd yel- 
low rosin, of each ^iv ; ah>m 3ix ; olive oil '^\ ; 
water q. s. ; mix. An excellent application to ul- 
cers in hot climates, where the ordinary fat oint- 
ments are found objectionable. 

OINTMENT, CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 
Syn. Ung. Calcis Mukiatis. Prep. (Sundelin.) 
Muriate of lime (dry) 3j ; powdered digitalis 3ij ; 
distilled vinegar 3ij ; lard ^j ; mix. In broncho- 
cele, scrofula, &.c. 

OINTMENT, CHLORIDE OF LIME. 
Syn. Ung. Calcis Hypoculoritis. Prep. (Ci- 
ma.) Chloride of zinc 3j ; lard f j ; mix. For itch, 
putrid sores, Sec. 

OINTMENT, CHLORIDE OF GOLD 
AND SODA. Syn. Pommade de Muriate 
d'Or et de Soude. Ung. Auri Sodio-Chlori- 
Di. Prep. (Majendie.) Sodio-chloride of gold 10 
grs. ; lard 3iv ; mix. In scrofulous and syphilitic 
swellings, ulcers, &c. 

OINTMENT, CHLORINE. Syn. Ung. 
Chlorinatum. Prep. Chlorine water §j ; lard 
§iv ; mix. Used for itch, fetid ulcers, &c. 

OINTxMENT, COCCULUS INDICUS. Syn. 
Ung. Cocculi. Prep. (P. E.) Kernels of coccu- 
lus indicus 1 part ; beat to a paste, then add lard 
5 parts. Used to destroy insects in children's hair, 
and in porrigo. 

OINTxMENT, COD'S OIL. Syn. Ung. Olki 
AsELLi. Prep. (M. Carron.) Cod's liver oil and 
extract of smoke, of each, 3ij ; nitrated ointment 
of mercury 3j ; beef marrow ^vj ; mix. In tinea 
favosa, impetigo, and chronic eczema and oph- 
thalmia. 

OINTMENT, COLOCYNTH. Syn. Ung. 
CoLOCYNTHiDis. Prep. (Chrestien.) Powdered col- 
ocynth 3j ; lard ^j ; mix. Used in frictions on the 
abdomen, and insides of the thighs, in mania, &c. 
Diuretic. 

OINTMENT, COSMETIC: Syn. Ung. Cos- 

METICUM. POM.MADE DE LA JeUNESSE. Prep. 

(Quincey.) Almond oil ^ij ; spermaceti 3iij ; tris- 
nitrate of bismuth 3j ; oil of rhodium 6 drops. 
Turns the hair black. 

OINTMENT, CREOSOTE. Syn. Ung. 
Creasoti, (P. L.) Ung. Creazoti, (P I" ) Prep. 
(P. L.) Creosote f 3ss ; lard ^j ; mix. In skin 
diseases, especially' ringworm ; also a good appli- 
cation to burns and chilblains. 

OINTMENT, CROTON. Syn. Ung. Cro- 
TONis. Prep. (Ainslie.) Croton oil 10 drops ; lard 
^ss ; mix. Counter-irritant ; rubbed repeatedly 
on the skin, it produces redness and a pustular 
eruption. 

OINTMENT, CYANIDE OF MERCURY. 
Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri Cyanidi. Prep. 1. (Ray- 
er.) Cyanide of mercury (bicyanide) 30 grs. ; lard 
f j ; mix.— 2. (Pereira and Biett.) 10 to 12 grs. to 
the oz. In scrofula, &c. 

OINTMENT, CYANIDE OF POTASSI- 
UM. Syn. Ung. Potassii Cyanidl Prep. (Lom- 
bard ) Cyanide of potassium 2 to 4 grs. ; lard ^j ; 
mix. 

OINTMENT, DELPHINE. -Syn. Ung. Del- 
PHINI.E. Prep. (Turnbull.) Delphine 10 to 30 
grs. ; olive oil 3j ; rub together, then add lard f j ; 
mix well. In neuralgia, rheumatic affections, in- 
Teterate itch, &,c. 



OINTMENT, DEPILATORY. Syn. Linl 
MENTUM Depilatorium. Prej). Finely powdered 
quicklime §j ; do. orpiment 3j ; white of egg to 
mix. 

OINTMENT, DESICCATIVE. Syn. Ung. 
Desiccativum. Prep. (Jondelotte.) Simi)le o'nt- 
ment ^xvj ; colcothar, lapis calaminaris, and Avhite 
lead, of each, ^j ; camphor 3ij ; mix. Drying, 
cicatrizing. 

OINTMENT, DETERGENT. Syn. Ung. 
Detergens. Prep. Yellow basilicon 2 lbs. ; Ve- 
nice turpentine 4 oz. ; red precipitate, verdigris, 
and eiiphorbium, of each, i oz. ; mix well. 

OINTMENT, DIGESTIVE. Syn. Ung. Di- 
GESTivuM. Prep. I. (P. Cod.) Venice turpentine 
^ij ; yelks of 2 eggs ; oil of St. John's wort §ss ; 
mix. With an equal quantity of mercurial oint- 
ment, the above forms digestif mercuriel ; and 
with liquid storax, digestif anime. 

II. (Ung. Digest. Viride, Kirkland.) Yellow 
resin, beeswax, and elemi, of each, ^j ; green oil 
^vj ; melt together, and when nearly cold, add oil 
of turpentine 3ij. 

III. (For horses.) — a. Lard, yellow basihcon, 
and Venice turpentine, of each, 5 oz. ; finely pow- 
dered verdigris 2 oz. ; mix. — h. Yellow basilicon 
15 oz. ; red precipitate 1 oz. ; mix. 

OINTMENT, DIGITALIS. Syn. Ung. Di- 
gitalis. Prep. Foxglove leaves lb. ij ; lard Ib.iiss ; 
boil till crisp, and strain with pressure. 

OINTMENT, EDINBURGH. Prep. Black 
basilicon 3 lbs. ; milk of sulphur 2 lbs. ; mix. Used 
for itch. Collier says that this ointment is the 
same as the ung. veratri of the P. L., with the 
addition of a little sal ammoniac. 

OINTMENT, ELDER, (FLOWERS.) Syn. 
Ung. Sambuci. Prep. (P. L.) Elder flowers and 
lard, of each, lb. ij; boil until crisp, then strain 
through a cloth. Emollient. A much better oint- 
ment may with proper care be prepared from the 
distilled water, and this is generally done on the 
large scale. The following formula is commonly 
used : — Lard, (hard, white, and sweet,) 25 lbs. ; 
prepared mutton suet 5 lbs. ; melt in a well-tinned 
or earthen vessel, add elder-flower water 3 gal- 
lons ; agitate for half an hour, and set it aside ; 
the next day gently pour off the water, remelt 
the ointment, add benzoic acid 3 dr. ; otto of 
roses 20 drops ; essence of bergamotte and oil 
of rosemarj'-, of each, 30 drops ; again agitate 
well, let it settle for 10 minutes, and then pour 
off" the clear into pots. Very fine, and keepa 
well. 

OINTMENT, ELDER, (LEAVES.) Syn. 
Green Ointment. Ung. Viride. Ung. Sambuci. 
Ung. Same. Viride. Prep. I. (P. L. 1746.) Green 
oil lb. iij ; wax ^x ; melt, and stir till cold. Does 
not grain. 

II. Lard 1 cwt. ; prepared suet 14 lbs. ; fresh 
elder leaves 56 lbs. ; boil till crisp, strain off" the 
oil, put it over a slow fire, and gently stir it till it 
acquires a bright green color. 

III. Leaves lb. iij ; lard lb. iiij ; suet lb. ij. 
Both the above are emollient and cooling. The 
last two formulae are those employed in the whole- 
sale trade. The ointment should be allowed to 
cool slowly, with very little stirring, that it may 
" grain" well, as a granular appearance is much 
admired. It is a common practice to add pow- 



OIN 



456 



OIN 



dered verdigris to deepen the color, but then the 
ointment does not keep well. 

OINTMENT, ELEMI. Syn. Ung. Elemi, 
(P. L.) LiNiMENTaM Arc^ei. Ung. do. Do. do. 
COMP. Prep. (P. L.) Gum elemi Ib.j ; suet lb. ij ; 
melt together, then add common turpentine §x ; 
olive oil f 5ij ; mix, and strain. Stimulant and di- 
gestive. Used to old and ill-conditioned sores. 
The ung. elemi cum cerugine of St. George's 
Hospital is made by adding finely powdered ver- 
digris 3j, to every lb. ss of the above. 

OINTMENT, ESCHAROTIC. Syn. Ung. 
EscHAROTicuM. Prep. (Sir B. Brodie.) Finely 
levigated verdigris, sulphate of copper, and nitric 
oxide of mercury, of each 3ij ; corrosive sublimate 
3j ; lard q. s. 

OINTMENT, EYE. Syn. Eye-salve. Ung. 
Ophthalmicum. Prep. I. (Dupuytren's.) Red 
oxide of mercury 10 grs. ; sulphate of zinc 20 grs. ; 
lard §ij ; mix. For chronic inflammation of the 
eyelids, &c. 

II. (Dessault's.) Red precipitate, carbonate of 
zinc, acetate of lead, and dried alum, of each 3j ; 
bichloride of mercury 9j ; rose ointment §j ; mix. 
Mostly used diluted with some lard. In chronic 
ophthalmia, profuse discharges, &c. 

III. (Spielmann's.) Acetate of lead 9j ; sper- 
maceti cerate 3v ; tincture of benzoin (comp.) 3ij ; 
mix. Cooling. In inflammation, excoriations, &c. 

IV. (St. Yve's.) Red precipitate 33s ; oxide of 
zinc 9j ; fresh butter §j ; wax 3iv ; camphor 15 
grs. As No. I. 

V. (Pellier's.) Red precipitate, and carbonate of 
zinc, of each 3iss ; tutty 3ss ; red sulphuret of 
mercury 9j ; balsam of Peru 15 drops ; lard §ij. 
In speck of the eye, arising from small ulcers that 
have healed up. 

VI. (Janin's.) Tutty, and levigated bole, of each 
3ij ; white precipitate 3j ; lard §ss. In chronic 
inflammation, with excessive secretion, &c. 

VII. (Fricke's.) Nitrate of silver 10 grs. ; bal- 
sam of Peru 3ss ; zinc ointment 3ij. In ulcers of 
the cornea, acute, purulent, and chronic ophthal- 
mia, &c. 

VIII. (Guthrie's.) Spermaceti ointment 3j ; so- 
lution of diacetate of lead 15 drops ; nitrate of sil- 
ver 2 to 10 grs.; mix. As last. Both this anjgi 
the preceding often occasion great pain. 

IX. (Singleton's Golden.) Orpiment 3j ; lard 
q.s. 

X. (Smellome's.) Verdigris 3ss; olive oil 30 
drops ; yellow basilicon §j ; mix. In inflamma- 
tion of the eyelids, &c. 

XI. (Collier's.) Dried alum 3ss ; powdered 
opium 9j ; olive oil f 3j ; spermaceti ointment 3ij ; 
mix. For inflammation of the eyelids, purulent 
ophthalmia, &c. 

Remarks. All the above ointments should be 
used in very small quantities at a time, and care- 
fully applied with a camel hair pencil or a feather, 
and not till acute inflammation has subsided. The 
ingredients entering into their composition should 
be reduced to the state of very fine powder before 
mixing, and the incorporation should be made by 
long trituration in a Wedgewood-ware mortar, or 
preferably, for those that contain substances that 
are very gritty, by levigation on a porphyry slab, 
with a nniller. 

OINTMENTS, FLOWER OF. Syn. Flob 



Unguentorum. Prep. Resin, thuris, wax, and 
suet, of each lb. ss ; olibanum, and Venice'tur- 
pentine, of each f liss ; myrrh §j ; wine ^ pint ; 
boil together, and add camphor 3ij. Suppurative, 
warm. 

OINTMENT OF GALLS. Syn. Ung. Gal- 
LARUM. Ung. Galk*. Prep. (P. D.) Galls in 
very fine powder f j ; lard f iv ; mix. An excel- 
lent application to piles, either alone or mixed with 
an equal quantity of zinc ointment. 

OINTMENT OF GALLS, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Ung. Gall^ compositum, (P, L.) Ung. 
Gall^ et Opii, (P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) Galls 
finely powdered 3ij ; powdered opium 3ss, (3j, P. 
E. ;) lard §ij, (5J, P. E. ;) mix. Anodyne, astrin- 
gent. An excellent application to blind piles, and 
prolapsus ani. Some persons add camphor 3j. 

OINTMENT, GALLS AND MORPHIA. 
Syn. Ung. Gall^e cum Morphia. Prep. (Paris.) 
Morphia 2 grs. ; olive oil f 3ij ; tr'turate, and add 
finely powdered galls 3j ; zinc oiu^ment §j. In 
piles, to allay pain. 

OINTMENT, GOLD. Syn. Pommade d'Or. 
Ung. Auri. Prep. I. (Legrand.) Powdered gold 
12 grs. ; lard f j ; mix. For frictions. 

II. (Majendie.) Amalgam of gold 3j ; lard ^j* 
For endermic use. (See Gold.) 

OINTMENT, HELLEBORE. Syn. Ung. 
Veratri, (P. L. & D.) Ung. Hellebori albl 
Prep. (P. L.) Powdered white hellebore §ij ; lard 
§viij ; oil of lemons 20 drops ; mix. In itch, lepra, 
ringworm, &c. ; and to destroy insects in the hair 
of children. It should be used with caution. 

OINTMENT, HELLEBORE, (COM- 
POUND.) Prep. (Rayer.) White hellebore §j ; 
sal ammoniac 3iv ; lard ^viij ; mix. 

OINTMENT, HEMLOCK. Syn. Ung. Co- 
nii. Prep. (P. D.) Fresh leaves of hemlock, and 
lard, equal parts; boil till crisp, and strain with 
pressure through linen. For glandular and scir- 
rhous swellings, painful piles, cancerous sores, «fec. 

OINTMENT, HENBANE. Syn. Ung. 
Hyoscyaml Prep. As the last. As a sedative 
and anodyne application to painful swellings and 
piles, and irritable ulcers ; and in neuralgic pains, 

OINTMENT FOR HORSES. Prep. 1. (For 
canker.) Tar 8 oz. ; lard 4 oz. ; oil of vitriol, or 
verdigris, 1 oz. 

II. {For fistula.') — a. Yellow basilicon 8 oz. ; oil 
of turpentine and verdigris, of each 1 oz. ; mix. — 
b. Ointment of nitrate of mercury 4 oz. ; oil of 
turpentine, and lard, of each 1 oz. ; mix. 

III. (For grease.) Lard 4 oz. ; white lead 1 
oz. ; mix. 

IV. {For cracked hoofs.) Tar and tallow equal 
parts, melted together. 

V. {Heel ointment.) To the last add verdigris 
2 oz. to each pound. 

VI. {For foot rot.) Lard and Venice turpentine, 
of each 4 oz. ; melt, and add blue vitriol 1 oz. For 
horses, cows, or sheep. 

VII. {For mange.) — a. Lard and sulphur 
vivuin, of each 4 oz. ; yellow basilicon, and oil of 
turpentine, of each 3 oz. ; mix. — b. To the last 
add tar and suet, of each 4 oz. — c. Soft soap, oil 
of turpentine, lard, and flowers of sulphur, of 
each 4 oz. ; mix. 

OINTMENT, HYPOCHLORIDE OF SUL- 



OIN 



457 



OIN 



PIIUR. Syn. Ung. Sulphuris Hypociiloridi. 
Prep. (Copland.) Hypochloride of sulphur 3j ; 
lard 5J. 

OINTMENT, HYDRIODATE OF AM- 
MONIA. Syn. Ung. Ammonite Hydriodatis. 
Prep. (Ellis.) Hydriodate of ammonia 3j ; lard 
!j; mix. 

OINTMENT, lODATE OF ZINC. Syn. 
Ung. Zinci Iodatis. Pommade avec lTodate 
DE Zinc. Prep. lodate of zinc 3j ; lard §j ; mix. 
Used in scrofula, &,c. 

OINTMENT, IODIDE OF BARIUM. Syn. 
Ung. Barii Iodidi. Prep. (Majendie.) Iodide of 
barium 4 trrs. ; lard ^j. 

OINTMENT, IODIDE OF LEAD. Syn. 
Ung. Plumbi Iodidi. Prep. (P. L.) Iodide of lead 
fj ; lard ^viij ; mix. Applied by friction to scrofu- 
lous and other indolent glandular swellings. 

OINTMENT, IODIDE OF MERCURY. 
Syn. Pommade de proto-iodure de Mercure. 
Ung. Hydrargyri Iodidi. Prep. (P. L.) White 
wax ^ij ; lard §vj ; melt, and when nearly cold 
triturate with iodide of mercury §j. Used in tuber- 
cular skin diseases, and as a dressing for ill-condi- 
tioned sores, scrofulous ulcers, &c. ; it should be 
used with caution. 

OINTMENT, IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
Syn. Pommade avec l'Hydriodate de Potasse. 
Ung. Potass.^ Hydriodatis. Prep. (Majendie.) 
Iodide of potassium 3j ; lard 3xij ; mix. In scro- 
fula, broncbocele, glandular swellings, &c. "' 

OINTMENT, IODINE. Syn. Ung. Iodinii. 
Prep. (P. D.) Iodine 9j ; lard ^j j mix. For 
scrofulous sores, glandular swellings, &c. ; either 
alone, or mixed with lard. 

OINTMENT, IODINE, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Pcmmade d'Hydriodate Iodure de Po- 
tasse. ^NTMENT OF lODURETED lODIDE OF Po- 

TASSiuM. ^Tng. Iodinii compositum, (P. L.) Ung. 
loDiNEi, (P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) Iodine 3ss ; iodide 
of potassium 3j ; rectified spirit f 3j ; triturate to- 
gether, then add lard §ij. In glandular enlarge- 
ments, ifec. : stronger than the simple ointment. 

OINTMENT, lODOHYDRARGYRATE 
OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. Syn. Ung. 

loDOHYDRARGYRATIS PoTASSII loDIDI. Prep. 

(Puche.) Biniodide of mercury, and iodide of po- 
tassium, of each 8 grs. ; lard ^j. 

OINTMENT, ITCH. Syn. Ung. Antipso- 
RicuM. Prep. 1. (De La Harpe.) Flowers of sul- 
phur ^ij ; sulphate of zinc 3ij ; powdered helle- 
bore 3iv ; soft soap ^iv ; lard §viij ; mix. 

II. (Bateman's.) See page 100. 

III. (Bailey's.) See page 88. 

IV. (Jackson's.) Lard, palm oil, flowers of sul- 
phur, and white hellebore, equal parts. 

V. {Common.) Palm oil 1 lb. ; lard 5 lbs. ; white 
lead i lb. ; corrosive sublimate 4 oz. ; mix well. 

OINTMENT, LARD. Syn. Ung. Adipis. 
Lard washed with rose water. 

OINTMENT, LAUREL. Syn. Ung. Lari- 
NUM vulgare. Common Oil of Bays. Prep. 
Laurel leaves 1 lb. ; laurel berries ^ lb. ; cabbage 
leaves 4 oz. ; neats' foot oil 5 lbs. ; suet 2 lbs. ; 
boil, express, and cool slowly, to let it " grain." 

OINTMENT, LEAD. Syn. Ung. Lythar- 
GYRi AcETATi. Prep. (P. C.) Wax ointment ^j ; 
solution of diacetate of lead 3ss. 

OINTMENT, LEAD, .'COMPOUND.) Syn. 
58 



Higgin's Neutral Ointment. Kirkland's Neu 
TRAL Cerate. Un'g. Plumbi comi'ositum. Prep 
(P. L.) Prepared chalk fviij ; distilled vinegai 
f §vj ; mix, and when the etfervescence cea.ses, 
add lead plaster lb. iij, previously melted with olive 
oil 1 pint, and stir till cold. Used as a dressing to 
indolent ulcers. See Cerate, Kirkland's. 

OINTMENT, LEAD AND MORPHIA. 
Syn. Ung. Plumbi cum Morphia. Prep. (Ged- 
dings.) Carbonate of lead ^^ss ; sulphate of mor- 
phia 15 grs. ; stramonium ointment ^j ; olive oil 
q. s. 

OINTMENT, LE MORT'S. Lard 7 oz. ; 
Venice turpentine, litharge, corrosive sublimate, 
and carbonate of lead, of each 1 oz. ; alum 3 dr. ; 
vermilion to color. 

OINTMENT, LUPULINE. Syn. Ung. Lupu- 
LiN^. Prep. (Freake.) Lupulina 3j ; lard 3iij. 
To relieve cancerous pains. The Ointment of 
Hops (Ung. Lupuli, Van Mons) is made with 
hops §ij ; lard §x; in the same way as ointment 
of belladonna. 

OINTMENT, MANGANESE. Syn. Ung. 
Manganesii Binoxydl Prep. Black oxide of 
manganese 3j ; lard §j. For scrofulous swellings, 
itch, scaldhead, &c. 

OINTMENT, MERCURIAL. Syn. Unction. 
Blue Ointment. Neapolitan do. Strong Mer- 
curial DO. Ung. C^ruleum. Ung. Hydrargyri, 
(P. E. «fe D.) Ung. Hyd. Fortius, (P. L.) Prep.' 
I. (P. L. & E.) Suet §j ; mercury lb. ij ; lard 
^xxiij ; triturate the metal with the suet and a 
little of the lard, till the globules are extinguished, 
then mix in the remainder of the lard. 

Remarks. The Dublin College orders eaual 
parts of mercury and lard. The stronger mercurial 
ointment of the shops is usually jnade with less 
mercury, and the color is brought up with finely- 
ground blue black, or wood charcoal. This fraud 
may be detected by the decrease in the sp. gr., and 
by a portion being left undissolved when a little of 
the ointment is treated, first with ether to remove 
the fat, and then with dilute nitric acid to remove 
the mercury. The following is the form which is 
very generally substituted for that of the pharma- 
copcEia: — mercury 12 lbs.; suet 1^ lb.; lard 16^ 
lbs. The Ung. Hydrargyri partes ^quales of 
the shops is usually made of mercury and lard, of 
each 12 lbs. ; suet 1^ lb. *-^* Mercurial ointment 
" is not well prepared so long as metallic globules 
may be seen in it with a magnifier of 4 powers." 
(P. E.) Its sp. gr. should not be less than 1-781, 
at 60°. When rubbed on a piece of bright cop- 
per or gold, it should immediately give it a coating 
of metallic mercury. This ointment is chiefly 
used to introduce mercury into the system, when 
the stomach will not bear it. ^ to 1 dr. is com- 
monly rubbed into the inside of the thigh night 
and morning. (See Sevum.) 

II. (Mild Mercurial Ointment. Ung. Hyd. 
Mitius, P. L. &, D.) Stronger mercurial ointment 
lb. j ; lard lb. ij ; mix. Used in cutaneous diseases, as 
a dressing to ulcers, and to kill insects on the body 
The ointment of the shops usually contains only 
half the above quantity of mercury. 

III. (Donovan.) Gray oxide of mercury 3j ; 
lard Ij ; heat them to 350° for 2 hours, constantly 
stirring. Gray colored. It may also be made from 
the red oxide in the Ifeime way, by keeping the 



OIN 



458 



OIN 



ointment heated to about 300° for some hours. 
Cleaner and stronger than Ung. Hyd. Fort. 

IV. (Tyson.) Black oxide of mercury (prepared 
by decomposing precipitated calomel with liquors 
of potassa and ammonia) §ij ; lard lb. j ; mix. 
About as active as the last. 

OINTMENT, MACK Syn. Ung. Macis. 
Common Oil of Mace. Prep. Mace and palm oil, 
of each 1 lb. ; beat to a paste, and add melted beef 
marrow 3 lbs. 

OINTMENT, MEZEREON. Syn. Ung. 
Mezerei. Prep. (P. Cod.) Mezereon bark ^iv, 
(bruised and moistened with spirit ;) white wax 
§iss ; lard ^xivss ; digest at 212° for 12 hours, 
press and strain. 

OINTMENT, NERVINE. Syn. Ung. Ner- 
viNUM. Balsamum no. Baume's Nerval. Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Expressed oil of mace, and ox-marrow, 
of each §iv ; melt, and add oil of rosemary 3ij ; 
camphor and oil of cloves 3j ; balsam of tolu 3ij, 
dissolved in rectified spirit 3iv. 

OINTMENT, NITRATE OF MERCURY. 
Syn. Citrine Ointment. Yellow do. Mercu- 
rial Balsam. Ung. Citrinum, (P. E. & D.) 
Ung. Hydrargyri nitratis, (P. L.) Prep. Dis- 
solve mercury ^j in nitric acid sp. gr. 1-5 f 3xj ; 
and add the solution to lard f vj and- olive oil 
f §iv, melted in a capacious Wedgewood-ware, or 
well-glazed earthen vessel, placed in a water-bath, 
at a temperature of from 180 to 200° Fahr. ; mix 
well, remove the heat, and stir till the mixture 
to evolve gas, and acquires a considerable 
of consistence. 

Remarks. The above are the proportions of the 
P. L. ;— the P. E. orders nitric acid (1-5) ffviij, 
f 3vj ; mercury §iv ; lard ^xv ; olive oil f ^xxxij ; — 
the P. D. orders mercury ^j ; acid 3xj ; lard ^iv 
olive oil 1 wine pint ; — the P. U. S. orders mercur; 
f j ; acid 3xj ; lard ^iij ; neats' foot oil f f ix ; — the 
P. Cod. orders mercury 30 parts ; acid (sp. gr. 1-321) 
60 parts ; lard and olive oil, of each 240 parts. 
Good citrine ointment may be procured from any 
of the above formulae by proper management. The 
great art consists in employing pure ingredients, 
and mixing them at the proper temperature. The 
acid should be of the full strength, or if weaker, 
an equivalent quantity should be employed. This 
may be ascertained from the table of the sp. gr. of 
nitric acid, page 442. If the mixture do not froth 
up, the heat should be increased a little, as with- 
out a violent frothing and reaction take place, the 
ointment will not turn out of good quality, but will 
rapidly harden. This is the whole difficulty of the 
process, and it is surprising that the preparation of 
this ointment, which is not at all difficult, should 
have so long engaged the attention of the pharma- 
ceutical periodicals. The London form produces 
a most beautiful golden colored ointment, having a 
buttery consistence, and keeps well, but more acid 
may be used with advantage. 

Use. In ringworm, and various chronic skin dis- 
eases ; as a dressing to ulcers, and in various dis- 
eases of the eyes, especially chronic inflammation 
of the eyelids, <S6C. For most purposes, particu- 
larly the latter, it must be largely diluted with lard 
or oil. 

%* This ointment, made with 3 times the above 
weights of lard and oil, forms the milder citrine 



ointmentf (Ung. Hydrargyri Nitratis mitius.) 
The best substance to dilute the stronger ointment, 
is fresh butter, or palm, poppy, or almond oil. 

.OINTMENT, NITRATE OF SILVER. Syn, 
Ung. Argenti nitratis. Prep. 1. (Velpeau.) Ni- 
trate of silver 1 gr. ; lard 3j. — 2. (Mackenzie.) 
Nitrate of silver 5 grs. ; lard §j. In purulent and 
chronic ophthalmia, ulcers on the cornea, &c. It 
should be used with great caution. 

OINTMENT, NITRIC OXIDE OF MER- 
CLTRY. Syn. Red precipitate Ointment. Ung. 
Hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi, (P. L.) Ung. Hyd. 
oxYDi, (P. E.) Do. do. do. nitrici, (P. D.) Do. 
DO. DO. RUBRL Ung. Hyd. subnitratis. Prep. 
(P. L.) Finely-powdered nitric oxide of mercury 
§j ; white wax §ij ; lard §vj ; melt, and stir in the 
oxide. The P. E. orders §viij of lard instead of 
the wax and lard above. As a stimulaut applica- 
tion to indolent sores and ulcers, to inflamed eyes, 

OINTMENT, NITRIC ACID. Syn. Oxy- 
genized Lard. Pommade d'Alyon. Ung. acidi 
NITRICI. Do. DO. nitrosl Prep. (P. D.) Olive 
oil lb. j; lard §iv ; melt together, and add nitric 
acid (sp.gr. 1'5) f3vss; stir till stiff This oint- 
ment has a yellow color, and is frequently sold for 
ointment of nitrate of mercury, but the fraud may 
be detected by its not turning gray when kept 
heated for some time. Stimulant ; used to dress 
foul ulcers. 

OINTMENT, OBSTETRIC. Syn. Ung. 
obstetricum. Pommade obstetricale. Prep. 
(Chaussier.) — 1. Extract of belladonna 3ij ; water 
and lard, of each f ij ; mix. For dilating the ute- 
rus. — 2. (Pommade pour le toucher^ Yellow 
wax, and spermaceti, of each §j ; olive oil fxvj ; 
melt, strain, add solution of pure soda f 5J, and stir 
till cold. 

OINTMENT, OPIUM. Syn. Ung. Opiatum 
Ung. opii. Prep. — 1. Powdered opium 3j ; sper- 
maceti ointment §iij ; mix. To allay pain. — 2. 
(Augustin.) Opium 3ij ; ox gall ^ij ; digest 2 days, 
strain, and add lard 3!] ; essence of bergamot 10 
drops — 3. (Brera.) Opium 3j ; gastric juice of a 
calf q. s. ; digest 24 hours, and add lard §j, or q. s, 

OINTMENT, OXIDE OF LEAD. Syn. Ung. 
Lythargyri. Ung. nutritum. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
Litharge §iij ; vinegar §iv ; olive oil fix ; heat 
gently, and stir till they combine. 

OINTMENT, OXIDE OF MERCURY. 
Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri oxidi. Do. do. do. cin- 
erei. Prep. Protoxide of mercury fj ; lard fi'j ; 
mix. Substituted for mercurial ointment. (See 
Donovan's and Tyson's Mercurial Ointments.) 

OINTMENT, OXIDE OF SILVER. Syn. 
Ung. Argenti oxydi. Prep. (Serre.) Oxide of 
silver 16 grs. ; lard fj ; niix. For scrofulous and 
syphilitic sores, &c. 

OINTMENT, OXIDE OF ZINC. Syn 
Ung. ZiNCi, (P. L. & E.) Ung. Zinci oxydi, (P. 
D.) Prep. (P. L.) Oxide of zinc fj ; lard fvj ; 
mix. Desiccative ; in various skin diseases at- 
tended with profuse discharges, in burns, blisters, 
excoriations, &.C., and in chronic inflammations of 
the eye. The ointment of crude oxide of zinc 
(UniT. TutifB, Ung. Zinci Oxydi impuri) is made 
of prepared tutty I part ; lard 5 parts. 

OINTMENT, PHOSPHORUS. Syn. Uno. 
Piiosi'uoRATUM. Prep. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus 3j ; 



OIN 



459 



OIN 



lard f vj Siij ; mix in a bottle, melt in a water- 
bath, aad shake till cold. 

OINTMENT, PHOSPHORIC ACID. Syn. 
Ung. Acid-i Phosphorici. Prep. (Soubeiran.) 
Phosphoric acid 3j ; lard §j ; mix. In caries of 
the bones, &lc. 

OINTMENT, PEPPER. Syn. Pepper Salve. 
Ung. Piperis nigri. Prep. (P. D.) Finely-pow- 
dered black pepper ^iv ; lard lb. j; mix. Stimu- 
lant ; irritant ; used in rinjrworm, &c. 

OINTMENT, PITCH. Syn. Black Basili- 
coN. Ung. Tetrapharmacum. Ung. Basilicum 
NIGRUM. Ung. Picis nigr^e, (P. L.) Prep. Black 
pitch, wax, and rosin, of each, §ix ; olive oil f ^xvj ; 
melt together, and stir till cold. Stimulant and 
digestive ; used in eruptions, scald-head, &c. 

OINTMENT, PITCH, (COMPOUND.) 
Prep. — 1. (Ung. Picis compositum, St. B. H.) 
Pitch ointment and ointment of acetate of lead, 
equal parts. Stimulant and desiccant. — 2. »{Ung. 
Picis cum Sulphure, Guy's H.) Tar lb. ss ; wax 
3SS, (5J ;) flowers of sulphur ^ij ; mix. In itch, pso- 
riasis, and other scaly skin diseases, ringworm, &c. 

OINTMENT, PICROTOXINE. Syn. Ung. 
PiCROToxiNiE. Prep. (Jager.) Picrotoxine 10 grs. ; 
lard §j ; mix. In obstinate porrigo, (ringworm ;) 
and diluted with olive oil, to destroy vermin on the 
body. 

OINTMENT FOR PILES. Syn. Ung. H^- 
MORRHOiDALE. Prep. I. (Dr. Gedding.) Carbon- 
ate of lead 3iv ; sulphate of morphia 1.5 grs. ; stra- 
monium ointment §j ; olive oil q. s. To allay pain 
and inflammation. 

II. Spermaceti ointment 8 oz. ; powdered galls 
I oz. ; do. opium 1 dr. ; solution of diacetate of 
ead 1^ oz. (See Piles.) 

OINTMENT, PLATINUM. Syn. Ung. Pla- 
:ini. Prep. (Haefer.) Perchloride of platinum 3j ; 
•xtract of belladonna 3ij ; lard § iv ; mix. 

OINTMENT, POMATUM. Si/n. Ung. Po- 
iatum, (P. L. 1746.) White Lip Salve. Lard 
,vashed with rose water. 

OINTMENT, POPLAR BUDS. Syn. Ung. 
FopuLEUM. Prep. Bruised poplar buds 1 part ; 
iard 3 parts ; boil and strain. The old Ung. Po- 
vuleum consisted of a number of green herbs 
boiled as above. Emollient and stimulant. 

OINTMENT, POPLAR BUDS, (COM- 
POUND.) Prep. (P. Cod.) Bruised poplar buds 
§xij ; fresh leaves of poppies, henbane, belladon- 
na, and common nightshade, of each, ^viij ; lard 
lb. ivss. As last. 

OINTME^fT, PLUNKET'S. Prep. Crows- 
foot 1 handful ; dog's fennel 3 sprigs ; pound well, 
add flowers of sulphur and white arsenic, of each, 
3 thimblefuls ; beat well together, form into bo- 
luses, and dry in the sun ; then powder them ; 
and for use mix with yelk of egg, spread a Utile 
on a small piece of pig's bladder, (size of half a 
crown,) and apply to the sore, and allow it to re- 
main till it falls off by itself. In cancer: poison- 
ous ; requires great caution. 

OINTMENT, QUININE. Syn. Ung. Qui- 
nine FORTIUS. Prep. Sulphate of quinine 3j ; lard 
3ij ; mix. Rubbed into the axilla, to cure the 
igue of children. 

OINTMENT, RED SULPHURET OF 
MERCURY. Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri bisulphu- 
«,BTL Prep. (Collier.) Bisulphuret of mercury 



3iss ; sal ammoniac 3ss ; rose water f 3j ; lard 
^ss ; mix. In several skin diseases. 

OINTMENT, RESIN. Syn. Yellow Basi- 
LicoN. Ung. Resinosu.m, (P. E ^ Ung. Resin^b 
ALB^, (P. D.) Prep.— I. (P. E.) Yellow resin 
^v ; beeswax ^jj ; lard ^viij ; melt, and stir till 
cold. — 2. (P. D.) Yellow wax lb. j ; white (yel- 
low) resin lb. ij ; lard lb. iv ; as above. 

OINTMENT, RINGWORM. Syn. Uno. 
CoNTRA-TiNEAM. Prep. 1. — Soda 6 parts ; blaked 
lime 40 parts ; lard 1200 parts ; mix. — 2. Lard 
and ointment of black pitch, of each, §ij ; oint- 
ment of nitrate of mercury ^j ; mix. The hair 
must be cut off close, and the part washed clean 
before each application. 

OINTMENT, ROSE. Syn. Rose Lip-salve. 
Ung. Rosatum. Ung. Adipis, (P. L. 1788.) Prep. 
(P. Cod.) Washed lard lb. ij ; roses (centif.) lb. ij ; 
bruise the leaves, melt with the lard, and in 2 
days again melt, and press ; add roses lb. ij, and 
repeat the process ; lastly strain, press, and color 
with alkanet root, if required red. 

OINTMENT, RUBEFACIENT. Syn. Ung. 
Rubefaciens. Prep. (Richard.) Finely-powdered 
cantharides and camphor, of each, 3j ; iard §j ; 
mix. 

OINTMENT, RUE. Syn. Ung. Rut^. Prep. 
(Sp. Ph.) Leaves of rue, wormwood, and pepper- 
mint, of each, ^ij ; lard ^xvj ; boil and strain. 

OINTMENT, SAVINE. Syn. Ung. Sabi- 
ne. Prep. (P. D.) Fresh savine leaves lb. ss ; 
lard lb. rj ; boil till crisp, strain, and add beeswax 
lb. ss. 

OINTMENT, SCROPHULARIA. Syn. 
Ung. Scrophulari^. Prep. (P. D.) Green leaves 
of knotted-rooted fig-wort and lard, of each, lb. ij ; 
prepared suet lb. j ; boil till crisp, and strain with 
pressure. In ringworm, " burnt holes," and some 
other cutaneous affections. 

OINTMENT, SIMPLE. Syn. Ointment op 
White Wax, simple Dressing. Ung. Simplex, 
(P. E.) Ung. Cer^ alb^, (P. D.) Prep.— I. 
(P. D.) Lard lb. iv ; white wax lb. j ; melt togeth- 
er, and stir till cold.— 2. (P. E.) Olive oil f f vss ; 
white wax §ij ; as last. A simple unguent. The 
Ung. Simplex, P. L. 1746, was lard washed with 
rose water. (See Cerate, Simple.) 

OINTMENT, SPERMACETI. Syn. Whitk 
Ointment. Ung. Album, (P. L. 1746.) Ung. 
Spermatis cetl Ung. Cetacei, (P. L.) Prep. 
(P. L.) White wax 3ij ; spermaceti 5vj ; olive oil 
f 5iij ; melt together. The Ung. cetacei of the 
Dublin Pharmacopceia is made with white wax 
lb. ss ; spermaceti lb. j ; Iard lb. iij ; and in consis- 
tence resembles the spermaceti cerate, P. L. In 
trade, the Dublin form, with double the amount 
of lard, is commonly adopted. (See Cerates.) 

OINTMENT, STAVESACRE. Syn. Ung. 
Staphisagri^. Prep. (Swediaur.) Powdered 
stavesacre §j ; lard §iij ; melt together, digest 3 
hours, and strain. In itch, and to destroy ver- 
min on the body, (pediculi.) A similar ointment 
is used by farriers. 

OINTMENT, STRAMONIUM. Syjt. Ung. 
Stramon)!. Prep. — 1. (P. U. S.) Fresh thorn- 
apple leaves ^ij ; lard f v ; digest as last, and 
strain.— 2. (Pereira.) Powdered leaves Jj ; lard 
fiv ; mix. Anodyne. Used to dress irritable ul- 
cers, and as an application to painful piles. 



OIN 



460 



OLE 



OINTMENT, SUBSULPHATE OF MER- 
OURY. Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri subsulphatis. 
Prep. — 1. (Alibert.) Turpeth's mineral 3ij ; lard 
§iv ; mix. — 2. (Biett.) Turpeth's mineral 3j ; sul- 
phur 3ij ; lard ^ij ; essence of lemon 15 drops. 
Used in some scaly skin diseases, &c. 

OINTMENT, SULPHURIC ACID. St/n. 
Ung. Acidi Sulphurici. Prep. (P. D.) Sulphu- 
ric acid 3j, (f 3ss ;) lard f j ; mix. Stimulant ; used 
in paralysis, hemorrhages, itch, &c. ; more cleanly 
than the sulphur ointment. " For children it is 
made with only ^ or | as much acid. 

OINTMENT, SULPHATE OF ZINC. Syn. 
Ung. Zinci Sulphatis. Prep. (Scarpa.) Sulphate 
of zinc 3j ; lard §j ; mix. Astringent. In some 
chronic skin diseases. 

OINTMENT, SULPHUR. Syn. Ung. Sul- 
PHURis, (P. L. E. &L D.) Prep. (P. L.) Sublimed 
sulphur §iij ; lard §vj ; essence cf bergamotte 20 
drops ; mix. The P. E. and D. order 1 to 4, and 
omit the bergamotte. In itch, scald-head, and 
several other skin diseases. 

OINTMENT, SULPHUR, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Itch Ointment. Ung. Sulphuris composi- 
TUM. Prep. (P. L.) Sulphur and soft soap, of 
each, §vj ; white hellebore ^ij ; nitre 3j ; lard 
lb. iss ; essence of bergamotte 3ss ; mix. As the 
last, but stronger, and more irritating, though 
more efficacious. 

OINTMENT, SULPHURET OF POTAS- 
SIUM. Syn. Ung. Potassii Sulphureti. Prep. 
(Alibert.) Subcarbonate of soda and sulphuret of 
potassium, of each, 3iij ; lard §ij ; mix. In chro- 
nic skin diseases, especially itch, psoriasis, lepra, 
eczema, 8lc. 

OINTMENT, TANNIxN^. Syn. Ung. Tan- 
NiNi. Prep. (Richard.) Tannin 3ij ; water f 3ij ; 
triturate together, and add lard §iss. Astringent. 
An excellent application to piles. 

OINTMENT, TAR. Syn. Ung. Picis 
LIQUIDS. (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Tar 
and mutton suet equal parts ; melt together, and 
stir till cold. As an application to scald-head, 
ring^7orm, foul ulcers, &c. 

OINTMENT, TOBACCO. Syn. Ung. 
Tabaci. Prep. (P. U. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves 
chopped small §j ; lard lb. j ; boil till crisp, and 
strain through linen. Used for irritable ulcers, 
ringworm, and other diseases of the skin. It 
should be used with caution. 

OINTMENT, TRIPHARMIC. Syn. Ung. 
Tripharmacum. Prep. (P. L. 1745) Lead 
plaster §iv ; olive oil f^iv; vinegar f§j; melt, 
and stir till they combine. Cooling and desic- 
cativo. 

OINTMENT, VERATRINE. Syn. Ung. 
Veratrin^e. Pommade de Veratrine. Prep. — 1. 
(TurnbulK) Veratrina 10 to 20 grs. ; olive oil a 
few <lrops ; triturate and add lard §j. — 2. (Majen- 
die.) 4 grs. to tlie ounce. — 3. (Pereira.) 20 to 40 
grs. to the ounce. In neuralgia, neuralgic rheuma- 
tism, gout, &c. 

OINTMENT, VERDIGRIS. Sijn. Ung. 
^Eruginis, (P. E "» Ung. Cupri Subacetatis, 
(P. D.) Prep. — L (P. E.) Resinous ointment 
^xv ; verdigris in fine powder §j ; mix. — 2. (P. J).) 
Verdigris ^ss ; olive oil §j ; triturate and Jidd rosin 
ointmeait lb. j. — 3. Verdigris ^j ; lard §xv ; mix. 
Ail the above are escharotic and detergent, and 



are used as occasional dressings to foul and flabby 
ulcers, to keep down fungous flesh, and diluted 
with oil or lard in scrofulous ulceration and in- 
flammation of the eyelids. 

OINTMENT, VINEGAR. Syn. Ung. 
Aceti. Prep. (Dr. Cheston.) Olive oil lb. j ; 
white wax §iv ; melt, cool a little, add vinegar 
§ij, and stir till cold. A cooling astringent dres- 
sing, and as a salve in chronic ophthalmia. 

OINTMENT, WAX, (YELLOW.) Syn. 
Ung. Cer.e flav^. Prep. (P. D.) Beeswax 
lb. j ; lard lb. iv ; melt together. A mild and 
cooling dressing. (See Cerate, Simple.) 

OINTMENT, WHITE, (CAMPHORA- 
TED.) Syn. Ung. Albom Camphoratum. Prep. 
(P. L. before 1745.) Simple ointment §v ; camphor 
3ij ; dissolve by a gentle heat, add finely-powdered 
carbonate of lead ^j, and stir till cold. 

OINTMENT, WHITE PRECIPITATE. 
Syn. Ointment of Ammonio-chloride of Mer- 
cury. Ung. Hydrargyri Ammonio-chloridi, 
(P. L.) Ung. Pr^ecipitati Albi, (P. E.) Ung. 
Hydrargyri Submuriatis Ammoniati, (P. D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) White precipitate 3j ; lard §jss : 
mix. Stimulant, alterative, and detergent ; in the 
itch, scald-head, and various other skin diseases ; 
in inflammation of the eyes, and to destroy vermin 
on the body. 

OINTMENT, WORM. Syn. Ung. Vermi- 
FUGUM. Prep. (Bat. Ph.) Aloes 3j ; dried ox- 
gall 3iss ; lard §iss ; mix. 

OINTMENT, YELK OF EGG. Syn. Ung. 
OvoRUM. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Oil of almonds 
§iss ; yellow wax §ss ; melt together, and when 
nearly cold, add the yelk of one egg and mix 
well. Applied to sore nipples. 

OINTMENT, ZINC, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
Ung. Zinci cum Lycopodio. Prep. (Hufeland.) 
Oxide of zinc and lycopodium, of each 3j ; simple 
cerate §ss ; mix. In excoriations and ulcerations, 
especially of the eyes, either alone or diluted with 
almond oil. 

OLEFIANT GAS. Syn. Heavy inflammable 
Air. Carbureted Hydrogen. Hyduret of 
Acetule. It may be obtained by heating a mix- 
ture of 1 part of alcohol and 6 parts of oil of 
vitriol, and as soon as sulphurous gas begins to 
come over, passing the product first througli milk 
of lime and then through oil of vitriol. This gas 
is a little lighter than atmospheric air, and burns 
with a bright white flame. When mixed with an 
equal volume of chlorine over water, it soon con- 
denses into an oily looking liquid ; hence the name 
olefiant gas was given it by the Dutch chemists. 
It smells like oil of caraway. It is the presence 
of olefiant gas in coal gas that principally gives to 
the latter its illuminating properties. This gas 
was formerly called per- or bi-carbureted hy- 
drogen. 

OLEIC ACID. An oily acid, discovered by 
Chevreul in fat. 

Prep. Saponify the pure oil of almonds, decom- 
pose the soap with a dilute acid, and digest the 
resulting oily acid in a water-bath with half its 
weight of oxide of lead for some hours, constantly 
stirring; then agitate the mixture with twice its 
volume of ether in a close vessel, and in 24 hours 
decant the clear ethereal solution ; decompose 
with dilute muriatic acid, collect the acid that 



OPH 



461 



OPI 



separates, and remove the ether by evaporation. 
To render it still purer it must be a^ain saponified 
with caustic soda, and the soap repeatedly dis- 
solved in a solution of soda, and as often separated 
by adding common salt, until it becomes nearly 
colorless, when it must be decomposed by dilute 
muriatic acid as before. 

Props., <^c. An oily acid, insoluble in water, 
soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil, and forming salts 
with the bases called oleates. 

OLEIN. Sijn. Elain. Huile absolue. (From 
cAatov, oil.) The liquid portion of oil and fat ; by 
saponification it yields oleic acid. 

Prep. I. Digest the oil with a quantity of 
caustic soda in solution, only sufficient to saponify 
half the oil, and separate the undecomposed oily 
portion from the soap and alkaline solution. Suc- 
ceeds well with recently expressed and fresh oils. 

II. Almond or olive oil 1 part ; strong alcohol 
8 parts ; mix in a flask, heat nearly to boiling, 
agitate, decant the clear upper stratum, and allow 
it to cool ; filter, and gently distil off the spirit. 
Both the above are used by watchmakers for fine 
work, as they will not freeze nor thicken at or- 
dinary temperatures. Some years ago the last 
was sold, by a certain metropolitan house, as 
watchmaker's oil, at Is. %d. a drachm. 

OLEOMETER. (From oleum, oil ; and me- 
trum, a measure.) An instrument for ascertain- 
ing the specific gravity of oil. (See Hydrometer 
and Oil.) 

OLEON. A peculiar liquid obtained by the 
distillation of oleic acid and lime. 

OLEO-FHOSFHORIC ACID. A peculiar 
acid found by Fremy in the brain and nervous^ 
matter. 

OLEO-SACCHARUM. Syn. El^o-Sac- 
CriARUM. A mixture of sugar and essential oil. 
The oleo-sacchara of aniseed, caraway, pepper- 
mint, pennyroyal, cinnamon, and other essential 
oils, are made by rubbing 15 or 16 drops of the 
respective oils with white sugar 1 oz. ; and when 
intended for making extemporaneous distilled 
waters, 1 oz. of magnesia is also added. The 
oleo-sacchara of lemons, oranges, &lc., are made 
from the peels, as described at page 199. 

OLIVILE. A white crystalline substance, 
obtained by Felletier from the gum of the olive 
tree, (Olea Europaea.) It is soluble in hot water 
and alcohol. 

OLIVINE. A white, crystalline, bitter sub- 
stance, obtained by Landerer from the leaves of 
the olive tree^ It dissolves in acids. 

OMELETTE. A pancake or fritter made of 
eggs ; much used on the Continent. 

OMYCHILE. A brown, resinous substance, 
obtained by Scharling from inspissated urine. 

OPHTHALMIA. Syn. Ophthalmitis. 
(From o(pda\iJi()i, the eye.) Inflammation of the 
eye. In ordinary cases this disease is confined to 
the external membrane of the globe of the eye, or 
to the eyelids ; but it occasionally attacks the 
sclerotica, cornea, choroid coat, and retina. In 
general it may be relieved by fomentations of 
warm water, or decoction of poppy-heads, and the 
use of aperient medicines ; to which leeches and 
cupping may be added with advantage. In 
severe cases, general depletion and blisters to the 
nstpe of the neck must be had recourse to. When 



the inflammation has subsided, mild astringents 
and cooling eye-waters and ointments will be 
found useful ; but all applications of this kind 
should be used with caution. The purulent oph- 
thalmia of new-born infants, and that which often 
follows the smallpox, measles, and fevers, gener- 
ally yields to the use of mild astringent eye- 
waters and salves, and to the application, at bed- 
time, of a drop of wine of opium diluted with 5 or 
6 drops of water. A very v^eak solution of sul- 
phate of zinc, or the ointment of nitric oxide of 
mercury, will be found a good application in the 
latter cases. In every variety the eye should be 
kept clean by careful ablution with warm milk 
and water. 

OPIANIC ACID. A crystalline substance, 
possessing acid properties, resulting from the oxi*' 
dation of narcotine, discovered by Wohler and 
Liebig. It is obtained by dissolving narcotine in 
dilute sulphuric acid in considerable excess ; 
adding finely-powdered oxide of manganese, ajjso 
in excess ; and boiling till carbonic acid ceases to 
be evolved, when the liquid is filtered, and on 
cooling forms a crystalline mass of opianic acid. 
This is drained on a filter, pressed, washed with 
cold water, and frequently recrystallized from a 
saturated solution in boiling water. Scarcely 
soluble in cold water ; soluble in alcohol. 

OPIATE EN I^OUDRE. Prep. Bath brick 
8 oz. ; China ware 4 oz. ; red coral 1 oz. ; cinna- 
mon and cloves, of each 1 dr. ; mix. and reduce 
to a very fine powder. Used as a dentifrice ; rap- 
idly whitens the teeth. 

OPIATE, ANTI-TUBERCULAR, {Lepecq 
de la Cloture.) Prep. Spermaceti, crab's eyes, 
and sulphur, of each 3ij ; conserve of roses §ss ; 
pepper mushroom 3iij ; honey q. s. to make an 
electuary. In pulmonary consumption. Dose. 
9iiss to 3iss, 3 or 4 times a day. 

OPIUM. Smyrna or Levant opium should be 
chosen, especially for the manufacture of the salts 
of morphia, as it contains on the average from 7 
to 9§ of that alkaloid, and usually yields about 12 
to 12J-§of muriate of morphia, which is more than 
can be obtained from any other variety of opium. 
The following process of Morphiometry is given 
by the Edinburgh College : — Macerate 100 grs. of 
opium for 24 hours in f^ij of water, filter, and 
strongly squeeze the residue ; then precipitate with 
carbonate of soda ^ss, dissolved in cold water f ^ij ; 
heat the precipitate till it shrinks and fuses, then 
cool and weigh it ; it should weigh at least 1 1 grs. ; 
and when powdered be entirely soluble in a solu- 
tion of oxalic acid. — Another excellent process for 
ascertaining the quality of opium is, to boil an in- 
fusion of 4 parts of opium with 1 part of quicklime, 
made into a milk with water, to filter while hot, 
saturate with a dilute acid, (hydrochloric.) and to 
precipitate the morphia by ammonia. (Couerbe.) 

There have been several modes of purifying opi- 
um adopted by various persons, among which the 
following may be mentioned : — 

Soft Purified Opium. {Opium purificatum 
Molle.) Picked opium softened with water to a 
pillular consistence. 

Hard Purified Opium. {Opium purif durum.) 
Picked opium dried in a water-bath for pow- 
dering. 

Strained Opium. {Ext. Thebaicum. Opium 



OPO 



462 



OXA 



Colatum. Opium Purijicatum. Laudanum Opi- 
atum,.) Opium dissolved, or softened, in an equal 
weight of water, pressed through canvass, and 
evaporated to a pillular consistence. 

Homberg's Purified Opium. Opium exhausted 
by repeated coction in 10 or 12 times its weight of 
water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to ^, and 
kept boiling for 2 or 3 months, adding water from 
time to time, then straining and evaporating to a 
pillular consistence. 

Baume's J*urified Opium. The same as the 
last. 

Cornette's Purified Opium. The common 
extract dissolved in cold water, strained,- and evap- 
orated to an extract, and the process repeated sev- 
eral times. 

Josse's Purified Opium. Crude opium worked 
under water as long as anything is dissolved, the 
solution strained, and evaporated to an extract. 

Accarie's Purified Opium. Infusion of opium 
digested with powdered charcoal for some days, 
strained, clarified with white of egg, and evapo- 
rated to an extract. 

Powel's Purified Opium. Opium exhausted 
by coction with water, the residuum treated with 
spirit of wine, and the mixed tincture and decoc- 
tion evaporated to an extract. 

Neumann's Opium. Infusion of opium, strained, 
fermented with a little sugar, set it in a warm 
place, and when the fermentation slackens, it is 
again excited by stirring up the lees ; continue 
this for some months, or as long as it can be made 
to ferment. It is either evaporated to an extract 
or kept in the liquid form. 

Lancelotte's Prepared Opium. Opium lb. j ; 
quince juice 1 gall. ; pure potassa §j ; sugar §iv ; 
ferment for some time, evaporate to a sirup, digest 
in spirit of wine, filter, and distil off the spirit. 

Quercetan's Opium. Vinegar of opium evapo- 
rated to an extract. 

Glaser's Prepared Opium. An infusion of 
opium made with may-dew, filtered and evapo- 
rated. 

Glauber's Pre '(vred Opium. Opium §iv ; spirit 
of salt §iss ; cre«i.a of tartar ^j ; mix, digest in 
spirit of wine 1 quart, filter, and evaporate. 

*** Of the above, those that are made with cold 
water, or by fermentation, are considered milder 
than crude opium ; the latter resemble "The black 
drop." 

OPODELDOC. Syn. Soap Liniment. This 
article, prepared according to the directions of the 
Pharmacopoeia, is apt to gelatinize, or to deposite 
crystals of elaidate and stearate of lime. This 
may be avoided where expense is not an objection, 
by well drying the soap, employing a spirit of 85§, 
and keeping it in well-closed vessels. 

OPODELDOC, STEER'S. Prep. 1. White 
Castile soap, cut very small, 2 lbs. ; camphor 5 oz. ; 
oil of rosemary 1 oz. ; oil of origanum 2 oz. ; recti- 
fied spirit 1 gall. ; dissolve in a corked bottle by 
the heat of a water-bath, and when considerably 
cooled, strain ; add liquor of annnonia 11 oz. ; im- 
mediately put it into bottles, (Steer's,) cork close, 
and tic over with bladder. Very fine, solid and 
transparent when cold. 

1 1. Soap 4 oz. ; camphor 1 oz. ; oils of rosema- 
ry and origanum, of each 1 dr. ; rectified spirit 1 
pint ; liquor of ammonia 1^ oz. ; mix. 



III. To the last add water ^ pint. Used as a 
liniment. 

ORANGEADE. Syn. Orange Sherbet. 
Prepared with oranges in the same way as lemon- 
ade. 

ORANGE DYE. This may be given by mix- 
ing red and yellow dyes in various proportions. A 
very good fugitive orange may be given with an- 
notto, by passing the goods through a solution made 
with equal parts of annotto and pearlash ; or still 
better, through a bath made of 1 part of annotto 
dissolved in a lye of 1 part each of lime and pearl- 
ash, and 2 parts of soda. The shade may be red- 
dened by passing the dyed goods through water 
acidulated with vinegar, lemon-juice, or citric acid; 
or through a solution of alum. The goods are 
sometimes passed through a weak alum mordant 
before immersion in the bath. 

ORANGE PEEL, CANDIED. This is pre- 
pared in the same way as candied citron or lemon 
peels. 

ORCEIN E. Syn. Lichen Lake, A brown- 
ish-red powder, obtained by dissolving orcine in 
liquor of ammonia, exposing the solution to the 
air, and pre.cipitating with an acid. 

ORCINE. The coloring principle of the hchen 
dealbatus. It may be obtained by treating the 
powder with boiling alcohol, filtering while hot, cool- 
ing) again filtering, distilling off the alcohol, evap- 
orating to a sirup, triturating with water, filtering, 
again evaporating to a sirup, and leaving the liquid 
for some days in a cool place, when crystals of orcine 
will form. It is volatile, and soluble in water and 
alcohol. By solution in ammonia it yields orceine. 

ORGEAT. Syn. Sirop d'Orgeat. Barley 
Sirup. Prep. I. Sweet almonds 1 lb. ; bitter al- 
monds ^ oz. ; blanch, beat to a paste, and make 
an emulsion with barley water 1 quart ; strain, and 
to each pint add sugar l^lb. ; and a tablespoonful 
of orange-flower water. 

II. Sweet almonds 3 oz. ; 2 bitter almonds ; or- 
ange-flower water 1 tablespoonful ; milk 1 quart ; 
sugar 1 lb. ; make an emulsion. Some persons 
add a little brandy. 

ORES. The mineral bodies from which metals 
are extracted. (See Testing and Metals.) 

OSMIUM. (From oai^s, odor.) A rare metal 
found associated with the ore of platinum. Its sp. 
gr. is 7. It forms several compounds with oxygen, 
chlorine, and sulphur, of which the most remark- 
able is osmic acid. This compound is very vola- 
tile, and evolves a pungent and disagreeable odor, 
which has given the name to the metal. (See 
Iridium.) 

OXALATES. Syn. Oxalas, {Lat.) A com- 
pound of oxalic acid and a base. (See Oxalic 
Acid.) 

OXALATES OF POTASH. Prep. I. {Ox- 
alate of Potash. Potassa; Oxalas.) Neutralize 
a solution of oxalic acid, or the acid oxalates of 
commerce, with carbonate of potash, evaporate and 
crystallize. 

II. {Binoxalate of Potash. Potassa; Binox- 
alas. Salt of Sorrel. Sal ucetosella".) By sat- 
urating a solution of 1 part of oxalic ncid with 
carbonate of potash, and adding it lo a similar so- 
lution of 1 part of the acid unneutralizod ; evapo- 
rating and crystallizing. It may also be obtained 
from the expressed juico of wood or sheep's sorrel 



OXA 



463 



OXI 



by clarifying with eggs or milk, evaporating and 
crystallizing. In commerce the quadroxalate of 
potash is usually substituted for it. 

III. (Quadroxalate of Potash. PotasscE Quad- 
roxalas.) By neutralizing 1 part of oxalic acid 
with carbonate of potash, adding to the solution 3 
parts more of acid, evaporating and crystallizing. 
Or by dissolving the binoxalate in dilute hydrochlo- 
ric, and crystallizing. This salt is commonly sold 
in commerce as Binoxalate of Potash. Sal Ace- 
tosellcB, Salt of Sorrel, and Essential Salt of 
Lemons. Both this and the binoxalate are used 
to remove ink and iron stains from linen, to bleach 
the straw used for making bonnets, and occasion- 
ally in medicine as a refrigerant. When pure, 
each of the above yields nothing but carbonate of 
potash by heat. *j^* All the oxalates of potash 
are poisonous. 

OXALIC ACID. Syn. Acid of Sugar. Acid- 

UM OXALICDM, {Lat.) ACIDE OxALIQUE, {Fr.) 

SAUERKLEEsauRE, (Ger.) This acid was discov- 
ered by Scheele in 1776. It occurs both in the 
mineral and organic kingdoms, and is produced 
artificially by the action of nitric acid on sugar, 
starch, woody fibre, &c. 

Prep. I. (Liebig.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) 5 
parts ; water 10 parts ; mix, add sugar, or prefer- 
ably potato starch 1 part, and digest by a gentle 
heat as long as gaseous products are evolved ; 
evaporate and crystallize ; dry the crystals, redis- 
solve, and crystallize. 12 parts of potato starch 
yield 5 of acid. The mother water, treated with 
more nitric acid, and again warmed, will yield a 
second crop of crystals ; and this should be repeat- 
ed till the solution is exhausted. 

II. (Ure.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) 4 parts ; su- 
gar 1 part ; digest together in a water-bath. 

III. (Schlesinger.) " Sugar 4 parts, (dried at 
257° F. ;) nitric acid (1-38) 33 parts ; the mixture, 
as soon as the evolution of gas ceases, is to be 
boiled down to one-sixth its original volume, and 
allowed to crystallize. The whole process may be 
executed in 2 hours, and in 1 vessel, and yields of 
beautifully crystallized oxalic acid fVom 56 to 60§ 
of the sugar employed. 

Remarks. On the large scale, the first part of 
the process is usually conducted in salt- glazed 
stoneware pipkins, about two-thirds filled and set 
in a water-bath ; but on the small scale, a glass 
retort or capsule may be used. The evaporation 
should be preferably conducted by steam. The 
evolved nitrous vapors are usually allowed to es- 
cape, but if conveyed into a chamber filled with 
cold damp air, and containing a little water, they 
will absorb oxygen, and be recondensed into fuming 
nitric acid. In England an equivalent proportion 
of molasses is Tisually substituted for sugar. Messrs. 
Davy, Macmurdo «fe Co.'s patent process, consists 
in first converting potato fecula into grape sugar 
with sulphuric acid, and then decomposing the 
sugar thus obtained by nitric acid, in the usual 
way. Dr. Ure recommends the use of a little sul- 
phuric acid along with the nitric acid, which, he 
says, contributes to increase the product. "15 lbs. 
of sugar yield fully 17 lbs. of crystallized oxalic 
acid." (Ure.) Chemically pure oxalic acid is best 
prepared by precipitating a solution of binoxalate 
of potash with acetate of lead, washing the pre- 
cipitate with water, and decomposing it while still 



moist with dilute sulphuric acid or sulphuretea hy- 
drogen. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Pure oxalic atid forms odor- 
less, colorless, prismatic crystals, possessing a pow- 
erful sour taste, and forming salts with the baseg 
termed Oxalates. It effloresces in warm dry air, 
fuses and sublimes at 350°, dissolves in b parts of 
water and 4 parts of alcohol at 60°, and in its own 
weight of boiling water. Oxalic acid is chiefly 
used in the arts of calico printing and bleaching ; 
to remove ink-spots and iron-moulds from linen, 
and to clean boot-tops. It is poisonous. 

Tests. 1. — Oxalic acid gives a white precipitate 
with nitrate of silver, soluble in nitric acid, and 
which, when heated, yields pure silver. — 2. With 
lime water or muriate of lime a white precipitate, 
soluble in nitric acid. 

Ant. Promote vomiting, and administer chalk, 
whiting, or magnesia, mixed up with water, in 
considerable quantities. 

OXALURIC ACID. A new acid discovered 
by Wohler and Liebig, and obtained by heating a 
solution of parabanic acid with ammonia, and de- 
composing a hot saturated solution of the resulting 
oxalurate of ammonia with dilute sulphuric acid, 
and rapidly cooling the liquid, when oxaluric acid 
falls as a white crystalline powder. 

OXA METHANE. St/n. Etheroxamide. 
Oxalate of Ether and Oxamide. A colorless 
crystalline substance, prepared by dissolving oxalic 
ether in alcohol, and gradually adding alcohol 
saturated with dry ammoniacal gas, till a white 
powder begins to fall, when after some hours the 
solution is filtered, evaporated, and crystallized. 

OXAMIDE. Syn. Oxalamide. A snow- 
white, tasteless, crj^stalline powder, obtained du- 
ring the destructive distillation of oxalate of ammo- 
nia. 

OXIDE. (Oxydum, Lat., from o^vg, acid, and 
eiSog, form.) A compound of oxygen and a metal. 
The oxides unite with the acids, forming com- 
pounds called salts. To designate the different 
oxides of the same base, and to mark the number 
of equivalents of oxygen combined with one equiva- 
lent of metal, derivatives from the Greek or Latin 
are generally employed. Thus the terms oxide or 
protoxide, the deutoxide, tritoxide, &c., are ap- 
plied to -the first, second, third, &^c. oxide of the 
same base ; and the last oxide, in which the base 
is saturated with oxygen, without being acid, is 
called the peroxide. In like manner the terms 
oxide or protoxide, sesquioxide, binoxide, terox- 
ide, &c., denote that the oxygen is in the ratio to 
the metal of 1 to 1, — 1^ to 1 or 3 to 2, — 2 to 1, — 
3 to 1, &c. The Greek numerals dis, tris, tetra- 
his, &,c., are prefixed in a similar way, to denote 
oxides formed of 1 equivalent of oxygen with 2, 3, 
or more equivalents of metal. Mote complex ratios 
are denoted by a fraction, the numerator of which 
represents the eq. of oxygen, and the denominator 
the eq. of metal. The terminations ous and ic are 
occasionally employed in the same way as noticed 
under acids, the former being applied to the lower 
and the latter to the higher state of oxidizement, 
as cuprous oxide, cupric do., ferrous oxide, ferric 
do., applied to the respective oxides of copper and 
iron. Oxides containing less than 1 eq. of oxygen 
to 1 eq. of metal, are commonly called suboxides. 
The same system of nomenclature is also applied 



OXY 



464 



OXY 



to saline compounds ; as — protochloride, sesqui- 
chloride, bichloride, terchloride, oxalate, binoxa- 
late, sulphate, hisulphate, ^c. 

OXYCHLORIDES. Compounds formed by 
the union of a metallic oxide with the chloride of 
a metal. They are commonly called subchlo- 
rides, or submuriales. (See Index.) 

OXYFLUORIDES. Double compounds of 
fluorides and oxides. They possess no practical 
importance. 

OXYGEN. Syn. Oxygen Gas. Vital Air. 
Empyreal do. Dephlogisticated do. Oxygene, 
{Fr.) Sauerstoff, {Ger.) Oxygeniuji, {Lat., 
from d^vg, acid, and ycvvdot, I generate.) An ele- 
mentary gaseous body, discovered by Priestley in 
1774. 

Prep. I. Place chlorate of potash in a green 
glass retort, and heat it nearly to redness over a 
spirit-lamp. Pure. Prod. 100 grs. yield nearly 
100 cubic inches. (Brande.) 100 grs. yield 115 
cubic inches. (Ure.) 

II. Expose red oxide of mercury to heat as 
above. Pure. 

III. (Faraday.) Coarsely-powdered chlorate 
of potash 3 parts ; powdered binoxide of manga- 
nese 1 part ; (both by measure ;) mix, put them 
into a flask or retort, and place it over the flame 
of a spirit-lamp, or a few pieces of ignited charcoal, 
when in a few minutes oxygen will be evolved with 
a rapidity entirely at the command of the opera- 
tor, by either increasing or lessening the heat. The 
residue in the retort may be kept for another 
operation, if not exhausted, or may at once be 
washed out with a little warm water, and the man- 
ganese reserved for another time, as it is uninjured 
by the process. Red lead, black oxide of copper, 
and several other substances, will answer nearly as 
well as oxide of manganese. " 100 grs. of the 
mixture yield 110 cubic inches of pure oxygen." 
(G. F. Fisher.) This is a very convenient and 
simple process. 

IV. (Balmain.) Bichromate of potash 3 parts ; 
oil of vitriol 4 parts ; mix, and heat as above. 
Yields pure oxygen with a rapidity entirely at the 
command of the operator. 

V. Expose nitre to a red heat in an iron retort. 
1 lb. yields 1200 cubic inches slightly contaminated 
with nitrogen. 

VI. Expose black oxide of manganese to a red 
heat as last. Prod. 1 oz. of pure binoxide of man- 
ganese yields 44 grains or 128 cubic inches of gas. 
(Liebig.) 1 lb. of common oxide of manganese 
yields from 30 to 40 pints, and fine samples from 
40 to 50 pints of gas sufficiently pure for ordinary 
purposes. This is the most economical process on 
the large scale. 

VII. Binoxide of manganese and oil of vitriol, 
equal parts ; mix them well together in a glass 
retort, and apply heat. Prod. Every 44 grs. of 
pure binoxide of manganese yield 8 grs. or 24 
cubic inches of oxygen. 1 oz. yields 88 grs., or 
256 cubic inches. (Liebig.) 

Remarks.- The gas procured by any of the 
above processes must be collected in the usual 
way, either over water, mercury, or in bags. The 
gas procured from manganese or nitre nmy bo pu- 
rified by passing it through milk of lime, or a solu- 
tion of caustic potassa. 

Props., Uses, i^c. Colorless, odorless, tasteless, 



and incombustible ; sp. gr. 1-111, (1-026 Berzelius, 
Dulong, &c. ;) 100 cubic inches weigh 33-6 grs. ; 
it is a powerful supporter of combustion, and its 
presence is essential to the existence of both ani- 
mal and vegetable life; it forms 2l§ by volume 
of the atmosphere. It is distinguished from other 
gases by yielding nothing but pure water when 
mixed with twice its volume of hydrogen and ex- 
ploded, or when a jet of hydrogen is burned in it. 
A recently-extinguished taper, with the wick still 
red hot, instantly inflames when plunged into this 
gas. A small spiral piece of iron wire ignited at 
the point, and suddenly plunged into a jar of oxy- 
gen, burns with great brilliancy and rapidity. 
Water dissolves about 5§ by volume of oxygen, 
but by pressure a much larger quantity. It is said 
to be a valuable remedial agent in asphyxia arising 
from the inhalation of carbonic acid or carbonic 
oxide. 

OSMAZOME. A brownish yellow substance, 
having the smell of soup, obtained by digesting 
raw muscular fibre in cold water, filtering, evapo- 
rating, treating the residue with alcohol, and again 
filtering and evaporating. 

OXYMEL. (From o^vg, acid, and ns.\i, honey.) 
An acidulous sirup made of honey and vinegar. 
(See Filtration, Clarification, and Sirup.) 

.OXYMEL OF COLCHICUM. Syn. Oxymel 
(coRMi) CoLCHici. Prep. (P. D.) Fresh corms 
(roots) of meadow saffron §j ; distilled vinegar 1 
pint, (wine measure ;) macerate for 2 days, press 
out the liquor, filter, add clarified honey lb. ij, 
and boil down to the consistence of a sirup, fre- 
quently stirring. Dose. 1 to 3 dr. twice a day, in 
gout, rheumatism, dropsy, &c. 

OXYMEL OF CREAM OF TARTAR. Syn. 
Oxymel Potass^e bitartratis. Prep. Powdered 
cream of tartar §ij ; hot water \ pint ; honey lb. 
ij ; boil for 10 minutes, and strain. Cooling ; laxa- 
tive ; used to " cut the phlegm," &c. 

OXYMEL OF GARLIC. Syn. Oxymel Alil 
Prep. (P. L. 1746.) Sliced garlic §iss ; caraway 
seed, and sweet fennel seed, of each 5ij ; boiling 
vinegar f ^viij ; infuse, strain, and add clarified 
honey ^x. 

OXYMEL, PECTORAL. Syn. Oxymel pec- 
torale. Prep. (Brun's Ph.) Bruised elecampane j 
§j ; do. orris root §ss ; water f ^xxxvj ; boil to '• 
§xxiv; strain, add honey §xvj, ammoniacum ^j, 
(dissolved in) vinegar f §viij ; boil to an oxymel. 
In coughs, &LC. 

OXYMEL OF SQUILLS. Syn. Honey of 
SauiLLs. Oxymel ScilljE. (P. L. &, D.) Do. 
scilliticum. Prep. (P. L.) Clarified honey lb. 
iij ; vinegar of squills 1^ pints; boil to a proper 
consistence. Expectorant. Dose f5j to f3ij, in 
chronic coughs and asthma. 

OXYMEL, SIMPLE. Syn. Oxymel, (P. L. 
&L D.) Do. simplex. Vinegar Sirup. Mel ace- 
tatum. Syrupus acetl Syr. acidi acetici. Prep. 
(P. L.) Clarified honey lb. x ; acetic acid {V. L.) j 
li pints; mix with heat. Expectorant ancJ refri- | 
gerant. Dose. 3j to ^ss, diluted with water, in 
coughs, &c. ; diffused through some deinulcont li- 
quid, it is used as a drink in fevei-s, and added to 
gargles in sore throat. %* The following are the 
proportions I have\^een used in trade : — Honey 12 
lbs. ; distilled vinegar (of 53) 2 quarts ; ovaporata 
if required, 



PAI 



465 



PAL 



OXYMEL OF VERDIGRIS. (See Liniment 
OF Verdigris.) 

OXYSACCHARA. Sirups acidulated with 
vinegar. 

OYSTERS are nutritious, and easy of diges- 
tion. Tliey are in season in each month of the 
year, the name of whicli contains the letter R. 
The best British oysters are found at Purfleet ; 
the iDorst near Liverpool. 

OZONE. This term has been applied to the 
odor perceived in the immediate vicinity of elec- 
trical machines in good action. 



PAINTINGS. Pres. and Restor. Many valua- 
ble paintings suffer premature decay, from the at- 
tacks of a microscopic insect of the mite class. 
This is especially the case with " Christ's Pas- 
sion," by Northcote, in the Hanover chapel, Re- 
gent-street, — the " Raising pf Lazarus," in the 
National Gallery, and several pictures in the 
Louvre. The best method of preventing this spe- 
cies of decay, is to add a few drops of creosote to 
the paste and glue used to line the picture, as well 
as to make a similar addition to the varnish. If it 
has already commenced, the painting should be at 
once carefully cleaned and relined, observing to 
employ a little creosote in the way just mentioned. 
Paintings should be kept in as pure an atmosphere 
as possible, and in a moderately dry situatian ; as 
it is the presence of sulphureted hydrogen in the 
air that blackens the " lights," and causes most of 
the middle tints and shades to fade ; and it is ex- 
posure to damp that produces mouldiness and de^ 
cay of the canvass. For this reason valuable paint- 
ings should not be kept in churches, nor suspended 
against heavy walls of masonry, especially in bad- 
ly-ventilated buildings. Excess of light, particularly 
the direct rays of the sun, also acts injuriously on 
paintings. The blackened lights of old pictures 
may be instantly restored to their original hue, by 
touching them with deutoxide of hydrogen, diluted 
with 6 or 8 times its weight of water. The part 
must be afterwards washed with a clean sponge 
and water. 

PAINTS, FISH OIL. Prep. Dissolve white 
vitriol and litharge, of each 14 lbs., in vinegar 32 
gallons ; add whale, seal, or cod oil 1 ton, and boil 
to dryness, continually stirring during the ebulli- 
tion. The next day decant the clear portion, add 
boiled linseed oil 12 gallons, oil of turpentine 3 gal- 
lons, and mix well together. The sediment left is 
well agitated with half its quantity of lime water, 
used for some inferior paints, under the name of 
*' prepared residue oil." This oil is used for vari- 
ous common purposes, as a substitute for linseed 
oil, of which the following pamts are exam- 
ples : — 

1. (Green.) — a. Lime water 6 galls. ; whiting 
and road dust, of each 1 cwt. ; blue black 30 lbs. ; 
yellow ochre 28 lbs. ; wet blue (previously ground 
in prepared residue oil) 20 lbs. ; grind well to- 
gether. For use, thin with equal parts of prepared 
residue oil and linseed oil. Pale. — b. Yellow 
ochre and wet blue, of each 1 cwt. ; road dust 1^ 
cwt. ; blue black 10 lbs. ; lime water 6 gallons ; 
prepared fish oil 4 gallons ; prepared residue and 
linseed oils, of each 7^ gallons. Bright green. 

2. {Lead color.) Whiting 1 cwt. ; blue black 7 

5.9 



lbs. ; whitelead (ground in oil) 28 lbs. ; road dust 
56 lbs. ; lime water 5 gallons ; prepared residue 
oil 2J gallons. 

3. (Reddish brown.) Lime water 8 gallons ; 
Spanish brown 1 cwt. ; road dust 2 cwt. ; pre- 
pared fish, prepared residue, and linseed oils, of 
each 4 gallons. 

4. (Yellow.) Substitute yellow ochre 'for Span- 
ish brown in the last receipt. 

5. (Black.) Substitute lamp or blue black for 
Spanish brown in No. 3. 

6. (Stone color.) Lime water 4 gallons ; whit- 
ing 1 cwt. ; whitelead (ground in oil) 28 lbs. ; road 
dust 5G lbs. ; prepared fish, linseed, and prepared 
residue oils, of each 3 gallons. 

7. (Chocolate.) No. 3 and No. 5 mixed to- 
gether so as to form a chocolate color. 

Remarks. All the above paints require a little 
" driers." They are well fitted by their cheap- 
ness, hardness, and durability, for common out- 
door work. 

PAINTS, FLEXIBLE. Prep. Yellow soap 
cut into slices 1^ lbs.; boihng water 1 gall.; dis- 
solve and mix while hot with oil paint 1^ cwt. 
Used to paint canvass. 

PAINTS, TO MIX. In mixing paints, ob- 
serve, that for out-door work you must use princi- 
pally or wholly boiled oil, unless it be for the deco- 
rative parts of houses, &c., then mix as for in- 
door work. — For in-door work use linseed oil, tur- 
pentine, and a little " driers," observing, that the 
less oil, the less will be the gloss, and that for 
"flatted white," &,c., the color being ground in 
oil, will scarcely require any further addition of 
that article, as the object is to have it dull. The 
best " driers" are, ground litharge and sugar of 
lead ; — the former for dark and middle tints, and 
the latter for light ones. • 

PALLADIUM. A metal resembling platinum, 
discovered by Wollaston in 1803. It is obtained 
by adding a solution of bicyanide of mercury to a 
neutral solution of the ore of platinum in nitromu- 
riatic acid, and exposing the precipitate to a red 
heat. It resembles platinum' in appearance. Sp. 
gr. 11*3 to 11-8. It forms compounds with oxygen, 
chlorine, and sulphur. — Protoxide of palladium 
is precipitated as a brown hydrate by adding an 
alkaline carbonate in excess to any of its salts ; 
and this precipitate, when heated to redness, forms 
the anhydrous black protoxide. It forms salts with 
the acids. — Binoxide of palladium is best ob- 
tained by treating solid bichloride of palladium and 
potassium with a solution of potassa in excess, and 
laeating the mixture to 212°. Black. — Protochlo' 
ride of palladium is a brown crystalline mass, ob- 
tained by evaporating the nitromuriatic solution to 
dryness. By heat it loses its water and turns 
black. Oxide of palladium forms red salts with 
the acids. The neutral solutions of palladium are 
precipitated in the metallic state by sulphate of 
iron, — dark brown by sulphureted hydrogen, olive 
by prussiate of potash, and yellowish white by 
prussiate of mercury. By the last te.st it is easily 
distinguished from platinum. 

PALMIC ACID. Prep. Decompose soap pre- 
pared from palmine and potassa, by tartaric acid, 
dissolve the fatty acid thet separates in cold alco- 
hol, and evaporate. Crystallizable ; soluble in al- 
cohol and ether ; melts at 122°. It may also be 



PAP 



4bb 



PAR 



made from the solid mass obtained by passing sul- 
phurous acid through castor oil. 

PALMINE. A new fatty substance obtained 
by treating castor oil with nitrous acid. It melts 
at 143°, and when saponified yields palmic acid 
and oxide of glycerule. 

PALMITIC ACID. Prepared from palm oil 
hi a similar way to palmic acid from palmine. It 
is purified by pressure between paper, washing 
with hot alcohol, and crystallization from hot ether. 
It forms pearly scales, and melts at 140°, Mke mar- 
gaiic acid. 

PALMITINE. The chief ingredient of palm 
oil or butter. It is purified in the same way as the 
last. 

PANACEA. (From nav, all, and oKcoiiat, I 
cure.) A term applied by the ancients to those 
remedies supposed to be capable of curing all dis- 
eases. Unfortunately for mankind, no such a 
medicine exists. The name is still applied to some 
quack medicines. — Panacea of Antimony (Pan. 
Antimonii) is prepared by deflagrating in a red- 
hot crucible a mixture of sulphuret of antimony 
§vj, nitre ^x, common salt §iss, and charcoal dust 
|j. The uppermost spongy scoria is rejected, and 
the remainder powdered and well washed. Golden- 
colored. The active ingredient in Lockyer's Pills. 
— Panacea of Mercury, (Pan. Mercurialis.) 
Mercurius dulcis (calomel) sublimed 9 times. 

PAPER, COPYING. Prep. Make b stifF 
ointment with butter or lard and lampblack, and 
smear it thinly and evenly over soft writing paper, 
by means of a piece of flannel, then wip-e off" the 
redundant portion with a piece of soft rag. Placed 
on paper and written on with a style or solid pen. 
By repeating the arrangement, two or three copies 
of a letter may be obtained at once. This paper, 
set up in a case, forms the ordinary " Manifold 
writer." 

PAPER DYES. Paper and parchment may 
be stained by any of the simple dyes or liquid 
colors. 

PAPER, FIREPROOF. This is prepared in 
a similar way to fireproof cloth. (See Incombusti- 
ble Cloth, and Fires.) 

PAPER OF SAFETY. Syn. Papier de 
SuRETE. White paper pulp mixed with an equal 
quantity of pulp tinged with any stain easily af- 
fected by chlorine, acids, alkalis, &c., and made 
into sheets as usual. 

PAPER, OILED. Prep. Brush sheets of pa- 
per over with " boiled" oil, and suspend them on a 
line till dry. Waterproof. Extensively employed 
to tie over pots and jars, and to wrap up paste 
blacking, ground whitelead, &c. 

PAPER, TRACING. Prep. I. Lay open a 
quire of paper, of large size, and apply with a clean 
sash tool a coat of varnish, made of equal parts of 
Canada balsam and oil of turpentine, to the upper 
surface of the first sheet, then hang it on a line, 
and repeat the operation on fresh sheets until the 
proper quantity is finished. If not sufficiently 
transparent, a second coat of varnish may be 
applied as soon as the first has become quite 
dry. 

II. Rnb the paper with a mixture of equal parts 
of nut oil and oil of turpentine, and dry it immedi- 
ately by rubbing it with wheat flour, then hang it 
on a line for !24 hours. IJoth the above are used 



to copy drawings, writings, &c. If washed ovei 
with ox gall and dried, they may be written ou 
with ink or water colors. The paper prepared 
from the refuse of the flax mill, and of which bank 
notes are made, is also called tracing paper, and 
sometimes vegetable paper. 

PAPER, WAXED. Prep. Place cartridge 
paper on a hot iron plate and rub it with beeswax 
Used to form extemporaneous steam or gas pipes, 
and to cover the joinings of vessels. 

PAPERS, TEST. Litmus, Turmeric, Cher- 
ry-juice, Mallow flower, Elderberry, Brazil 
wood, Buckthorn, Dahlia petal. Acetate of Lead, 
Diacetate of Lead, Protosulphaie of Iron, Starch, 
^c, papers, are made by wetting sheets of unsized 
writing paper with an infusion or solution of the 
respective substances. They are all used as tests 
to discover acids, alkalis, sulphureted hydrogen, 
iodine, &c. 

PAPIER-MACHE. Pulped paper moulded 
into forms. It possesses great strength apd light- 
ness. It may be rendered partially waterproof by 
the addition of sulphate of iron, quicklime, and 
glue, or white of egg, to the pulp ; and incombusti- 
ble by the addition of borax and phosphate of soda. 
The papier-mache tea-trays, waiters, snuff'-boxes, 
&.C., are prepared by pasting or gluing sheets of 
paper together, and submitting them to powerful 
pressure, by which the composition acquires the 
hardness of board when dry. Such articles are af- 
terwards japanned, and are then perfectly water- 
proof 

PARABANIC ACID. A new acid, obtained 
by Wohler and Liebig by treating 1 part of uric 
acid or alloxan with 8 parts of strong nitric acid, 
and evaporating to a sirup, when crystals form 
after standing some time, which are purified by 
resolution and crystallization. Soluble in water. 

PARACYANOGEN. The brown solid matter 
left in the retort, when cyanide of mercury is de- 
composed by heat. Cyanogen and paracyanogen 
are isomeric compounds : hence the name. Inso- 
luble in water. 

PARAFFINE. (From par um, little, and affifiis, 
akin.) Prep. Distil beech tar to dryness, rectify 
the heavy oily portion of the product till a thick 
matter begins to rise, then change the receiver, 
and moderately urge the heat as long as any thing 
passes over. Next digest the product in the second 
receiver, in an equal measure of alcohol of 0-833, 
and gradually add 6 or 7 parts more of alcohol. 
Crystals of paraffine will gradually fall down, 
which, after being washed in cold alcohol, must be 
dissolved in boiling alcohol, which will deposite 
crystals of pure paraffine as it cools. White ; odor- 
less; tasteless; sp. gr, 0*87; melts at 112°, and 
dissolves in boiling alcohol and in oils. It burns 
entirely away with a clear white flame, without 
smoke. 

PARANAPHTH ALINE. Syn. Anthracine. 
A substance found in coal tar. Naphthaline, and 
paranaphthaline, are isomeric compounds : nence 
the name, from napa, near to. 

PARAPHOSPHORIC ACID. (See Meta- 
ruosnioRic Acid.) 

PARFAIT AMOUR. Prep. The peels of 12 
lemons ; rectified spirit of wine 2 gallons , digest 1 
week ; add water 1 quart, distil 2 gallons, and add 
un equal weight of simple sirup, and a little ?oai8e- 

» 



PAS 



467 



PAS 



ly-powdered cochineal to color. A pleasant cor- 
dial liqueur. 

PARFUM. (Pour parfumer les autres pou- 
dres.) Poudre d'Ambrette 12 lbs. ; civet l^oz. ; 
musk 1 dr. ; reduce the last two to powder by 
grinding them with some dry lump sugar ; then 
mix the whole together and pass it through a sieve, 
(See PouDREs.) 

PASTE, ALMOND. Syn. Pasta Amygdali- 
NA. Pasta Regia. Prep. I. LiauiD. — a. {Ho- 
ney Paste.) Clarified honey and white bitter paste, 
of each 1 lb. ; knead together, and when well 
mixed, add, in alternate portions, oil of almonds 2 
lbs., and the yelks of 5 eggs. Much esteemed. — 
h. {Orange.) Blanched sweet almonds and white 
sugar, of each 1 lb. ; blanched bitter almonds ^ oz. ; 
beat to a perfectly smooth paste, with orange-flow- 
er water q. s., so that it may be sufficiently stiff 
not to stick to the fingers. In a similar way are 
made rose, vanilla, nosegay, and other almond 
pastes. 

II. Pulverulent, a. {Gray.) Prepared from 
the cake of bitter almonds, from which the oil has 
been thoroughly expressed, by drying, grinding, 
and sifting. — h. {Bitter White.) As the last, but 
the almonds are blanched before being pressed. — 
c. {Sweet White.) As the last, but using sweet 
almonds. *5^* All the above are employed as cos- 
metics. The honey, and the sweet and bitter 
white pastes are those most esteemed. ~. 

PASTE, CHINESE. Prep. Bullock's blood 
10 lbs. ; finely-powdered quicklime 1 lb. ; mix 
well. For use, it is beat up with water. This paste 
will seldom keep good longer than three weeks. 

PASTE, FLOUR. Syn. Colle de Pate. 
Wheat flour made into a thin batter with cold 
water, and then boiled. *^* It must be stirred all 
the time it is on the fire, to prevent its getting 
limipy. Paper-hangers, shoemakers, &c., usually 
add to the flour one-sixth to one-fourth of its weight 
of finely-powdered rosin. The latter is sometimes 
called " hard paste.'' The addition of a few drops 
of oil of cloves or creosote, or a little powdered 
camphor or colocynth, (especially the first and 
second.) will prevent insects from attacking it, and 
preserve it in covered vessels for years. Should it 
get too hard it mav be softened wnth water. 

PASTE, FURNITURE. Prep. I. Turpen- 
tine 1 pint ; alkanet root J oz. ; digest until suffi- 
ciently colored, then add beeswax, scraped small, 
4 oz. ; put the vessel into hot water, and stir until 
dissolved. If wanted pale, the alkanet should be 
omitted. 

II. {White.) White wax 1 lb.; liquor of po- 
tassa ^ gallon ; boil to a proper consistence. 

III. Beeswax 1 lb. ; soap ^ lb. ; pearlash 3 
oz., (dissolved in water ^ gallon, and strained :) 
boil as last. 

PASTE, GERMAN. Prep. Pea meal 2 lbs. ; 
blanched sweet almonds 1 lb. ; fresh butter or lard 
■J lb. ; moist sugar 5 oz. ; a shred or two of hay 
saffion ; beat to a smooth paste, and granulate it 
by passing it through a colander. The addition of 
the yelks of 2 or 3 eggs improves it. Used to feed 
larks, nightingales, and other insectivorous birds. 
It will keep good for 6 months in a dry place. 

PASTE, "ORANGE. Prep. Blanched bitter 
ahnonds 7 lbs. ; orange flowers 2^ lbs. ; beat to a 
peiste. Used as a cosmetic. 



PASTE, ORGEAT. Prep. Blanched Jordan 

almonds 1 lb. ; do. bitter almonds \ lb. ; beat to a 
paste with orange-flower water q. s., and put it 
into pots. For use mix an ounce with half a pint 
of water, and strain through a piece of. flannel. 

PASTE, RAZOR. Prep. I. Levigated oxide 
of tin (prepared putty powder) 1 oz. ; powdered 
oxalic acid ^ oz. ; powdered gum 20 grs. ; make 
! it into a stiff paste with water, and evenly and 
! thinly spread it over the strop. With very little 
j friction this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, 
I and its efficiency is still further increased by moist- 
I ening it. 

j II. (Mechi's.) Emery reduced to an impalpable 
powder 2 parts ; spermaceti ointment 1 part ; mix 
together, and rub it over the strop. 

III. Jewellers' rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal 
parts ; mix. 

PASTE, SHAVING. Prep. White wax, 
spermaceti, and almond oil, of each ^ oz. ; melt, 
and while warm, beat in 2 squares of Windsor 
soap previously reduced to a paste with rose water. 
PASTES. Syn. Factitious Gems. Pierres 
PREciEusES artificielles, {Fr.) Glaspastex, 
(Ger.) Vitreous compounds made to imitate the 
gems. In addition to the remarks at page 331, it 
may be observ^ed that the beauty of pastes, or fac- 
titious gems, especially the brilliancy of mock dia- 
monds, is mainly dependent upon the setting up 
and the skilful arrangement of the foil or tinsel 
behind them. The following are th5 most approv- 
ed formulas for producing exact imitations of sev- 
eral of the gems : — 

I. Amethyst. — 1. (M. Lan^on.) Strass 9216 
grs. ; oxide of manganese 15 to 24 grs. ; oxide of 
cobalt 1 gr.— 2. (M. Douault-Wieland.) Strass 
4608 grs. ; oxide of manganese 36 gre. ; oxide of 
cobalt 24 grs. ; purple of cassius 1 gr. 

II. Beryl, or aqua marina. (M. Douault- 
Wieland.) Strass 3456 grs. ; glass of antimony 
24 grs. ; oxide of cobalt 1^ grs. 

III. Chrysolite. Strass 5 lbs. ; calcined per- 
oxide of iron 3 to 4 drs. 

IV. Cornelian. — 1. {Red.) Strass 2 lbs. ; glass 
of antimony 1 lb. ; calcined peroxide of iron (rouge) 
2 oz. ; manganese 1 dr. — 2. (White.) Strass. 2 
lbs. ; washed yellow ochre 2 dr. ; calcined bones 
1 oz. 

V. Diamond. S)ti. Strass. Paste. 1. (M. Fon- 
tanier.) — a. Litharge 20 parts ; silica 12 parts ; 
nitre and borax, of each 4 parts ; white arsenic 2 
parts : powder, mix, fuse in a crucible, pour the 
melted mass into water, separate any reduced 
lead, and again powder and remelt. — b. (Mayencf 
base.) Silica 8 oz. ; salt of tartar 24 oz. ; mix 
bake, cool, wash with dilute nitric acid, and after- 
wards with water; dry, powdier, add 12 oz. of 
pure carbonate of lead, and to every 12 oz. of the 
mixture add borax 1 oz. ; triturate in a porcelain 
mortar, ntelt in a clean crucible, and pour the 
fused compound into cold w^ater ; dry, powder, 
and repeat the process a second and a third time 
in a clean cmcible, observing to separate any re- 
vived lead. To the third fritt add nitre 5 drachms, 
and again melt. Verj^ brilliant. — c. Carbonate of 
lead 8 oz. ; powdered borax 2 oz. ; rock crj'stal 3 
oz. ; manganese ^ gr. ; mix, and proceed as last. 
— 2. (Loysel.) Pure silex 100 parts ; red oxide of 
lead (minium) 150 parts ; calcined potash 30 to 



PAS 



468 



PAT 



35 parts ; calcined borax 10 parts ; oxide of arse- 
nic 1 part. This produces a paste which has 
great brilliancy and refractive and dispersive pow- 
ers, and also a similar specific gravity to the orien- 
tal diamond. It fuses at a moderate heat, and 
acquires the greatest brilliancy when remelted, 
and kept for 2 or 3 days in a fused state, in order 
to expel the superabundant alkali, and perfect the 
refining. (Polytech. Journ.) — 3. (M. Douault- 
Wieland.) — a. Rock crystal 4056 grs. ; minium 
6300 grs. ; potash 2154 grs. ; borax 276 grs. ; 
arsenic 12 grs. ; — h. Sand 3600 grs. ; pure car- 
bonate of lead 8508 grs. ; potash 1260 grs. ; borax 
360 grs. ; arsenic 12 grs.-— 4. (M. Lan9on.) Li- 
tharge 100 grs. ; silex 75 grs. ; white tartar or 
potash 10 grs. 

VI. Eagle Marine. Paste or strass 10 lbs. ; 
copper highly calcined with sulphur (copper-stain) 
3 oz. ; zaffre 1 scruple. 

VII. Emerald.— 1. (M. Lan9on.) Paste 9612 
grs. ; acetate of copper 72 grs. ; peroxide of iron 
H grs.— 2. (M. Douault-Wieland.) Paste 4608 
grs. ; green oxide of copper 42 grs. ; oxide of 
chrome 2 grs. — 3. Paste 1 oz. ; glass of antimony 
20 grs. ; oxide of cobalt 3 grs.— 4. Paste 15 oz. ; 
carbonate of copper 1 dr. ; glass of antimony 6 
grs. 

VIII. Lapis Lazuli. Paste 10 lbs. ; calcined 
horn or bones 12 oz. ; oxides of cobalt and manga- 
nese, of each ^ oz. ; mix. The golden veins are 
produced by painting them on with a mixture of 
gold powder, borax, and gum water, and gently 
heating till the borax fluxes. 

IX. Oriental Garnet. Syn. Syrian Do. 
Ancient Carbuncle. — 1. (M. Douault-Wieland.) 
Paste 512 grs. ; glass of antimony 256 grs. ; purple 
of cassius and oxide of manganese, of each 2 grs. 
— 2. Paste 359 grs. ; glass of antimony 178 grs. ; 
oxide of manganese 2 grs. — 3. (Vinegar Garnet.) 
Paste 2 lbs ; glass antimony 1 lb. ; calcined per- 
oxide of iron ^ oz. 

X. Opal. — 1. (Fontanier.) Paste 1 oz. ; horn 
silve*" 10 grs. ; calcined magnetic ore 2 grs. ; ab- 
sorbent earth (calcined bones) 26 grs. — 2. Paste 
10 lbs. ; calcined bones ^ lb. 

XL Ruby. — 1. (M. Douault-Wieland.)— a. 
Paste 2880 parts ; oxide of manganese 72 parts. — 
b. Topaz-paste that has turned out opaque, 1 part ; 
strass 8 parts ; fuse for 30 hours, cool, and fuse 
small pieces before the blowpipe. Very fine. — 2. 
Strass 16 oz. ; precipitate of cassius, peroxide of 
iron, golden sulphuret of antimony, and manga- 
nese calcined with nitre, of each 168 grs.; rock 
crystal 2 oz., or more. — 3. Paste 1 lb. ; purple of 
cassius 3 drs.— 4. Paste and glass of antimony, of 
each 8 oz. ; purple of cassius H dr. ; turns on the 
orange. 

XII. Sapphire. — 1. (M. Douault-Wiciland.) 
Paste 4608 grs. ; oxide of cobalt 68 grs. ; fuse in 
a luted Hessian crucible for 30 hours. — 2. Paste 8 
oz. ; oxide of cobalt 49 grs. — 3. To the last add a 
little manganese. 

XIII. Topaz. (Douault-Widland.)— a. Paste 
3456 grs. ; calcined peroxide of iron 36 grs. — /;. 
Paste 1008 grs. ; glass of antimony 43 grs. ; purple 
of cassius 1 gr. 

XIV. TuRauois. Blue paste 10 lbs.; calcined 
bones i lb. 

XV Yellow Diamond. — 1. Strass 1 oz. ; glass 



of antimony 10 grs. — 2. Strass 1 oz. ; chloride of 
silver 24 grs. 

Remarks. In the preparation of pastes the in- 
gredients should be separately reduced to the state 
of fine powder, then well mixed and sifted, and 
next carefully fused in a clean Hessian crucible, 
and cooled very slowly, after having been left in 
the fire for from 24 to 30 hours. The more tran- 
quil and continuous the fusion the greater is the 
density and beauty of the product. For the finer 
kinds of mock diamonds, rock crystal should alone 
be employed ; and when sand is used, the purest 
white variety should be selected, and it should be 
first digested, and well washed with muriatic acid, 
and then with water, to remove any traces of 
earthy matter. The precise minutiae of the various 
processes can only be learned by a little experience. 
See Enamels. 

PASTILLES, FUMIGATING. Syn. Pas- 
TiLLi ODORATi. Prep. I. (Henry and Guibourt.) 
Powdered gum benzoin 16 parts; balsam of tolu 
and powdered sandal wood, of each 4 parts ; a 
light charcoal (Linden) 48 parts ; powdered traga- 
canth and true labdanum, of each 1 part ; pow- 
dered nitre and gum arable, of each 2 parts ; cin- 
namon water 12 parts ; heat to a smooth ductile 
mass, form into small cones with a flat tripod base, 
and dry in the air. 

II. (P. Cod.) Benzoin ^ij ; balsam of tolu and 
yellow sandal wood, of each §ss ; labdanum 3j ; 
nitre 3ij ; charcoal f vj ; mix with a solution of 
gum tragacanth and divide into pastilles as above. 

III. (A la rose.) Gum benzoin, olibanum in 
tears, storax in tears, of each 12 oz. ; nitre 9 oz. ; 
charcoal 4 lbs. ; powder of pale roses 1 lb. ; essence 
of roses 1 oz. ; mix with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth 
dissolved in rose-water 1 quart. 

IV. (A la jieurs d'oranges.) For powdered 
roses in the last formula substitute pure orange 
powder, and for the essence of roses use pure 
neroli. 

V. (A la Vanille.) Gum benzoin, storax, and 
olibanum, (as last,) of each 12 oz. ; nitre 10 oz. ; 
cloves 8 oz. ; powdered vanilla 1 lb. ; charcoal 4 
lbs. ; oil of cloves ^ oz. ; essence of vanilla 7 or 8 
oz. 

VI. Benzoin ^ij ; cascarilla 3ij ; nitre 3iss ; 
myrrh 3ss ; oils of nutmeg and cloves, of each 15 
drops ; charcoal ^iij. 

Remarks. The above are all of excellent quality, 
and may be varied to please the fancy of the artist, 
by the addition or substitution of other perfumes or 
aromatics. Cheaper pastilles are made by the 
same formulae, by increasing the weight of the 
charcoal and saltpetre. The whole of the ingre- 
dients should be reduced to fine powder before 
mixing them. Musk and civet, so often used in 
pastilles, should be avoided, as they yield a disa- 
greeable odor when burned. The addition of a 
little camphor renders them more suitable for a 
sick chamber. Pastilles are either burned to dif- 
fuse a pleasant odor, or to cover disagreeable 
smells. 

PASTILLES, EXPLOSIVE. Fumigating 
pastilles, containing a little gunpowder. Used to 
produce diversion. 

PATE 1)E DATTES. Syn. Paste of Dates. 
Prep. Dates 1^ lbs. ; water 30 pints ; boil, clarify, 
add washed gum Senegal 6 lbs., dissolve ; add 



PAT 



469 



PEP 



white sugar 5 lbs. ; evaporate without boiling to the 
consistence of tliick honey, stir in orange-flowfer 
water 9 oz. ; and again gently evaporate ; pour it 
into moulds, finish the drying by a gentle heat in 
a stove, and then divide it. Prod. 9^ lbs. Pec- 
toral. Pclte de gonime Senegal is usually sold 
for it. 

PATE DE GUIMAUVE. Syn. Pasta Al- 
tiijE^- Marshmallow Paste. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
Decorticated marshmallow root (French) §iv ; 
water i gal. ; macerate 12 hours, strain, add white 
sugar and gum arable, of each 1 lb. ; dissolve, 
strain, evaporate without boiling to the thickness 
of honey, constantly stirring, and add gradually 
the whites of 12 eggs, well beaten with orange- 
llower water, f iv, and strained ; continue the evap- 
oration and constant stirring till the mass is so firm 
as not to adhere to the fingers, then proceed as 
last. It should be very white, light, and spongy. 
The P. Codex of 18-36 omits the marshmallow 
root, and calls the compound Pate de Gomme. 
The latter is usually sold in the shops for Pate de 
Guimauve. Both are pectoral. 

PATE DE GOMME ARABIQUE. Syn. 
Gum Arabic Paste. Prep. As the last. *^* Many 
persons use, however, twice the above quantity of 
gum and sugar, but this renders the product less 
white. 

PATE DE GOMME SENEGAL. Syn. Paste 
OF Gum Senegal. Prep. As Pate de dattes, omit- 
ting the fruit. It is frequently acidulated with 
citric or tartaric acid, and flavored with essence 
of lemons. Pectoral. Sold in the shops for p^te 
de dattes and pQ-te de jujubes. 

PATE DE JUJUBES. Syv. Jujubes. Ju- 
jube Paste. Prep. (P. Cod.) Jujubes lb. j ; water 
lb. iv ; boil ^ hour, strain with expression, settle, 
decant the clear, and clarify with white of eggs ; 
add a strained solution of gum arable lb. vj, in 
water lb. viij, and to the mixture add white sugar 
lb. vj ; gently evaporate, at first constantly stir- 
ring, and afterwards without stirring, till reduced 
to the consistence of a soft extract, add orange- 
flower water ^vj, and place the pan in a vessel of 
boiling water. In 12 hours carefully remove the 
scum, pour the matter into slightly oiled tin moulds, 
and proceed as before. Expectorant ; in coughs, 
&c. Pa,te de gomme Senegal is usually sold 
for it. 

PATE DE REGLISSE BLANCHE. Syn. 
White Liquorice Paste. Pasta Glycyrrhiz^ 
Alba. Prep. As f)Jlte de guimauve, substituting 
liquorice root for marshmallow root. 

PATE DE REGLISSE NOIRE. Syn. Black 
Liquorice Paste. Liquorice Jujubes. Pasta 
GLYCYRRHiZiE NiGRA. Pvep. (P. Cod.) Refined 
juice and white sugar, of each 1 lb. ; gum arable 
2 lbs. ; water 3 quarts ; dissolve, strain, evaporate 
considerably, add finely-powdered orris root ^ oz., 
oil of aniseed or essence of cedrat a few drops, and 
pour into moulds as before. Pectoral. *^* When 
made with ^ the above weight of refined juice it 
forms brown liqvorice paste, (pasta glycyrrhizae 
fusca,) and by the addition of 15 grs. of extract of 
opium, the opiated liquorice paste (pasta glycyr- 
rhizce opiata) of the P. Codex. 
^ PATE DE TUSSILAGE A L'ANIS. Prep. 
Strong decoction of coltsfoot flowers 1 quart ; 
Spanish juice i lb. ; dissolve, strain, evaporate as 



before, and towards the end add oil of aniseed i 

dr. Pectoral ; in coughs, &-c. 

PEARLS, ROSE. Syn. Rose Beads. Prep 
Beat the petals of red roses in an iron mortar for 
some hours, till they form a black paste, then roll 
into beads and dry. Hard ; take a fine polish ; very 
fragrant. 

PEAS, ISSUE. Syn. Pisa pro Fonticulis. 
Prep. — 1. Orange berries, or the small unripe fruit 
of the orange tree, dried, and smoothed by a lathe. 
— 2. Beeswax 1 lb. ; turmeric 8 oz. ; orris powder 
4 oz. ; Venice turpentine 3 oz. ; mix, and form into 
peas. Used to keep issues open. — 3. Beeswax 6 
oz. ; verdigris, and powdered white hellebore, of 
each 2 oz. ; cantharides 1 oz. ; orris powder 1^ oz. ; 
Venice turpentine, q. s. ; mix as last. Used to 
open issues. 

PECTIC ACID. (From irriKTis, a coagulum, 
because of its jellying property.) A peculiar ge- 
latinous acid substance obtained from carrot roots, 
from which the juice has been pressed out, by boil- 
ing them with one-twenty-fifth part of their weight 
of carbonate of potash, and 6 times their weight of 
water, till the liquid becomes gelatinous when 
neutralized with an acid. A pectate of potassa is 
formed, from which the acid may be obtained by 
exactly neutralizing the alkali w^ith a stronger 
acid ; it forms compounds with the bases called 
Pectates. 

PECTINE. Vegetable jelly, obtained by add- 
ing alcohol to the juice of ripe currants or other 
fruit, till a gelatinous precipitate forms, which 
must be drained, washed with a little weak alco- 
hol, and dried. 

PEPPER, BLACK. Syn. Piper Nigrum. 
This is the dried berries of a tree of the same 
name. The ground blaek pepper of the shops is 
universally adulterated. In fact, I am informed 
by a most extensive and respectable spice and tea 
house, that the public taste and judgment are so 
vitiated, that pure ground pepper is unsaleable. 
The parties alluded to, originally supplied their 
customers with unadulterated ground pepper, but 
in 3 cases out of every 4, it was returned and ob- 
jected to, on account of its dark color and pun- 
gency, which had induced the belief that it was 
sophisticated. The house alluded to, was there- 
fore compelled by its (Customers to supply them 
with an inferior, but milder and paler article. The 
substances employed to lower black pepper are 
known in the trade as P. D., H. P. D., and W. P. 
D. The first is the faded leaves of autumn, dried 
and powdered, — the second is the ground husks of 
black mustard obtained from the mustard mills, 
and the third is common rice finely powdered. 
The letters are the initials of pepper dust, hot- do., 
and white do. I am assured that equal parts of 
black pepper corns, H. P. D., and W. P. D., form 
the very best ground pepper sold, and that the or- 
dinary pepper of the shops does not contam more 
than |th of genuine pepper, or 2 oz. in the pound. 
— Prepared black pepper is made by steeping the 
beriies for 3 days in 3 times their weight of vine- 
gar, and then drying and grinding them. It la 
milder than common pepper. 

PEPPER, CAYENNE. Syn. Red Pepper. 
Piper Cayenne. Prep. — 1. Capsicums ground to 
powder. — 2. Capsicum and dr.y salt, of each 1 lb. ; 
grind together. *** The cayenne of the shops is 



PER 



470 



PER 



commonly a spurious article made by grinding a 
mixture of any of the reddish woods or sawdust, 
and enough capsicum to flavor. — Prepared Cay- 
enne pepper is the residuum of Cayenne vinegar, 
essence, or tincture, dried and ground. 
^ PEPPER, CAYENNE, (SOLUBLE.) Syn. 
Crystallized Soluble Cayenne Pepper. Prep. 

1. Essence of Cayenne 6 pints, (see page 274 ;) 
distil off 3 pints by the heat of a water bath ; add 
dry salt 12 lbs. to the residual liquor, mix well, 
dry by a gentle heat, color with a little vermilion 
or jeweller's rouge, and rub it through a sieve. — 

2. Capsicums 3 lbs. ; red sanders wood in shavings 
1 lb. ; rectified spirits of wine 1 gallon ; macerate 
for 14 days, then express the tincture, filter, distil 
off one half, add dry salt 15 lbs., mix weil, gently 
evaporate to dryness, and pass it through a coarse 
sieve as before. — 3. For red sanders in the last 
formula, use Brazil wood. The last two are very 
superior. — 4. As the first form, but color with a 
strong decoction of saffron instead of vermilion. 
Very fine, but expensive. Gives a beautiful color 



to soups, &LC. 



The spirit distilled off forms 



most suitable menstruum for making essence of 
cayenne. 

PEPPER, KITCHEN. Prep. Ginger 1 lb. ; 
cinnamon, black pegper, allspice, and nutmegs, of 
each 8 oz. ; cloves 1 oz. ; dry salt 6 lbs. ; grind to- 
gether. Useful to flavor gravies, &lc. 

PEPSIN. Prep. (M. Vogel.) Digest the glan- 
dular skin of a hog's stomach, cut into pieces, in 
cold water for 24 hours, strain and repeat the 
maceration with fresh water, mix the liquors, pre- 
cipitate by acetate of lead, diffuse the precipitate 
through water, decompose by sulphureted hydro- 
gen, again filter, gently evaporate to a sirupy con- 
sistence, add absolute alcohol, collect the bulky 
precipitate that gradually forms, and carefully dry 
it by exposure to dry air. By the heat of a salt- 
water bath it forms a white powder, but in this 
state it loses some of its power of assisting diges- 
tion. A very small quantity of muriatic acid 
added to its weak aqueous solution, renders it ca- 
pable of artificial digestion. (Jour, de Pharm. at 
de Chim.) 

PERCHLORIC ETHER. Syn. Perchlo- 
rate of Oxide of Ethule. Prep. (Hare and 
Boye.) Triturate a mixture of sulphovinate and 
perchlorate of baryta, in equivalent proportions, 
place the powder in a retort connected with a re- 
frigerator and receiver surrounded with ice, and 
distil by the heat of an oil-bath, gradually raised 
to from 300° to 340°. %* To prevent an ex- 
plosion, the ether should be received into a little 
absolute alcohol ; about twice the weight of the 
suljfliovinate employed. It is heavier than water, 
and explodes by heat, friction, and percussion, and 
often without any assignable cause. Its explosive 
power appears to be fully equal to that of the chlo- 
ride or iodide of azote ; but this property is de- 
stroyed by solution in alcohol as above. The ad- 
dition of an equal volume of water to the latter so- 
lution immediately separates the ether, which 
sinks to the bottom of the mixed liquids. It has 
been suggested that this is the material used by 
Capl. Warner. Certain it is that an alcoholic so- 
lution of a Kufi)cie:t quantity of this sul)Htanco to 
blow up u line-ol'-battle ship, might safely bo car- 
ried in the pocket, which is not the case with the 



chloride or iodide of azote ; and this might at any 
time be exploded by the addition of water, and the 
slightest friction or percussion, t^.! Not more 
than 1 to 1^ dr. of the sulphovinate should ever be 
distilled at a time, and even then the operator 
should be well protected with a mask and gloves. 

PERCOLATION. Syn. Methode de De- 
placement, (Fr.) Percolatio, {Lai., from per- 
colo, to filter.) A method of extracting the solu- 
ble portion of any substance, by passing the men- 
struum through it, previously reduce'd to powder, 
and packed into a cylinder or other suitable vessel. 
The " sparging" of the Scotch brewers is an ex- 
ample of this process on the large scale. In phar- 
macy, the " method of displacq^nent" is frequently 
adopted for the preparation of tinctures, infusions, 
&c., and is in some respects superior to digestion 
or maceration. *' The solid materials, usually in 
coarse, or moderately fine powder, are moistened 
with a suflflciency of the solvent to form a thick 
pulp. In twelve hours, or frequently without de- 
lay, the mass is put into a cylinder of glass, por- 
celain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but ob- 
structed at the lower end by a piece of calico or 
linen, tied tightly over it as a filter ; and the pulp 
being packed by pressurg, ranging as to degree 
with different articles, the remainder of the solvent 
is poured into the upper portion of the cylinder, 
and allowed gradually to percolate. In order to 
obtain the portion of the fluid which is absorbed by 
the residuum, an additional quantity of the solvent 
is poured into the cylinder, until the tincture which 
has passed through, equals in amount the spirit 
originally prescribed ; and the spirit employed for 
this purpose is then recovered for the most part, by 
pouring over the residuum as much water as there 
is spirit retained in it, which may be easily known 
by an obvious calculation in each case. The 
method of percolation is now preferred by all who 
have made sufficient trial of it to apply it correct- 
ly." (P. E.) A simple and useful form of perco- 
lator is represented in the engraving. The meth- 



a. Percolator. 

b. Stand. 

c. Receiver. 

d. Menstruum. 

e. Substance operated on. 
/. Calico strainer. 



od of displacement has the advantage of expedi- 
tion, economy, and yielding products possessing 
uniformity of strength ; but it requires considerable 
experience to adapt it to all substances. The art 
rests in properly packing the ingredients in the 
cylinder, some substances requiring consideral le 
pressure to be used, while others, when even light- 
ly packed, scarcely pennit the fluid to pass 
through them. An excellent plan, applicable to 
all substances, but especially those of a glutinous 
or mucilaginous nature, is to mix the powder with 




PHL 



471 



PHO 



an equal bulk of well-washed silicious sand, be- 
fore rubbing it up with the menstruum. The 
coarseness of the powder must also be attended to. 
Substances that readily become soft and pappy 
when wetted by the menstruum, should not be 
used so fine as those that are more woody and 
fibrous. The method of displacement answers 
well for the preparation of all tinctures that are 
not of a resinous nature, and for most infusions of 
woody and fibrous substances, as roots, woods, 
barks, leaves, seeds, insects, &,c. It is especially 
adapted for the preparation of concentrated infu- 
sions and essences, as they may thus be obtained 
of any required strength, without loss, or requiring 
concentration by heat, which is so destructive to 
their virtues. 

PERIODIC ACID. A new acid, resembling 
perchloric acid, discovered by Ammermiiller and 
Magnus. It is obtained by mixing pure soda with 
a solution of iodate of soda, saturating the solution 
with chlorine gas, collecting the pulverulent white 
salt that falls, either at once or after concentra- 
tion, dissolving in dilate nitric acid, and precipita- 
ting with nitrate of silver, when a periodate of sil- 
ver is formed, from which the acid may be 
obtained. Its salts are called periodates. 

PERRY. Syn. Pyraceum. A fermented li- 
quor, prepared from pears in the same way as 
eider is from apples. The red. rough-tasted sorts 
are principally used for this purpose. The^ best 
perry contains about 9§ of absolute alcohol ; ordi- 
nary perry from 5 to 7§. It is a very pleasant 
tasted liquor, especially when bottled d la cham- 
pagne. 

PERUVINE. A light, colorless, oily liquid, 
produced along with cinnamate of potash, by boil- 
ing cinnameine with alkalis. 

PEUCEDANINE. A white crystalline sub- 
stance, discovered by Schlatter in the root of peu- 
cedanum officinale. It is obtained by the action 
of alcohol. 

PEW'S CEMENT. Prep. Powdered quick- 
lime 1 part ; powdered baked clay 2 parts ; mix, 
then add 1 part of freshly-baked and powdered 
gypsum to 2 parts of powdered baked clay, and 
after well mixing, add them to the former pow- 
der, and thoroughly incorporate the two. Used 
to cover buildings. It is mixed up with water, 
and applied like mortar. It acquires great hard- 
ness, and is very durable. 

PEWTER. Prep. I. (Aiken.) Tin 100 parts ; 
antimony 8 parts ; copper 4 parts ; bismuth 1 
part ; fuse together. Very fine. 

II. {Plate pewter.) Tin 100 parts ; antimony 
8 parts ; bismuth and copper, of each 2 parts. 
Very fine. Used to make plates, &c. 

III. {Trifle.) Tin 83 parts; antimony 17 parts; 
some lead is generally added. 

IV. {Ley^ Tin 4 parts ; lead 1 part Used 
for beer pots, &c. 

Remarks. According to the report of the French 
commission, pewter containing more than 18 parts 
of lead to 82 parts of tin, is unsafe for measures for 
wine and similar liquors. The legal sp. gr. of pew- 
ter in France is 7-764 ; if it be greater, it contains 
an excess of lead. 

PHLORIDZINE. Obtained by the action of 
boiling alcohol of 80§ on the fresh bark of the roots 
of the apple, pear, and plum tree. The alcohol is 



distilled off, and the phloridzine crystallizes out of 
the residual liquid. It forms white colorless nee- 
dles. It may also be obtained by cooling the 
aqueous decoction of the above barks, but it heis 
then a red color. It is said to be a more powerful 
febrifuge than quinine (M. Lebandy.) When its 
solution is boiled with a little dilute sulphuric or 
muriatic acid, it is converted into grape sugar and 
phloretine. 

PHOCENIC ACID. An oily acid, prepared 
from whale oil, in the same way as the volatile 
acids from butter. It dissolves in 18 parts of wa- 
ter. Its salts are called phocenates. 

PHOSPHATE OF LIME, (PRECIPITA- 
TED.) Syn. C.vLCis Phosphas precipitatum. 
Prep. (P. D.) Bones calcined to whiteness and 
reduced to powder, 1 part ; diluted muriatic acid, 
and water, of each 2 parts ; digest for 12 hours, 
filter, and precipitate by liquor of ammonia ; well 
wash the precipitate, and dry it. A white, taste- 
less, odorless powder. Dose 10 to 30 grs., in 
rickets, either alone, or joined with sesquioxide of 
iron. It is preferable to calcined bones or harts- 
horn, from being more soluble. 

PHOSPHATIC ACID. Obtained by the slow 
oxidation or combustion of cylinders of phosphorus 
when exposed to the air. According to Davy it 
is a mixture of phosphoric and phosphorous acids. 

PHOSPHO-MESITYLIC ACID Glacial 
phosphoric acid dissolved in acetone It forms 
soluble salts. 

PHOSPHORIC ACID. Syn. Acidum Phos- 
PHORicuM. Prep. Bones calcined to whiteness 3 
lbs. ; oil of vitriol 2 lbs., diluted with 3 times its 
weight of water ; mix, and digest with heat for 2 
or 3 days, adding water to supply the loss by evapo- 
ration ; then add a large quantity of water, mix 
well, and strain ; wash the residual matter with 
hot water, mix the liquors, add ammonia in slight 
excess, filter, evaporate, and ignite the dry mass in 
a platinum crucible. 

Remarks. Phosphoric acid properly exists only 
in solution, for by the heat applied as above, it is 
converted into metaphosphoric acid, but by solu- 
tion in water and ebullition for a few minutes, it is 
reconverted into phosphoric acid. In the dry or 
glacial state it is a colorless, glassy-looking sub- 
stance, soluble in water, yielding a solution which 
exhibits strong acid properties. It is remarkable 
for its proneness to form subsalts with the alkalis 
and earths, in which 1 atom of acid is united with 
3 at. of base. Its salts are called phosphates. 
Phosphoric acid, when neutralized with an alkali, 
is characterized by giving with the soluble salts of 
lead, lime, and baryta, white precipitates soluble 
in nitric acid, and with solution of nitrate of silver 
a yellow precipitate. It is distinguished from ar- 
senious acid by not being affected by sulphurcted 
hydrogen. The insoluble phosphates may be tested 
by first treating them with sulphuric acid, filter- 
ing, and neutralizing the solution with an alkali 
before applying the reagents. If a soluble phos- 
phate be heated to redness, it is converted into a 
pyrophosphate, and will then give a white precipi- 
tate with nitrate of silver. 

PHOSPHORIC ACID, (DILUTE.) Syn. 
Acidum Phosphoricum dilutum. Prep. (P. L.) 
Nitric acid f §iv ; water f^x ; mix, add phosphonw 
§j, place the retort in a sand-bath, and apply heat 



PHO 



472 



PIC 



till f fviij are distilled, which are to be rejected. 
Evaporate the remaining liquid in a platinum cru- 
cible to ^ij 3vj ; cool, and add as much distilled water 
as will make the whole quantity measure f ^xxviij. 

Remarks. This is a colorless, sour liquid, hav- 
ing the sp. gr. r064. By heat it yields glacial 
phosphoric acid. 

Dose. 10 drops to 3j ; largely diluted with wa- 
ter, in phosphatic urinary deposites, ossification of 
the arteries, caries, &c. 

PHOSPHOROUS ACID. Syn. Acidum 
Phospiiorosum. Prep. Sublime phosphorus through 
powdered bichloride of mercury, contained in a 
glass tube. Chloride of phosphorus comes over, 
which, on being mixed with water and evaporated 
to a sirup, forms a crystalline mass of hydrated 
phosphorous acid on cooling. It is a powerful de- 
oxydizing agent. With the bases it forms salts 
called phosphites. 

PHOSPHORUS. (From <ps>i, light, and ^fpw, 
/ carry, because of its luminous appearance in the 
dark.) An elementary inflammable substance, 
discovered by Bi-andt in 1669. 

Prep. (Ure.) Ground bone-ash 1 cwt. ; water 
2 cwt. ; mix to a pap in a large tub, and add in a 
slender stream (still stirring) oil of vitriol 78 lbs. ; 
work well together, adding more water if required ; 
in 24 hours thin with water, agitate well, and if 
convenient heat the mixture in a leaden pan, and 
as soon as the paste has lost its granular character, 
transfer it into a series of tall casks ; largely dilute 
with water, and after settling, decant the clear 
portion ; wash the residue well with water, mix 
the clear liquids, and evaporate in a copper or lead 
pan, till the calcareous deposite becomes considera- 
ble, then cool, decant the clear, and drain the sedi- 
ment on a filter ; evaporate the clear liquid to the 
consistence of honey, add 9 lbs. of powdered char- 
coal, and evaporate to dryness in an iron pot, or 
till the bottom of the latter becomes red hot ; the 
dry mixture, when cold, is put into earthen retorts 
well covered with luting and properly dried, and 
heat is applied sidev, ays rather than at the bottom, 
by means of an air furnace. The beak of the re- 
tort is connected with a copper tube, the other end 
of which is made to dip about \ of an inch beneath 
the surface of lukewarm water placed in a trough 
or wide-mouthed bottle. The distilled product is 
purified by squeezing it through chamois leather 
under warm water, and is then moulded for sale 
by melting it under water, plunging the wider end 
of a slightly tapering but straight glass tube into the 
water, sucking this up to the top of the glass, so 
as to wa~^,Ti and wet it, next immersing the end 
into the .i^did phosphorus, and sucking it up to 
any desired height. The bottom of the tube being 
now closed with the finger, it is withdrawn, and 
transferred to a pan of cold water to congeal the 
phosphorus, which will then commonly fall out, or 
may be easily expelled by pressure with a piece of 
wire. (See tire's Diet, of Arts, &c.) 

Remarks. Phosphorus is a pale yellow, semi- 
transparent, and highly combustible solid ; sp. gr. 
1-77 ; melts at 108° ; and unites with oxygon, 
forming acids, and with the ujotals, forming phos- 
phurets. It is soluble in ether, uaphtlia, and the 
oils. From its great inflammability it can only bo 
safely kept under water. In conunerc*'. it is always 
packed in tin cylinders, soldered air-tight. It is a 



powerful corrosive poison ; but small doses of its 
ethereal or oily solution have been administered in 
some complaints. ^^^ Baldwin's Phosphorus is 
ignited muriate of lime, — Canton do., oyster sheila 
calcined with sulphur, — Bologna do., calcined sul- 
phate of baryta, — Homberg's do., ignited chloride 
of calcium. All these phosphoresce in the dark, 
after exposure to the solar rays. 

PHOSPHORUS BOTTLES. Syn. Briquets 
Phosphoriques. Prep. Phosphorus 1 dr. ; white 
wax 15 or 20 grs. ; cautiously melt together in a 
vial, by the heat of warm water, and as it begins 
to cool turn the bottle round, so that the mixture 
may adhere to the sides. Used as instantaneous 
light bottles. A sulphur match rubbed against the 
phosphorus and withdrawn into the air, imme- 



diately inflf 



The vial should only be 



unstoppered at the instant of introducing the matchj 
and should be handled with caution. 

PHOSPHORUS, BROMIDE OF. When 
bromine and phosphorus are brought into contact 
in a vessel filled with carbonic acid gas, they unite 
with the evolution of light and heat, forming a 
crystalline yellow perhromide, which sublimes and 
condenses in the upper part of the flask, and a 
liquid protobromide, which remains at the bottom. 

PHOSPHORUS, CHLORIDES OF.— 1. 
(Per chloride.) A volatile white substance, obtain- 
ed by the spontaneous combustion of phosphorus in 
chlorine. — 2. (Sesquichloride.) A limpid fluid, a 
little heavier than water, obtained by passing 1*ie 
vapor of phosphorus through corrosive sublimate 
contained in a glass tube. 

PHOSPHORUS, IODIDES 0F.--1. {Pro- 
tiodide.) Obtained by mixing 1 part of phospho- 
rus with 7 or 8 of iodine in a close vessel. Orange 
colored. — 2. (Sesquiodide.) As last, from 1 part 
of phosphorus and 12 of iodine. A dark gray crys- 
talline mass. — 3. (Periodide.) Phosphorus 1 part ; 
iodine 20 parts ; as last. Black. 

PHOSPHURETED HYDROGEN. Prep. 
— 1. Fill a small tubulated retort with water acidu- 
lated with muriatic acid, throw in some small lumps 
of phosphuret of lime, and receive the evolved gas 
in an inverted jar over water. ^ oz. of phosphuret 
of lime yields 70 cubic inches of gas. — 2. Boil 
phosphorus in a solution of potassa, or in milk of 
lime. *^* Phosphureted hydrogen is a colorless 
gas, spontaneously inflaming by contact with air. 
It has a remarkably fetid odor. 

PICAMAR. A bitter oil discovered in tar by 
Reichenbach. (See Creosote.) 

PICCALILLY. Syn. Indian Pickle. Prep. 
White cabbages sliced, cauliflowers pulled to pieces 
and scalded, radishes topped and tailed, French 
beans, celery in three-inch lengths, shoots of elder 
peeled, clusters of elder-flowers unopened, all salted 
for 2 or 3 days, then mixed with apples and cu- 
cumbers sliced, and a large proportion of ginger, 
garlic, turmeric, long pepper, and mustard seed, as 
the pickle is expected to be very warm ; the vine- 
gar must also be the strongest that can be pro- 
cured, and just sufficient to float the articles ; any 
other vegetables may bo used at pleasure. 

PICKLE, LEMON. Prep. I. Lemon juice 
and vinegar, of each 3 gallons ; bruised ginger 1 
lb. ; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of 
each 8 oz. ; salt 3i lbs. ; cayenne 2 oz. ; mace and 
nutmegs, of each 1 oz. ; digest 



PIC 



473 



PIL 



II. Lemons sliced, 1 dozen ; salt 2 It«. ; garlic 
12 cloves ; scraped horseradish, and flour of mus- 
tard, of each 4 oz. ; cloves, mace, nutmegs, and 
cayenne pepper, of each ^ oz. ; vinegar 1 gallon ; 
dLS before. Used a.s a sauce. 

PICKLE, MEAT. Prep. Moist sugar 2 lbs. ; 
bay or common salt 4 lbs. ; saltpetre k lb. ; fresh 
ground allspice 2 oz. ; water 6 to 8. quarts ; dis- 
solve. Used to pickle meat, to which it imparts a 
fine red color, and a superior flavor. 

PICKLES. In the preparation of pickles, it is 
highly necessary to avoid employing metallic ves- 
sels ; as both vineofar and salt corrode brass, cop- 
per, lead, &c., and thus become poisonous. When 
it is necessary to heat or boil vinegar, it should be 
done by placing it in a stoneware jar in a water- 
bath, or on a stove. Glazed earthenware should 
be avoided either for making or keeping the pickles 
in, as the glazing usually contains lead. Pickles 
should be kept from the air as much as possible, 
and only touched with wooden spoons. They are 
also better preserved in small jars, or bottles, than 
large ones, as the more frequent opening of the 
latter exposes them too much. Copper or verdi- 
gris is frequently added to pickles to impart a green 
color, but this poisonous addition may be readily- 
detected. If a green color be desired, it may be 
imparted by steeping vine leaves, or the leaves of 
parsley or spinage in the vinegar. A teaspoonful 
of olive oil is frequently added to each bottle to 
keep the pickles white. The following is aiT ex- 
ample of pickling : — 

PICKLED GHERKIXS. Steep them in 
strong brine for a week, then pour it off, heat it to 
the boiling point, and again pour it on the gherkins ; 
in 24 hours drain the fruit on a sieve, put it into | 
wide-mouthed bottles or jars, fill them up with i 
strong pickhng vinegar, boiling hot, bung down im- 
mediately, and tie over with bladder. When 
cold, dip the corks into melted bottle wax. Spice 
is usually added to the bottles, or else steeped in 
the vinegar. 

*^* In a similar way are pickled, onions, mush- 
rooms, cucumbers, walnuts, samphires, green 
gooseberries, cauliflowers, melons, barberries, 
peaches, lemons, tomatoes, beans, radish pods, 
codlins, red cabbage, (without salt, and with cold 
vinegar,) beet-root, (without salting,) garlic, peas, 
&.C., (fcc, observing that the softer and more deli- 
cate articles do not require so long soaking in brine 
as the harder and coarser kinds, and may be often 
advantageously pickled by simply pouring very 
strong pickling vinegar over them, without applying 
heat. 

PICROLICHENINE. A bitter, crystallizable 
substance, found by Alms in the lichen variolaria 
amara. It is extracted by alcohol, and purified by 
washing with a weak solution of carbonate of pot- 
Eish. It is said to be a powerful febrifuge. 

PICROMEL. A name given by Thenard to a 
black bitter substance obtained from fresh bile, by 
adding sulphuric acid diluted with 5 parts of water, 
applyinof a gentle heat, and after repose, decanting 
the clear, edulcorating the sediment (resin of bile) 
with water, digesting with carbonate of barjta, 
and evaporatinof. 

PICROTOXINE. Syn. Picrotoxia. Picro- 
Toxic Acid. A bitter, cr^-stallizable, and poisonous 
lubstance, discovered bv BouUay in cocculus indi- 
'60 



cus. It is soluble in boiling water, alcohol, ether, 
and acetic acid. It may be obtained by precipita- 
ting the decoction of cocculus indicus by acetate of 
lead, evaporating to dryness, and frequently redis- 
solving in alcohol of 0-«17. 

PILES. Syn. H.«MORRHOJDF.s. A painful dis- 
ease occasioned by the morbid dilatations of the 
veins at the lower part of the rectum, and sur- 
rounding the anus. Piles are principally occasion- 
ed by costiveness and cold. They have been dis- 
tinguished into — blind piles, or a varicose state of 
the veins without bleeding, — mucous piles, when 
the tumors are excoriated, and mucus or pus is 
discharged, — bleeding piles, when accompanied 
with loss of blood, — excrescential piles, when there 
are loose, fleshy excrescences about the verge of 
the anus and within the rectum. The treatment 
consists in the administration of mild aperients, as 
castor oil, or an electuary of sulphur and cream 
of tartar ; when there is much inflammation or 
bleeding, cold and astringent lotions, as those of 
sulphate of zinc or alum, should be applied, and 
when the pain is considerable, fomentations of de- 
coction of poppy heads may be used with advan- 
tage. To arrest the bleeding, ice is also frequently 
applied, but continued pressure is more certain. 
When the tumors are large and flaccid, the com- 
pound ointment of galls is an excellent application, 
and if there is a tendency to inflammation, a httle 
liquor of diacetate of lead may be added. In con- 
firmed piles, the internal use of copaiba, or still 
better, of the confection of black pepper, should be 
persevered in, together with local applications. In 
severe cases, the protrudea tumors are removed by 
surgeons, by the knife or ligature. 

PILLS. Syn. Pilule, {Lnt.) Pills are too 
well known to require description. This form of 
medicine is particularly adapted to the exhibition 
of nauseous substances, and such as operate in 
small doses. Extracts may be made into pills 
either alone or with the addition of any simple 
powder, as that of liquorice, to increase their con- 
sistence. Powders are usually beaten up with 
sirup, treacle, mucilage, conserve of roses, or ex- 
tract of liquorice. Castile soap is frequently 
used for substances that are not decomposed by 
alkalis. When the mixed ingredients are made 
into a mass, it should be preserved in a bladder 
placed in a covered stone pot, and should be occa- 
sionally moistened with a little spirit, or spirit and 
water, to prevent it getting hard. In all cases, 
the dry ingredients should be reduced to fine pow- 
der, and the whole beaten into a miiform mass of 
a proper consistence for rolling into pills. *^* Pills 
are gilded and silvered by rolling them between 
the fingers slightly moistened with mucilage, and 
then shaking them up in a small gallipot covered 
with a piece of paper, along with a little gold or 
silver leaf, or a little powdered gold or silver. In 
ordinary cases, rolling the pills in carbonate of 
magnesia, or powdered starch, is usually adopted 
to prevent them sticking together while moist. As 
pill masses are liable to get hard and brittle by 
keeping, an excellent plan is to keep the dry ingre- 
dients powdered and mixed together in well-corked 
bottles or jars, when a portion may at any time be 
beaten up v-ith sirup, conserve, soap, &-c., accord- 
ing to the formula, and as wanted for use. 

PILLS, ACETATE OF LEAD. Syn. Pilu. 



PIL 



474 



PIL 



I.M PLUMBi OPIATE. Prep. (P. E.) Acetate of 
lead 6 parts ; opium and conserve of red roses, of 
each 1 part ; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills. In 
spitting of blood, obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery, «Slc. 
Dose. 1 to 3 pills two or three times a day, washed 
down with water soured with vinegar. 

PILLS, ALOES. Syn. Pilule Aloes. Prep. 
(P. E.) Powdered Socotrine aloes and Castile 
soap, equal parts ; conserve of red roses q. s. to 
make a mass. 

PILLS, ALOES, (COMPOUND.) Syn. Pil. 
Aloes ooMPOsiXiE. Prep. (P. L. and D.) Pow- 
dered Socotrine aloes (hepatic, P. D.) §j ; extract 
of gentian fss ; oil of caraway 40 drops ; sirup (if 
required) q. s. ; beat to a mass. Dose. 5 to 10 grs., 
as a purgative in habitual costiveness. 

PILLS, ALOES AND ASAFCETIDA. Syn. 
Pil. Aloes et Asaf(etid^. Prep. (P. E.) Pow- 
dered aloes, asafoetida, and Castile soap, equal 
parts ; conserve of red roses q. s. ; beat into a mass. 
Dose. 5 to 10 grs., as a purgative in dyspepsia, 
ffatulence, &c. 

PILLS, ALOES AND IRON. Syn. Pil. 
Aloes et Ferri. Prep. (P. E.) Sulphate of iron 
3 parts ; Barbadoes aloes 2 parts ; aromatic pow- 
der 6 parts ; conserve of red roses 8 parts ; mix, 
and divide into 5-gr. pills. Emmenagogue. Dose. 
1 to 3 pills in chlorosis and atonic amenorrhoea. 

PILLS, ALOES AND MYRRH. Syn. Pil. 
Aloes et Myrrhs, (P. E.) Pil. Aloes cum 
Myrrha, (P. L. and D.) Pil. Rufi. Rufus's 
Pills. Pil. coivimunes. Common Pills. Prep. 
— 1. (P. L.) Aloes §ij ; saffron and myrrh, of 
each §j ; sirup to mix. — 2. (P. E.) Socotrine or 
East Indian aloes 4 parts ; myrrh 2 parts ; saffron 
1 part ; conserve of red roses q. s. A most excel- 
lent stomachic, purgative, and emmenagogue, 
where there are no febrile symptoms. Dose. 10 to 
20 grs. 

PILLS, ALOES AND ROSE JUICE. Syn. 
PiL. Aloes Rosat^. Pilules angeliques. Grains 
DE Sante. Prep. Aloes and rose juice, of each 
f iv ; juices of borage and chicory, of each §ij ; 
dissolve, evaporate to an extract, add rhubarb 3ij ; 
agaric 3j ; and divide into l^-gr. pills. Dose. 4 to 
12, as a purge. 

PILLS, AMMONIATED COPPER. Syn. 
Pil. cupri ammoniatl Prep. (P. E.) Ammonio- 
sulphate of copper 1 ^>Mt ; bread-crumb 6 parts ; 
solution of carbonate of ammonia q. s. to make a 
pill mass ; divide so that each pill may contain ^ 
gr. of ammoniated copper. Dose. 1 pill night and 
morning, gradually increased to 5 or 6, in epilepsy, 
and some other spasmodic diseases. 

PILLS, ANTIBILIOUS. See the various pur- 
gative and stomachic Pills. 

PILLS, ANTI-EPILEPTIC. Prep. l.—(R6- 
cambier.) Aqueous extract of opium 5 centigram- 
mes ; acetate of lead 20 do. ; powdered henbane 
40 do. ; gum sirup q. s. ; mix, and divide into 8 
pills. Dose. 1 night and morning. — 2. (Leuret.) 
Extracts of stramonium and belladonna, of each 1 
gramme ; camphor and opium, of each 50 cen- 
tigr. ; divide into pills of 10 decigr. Dose. 1 a day, 
gradually and cautiously increased to 10 or 12, or 
more. 

PILLS, ANTISPASMODIC. Prep. (Thom- 
Bon.) Opium 1 gr. ; castor 13 grs. ; powdered di- 
gitalis 2 grs. ; sirup to mix ; divide into 4 pills. 



Dose. 1 or 2 two or three times a day in spasmod- 
ic asthma, &Q. 

PILLS, ASAFCETIDA. Syn. Pil. asaf<e. 
TiDiE. Prep. (P. E.) Asafoetida, galbanum, and 
myrrh, of each 3 parts ; conserve of red roses 4 
parts, or q. s. ; beat into a mass. Stimulant and 
antispasmodic. Dose. 10 to 20 grs., in hysteria, 
&c. » 

PILLS, ASTRINGENT. Prep. 1. (Collier.) ' 
Nitrate of silver 3 grs. ; extract of opium 3ss ; 
musk 9j ; camphor 9ij ; mix for 48 pills. Dose. 
1 pill 2 or J times a day, as a stimulant tonic ; in 
epilepsy, «fec. — 2. (Cavarra.) Pure tannin 6 grs. ; 
powdered gum 12 grs. ; sugar 3j ; sirup to mix ; 
divide into 4-gr. pills. Dose. 1 to 3 in diarrhoea. — 
3. Acetate of lead 3 grs. ; opium 1 gr. ; divide into 
3 pills. Dose. 1 twice a day, followed by a glass 
of water acidulated with vinegar ; in colliquative 
diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, phthisical night- 
sweats, internal hemorrhages, &c. 

PILLS, CALOMEL AND OPIUM. Syn. 
Pil. calomelanos et opii. Prep. (P. E.) Calomel 
3 parts ; opium 1 part ; conserve of red roses to 
mix. Divide so that each pill may contain 2 grs. 
of calomel. Dose. 1 or 2 in rheumatism, and <=oms 
inflammatory affections ; if continued, they induce 
salivation. 

PILLS, CALOMEL, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
Plummer's Pills. Red Pill. Pil. hydrargyri 
Chloridi comp., (P. L.) Pil. Calomelanos comp., 
(P. E. & D.) Pil. hydrargyri submuriatis, (P, 
L. 1809.) Pil. Plummeri. Prep. (P. L.) Calo- 
mel, oxysulphuret of antimony, and treacle, of 
each 3ij ; powdered guaiacum resin 3ss ; mix. An 
excellent alterative pill in chronic skin diseases and 
liver affections ; in dyspepsia, syphilis, &.c. Dose. 
5 to 10 grs. 

PILLS, CATHARTIC. Prep. 1. (Thomson.) 
— a. Scammony 4 grs. ; extract of taraxacum 16 
grs. ; divide into 6 pills. Dose. 3 twice a day, 
m hypochondriasis, and chronic inflammation of 
the liver. — b. Calomel 3 grs. ; powdered jalap 9 
grs. ; mucilage to mix ; for 3 pills. Dose. 2 or 3 
at night to empty the bowels, in bilious affections. 
■ — 2. (Collier.) Calomel 10 grs. ; powdered jalap 
and rosepink, of each 9iv ; oil of caraway 10 drops ; 
sirup of buckthorn to mix ; divide into 5-gr. pills. 
Dose. 1 to 3, as a purgative. — 3. Compound ex- 
tract of colocynth 3j ; powdered opium 3 grs. ; pow- 
dered scammony 15 grs. ; oil of nutmeg 8 drops ; 
divide into 18 pills. Dose. 2 to 4, as a pi\i'ge.-— 4. 
Socotrine aloes 3j ; rhubarb 9ij ; scammony 3ss ; 
capsicum 10 grs ; oil of cloves 10 drops ; mix, and 
divide into 48 pills. Dose. 2 to 4 at bedtime. 

PILLS, CATHARTIC, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
Pil. CATiiARTiCiE coMPosiTiE. Prep. (P. U. S.) 
Compound extract of colocynth '^ss ; powdered ex- 
tract of jalap and calomel, of each 3iij ; powdered 
gamboge 3ij ; mix, and divide into 180 pills. An 
excellent purgative pill, especially in bilious affec- 
tions. Dose. 1 to 3 pills. 

FILLS, COLOCYNTH. Syn. Pil. colocyn- 
TMiDis, (P. E. &c D.) Pil. cochle. Pil. cocciiE. 
PiL. cocniiE MiNORES. Prep. (P. E.) Socotrine 
or East Indian aloes and scammony, of each 8 
parts ; colocynth 4 parts ; sulphate of potash and 
oil of cloves, of each 1 part ; rectified spirit (mu- 
cilage, P. D.) q. s. to form a mass ; divide into 5-gr 
pills. An excellent purgative pill. Dose. 5 to U 



PIL 



475 



PIL 



grs. 4 grs. of this pill, combined with 2 or 3 grs. 
of mercurial pill, and taken over night, is an ex- 
cellent remedy in bilious attacks. *^* The pil. 
cochioB of Apothecaries' Hall is the above pill, 
without the sulphate of potash, and beaten up with 
sirup or treacle, instead of mucilage. The com- 
mon pil. cochite of the shops is generally made as 
follows: — Powdered aloes 1^ lb.; do. colocynth | 
lb. ; do. jalap 6 oz. ; oil of cloves 1^ oz. ; sirup or 
treacle to mix. Prod. About 4| lbs. The more 
conscientious sometimes add to the above scam- 
mony 6 oz. 

PILLS, COLOCYNTH AND HENBANE. 
Syn. Pil. colocvnthidis et iiyoscyami. Prep. 
(P. E.) Compound colocynth pill mass 3ij ; ex- 
tract of henbane 3j ; mix, and divide into 36 pills. 
Dose. 5 to 15 grs., as an anodyne purgative. 

PILLS, COPAIBA. Syn. Pil. copaiba cum 
Magnesia. Prep. (Mialhe.) Pure balsam of co- 
paiba 5j ; calcined magnesia 3ss ; mix, and stir for 
some days till sufficiently thick. For present use 
copaiba requires its own weight of magnesia ; Dr. 
Pereira orders copaiba ^j ; magnesia 3vj or 3vij. 
Dose. 10 to 30 grs., frequently in diseases of the 
mucous membranes of the urinary organs. 

PILLS, DIAPHORETIC. Prep. 1. Anti- 
monial powder 3ss ; opium 3ss ; calomel 5 grs. ; 
confection of opium to mix ; divide into 10 pills. 
Dose. 1 at bedtime. — 2. Guaiacum 10 grs. ; emet- 
ic tartar and opium, of each 1 gr. ; simple sirup 
to mix ; divide inta 3 pills. Dose. 1 or 2.-3. 
Camphor and antimonial powder, of each 3ss ; 
opium 10 grs. ; aromatic confection q. s. to mix ; 
divide into 12 pills. Dose. 1 pill. — 4. Powdered 
guaiacum 10 grs. ; compound powder of ipecacu- 
anha 5 grs. ; confection of roses to mix ; for a 
dose. All the above are taken as diaphoretics in 
mflammatory affections. 

PILLS, DINNER. Prep. 1. (Lady Cres- 
pigny^s Pills. Lady Webster^s Pills. Grains 
de vie. Grains de mesne. Stomachic Pills. Pil. 
Aloes cum mastiche.) Aloes 3vj ; mastich and 
red roses, of each 3ij ; sirup of worrnwood to mix ; 
divide into 3-gr. pills. They produce a bulky and 
Copious evacuation. — 2. Substitute rhubarb for the 
roses in the last. — 3. {Pil. siomachica mesues. 
Pil. dictcB antecibnm, P. Cod.) Aloes 3vj ; extract 
of bark 3iij ; cinnamon 3j ; sirup of wormwood to 
mix. Dose. Of either of the above 5 grs., 1 hour 
before dinner, to promote the appetite ; as a purge, 
10 to 15 grs. 

PILLS, DIURETIC. Prep. (Thomson.)— a. 
Powdered digitalis 12 grs. ; calomel and opium, of 
each 4 grs. ; confection of roses q. s. for 12 pills. — 
b. Mercurial pill 3j ; powdered squills 9j ; confec- 
tion of roses q. s. for 20 pills. Dose. 1 of either of 
the above twice a day in dropsy. 

PILLS, DIXON'S ANTIBILIOUS. Prep. 
Aloes, scammony, rhubarb, and a little tartar 
emetic, beat up with sirup. 

PILLS, EXPECTORANT. Prep.— I. Myrrh 
3iss ; powdered squills 3ss ; extract of henbane 
3ij ; sirup q. s. ; divide into 30 pills. Dose. 2 night 
and morning. — 2. (Thomson.) Powdered squills 
and extract of hemlock, of each 3ss ; ammoniacum 
3iss ; divide into 30 pills. Dose. 2 twice a day. 
In chronic coughs, asthma, (fee. 

PILLS, FAMILY. Syn. Aloe Pills. An- 
TIBIL.IOUS DO. AtiOE RosATA. Prcp. Soootrine 



or hepatic aloes 4 oz. ; juice of roses 1 pint ; dis' 
solve by heat, strain through a piece of coarse 
flannel, evaporate, and form into pills. Purgative, 
in doses of 5 to 15 grs. 

PILLS, FOTHERGILL'S. Aloes, scammo- 
ny, colocyntli, and diaphoretic antimony. 

PILLS, FOXGLOVE AND SQUILLS. Syn. 
Pil. Digitalis et SciLLiE. Prep. (P. E.) Pow- 
dered foxglove and squills, of each 1 part ; aro- 
matic electuary (P. E.) 2 parts ; conserve of red 
roses q. s. ; divide into 4-gr. pills. A valuable 
diuretic in dropsies. Dose. 1 to 2 pills. 

PILLS, FULLER'S. Prep. Aloes 3ss ; sen- 
na and myrrh, of each 9j ; asafoetida and galba- 
num, of each 10 grs. ; saflfron and mace, of each 
5 grs. ; sulphate of iron 9ij ; sirup q. s. Dose. 5 
to 20 grs. ; as an antispasmodic and aperient. 

PILLS, GALBANUM, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
Pil. GuMMosyE. Pil. Galbani comp., (P. L. & D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Galbanum §j ; myrrh and sagape- 
num, of each §iss ; asafoetida §ss ; sirup (treacle, 
P. D.) q. s. ; beat to a mass. Stimulant and an- 
tispasmodic. Dose. 10 to 20 grs. ; in hysteria, 
amenorrhoea, &c. 

PILLS, GAMBOGE. Syn. Pil. Cambogi^, 
(P. E.) Pil. Cambogi^ comp. (P. L. «fc D.) For- 
dyce's Pills. Prep. (P. L.) Gamboge 3j ; aloes 
3iss ; ginger 3ss ; Castile soap 3ij ; beat to a mass. 
An active cathartic. Dose. 10 to 15 grs. in ob- 
stinate constipation. 

PILLS, HEMLOCK, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
Pil. Conii comp. Prep. (P. L.) Extract of hem- 
lock 3v ; ipecacuanha 3j ; mix. Antispasmodic, 
expectorant, and narcotic. Dose. 5 to 10 grs. 
twice or thrice a day, in spasmodic coughs, bron- 
chitis, incipient consumption, &c. 

PILLS, HOFFMAN'S, (MAJOR.) Syn. 
Pil. Hydrargyri Bichloridi. Pil. Hoffmanii 
Majores. Prep. (Paris.) Corrosive sublimate 
and muriate of ammonia, of each 5 grs. ; water 
f 3ss ; triturate till dissolved, add honey 3ss, liquor- 
ice powder 9vj ; mix, and divide into 40 pills. 
Each pill contains | gr. of corrosive sublimate. 

PILLS, HOOPER'S. Prep. Sulphate of iron, 
and water, of each 8 oz. ; dissolve, add Barbadoes 
aloes 2^ lbs. ; white canella 6 oz. ; myrrh 2 oz. ; 
opopanax ^ oz. ; make a mass ; divide each drachm 
into 18 pills, and put 40 into each box. 

PILLS, HYDRAGOGUE. Syn. Bontius' 
Pills. Pil. Hydragog^. Prep. (P. Cod.) Aloes, 
gamboge, and ammoniacum, of each ^j ; vinegar 
§vj ; dissolve, strain, evaporate, and divide into 4 
gr. pills. Strongly cathartic. Used in dropsv- 

PILLS, IODIDE OF MERCURY. 'Syn. 
Pil. Hydrargyri Iodidl Prep. Protiodide of 
mercury, and ginger, of each 3j ; confection of 
hips 3iij ; mix. Dose. 5 to 15 g;rs., in scrofula, 

PILLS, IPECACUANHA, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Pil. Ipecacuanha comp., (P. L.) Pil. Ipe- 
cac. ET Opii, (P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) Compound 
powder of ipecacuanha 3iij ; powdered squiils and 
ammoniacum, of each 3j ; mucilage q. s. to mix. 
Narcotic, sudorific, and expectorant. Dose. 5 to 
15 grs., in chronic coughs, asthma &c. 

PILLS, JAMES'S ANALEPTIC. Prep. 
Antimonial powder, guaiacum, and pills of aloea 
and myrrh, equa^ parts ; sirup q. s. ; mix, and di 
vide into 4-gr. pills. A diaphoretic purgative.* 



PIL 



476 



PIL 



PILLS, IRON, (COMPOUND.) Syn. Fe- 
MAi-E Pills. Pil, Ferri comp., (P. L.) Pil. 
Ferri Carbonatis, (P. E.) Pil Ferri cum 
Myrrha, Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Myrrh 3ij ; carbon- 
ate of soda 3j ; triturate, add sulphate of iron 3j ; 
again triturate, then add treacle 3j ; and beat to- 
gether in a warm mortar. — 2. (P. E.) Saccharine 
carbonate of iron 4 parts ; conserve of red roses 1 
part ; mix, and divide into 5-gr. pills. Both the 
above are mild chalybeate tonics. Dose. 10 to 
20 grs. 

PILLS, IRON, (SULPHATE.) Syn. Viu 
Ferri Sulphatis. Prep. (P. E.) Dried sulphate 
of iron 2 parts ; extract of dandelion 5 parts ; con- 
serve of red roses 2 parts ; liquorice powder 3 parts ; 
mix, and divide into 5-gr. pills. Tonic. Dose. 1 
to 3 pills. 

. PILLS, KEYSER'S. Prep. Acetate of mer- 
cury 12 grs. ; manna 3iss ; starch 6 grs. ; mucil- 
age of gum tragacanth to mix ; divide into 6-gr. 
pills. Alterative. Dose. 2 night and morning, 
gradually increased, in syphilis, &lc. 

PILLS, KITCHENER'S. Syn. Pil. Rhei et 
Carui. Kitchener's Peristaltic Persuaders. 
Prep. Turkey rhubarb 3ij ; sirup 3j ; oil of cara- 
way 10 drops : mix, and divide into 40 pills. Sto- 
machic, aperient. Dose. 3 to 6. 

PILLS, LOCKYER'S. Prep. Panacea of 
antimony 10 grs. ; white sugar fj ; mucilage to 
mix ; divide into 100 pills. Cathartic and emetic. 
Dose. 1 to 3 pills. 

PILLS, MERCURIAL. L {Blue Pill. Pil. 
CcBrulecB. Pil. Hydrargyri, P. L. E. and D. Pil. 
Mercuriales, P. L. 1745.) Prep. (P. L.) Mer- 
cury 3ij ; confection of red roses 3iij ; triturate till 
the globules are perfectly extinguished, then add 
liquorice powder, 3j, and beat into a pill mass. 
The Edinburgh and Dublin forms are similar ; the 
formf* orders it to be divided into 5-gr. pills. 
*jif* This pill, if well prepared, presents no globules 
of mercury when moderately rubbed on a piece of 
white paper, but immediately communicates a 
white stain to gold. It should possess considerable 
density, and have a dark blue or slate color. It 
should contain ^ mercury, which may be ascer- 
tained from its sp. gr., or more exactly by an assay 
for the metal. (See Sevum.) Dose. As an altera- 
tive, 1 to 3 grs., combined with opium ; as a pur- 
gative, 5 to 15 grs. A blue-pill over night, and a 
black draught in the morning, is a popular remedy 
in bilious complaints. (See Abernethy Medi- 
cine.) 

II. (Collier.) Mercury and sesquioxide of iron, 
of each 3j ; confection of red roses 3iij ; triturate 
as before. This has been proposed as an excellent 
substitute for the common mercurial pill. The 
addition of only a few grs. of the above oxide of 
iron to 1 oz. of conserve, renders it capable of rap- 
idly killing a largo quantity of mercury. 

III. (Tyson.) Blue oxide of mercury (prepared 
by decomposing calomel with liquor of potassa, to 
which a little liquor of ammonia has been added) 
3ij ; confection of roses 3vj ; powdered chamomiles 
3j ; mix. Also proposed as a substitute for the 
College pill. (Pharm. Jour.) 

IV. Stearine 5j ; rub iu a warm mortar till it 
assumes the consistence of thick cream, then add 
mercury 3iv ; rub till " killed,"" and further add 
confection of roses and wheat flour, of each 3iij ; 



powdered gum 3j. (Pharm. Jour.) Another pro* 
posed substitute for the College pill. 

V. (Pil. HydrargyroscK, P. Cod.) Mercury 
and honey, of each 3vj ; triturate till the globules 
are extinguished, then add aloes 3vj ; rhubarb 3iij ; 
scammony 3ij ; black pepper 3j ; make a pill mass. 
Contains \ mercury. Alterative and aperient. 
Dose. 5 to 10 grains. Belloste's, Barberousse^s, and 
Morelofs pills, and the Pil. Hydrargyri laxantes, 
(P. E. 1744,) and the Pil Mercuriales, (P. L. 
1746,) are similar. 

PILLS, MORRISON'S. Prep.—l. (Morri- 
son's Pills, No. 1.) Aloes and cream of tartar, 
equal parts ; mucilage q. s. to form a pill mass. — 
2. (Morrison's Pills, No. 2.) Gamboge 3ij ; aloes 
3iij ; colocynth 3j ; cream of tartar 3iv ; sirup to 
mix. Both the above are purgative ; the latter 
strongly so. Dose of either, 5 to 15 grs. 

PILLS, NAPOLEON'S PECTORAL. Prep. 
Ipecacuanha 30 grs. ; powdered squills and am- 
moniacum, of each 40 grs. ; mucilage to mix ; di- 
vide into 24 pills. It is said that the above was a 
favorite remedy with the late emperor of France 
for difficulty of breathing, bronchitis, and various 
affections of the organs of respiration. Dose. 2 
pills night and morning. 

PILLS, OPIUM. Syn. Night Pills. Ano- 
dyne DO. Opiate do. Pil. Opii sive ThebaicjE, 
(P. E.) Opium and conserve of red rotets, of each 
1 part ; sulphate of potash 3 parts ; mix, and di- 
vide into 5-gr. pills. Dose. 1 or 2 pills, as an 
anodyne or soporific. Each pill contains 1 gr. of 
opium. 

PILLS, OPIUM AND SOAP. Syn. Com- 
pound Soap Pills. Laudanum, (P. L. 1720.) Pil 
Saponace^, (P. L. 1745.) P. Opii, (P. L. 1788.; 
P. Saponis cum Opio, (P. L. 1809, 1824, & P. D.) 
Pilule Saponis composite,, (P. L. 1836.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Powdered opium §ss ; Castile soap §ij ; 
beat together. An excellent anodyne and sopo- 
rific. Dose. 3 to 10 grs. Contains one-fifth dry 
opium. 

PILLS, PECTORAL. Prep. (Haggart.) 
Powdered ipecacuanha, and squills, of each 3iv ; 
acetate of morphia 16 grs. ; Castile soap ^j ; mix, 
and divide into 192 pills. A most excellent pec- 
toral. Dose. 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily. 

PILLS, PETER'S. Prep. Aloes, jalkp, scam- 
mony, and gamboge, of each 3ij ; calomel 3j ; beat 
into a mass with rectified spirit of wine. A pow- 
erful cathartic. 

PILLS, RHUBARB. Syn. Pil. Rh^i. Prep. 
(P. E.) Powdered rhubarb 9 parts ; acetate of 
potash 1 part ; conserve of red roses 5 parts ; mix, 
and divide into 5-gr. pills. Stomachic ; purgative. 
Dose. 2 to 4 pills. 

PILLS, RHUBARB, (COMPOUND.) Syn 
Pil. Rhei comp., (P. L. and E.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) 
Powdered rhubarb §j ; powdered aloes 3vj ; pow- 
dered myrrh 3iv ; Castile soap 3j ; oil of caraway 
f 3ss ; sirup q. s. to make a pill mass. — 2. (P. E. 
1839.) Rhubarb 12 parts; aloes 9 parts; myrrh 
and soap, of each 6 parts ; confection uf red roses 
5 parts ; oil of peppermint 1 part ; mix, and di- 
vide into 5-gr. pills.— 3. (P. E. 1817. Edinburgh 
Pills.) As the last, but beaten up with sirup of 
orange peel instead of conservo of roses. *^* All 
the above are tonic, stomachic, and mildly purga- 
tive. Dose. 10 to 20 grs. 



PIL 



477 



PIN 



PILLS OF RHUBARB AND* IRON. Syn. 
PiL. Rh^i et Ferri. Prep. (P. E.) Dried sul- 
phate of iron 4 parts ; extract of rhubarb 10 parts ; 
conserve of roses 5 parts ; divide into 5 gr. pills. 
Tonic ; stomachic. Dose. 2 to 4 pills. 

PILLS, RUDIUS'S. Prep. Colocynth pulp 
3vj ; agaric, black hellebore, and turpethum root, 
of each ^ss ; cinnamon, mace, and cloves, of each 
9ij ; rectified spirit §x ; digest 4 days, express the 
tincture, and evaporate to a proper consistence. 
Formerly esteemed as one of the most certain ca- 
thartics, in troublesome constipation. Dose. 5 to 
30 grs. 

PILLS, SADILLOT'S FEBRIFUGE. Prep. 
Disulphate of quinine 12 grs. ; powdered opium 3 
grs. ; confection of opium 10 grs., or q. s. for 12 
pills. Dose. 1 pill every hour or two, in the inter- 
mission of an ague. 

PILLS, SAGAPENUM, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. PiL. Sagapeni comp. Prep. (P. L.) Saga- 
penum §j ; aloes 3ss ; sirup of ginger q. s. Dose. 
5 to 20 grs., as a stimulant purgative in dyspepsia, 
with flatulence. 

PILLS, SCOT'S. Prep. 1. Aloes 9 lbs.; 
jalap 3 lbs. ; ginger J lb. ; oil of aniseed 1 oz. ; 
treacle 21 oz. ; mix. — 2. Aloes 1 lb. ; colocynth 
4 oz. ; scammony and gamboge, of each ^ oz. ; oil 
of aniseed 2 dr. ; mix with sirup, and divide into 5 
gr. pills. A good purgative pill. 

PILLS, SCOT'S. (Anderson's.) Prep.^ 1. 
(PH. Andersonis, P. Cod.) Aloes and gamboge^ of 
each 3vj ; oil of aniseed 3j ; sirup to mix. — 2. Bar- 
badoes aloes 1 lb. ; jalap 4 oz. ; black hellebore 2 
oz. ; subcarbonate of potash 1 oz. ; oil of aniseed ^ 
oz ; sirup q. s. The last is a good purge, but the 
first is the most powerful. 

PILLS, SPEEDIM AN'S. Pref. Aloes 1 lb. ; 
myrrh, rhubarb, and extract of chamomile, of 
each 4 oz. ; oil of chamomile \ oz. ; mix. An ex- 
cellent tonic and stomachic purge. 

PILLS, SQUILL. Syn. Pil. Scill^, (P. E.) 
PiL. SciLL^ CoMP. (P. L. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Powdered squills 3j ; ginger and ammoniacum, of 
each 3ij ; soap 3iij ; sirup q. s. ; mix. An excel- 
lent expectorant and diuretic. Dose. 5 to 20 grs., 
in coughs, chronic bronchial affections, &c. It 
soon spoils. 

PILLS, STARKEY'S. Prep. Extract of 
opium jiv ; mineral bezoar and nutmeg, of each 
§ij ; saffron and Virginian snake root, of each ^j ; 
Starkey's soap lb. ss ; oil of sassafras ^ss ; tincture 
of antimony (old) f ^ij ; mix. Anodyne. Dose. 
3 to 10 grs. 

PILLS, STOERCK'S. Prep. Extract of 
hernlock 3j ; powdered hemlock q. s. to make a 
pill mass ; divide into 2-gr. pills. Dose. 1 to 4 
twice a day, in various glandular and visceral en- 
largements, pulmonary affections, cancer, scrofula, 
neuralgia, &lc. 

PILLS, STORAX. Syn. Pil. Styracis, (P. 
E.) Pil. Styracis Comp., (P. L.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Strained storax 3iij ; powdered opium and saffron, 
of each 3j ; mix. Anodyne. Dose. 5 to 10 grs., 
in chronic coughs, «Slc. 

PILLS, STRYCHNINE. Syn. Pil. Strych- 
nine. Prep. (Majendie.) Strychnia 2 grs. ; con- 
serve of roses 3ss ; mix, divide into 24 pills and 
silver them. 

^ILLS, TANJORE. Syn. East India Pills. 



Carnatic Snake do. Asiatic do. Pil. Arsenici. 
Prep. (P. Cod.) White arsenic 1 gr. ; black pep- 
per 12 grs. ; triturate well, add powdered gum 2 
grs., and water q. s. to make a pill mass ; divide 
into 15 pills. Dose. 1 or 2 after a meal. Com- 
monly employed in the East Indies in syphilis, 
elephantiasis^ the bite of poisonous snakes, and as 
a preventive of canine madness. 

PILLS, TONIC. Prep. 1. (Thomson.)— a. 
Rhubarb and ginger, of each 3ss ; extract of 
chamomile 3j ; divide into 30 pills. Dose. 2 or 
3 twice a day in dyspepsia and chlorosis. — /;. Ses- 
quioxide of iron, and extract of hemlock, of each 
3j ; divide into 20 pills. Dose. 1 or 2 twice a day 
in fluor albus and scrofula. — 2. (Collier.) a. Tar- 
trate of iron and extract of gentian, of each 3j ; 
oil of cinnamon 2 drops ; for 30 pills. Do.se. 3 to 
6, 3 or 4 times a day. A good stomachic tonic. — 
h. Oxide of zinc 3ss, (or sulphate 3j ;) myrrh 3ij ; 
camphor 9j ; confection of hips to mix ; for 40 
pills. Dose. 1 or 2 pills 3 times a day, in epilepsy, 
chorea, and other nervous disorders, debility, &c. 
— 3. Sulphate of iron, ginger, and myrrh, equal 
parts ; conserve of roses to mix. Divide into 4 
gr. pills. Dose. 1 twice a day ; in debility, &lc. — 
4. Powdered myrrh and sulphate of iron, of each 
3j ; sulphate of quinine 3ss ; powdered capsicum 
15 grs. ; conserve to mix ; divide into 60 pills. 
Dose. 1 or 2 twice or thrice a day in debility, dys- 
pepsia, ague, &c. — 5. (Pil. ToniccB Bacheri. P 
Cod.) Alkaline extract of hellebore, and extract 
of myrrh, of each 3ij ; powdered holy thistle 3j ; 
mix and divide into 4-gr. pills. — 6. (Pil. Tonicee 
Stahlii.) Powdered iron filings, gum ammoniacum, 
and extract of lesser centaury, (chironia centau- 
rium,) of each 3j ; sirup of funiitory q. s. to mix. 

PILLS, VERATRIA. Syn. Pil. Veratri^. 
Prep. (Turnbull.) Veratria 1 gr. ; extract of hen- 
bane and liquorice powder, of each 12 grs. ; mix, 
and divide into 12 pills. Dose. 1 every 3 hours ; 
in dropsy, epilepsy, hysteria, paralysis, nervous 
palpitations, &lc. 

PILLS, WARD'S ANTIMONIAL. Prep. 
Glass of antimony, finely levigated, 4 oz. ; dragon's 
blood 1 oz. ; mountain wine q. s. to make a mass ; 
divide into l^-gr. pills. Emetic. 

PILLS, WORM. Syn. Pil. Vermifuge vel 
Anthelmintice. Prep. 1. (Peschier.) Ethereal 
extract of malefern 30 drops ; extract of dandelion 
3j ; powdered gum q. s. for 30 pills. Dose. 6 to 
20 or more, followed in half an hour by a strong 
dose of castor oil. — 2. Calomel §j ; sugar §iss ; 
mucilage to mix ; divide into 240 pills. Dose. 1 
or 2 over night followed by a strong dose of castor 
oil early the next morning. — 3. Gamboge 8 grs. ; 
calomel 5 grs. ; mucilage to mix. For a morning's 
dose. 

PIMARIC ACID, obtained ty Laurent from 
the turpentine of pinus maritima, by the action of 
hot alcohol. By distillation in vacuo it yields py- 
romaric acid, and under ordinary pressure pima- 
rone. By the action of nitric acid it yields azo- 
marie acid. 

PIMENTIC ACID. Heavy oil of pimento. 

PINIC ACID. The portion of common white 
resin soluble in cold alcohol of sp. gr. -883. 

PINK, BROWN. Prep. French berries and 
pearlash, of each 1 lb. ; fustic chips i lb. ; water 
li gallons; boil in a tin or pewter vessel, and 



PIT 



478 



FLA 



Btrain through flannel while hot ; then dissolve 
alum li lbs., in hot water 2^ gallons, and add the 
solution to the strained decoction as long as a sedi- 
ment falls ; wash the latter, drain and dry. Some 
persons omit the fustic. Used as a yellow pigment. 
Is a fine glaziug color when ground in linseed and 
used with drying oil. 

PINK, DUTCH. Prep. French berries 1 lb. ; 
turmeric ^ lb. ; alum ^ lb. ; water 1^ gallon ; boil 
^ an hour, strain, evaporate to 2 quarts, add whit- 
ing 3 lbs., and dry by a gentle heat. Starch or 
white lead is sometimes employed instead of whit- 
bg, to give it a body. Golden yellow. Used as 
a pigment. 

PINK DYE. Prep, Washed safflowers 2 oz. ; 
subcarbonate of potash 3 dr. ; spirit of wine 7 oz. ; 
digest 2 hours, add water 1 lb. ; digest for 3 hours 
more, and add lemon juice q. s. to strike a rose color. 
Used as a cosmetic and to dye silk stockings. 

PINK, ENGLISH. Syn. Light Pink. Pre- 
pared like Dutch pink, but with more whiting. 

PINK, ^OSE. Whiting colored with a decoc- 
tion of Brazil wood and pearlash. A very pretty 
color, but does not stand. It is always kept in the 
damp state. The color may be varied by substi- 
tuting alum for pearlash, or by the addition of a 
little spirits of tin. 

PINK SAUCERS. Pre^?. Well washed saf- 
flower 8 oz. ; carbonate of soda 2 oz. ; water 2 
gallons; infuse, strain, add French chalk, scraped 
fine with Dutch rushes, 4 lbs. ; mix well, and pre- 
cipitate the color on it by adding a solution of tar- 
taric acid ; collect the red powder, drain, add a 
very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste 
to the saucers. Less chalk ma^ be used for a very 
fine article. 

PIPERINE. Syn. Piperina. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
Treat alcoholic extract of black pepper with a so- 
lution of potash, (1 to 100 ;) wash the residue with 
water, dissolve in alcohol, filter, and let it evapo- 
rate spontaneously. White, tasteless, inodorous, 
fusible, and crystalline ; reddened by oil of vitriol. 
It has been given in doses of 6 to 12 grs. in inter- 
mittent fevers. 

PITCH, BURGUNDY. Syn. Pix Burgun- 
DICA. Pix Abietina, (P. L.) " The true Burgun- 
dy pitch, so often prescribed for plasters, intended 
to produce a mild counter-irritation, is the resin of 
the pinus abies. It appears that the importation 
of this substance has for some years past been 
gradually lessening in amount, in consequence of 
the substitution for it of a factitious pitch, made by 
melting common resin together with linseed-oil, 
and coloring the mass with annotto. Mr. Cooley, 
in ' The Chemist,' July, 1844, says, this is well 
known among manufacturing druggists, the small- 
est difference of price inducing those gentlemen to 
substitute the spurious for the genuine article. — 
* The physiological action of the two articles is 
considerably different, since Burgundy pitch acts 
upon the skin as a powerful local irritant, exciting 
a slight degree of inflammation, and not unfre- 
quently producing a pimply eruption, and an ex- 
udation of purulent mailer from the cuticle on 
which it is applied. It is celebrated for its effects 
when employed as a plaster in all cases where 
warmth, support, and long adhesion to the skin 
are desirable, and in the latter qualify no substance 
equals it. I have worn a pure Burgundy pitch- 



plaster on my chest from November until the fol- 
lowing April, and it was still adhesive. The fac- 
titious Burgundy pitch has similar properties, but 
in an immensely less degree.' We cannot suffi- 
ciently express our abhorrence of such practices aa 
the manufacture and sale of spurious drugs." 
(Lancet.) 

The article above alluded to is made by^ melting 
good yellow resin 1 cwt, with linseed oil 1 gallon, 
and palm oil (bright) q. s. to color. The mass is 
next allowed to cool considerably, and then pulled 
with the hands in the same way as lead plaster is 
treated, after which it is placed in bladders or 
" stands" for use. The pulling or working destroys 
the translucency of the resin, and imparts the 
opacity of foreign Burgundy pitch. Water may 
be employed to cool it down. Annotto is often 
substituted for palm oil as a coloring. The addi- 
tion of some of the droppings or bottoms of Can- 
ada balsam, Chio turpentine, oil of juniper, &c., 
will render this article equal to foreign pitch ; but 
in commerce this is never attempted, the aim be - 
ing only the production of a lively color with 
moderate toughness. A common melting-pan and 
fire (if clean and carefully managed) will succeed 
sufficiently ; but, of course, both for safety and 
convenience, steam is preferable, and, on the large 
scale, almost indispensable. A good workman 
will pull and put into stands or casks about 5 cwt 
daily, or from 1 cwt. to 3 cwt. in bladders, the 
latter quantity depending on the size of the blad- 
ders ; the small bladders occupying much longer, 
from the greater loss of time in tying, cutting, &c. 

PITTACALL. (From itittu, pitch, and koXos, 
beautiful.) A substance resembling indigo, ob- 
tained by Reichenbach from a certain portion of 
oil of tar, by the action of baryta. It gives a fast 
blue dye to cotton mordanted with tin and alum. 

PLASTER. Syn. Emplastrum, (Lat., from 
E/jnrXaaau), to Spread upon.) Plasters are external 
applications that possess sufficient consistence not 
to adhere to the fingers when cold, but which be- 
come soft and adhesive at the temperature of the 
human body. They are chiefly composed of unc- 
tuous substances united to metallic oxides, or pow- 
ders, or to wax, or resin. Plasters are usually 
formed while warm into ^ lb. rolls, about 8 or 9 
inches long, and wrapped in paper. When want- 
ed for use, a little is melted off the roll by means 
of a heated iron spatula, and spread upon leather, 
linen, or silk. The less adhesive plasters, when 
spread, are usually surrounded with a margin of 
resin plaster to make them adhere. In the prep- 
aration of plasters, the heat of a water-bath or 
steam should alone be employed. On the large 
scale, well cleaned and polished copper, or tinned 
copper pans, surrounded with iron jackets, supplied 
with high-pressure steam, are used for this pur- 
pose. The resins and gum resins that enter into 
their composition, should be previously purified by 
straining. After the ingredients are n)ixed and 
the mass has acquired sufficient consistence by 
cooling, portions of it are taken in the hands 
anointed with a little olive oil, and well pulled or 
worked till it becomes solid enough to form into 
rolls. To promote the cooling of the plaster it is 
usual to plunge it into cold water, and to expose it 
to the action of the fluid by working i( about, 
after which it must bo well pulled in the hands to 



PLA 



479 



PLA 



remove the water. Many plasters, as those of 
lead and resin, derive much of their whiteness and 
beauty from this treatment. White plasters are 
not, however, always the best, but they are those 
which are most admired and sought after. 

PLASTER, AMMONIACUM. Syn. Em- 
PLASTRUM Ammoniaci, (P. L. E. & D-) Prep. (P. 
L.) Ammoniacum (strained) ^v ; distilled vinegar 
^viij ; dissolve and evaporate. The P. D. orders 
vinegar of squills ^ pint. Adhesive, stimulant, 
and resolvent. In scrofula, indolent swellings, 
&c. 

PLASTER, AMMONIACUM AND MER- 
CURY. Syn. Emp. Ammoniaci cum Hydrargv- 
Ro, (P. L. & D.) E; Ammon. et Hydrargyri, 
(P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) Olive oil 3j ; heat it in a 
mortar, add flowers of sulphur 8 grs. ; triturate, 
add mercury §iij ; again triturate till the globules 
are extinguished, then add it to ammoniacum 
(strained) lb. j, melted by a gentle heat, and mix 
well. As the last, but more powerful. *^* This 
plaster cannot be rolled till considerably cooled, 
and must not be put into water. 

II. (Wholesale.) Mercury 38 oz. ; prepared se- 
vum ^ lb. ; triturate as last, and add the mixture 
to strained ammoniacum 10 lbs. Fine blue color 
and quickly made. 

PLASTER, AROMATIC. Syn. Stomach 
Plaster. Emp. Aromaticum. Prep. (P. D.) 
Strained frankincense (thus) ^iij ; beeswax |ss ; 
melt, and when considerably cooled, add powdered 
cinnamon 3vj ; oils of allspice and lemons, of each 
3ij. *^* Must not be put into water. Stimu- 
lant ; applied over the stomach in dyspepsia, pain, 
nausea, flatulence, &c. Some add camphor 3j. 

PLASTER, ASAFCETIDA. Syn. Emp. As- 
SAFCETiD^. Prep. (P. E.) Lead plaster and strained 
asafcetida, of each, §ij ; strained galbanum and 
beeswax, of each, ^j ; melt together. *^* Must 
not be put into water. Antispasmodic. Applied 
to the stomach or abdomen in hysteria, or to the 
chest in hooping-cough. 

PLASTER, BELLADONNA. Syn. Emp. 
Belladonna, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Ex- 
tract of deadly nightshade ^iss ; resin plaster, 
melted by a gentle heat, f iij ; mix. A powerful 
anodyne and antispasmodic ; in neuralgia and 
rheumatic pains, and as an application to painful 
tumors. The plaster of the shops is usually defi- 
cient in extract. The following is a form I have 
seen used in the wholesale trade : — Lead plaster 
and resin plaster, of each, 2^ lbs. ; extract of bel- 
ladonna 1| lbs. This plaster must not be pulled 
in water. 

PLASTER, BURGUNDY PITCH. Syn. 
Cephalic plaster. Emp. cephalicum, (P. L. 
1745.) Emp. P:cis Burgundica, (P. L. 1788.) 
Emp. Picis comp., (P. L. 1809, 1824.) Emp. Pi- 
cis, (P. L. 1836, & P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) Bur- 
gundy pitch lb. ij ; resin of the spruce fir (thus) 
lb. j ; yellow rosin and beeswax, of each, §iv ; 
melt, add olive oil and water, of each, ^ij ; ex- 
pressed oil of mace ^j ; and boil to a proper con- 
sistence. Stimulant and counter-irritant. Applied 
to the chest in pulmonary affections, to the joints 
in rheumatism, and to the loins in lumbago. It is 
a good warm plaster to wear on the chest during 
winter. *^* The pitch plaster of the shops is 
made as follows : Factitious Burgundy pitch, bright 



colored, 42 lbs. ; palm oil (bright) | lb. ; beeswax 
(bright) 5 lbs. ; melt, and when nearly cold, add 
oil of mace 6 oz. ; oil of nutmeg 1 oz. 

PLASTER, CANTHARIDES. Syn. Blis- 
tering Plaster. Emp. Lytt^e, (P. L. 1809.) 
Emp. Cantharidis, (P. L. E. &. D.) Prep.—\. (P. 
L.) Wax plaster lb. iss ; lard lb. ss ; melt, and when 
considerably cooled, add finely powdered Spanish 
flies lb. j, and stir till stiff! — 2. (P.,E.) Cantharides, 
resin, beeswax, and suet, of each, §ij ; mix as last 
Used to raise blisters. It should be spread on lea- 
ther with a cold knife, and surrounded with a 
margin of resin plaster. A piece of thin muslin or 
tissue paper is usually placed between the plaster 
and the skin to prevent absorption. — 3. (Whole- 
sale.) Flies and yellow rosin, of each, 6 lbs. ; 
suet 10 lbs. ; beeswax and lard, of each, 4 lbs. 
*^* The above should be rolled in starch powder, 
and not with oil. 

PLASTER, CANTHARIDES, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Emp. Cantharidis comp. Prep. 
(P. E.) Venice turpentine §ivss ; Burgundy pitch 
and cantharides, of each, §iij ; beeswax 3j ; ver- 
digris §ss ; black pepper and powder mustard, of 
each, 3ij ; mix. Stronger than the last. 

PLASTER, COURT. Syn. Sticking Plas- 
ter. Emp. adhesivum Anglicum, (Ph. Bor.) 
Prep. 1. (Paris.) Black silk or sarsenet is strained 
and brushed over 10 or 12 times with the follow- 
ing composition : — Balsam (gum) of benzoin ^ oz. ; 
rectified spirit 6 oz. ; dissolve. In a separate ves- 
sel dissolve 1 oz. of isinglass in as little water as 
possible ; strain each solution, mix, and decant the 
clear. It is applied warm. When the last coat is 
quite dry, a finishing coat must be given with a 
solution of 4 oz. of Chio turpentine in 6 oz. of 
tincture of benzoin. — 2. Isinglass 1 oz. ; dissolve 
in proof spirit 12 oz. ; add tincture of benzoin 2 
oz. ; give 5 or 6 coats, and finish off" as last. — 3. 
Isinglass 1 oz. ; water 3 oz. ; dissolve, add tincture 
of benzoin 1 oz. ; apply as above, and finish oflT 
with a coat of tincture of benzoin or tincture of 
balsam of Peru. *** Goldbeaters' skin is now fre- 
quently substituted for sarsenet. 

PLASTER, CUMIN. Syn. Emp. cyminl E. 
cuMiNi. Prep. (P. L. 1824.) Burgundy pitch Ib.iij ; 
beeswax §iij ; melt, and add cumin seeds, caraway 
do., and laurel berries, (all in fine powder.) of each 
^iij ; water and olive oil, of each f _^iss. — 2. Yellow 
rosin 7 lbs.; beeswax and linseed oil, of each, 
i lb. ; powdered cumin and caraway seeds, of 
each, 7 oz. ; mix. Discutient ; applied to the 
stomach and belly in dyspepsia and flatulence, 
and also to indolent tumors. 

PLASTER, GALBANUM. Syn. Yellow 
Diachylon. Gum do. Emp. Galbaxi comp., (P. 
L. 1824.) Emp. Galbani, (P. L. 1836 & P. D.) 
E. GuMMOsuM, (P. E.) Prep.—i. (P. L.) Lead 
plaster lb. iij ; resin of spruce fir fiij ; melt, add 
common turpentine (Venice) 3x ; strained galba- 
num §viij. — 2. (Wholesale.) Lead plaster 42 lbs. ; 
yellow rosin 12 lbs. ; strained galbanum 2 lbs. ; 
strained asafoetida 1 oz. Stimulant and resol- 
vent. 

PLASTERS, ISSUE. Syn. Sparadrapum 
pro Fonticulis. Prep. Beeswax lb. ss ; Bur- 
gundy pitch and Chio turpentine, of each fiv; 
vermilion and orris powder, of each f j ; musk 4 
grs. ; melt, spread upon linen, polish with a smooth 



PLA 



480 



PLA 



piece of glass moistened with water, and cut into 
pieces. 

PLASTER, KENNEDY'S CORN. Prep, 
Wax lb. j ; Venice turpentine ^iv ; verdigris §iss ; 
spread on cloth, cut, polish, and put 12 bits into 
each box. 

PLASTER, LEAD. Syn. Diachylon. 
White do. Simple do. Diapalme. Diachylon 
SIMPLEX, (P. tte 1720.) Emp. commune, (P. L. 
1745.) E. Lythargyri, (P. L. 1788, P. E. & D.) 
Emp. Plumbi, (P. L. 1809, and since.) Prep. 
1. (P. L.) Finely-powdered litharge lb. vj ; olive 
oil 1 gallon ; water 1 quart ; boil to the consistence 
of a plaster, adding more water if required. 

II. (P. E.) Litharge ^v ; olive oil f §xij ; water 
f^iij. As last. 

III. (Otto Kohnke.) For each pound of litharge 
employed, add \ pint of colorless vinegar, (each 
ounce of which is capable of saturating 3ss of 
carbonate of potash ;) boil until all moisture is 
evaporated, and until only a few striae of litharge 
rise to the surface, then remove the heat, add 
gradually ^ to ^ as much vinegar as before, and 
boil to a proper consistence. 

IV. (Wholesale.) — a. Genoa oil 60 lbs. ; litharge 
30 lbs. ; water 2 or 3 gallons.— &. Oil 70 lbs. ; 
litharge 30 lbs. ; water 2 or 3 gallons. 

Remarks. The London College orders too little 
oil. The second, fourth, and fifth forms produce 
beautiful plasters, and so does the third, provided 
enough oil be used. The proper proportion of 
litharge is 1 lb. to every 2^ lbs. of oil, (C. Watt,) 
and without this is used, the plaster speedily gets 
hard and brittle, and loses its adhesiveness. The 
process consists in putting the water and litharge 
into a clean and polished tinned-copper or copper 
pan, mixing them well together with a spatula, 
adding the oil, and boiling with constant stirring 
till the plaster is brittle, when thoroughly cold. 
This process usually occupies from 4 to 5 hours, 
but by adopting the third formula, an excellent 
plaster may be made in 15 or 20 minutes. To 
render this plaster very white, it is usual to sub- 
mit it to laborious pulling. 

Use. As a simple strapping, but principally as a 
basis for other plasters. 

PLASTER, MELILOT. Syn. Emp. Meli- 
LOTi. Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Fresh melilot, chop- 
ped small, lb. vj ; suet lb. iij ; boil till crisp, strain 
with pressure, and add yellow rosin lb. viij ; bees- 
wax lb. iv. Stimulant. Used to dress blisters, 
&c. The greater portion of this plaster in the 
shops is colored with verdigris, and is frequently 
made without the herb. I have seen the follow- 
ing form used in the wholesale trade : — Yellow 
rosin 18 lbs. ; green ointment 4^ lbs. ; yellow 
wax 3 lbs. ; finely-powdered verdigris to give a 
deep-green color. 

PLASTER, MERCURIAL. Syn. Emp. 
Hydrargyri, (P. L. &-. E.) Prep. (P. L.) Lead 
plaster lb. j; melt, add mercury ^iij, previously 
" killed" by trituration with balsam of sulphur 
f3j. — 2. (Wholesale.) Mercury 7 lbs. ; prepared 
sevuni i lb. ; triturate till the globules disappear, 
and add it to lead plaster, molted by a gentle 
heat 3G lbs. ; stir well together. Very hue blue or 
lead color. Used as a discutient in glandular en- 
largements, and other swellings ; and also applied 
over the hepatic regions in liver complaints. 



PLASTER, OPIUM. Syn. Emp. Opii, (P. L. 
E. & D.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Lead plaster lb. j ; 
melt, add powdered thus §iij ; mix, and further 
add powdered opium §ss ; water f^viij, and boil 
to a proper consistence. -The other Colleges omit 
the water, and use Burgundy pitch for thu& 
Used as an anodyne. 

II. (Wholesale.) Lead plaster 10 lbs. ; yellow 
resin 30 oz. ; powdered opium 4 oz. 

PLASTER, OXIDE OF IRON. Syn, Iron 
Plaster. Frankincense do. Strengthening 
DO. Emp. Roborans. E. Ferri Oxydl E. 
Ferri, (P. E.) E. Thuris, (P. D.) Prep. L 
(P. E.) Lead plaster §iij ; yellow resin 3vj ; bees- 
wax 3iij ; melt together, then add red oxide of 
iron §j, previously triturated with olive oil f 3iiiss. 

II. (P. L. 1788.) Thus lb. ss ; dragon's blood 
^iij ; lead plaster lb. ij. 

III. (Wholesale.) Lead plaster (dry) 72 lbs. ; 
powdered yellow resin 12 lbs. ; crocus martis 
(lively colored) 14 lbs. ; olive oil 1 quart. Iron 
plaster is strengthening and stimulant, and em- 
ployed as a mechanical support in muscular re- 
laxation, weakness of the joints, &c., especially 
by public dancers. 

PLASTER, OXYCROCEUM. Syn. Emp. 
Oxycroceum. Prep. — 1. (P. E. 1744.) Bees- 
wax lb. j ; black pitch and strained galbanum, of 
each lb. ss ; melt, and add Venice turpentine, 
powdered myrrh, and olibanum, of each ^iij ; 
powdered saffron ^ij. — 2. (Wholesale.) Black 
pitch 9 lbs. ; black rosin 10^ lbs. ; beeswax and 
lard, of each 2^ lbs. ; melt together. Warm ; 
discutient. 

PLASTER, PARACELSUS. Syn. Emp. 
Stypticum. Prep. Lead plaster 28 lbs. ; galbanuni 
plaster 2 lbs. ; powdered white canella, and gum 
thus, of each 1^ lb. ; melt together. 

PLASTER, RED LEAD. Syn. Emp. e 
MiNio. Made as lead plaster, but with red lead 
instead of litharge. If boiled to perfect drjoiess it 
forms the Emp. e minio fuscum. Lead plaster, 
colored with red lead, is usually sold for it. 

PLASTER, RESIN. Syn. Adhesive Plaster. 
Baynton's do. Emp. Resin^e, (P. L.) E. Resin- 
osuM, (P. E.) E. Lythargyri cum Resina, (P. 
D.) E. Adhesivum. Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Lead 
plaster (dry) lb. iij ; melt, and add yellow resin 
(powdered) lb. ss. Principally used as a strap- 
ping for dressing ulcers, retaining the lips of cuts 
and wounds in contact, &.c. — 2. (Wholesale.) 
Lead plaster (dry) 60 lbs. ; pale yellow resin 
(powdered) 10 lbs. 

PLASTER, SOAP. Syn. Emp. Saponis, 
(P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Litharge piaster 
lb. iij ; soap (white) sliced lb. ss ; melt together, 
and boil to a proper consistence. If it contains 
water it will crumble. Discutient ; in abrasions, &c. 

PLASTER, SOAP, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
Emp. Saponis comp. vel adherens. Prep. (P. D.) 
Soap plaster ^ij. ; resin plaster ^iij ; melt together. 
Used in abrasions, &,c. *^,e* Neither of the above 
must be put into water. 

PLASTER, VERDIGRIS. Syn. Corn 
Plaster. Emp. -^Eruginis. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
Wax 4 oz. ; Burgundy pitch 2 oz. ; melt, add 
Venice turpentine and powdered verdigris, of each 
1 oz. 

PLASTER, WARMING. Syn. Emp. Calk- 



PLA 



481 



POl 



FACiENS. Prep. (P. D.) Burgundy pilch 7 
parts ; melt, and add plaster ol cantharides 1 
part. Some add a little camphor. Stimulant and 
rubefacient. Used in chest complaints, local 
pains, &c. 

PLANTER, WAX. Syn. Simple Plaster. 
Emp. Attrahens. E. Simplex, (P. E.) E. Cer^e, 
(P. L.) Prep. (P. L.) Yellow wax and suet, of 
each lb. iij ; yellow resin lb. j ; melt and strain. A 
simple dressing, i 

PLATINIZING. Proc, I. {In the moist 
way.) Solid cliloride of platinum 1 part, is dis- 
solved in water 100 parts, and to this solution is 
added common salt 8 parts ; or still better, 1 part 
■»f platino-chloride of ammonia and 8 parts of hy- 
(i'ochlorate of ammonia are placed in a flat porce- 
lau: vessel. 32 to 40 parts of water poured over it, 
the vhole heated to boiling, and the vessels of 
coppe- or brass, perfectly bright, are placed there- 
in. Th>>y will be covered in a few seconds with 
a brilliant and firmly-adhering layer of platina. 

II. {By the Electrotype.) — a. Proceed as di- 
rected under Voltaic Gilding, but make use of a 
dilute solution of the double chloride of soda and 
platinum. Three immersions sufiice ; between 
each immersion It is necessary to dry the surface 
with fine linen, rubbing rather briskly, after which 
it must be thoroughly cleaned with levigated 
chalk. When copper has been gilded in the 
moist way, the gilt surface has not always a 
beautiful tint ; but if the copper be previously 
covered with a pellicle of platina, a very beauti- 
ful golden surface may be produced. (M. Bo- 
ettger.) 

b. (M. Ruolz.) As the third process of voltaic 
gilding, (p. 335,) but using double chloride of pla- 
tinum and potassium, dissolved in caustic potassa. 
This solution allows of platinizing with the same 
facility and promptitude as in gilding or silvering. 
*4je* Manufacturing and operative chemists will 
find, in this process, a means of procuring large 
capsules of platinized brass, which combine cheap- 
ness with the necessary resistance to saline or 
acid solutions. 1 millegramme of platinum is 
capable of perfectly covering 50 square millimetres, 
which corresponds to a thickness of l-100,000th 
Ol a millimetre. Platinum, thus applied, may be 
obtained from the crude solution of platinum ore, 
as the metals which accompany it do not injure 
the effect. (Dumas.) 

PLATINUM. Syn. Platina, (from plata, 
Span, silver.) A heavy, white-colored metal, 
chiefly imported from South America, where it is 
found in a granular form, associated with some 
other rare metals. It has the sp. gr. 21 25 to 
21-5 after forging, being the heaviest metal 
known, and is remarkable for its hardness, and 
power of resisting heat, and acid menstrua. 
Crude platinum is purified by solution in nitro- 
muriatic acid, somewhat dilute, precipitation by 
muriate of ammonia, and exposing the precipitate 
to a violent heat. The metal reduced in an ag- 
glutinated state, may be rendered more compact 
by pressure while red hot. Platinum undergoes 
no change by exposure to air and moisture, or the 
strongest h^at of a smith's forge, and is not at- 
tacked by any of the pure acids, but is dissolved 
oy chlorine and nitromuriatic acid, though with 
more difficulty than gold. Spongj' and powdered 
61 



platinum possesses the remarkable property of cau» 
ing the union of oxygen and hydrogen gasea 
Platinum is precipitated from its solutions by de- 
oxidizing substances under the form of a black 
powder, which has the power of absorbing oxygen, 
and again imparting it to combustible substances, 
and thus causing their oxidation. In this way 
alcohol and pyroxilic spirit may be converted into 
the acetic and formic acids, &lc. (See Acetic 
Acid.) — Qxide or Protoxide of Platinum is ob- 
tained by digesting protochioride of platinum in a 
solution of pure potassa in very slight excess. It 
dissolves slowly in the acids, forming salts of 
platinum. — The Bixoxide, Deutoxide, or Per- 
oxide, by exactly decomposing the sulphate of 
the binoxide with nitrate of baryta, and adding 
pure soda to the filtered solution, so as to precipi- 
tate only half the oxide. (Berzelius.) — The 
SEsauioxiDE, by heating fulminating platinum in 
nitrous acid. (E. Davy.) — The Protochloride, 
by heating the bichloride to about 450° ; greenish 
gray. — The Bichloride, by evaporating the nitro- 
muriatic solution to dryness, at a gentle heat ; 
red. — The Protiodide, by digesting the proto- 
chloride in a solution of iodide of potassium ; 
black. (Lassaigne.) — The Periodide, by the 
action of iodide of potassium on a weak solution of 
the bichloride ; black. (Lassaigne.) — The Pro- 
TosuLPHURET, by heating the yellow ammoniacal 
chloride with ^ its weight of sulphur in a retort. — 
The BisuLPHURET, by dropping a solution of the 
bichloride into a solution of sulphuret of potas- 
sium. — Fulminating Platinum, by acting on sul- 
phate of platinum with ammonia in slight ex- 
cess. — The Platino-bichloride of Potassium, 
by mixing solutions of bichloride of platinum and 
chloride of potassium, and evaporating ; a yellow 
powder, or small octohedrons. — The Plating- 
bichloride OF Sodium, as the last. — The Platino- 
bichloride OF Ammonia, by precipitating a strong 
solution of the bichloride by a solution of sal am- 
moniac ; an insoluble yellow powder. — The Pla- 
tino-protochlorides are prepared in a similar 
way. — Platina-xMohr is obtained by melting pla- 
tina ore with twice its weight of zinc, powdering, 
digesting first in dilute sulphuric acid, and next in 
dilute nitric acid, to remove the zinc, assisting the 
action of the menstruum by heat ; it is then di- 
gested in potash lye, and lastly in pure water. 
(Descotils.) An insoluble grayish black powder, 
consisting of crude platinum. It acts like pla- 
tinum black, converting alcohol into vinegar, &c. 
It explodes by heat. *^* The salts of platinum 
are said to be alterative. The bichloride and the 
sodio-chloride have been employed both internally 
affld endermically in syphilis, &c. They are 
poisonous. 

PLUMBAGINE. A cr^'stalline substance, ex- 
tracted by M. Dulong from the roots of plumbago 
europea. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, and water. 

POISON. When you have reason to suppose 
that you have accidentally swallowed a poisonous 
substance, and proper medical advice is not at 
hand, take an emetic. This may be done almost 
instantaneously, by swallowing a cupful of warm 
water mixed with a teaspoonful of mustard. If 
you have not dry mustard in the house, you are 
almost sure to have a mustard-pot, and a quantity 
from that put into the water will very quickly 



POM 



482 



POR 



empty the stomach. As mustard may thus prove 
of so much use, it should never be wanting in any 
house ; but even should there be no mustard at 
hand, warni water by itself forms a tolerably effi- 
cacious emetic. (See the various Poisons for their 
antidotes.) 

POLYCHROME. A pecuhar substance ob- 
tained from the bark of the horse-chesnut, and 
from quassia wood, by precipitating the infusion by 
acetate of lead, decomposing the precipitate by 
sulphureted hydrogen, filtering, and evaporating to 
a sirup, when crystals of polychrome form after 
some time. It is purified by repeated solutions in 
a mixture of alcohol and ether. The solution ap- 
pears colorless by transmitted light, but blue by re- 
flected light, and exhibits a beautiful play of colors, 
visible when dissolved in 1 ,500,000 parts of water. 

POLYCHROMIC ACID. St/u. Artificial 
BITTER OF Aloes. Prep. Aloes 1 part ; nitric acid 
(sp. gr. 1*25) 8 parts ; mix, and when the action is 
over, evaporate to a sirup, and add cold water to 
throw down the polychromic acid ; purify by wash- 
ing with water till the liquid passes off of a blue 
color. A yellowish brown powder forming a pur- 
ple solution ; it explodes when heated. It is a mix- 
ture of Aloetic and Aloeresinic Acids. (Schunck.) 

POMMADE, (Fr. Pomatum.) Pommades are 
divided by the French perfumers into three class- 
es ; viz. — Pommades by infusion — Pommades by 
contact, and — Pommades by addition. The first 
are made by gently melting in a clean pan, 2 
parts of hog's lard and 1 part of beef suet, both of 
the finest quality and carefully " rendered ;" and 
adding 1 part of flowers, carefully picked, or if a 
solid substance, coarsely bruised, and macerating 
for 24 hours, occasionally stirring, and observing 
to keep the vessel covered as much as possible. 
The next day the mixture is remelted, and again 
well stirred for a short time, after which it is pour- 
ed into canvass bags, and these being next secure- 
ly tied, are submitted to powerful pressure, grad- 
ually increased, in a barrel press. This operation 
is repeated with the same fat several times, until 
the pommade is sufficiently perfumed. A good 
pommade aux fieurs, requires twice to six times 
its weight of flowers to be thus consumed, and 
pommades of the aromatic barks and seeds a cor- 
responding proportion. *^* In the same way are 
made the pommades of Cassia, orange flowers, 
and several others kept by the French perfumers. 

Pommades by contact are made by spreading 
with a palette knife simple pommade (made with 
lard and suet as above) on panes of glass or pewter 
plates, to the thickness of a finger, and sticking the 
surface all over with sweet-scented flowers, which 
must be renewed daily for 2 or 3 months, or HU 
the pommade has acquired sufficient perfume. On 
the large scale, the panes are placed in small shal- 
low frames mad(; of 4 pieces of wood nicely fitted 
together, and are then closely piled one upon an- 
other. On the small scale pewter plates are most- 
ly used, and one is inverted over the other. In 
some of the perfumeries of France, many thou- 
sands of frames are employed at once. *5^* In 
this way are made the Pommades Jasmin, Jon- 
quil, Orange-flowers, Narcissus, Tuberose, Vio- 
let, &.C. 

Pommades by addition are made by merely 
adding the fragrant essences or oils in suflicient 



quantity to the simple pommade of lard and suet 
to produce the proper odor ; or by mixing togethei 
other pommades. *;^* In this way are made the 
Pommades of Bergamotte, Cedrat\ Cinnamon, 
Lemons, Lemon thyme. Lavender, Limettes, 
Marjoram, Portugal, White Rose, Rosemary, 
Thyme, Verbena, and about 30 others, distinguish- 
ed by the Parisian perfumers. 

Mixed Pommades. Of these a great numbei 
are prepared by the French, by the judicious com- 
bination of the most esteemed perfumes or Pom- 
mades, of which the following aj?e a few exam- 
ples : — 

Pommade a la Vanille, or Roman pommade, 
Pommade k la rose 12 lbs. ; powdered vanilla 1 lb. ; 
melt in a water bath, stir constantly for 1 hour, let 
it settle for another hour, decant the clear, and add 
oil h la rose 2 J lbs. ; bergamotte 4 oz. — Pommade 
de Casse. Simple pommade 1 lb. ; palm oil ^ oz. ; 
melt, pour off" the clear, and add oil of cassia and 
huile au jasmin, of each 1 dr. ; neroli, 20 drops ; 
oil of verbena, or lemon grass, 15 drops ; otto of 
roses, 5 drops ; stir till nearly cold. — Pommade di- 
vine. Plain pommade, 1 lb. ; essences of lemon 
and bergamotte, of each 2 dr. ; oils of lavender and 
origanum, of each 1 dr. ; oils of verbena, cassia, 
cloves, and neroli, of each 12 drops ; huile au jas- 
min, 3 dr. ; essence of violets, ^ oz. *^* Pom- 
mades are colored — Yellow, by palm oil or annot- 
to — Red, by alkanet root — and Green, by guaia- 
cum, or the green leaves of spinage or parsley. 
White pommades are made with Inutton instead 
of beef suet. 

POMATUM. (From pomum, an apple.) A 
fragrant unguent used in dressing the hair ; so 
named because it was formerly made with lard 
and apples. (See Pommades.) — Simple Pomatum. 
1. Lard 2 lbs. ; beef suet 1 lb.— 2. Lard 3 lbs. ; 
mutton suet 1\ lb. — Common Pomatum. Simple 
pomatum 1 lb. ; essence of lemon 1 dr. — East 
India Pomatum. Suet 3 lbs. ; lard 2 lbs. ; beeswax 
(bright) ^ lb. ; palm oil 2 oz. ; powdered gum ben- 
zoin 3 oz. ; musk 20 grs. ; melt, and digest two 
hours, decant, add essence of lemon 1 oz. ; oil of 
lavender \ oz. ; oils of cloves, cassia, and verbena, 
of each 1 dr. — Rose Pomatum. Lard or simple po- 
matum washed with rose water, or scented with 
otto. It may be reddened with alkanet. — Soft 
Pomatum. Hard lard, scented like East India po- , 
matum. — Millefleur Pomatum. Simple pomatum, 
scented so that no one perfume shall predominate. — 
Roll Pomatum. (Hard do.) Mutton suet 6 lbs. ; 
white wax | lb. ; spermaceti 4 lb. ; powdered ben- 
zoin 1 oz. ; melt, and add scent at pleasure. — 
Mareschal Pomatum. (Hard.) To the last add 
mareschal powder 6 to 8 oz. • 

PORPHYROXINE. a neutral crystalline sub- 
stance, discovered by Merck in Bengal opium. It 
is soluble in alcohol and ether. 

PORTER. A fermented liquor, brewed from 
pale malt, mixed with a sufficient portion of high- 
dried malt to impart the necessary color and fla- 
vor. In many cases, its color is imparted by 
parched malt or burnt sugar, subsequently to the 
boiling. (See Brewing.) Porter originated with 
a London brewer named Harwood, in 1722, and 
was first called *' entire," or *' entire butt" from 
being drawn from one cask. Previously to that 
date, ale, beer, and two-penny were the conmion 



POT 



483 



POT 



beverages, either alone or mixed, under the names 
of half-and-half, or " three threads,'^ for which 
the publican was compelled to have recourse to 2 
or 3 casks. The term porter was given from its 
general consumption among porters and laborers. 
Ordinary porter contains 4 to 5£- of alcohol. 

Frep. I. (Draught.) a. Pale malt 3^ quarters ; 
amber malt 3 quarters ; brown malt 1^ quarters ; 
mas-h at twice with 28 and 24 barrels of water, 
boil with brown Kent hops 56 lbs. ; set with yeast 
40 lbs. Prod. 28 barrels, or 3^ times the malt, 
besides 20 barrels of table-beer from a third mash- 
ing. 

II. (Bottling Porter. Brown Stout.) Pale 
malt 2 quarters ; amber and brown malt, of each 
1^ do. ; mash at 3 times with 12, 7, and 6 bar- 
rels of water, boil with hops 50 lbs. ; set with yeast 
26 lbs. Prod. 17 barrels, or 1^ times the malt. 

III. For either of the above use pale malt 
mixed with one-seventy-ninth part of patent malt 
for porter, and one-seventieth part for brown stout. 

IV. (Brown Stout.) To a butt of good porter 
add 4 gallons of treacle, 1 gallon of coloring, and 
1 quart of finings ; rummage up well, and in a 
week rack it into another cask. 

POSOLOGICAL TABLE for proportioning 
the doses of medicines to the age of the patient, 
originally drawn up by Gaubius. 
Under i year 1-1 6th of a full dose. 

" 1 " 1-I2th 

« 2 yrs. l-8th 

" 3 « l-6th 

" 4 « l-5th « 

" 7 " l-3d 

" 14 « 1-half « 

« 20 « 2-3ds « 

Above 21 " the full dose. 

" 63 « ll-12ths " 

" 77 " 5-6ths 

" 100 " 2-3ds « 

Dr. Young gives the following simple formula: 
— For children under 12 years, the doses of most 
medicines must be diminished in the proportion of 
the age to the age increased by 12. Thus, at 2 
years, the dose v/ill be l-7th of that for an adult, 

™^2Tl2 = ^-^*- 

*^* Sex, temperament, constitutional strength, 
and the habits and idiosyncrasies of individuals, 
must be taken into account. Nor does the same 
rule apply to all medicines. Calomel, for instance, 
is generally borne better by children than by adults ; 
while opium affects them more powerfully, and 
requires the dose to be diminished considerably 
below that indicated above. 

POTASH. Syn. Oxide or Protoxide of Po- 
tassium. PoTAssA, (Lat.) PoTASsE, (Fr.) Kali, 
(Ger.) The potash of commerce is a carbonate of 
potassa, or oxide of potassium, and has been already 
noticed at page 221. Pure anhydrous potassa is a 
white solid substance, highly caustic and corrosive, 
fusible, and possessing a powerful affinity for wa- 
ter, intense heat being evolved during its combina- 
tion with that fluid. The hydrate of potassa is the 
potassa fusa of the shops. Both these substances 
exhibit alkaline and basic properttes in the most 
marked degree, turning vegetable yellows brown, 
and blues green, and forming salts with the acids. 
Most of the salts of potassa may be made by di- 



rectly saturating a solution of the acid with a so- 
lution of the carbonate or hydrate of potassa, and, 
in some instances advantageously, by double de- 
composition. In either case, tlie filtered solution 
will generally yield crystals on evaporation. (See 
Potassa, hydrate of.) 

Tests, ^c. — 1. The solutions of potassa or its 
salts are unaffected by sulphureted hydrogen, hy- 
drosulphurets, prussiates, and carbonates. — 2. Tar- 
taric acid (in excess) and perchloric acid give 
respectively white precipitates of bitartrate and 
perchlorate of potassa. — 3. Carbazotic acid throws 
down a yellow cr)-stalline precipitate, which is 
sparingly soluble. — 4. Chloride of platinum gives a 
pale yellow precipitete. — 5. Free potassa reddens 
turmeric, and turns reddened litmus blue. 

POTASSA, ACETATE OF. Syn. Diuretic 
Salt. Foliated Salt of Tartar. Sal diureti- 
cus, (P. L. 1745.) Kali acetatum, (P. L. 1788.) 
Potass^ acetas, (P. L. 1809, and since, and P. 
E. 6l D.) Prep. (P. L.) Acetic acid f §xxvj ; 
water f §xij ; mix, and add gradually carbonate of 
potash lb. j, or q. s. to saturate ; filter, and evapo- 
rate in a sand-bath to dryness. 

POTASSA, BISULPHATE OF. Syn. Su- 
persulphate of Potash. Acid Vitriolated Tar- 
tar. Sal auri philosophicuiM. Sal enixum. Po- 
TASS.E bisulphas, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. I. (P. 
L.) Salt left in distilling nitric acid lb. ij ; boiling 
water 3 quarts ; dissolve, add sulphuric acid lb. j, 
evaporate, and crystallize. 

II. (P. D.) Sulphuric acid 1 part ; water 6 
parts ; mix, and saturate with carbonate of potash 
q. s., then add 1 part more of sulphuric acid, and 
proceed as last. 

POTASSA, BITARTRATE OF. Syn. 
Cream of Tartar. Supertartrate of Potash. 
Acidulous Tartrate of Potash. Potass^e bitar- 
TRAS, (P. L. E. & D.) This salt is obtained during 
the fermentation of grape juice, as a crust on the 
sides of the casks or vats. In its unprepared state 
it is called lohite or red crude tartar, or argol, 
according to the wine from which it has been ob- 
tained. It is purified by boiling in water, crystal- 
lization, re-solution in w^ater, and treatment with 
charcoal and aluminous clay to remove the color ; 
the clear liquid is then decanted while hot, and al- 
lowed to cool slowly ; the resulting crystals are 
cream of tartar. *^* " Entirely soluble in 40 
parts of water ; 40 grs. in solution are neutralized 
with 30 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda." (P. 
E.) " It reddens litmus. At a red heat, it is con- 
verted into carbonate of potash." (P. L.) Dose. 
1 to 2 drachms or more, as an aperient ; as a diu- 
retic, 20 grs. to a drachm. It is used to make a 
pleasant cooling drink, (imperial,) and in tooth 
powders. 

POTASH, CITRATE OF. Syn. Lemon- 
ated Kali. The preparation sold in the shops 
under this name is made as follows : — Finely-pow- 
dered white sugar 16 lbs. ; tartaric acid 4^ lbs. ; 
sesquicarbonate of soda 4 lbs. ; all thoroughly dried 
by a gentle heat ; mix, add essence of lemon 1 
oz. ; rub the powder through a sieve in a dry situa- 
tion, put it into bottles, and cork down imme- 
diately. Keeps well. A dessert-spoonful thrown 
into a glass of water makes a pleasant effervescing 
cooling beverage. 

POTASSA, HYDRATE OF. Syn. Purb 



POT 



484 



POT 



POTASSA. jCaUSTIC DO. CaUTERIUM POTENTIALS. 

Kali causticum. Lapis infernalis vel septicum, 
(J>. L. 1720.) Kali purum, (P. L. 1788.) Potas- 
SA fusa, (P. L. 1809, 1824.) Potass^ hydras, (P. 
L. 1836.) Potassa, (P. E.) Potassa caustica, 
(P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Liquor of potassa 1 gal- 
lon ; evaporate in a clean iron vessel over the fire 
until the ebullition being finished, the hydrate of 
potassa liquefies ; pour this into proper moulds. 
*-^* A pale grayish or bluish solid, very soluble in 
water and alcohol. " Boiling -waXex commonly 
leaves oxide of iron undissolved, which should not 
exceed l-25§." (P. E.) "It should be totally 
soluble in alcohol." (P. L.) Its solution should 
be scarcely affected by the nitrates of baryta and 
silver. It is chiefly used as a caustic, and in chem- 
istry. 

POTASSE D'AMERIQUE. Syn. Petit Po- 
TASSE BLEU. Caustic soda, melted with salt and 
lime, and tinged with oxide of copper. This is 
said to be commonly sold to the Parisian laun- 
dresses for American potash, as they object to 
using soda. The potash of the shops in England 
is often mixed with a similar compound. 

POTASSIUM. The metallic base of potash. 
It was discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1807, who 
obtained it by the action of a powerful galvanic 
battery on moistened hydrate of potassa. It has 
since been procured by easier methods. 

Prep. I. (Curaudau.) Perfectly dry carbonate 
of potassa 2 parts ; powdered charcoal 1 part ; 
mix, place them in a gun -barrel or iron bottle, fur- 
nished with a short iron tube, and connected with 
a copper receiver containing a little naphtha and 
surrounded with ice, and distil by a strong heat. 

II. (Brunner.) Fused carbonate of potassa or 
calcined tartar 1 lb. ; iron filings | lb. ; charcoal \ 
lb. ; proceed as above. Prod. 280 grs. It may 
be further purified by distillation in an iron or green 
glass retort. 

Props., <^c. Potassium is solid at ordinary tem- 
peratures, but softens at 70°, and fuses at 150°. 
It sublimes at a low red heat ; color and lustre re- 
sembles mercury. Sp. gr. 0*865. Its most re- 
markable property is its affinity for oxygen gas, 
which is so great that it takes it from most sub- 
stances containing it, and can only be preserved in 
naphtha, or other fluid hydrocarbons. It is de- 
composed with the evolution of light and heat by 
contact with water, and a solution of pure potassa 
results. It unites with oxygen forming oxides, one 
of which is potassa, and the other {peroxide) an 
orange-colored substance formed by burning po- 
tassium in air or oxygen gas, or by passing oxygen 
over potassa heated to redness. 

POTASSIUM, BROMIDE OF. Syn. Hy- 

DROBROMATE OF PoTASSA. PoTASSII BROMIDUM, (P. 

L.) Potass^ Hyurobromas. Prep. (P. L.) Wa- 
ter li pints ; iron filings §j ; mix, add bromine §ij ; 
stir, and in half an hour apply a gentle heat till the 
liquor turns green, then add carbonate of potash 
3xvij, dissolved in water 1^ pints; strain, wash 
the precipitate with hot water, filter the mixed 
liquors, evaporate, and crystallize. White trans- 
parent cubic or rectangular prisms ; inodorous, and 
soluble in water. It should be neutral to test pa- 
per. Dose. 4 to 10 grs. in pills or solution, 2 or 3 
times daily ; in scrofula, bronchocele, &lc. It is 
also iiftide into ointment. 



POTASSIUM, IODIDE OF. Syn. Hydrio. 
DATE OF Potash. Potassii iodidum, (P. L. and 
E.) PoTAsSiSi HYDRioDAs, (P. D.) Prep. I. (P 
L.) Iron filings ^ij ; water 2 quarts ; iodine ^vj ; 
mix, heat till the solution turns green, then add 
carbonate of potash §iv, dissolved in water 1 quart ; 
filter, wash the residue with water, evaporate the 
filtered mixed liquors, and crystallize. The Edin- 
burgh form is similar. Prod. 4 oz. of iodine yield 
4 oz. 3 dr. 

II. (P. D.) By saturating with carbonate of pot- 
ash an aqueous solution of hydriodic acid, formed 
by transmitting chlorine through water in which 
iodine is suspended. Prod. 4 oz. of iodine yield 4 
oz. 7 dr. 20 grs. 

III. (Turner.) Add to a hot solution of caustic 
potassa, sp. gr. 1*19, as much iodine as it will dis- 
solve, then pass sulphureted hydrogen through the 
liquid until it becomes colorless, apply a gentle 
heat to expel excess of acid, filter, exav,\.'y neutral- 
ize with potassa, evaporate, and crystallize. Prod. 
4 oz. of iodine yield 4 oz. 4 dr. 24 grs. 

IV. (Gregory.) Add iodine to a hot solution of 
pure potassa until the alkali is neutralized, evapo- 
rate to dryness, and expose the dry mass to a gen- 
tle red heat in a platinum or iron crucible, then 
dissolve out the salt, evaporate, and crystallize 
An excellent process. 

V. (Scanlan.) As the last, but mix a portion of 
powdered charcoal with the mass before ignition. 
An excellent process. 

VI. (Duflos.) Iodine and granulated zinc, of 
each 4 oz. ; water 8 oz. ; after the action has 
ceased, neutralize with a solution of carbonate of 
potash in slight excess, filter, neutralize with a lit- 
tle hydriodic acid, treat it with sulphureted hy- 
drogen for the sake of security, evaporate, and 
crystallize. Prod. 4 oz. of iodine yield 5 oz. 17 gr. 

Remarks. According to theory 4 oz. of iodine 
should yield 5 oz. 1 dr. 55 grs. of pure iodide of po- 
tassium ; but such a product is never obtained in 
practice, as will be seen by reference to the above 
formulae, which are those most generally approved 
of for the preparation of a pure salt. The old 
method of acting on iodine with pottish, or carbon- 
ate of potash water, yields a very impure product. 

*<ie* Pure iodide of potassium in powder is '* to- 
tally soluble in water and in alcohol. It alters the 
color of turmeric either not at all, or but very 
slightly. It does not discolor litmus. Subjected 
to heat, it loses no weight. Sulphuric acid and 
starch added together, turn it blue. 10 grs. of thit 
salt should decompose 10-24 grs. of (pure) nitrate 
of silver ; the precipitate is partly dissolved by ni 
trie acid, and partly altered in appearance, which 
is not the case when ammonia is added." (P. L.) 
" Its solution is not affected, or only rendered hazy 
by solution of nitrate of baryta. A solution of 5 
grs. in f 5j of distilled water, precipitated by an ex- 
cess of solution of nitrate of silver, and then agita- 
ted in a bottle with a little water of ammonia, 
yields quickly, by subsidence, a clear supernatanl 
liquor, which is not altered by an excevss of nitric 
acid, or is merely rendered hazy." (P. E.) Dose 
2 to 20 grs. or more, 2 or 3 times a day, in pills or 
solution, either ^^lone or combined with iodine ; in 
bronchocele, scrofula, chronic rheumatism, dropsy, 
syphilis, and various glandular diseases. It is also 
used externally, made into a lotion or ointment. 



POU 



485 



POW 



POTASSIUM, PHOSPHURET. Obtained 
by gently heating phosphorus with potassium. 

POTASSIUM, SULPHURET OF. Si/n. 
Liver of Sulphur. Sulpuuret of Potash. He- 
par SuLPHURis. Kali Sulphuretum, (P. L. 1788.) 
Potass^ Sulphuretum, (P. L. 1809, 1824, and 
P. D.) PoTASsii Sulphuretum, (P. L. and E.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Sulphur ^j ; carbonate of potash 
§iv ; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible till 
they unite. *jt* It dissolves in water, yielding a 
fetid yellow solution, and in acids evolving strong 
fumes of sulphureted hydrogen. Dose. 2 to 4 grs. 
in solution, or made into pills with soap ; in obsti- 
nate skin diseases. It is chiefly used externally 
made into a lotion, (1 to 2 drs. to the pint,) or an 
ointment, (30 grs. to the oz.) It is poisonous in 
large doses. *jtf* Besides the above, there are 
other comppunds of sulphur and potassium distin- 
guished by chemists. 

POTESTATES SUCCINI. Prep. Oil of am- 
ber 5j ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia ^ss ; alcohol 
i pint ; digest 4 days, and decant. Dose. 10 to 
40 drops, externally, in hooping cough. 

POTION. Potus. 

POUDRE A LA MARESCHALLE. Prep. 
1. Oak moss 2 lbs. ; starch 1 lb. ; cloves and cala- 
mus aromaticus, of each 1 oz. ; Cyprus and rotten 
oak wood, of each 2 oz. ; all in fine powder ; mix, 
and pass through a sieve. — 2. Starch powder 28 
lbs. ; powdered cloves | lb. ; mix as last. - 

POUDRE CLARIFICANTE. Powdered al- 
bumen. 

POUDRE DE CHIPRE. Prep. 1. Wash oak 
moss for 3 days in rimning water ; dry. powder, 
and perfume it once or twice with jasmine or 
musk rose flowers, then add other scent. — 2. (Pou- 
dre de Chipre de Montpellier.) Poudre de chipre, 
as last, 2 lbs. ; musk 30 grs. ; civet 18 grs. ; the 
last two ground with a little sugar. 

POUDRE DE FLEURS D'ORANGES. 
Prep. Starch powder 25 lbs. ; orange flowers 1 
lb. ; mix in a covered chest ; stir 2 or 3 times 
a day, and repeat the process with fresh flowers a 
second and a third time. 

POUDRE DE FRANGIPANE. Prep. Pbu- 
dre de fleurs d'oranges and poudre de chipre, of 
each 6 lbs. ; essence of ambergris 1 oz. ; civet 
powdered with sugar ^ dr. ; mix well. Ash gray. 

POUDRE DE JASMINE. As poudre de 
fleurs d'oranges, using jasmine flowers. 

POUDRE DE JONQUILLE. As the last, 
using jonquilles. 

POUDRE KUSIQUE. Prep. Nitre and sul- 
phur, of each 50 parts ; powdered charcoal and 
antimony, of each 1 part ; mix and divide into 
doses of 2 grammes, and put three doses in each 
packet. Given to dogs in a ball of butter, to pre- 
vent the disorders to which they are liable. A pop- 
ular French nostrum. 

POUDRE DE ROSES. Prep. 1. {Poudre 
de Roses communes.) As poudre de fleurs d'or- 
anges, but leaving the box open, and changing the 
flo^yers in 24 hours. — 2. (Poudre de Roses Mus- 
quees.) As the last, but using musk roses and 
shutting the chest. 

*3^* All the above perfumed powders are used 
as cosmetics for the hair. 

POULTICE. Syn. Cataplasm. Cataplas- 
HA. {Lat., from Kara-nXaaaw, to spread like a plas- 



ter.) Poultices are external applications used to 
promote suppuration, allay pain and inflammation, 
resolve tumors, &.c. Tlie following are the poul- 
tices of the pharmacopoeieuj : — 

POULTICE, CHARCOAL. Syn. Cat. Car- 
BONIS LiGNi. Prep. (P. D.) Charcoal recently 
ignited and cooled in a close vessel, mixed with 
simple poultice. In fetid and gangrenous sores, 
frequently renewed. 

POULTICE, HEMLOCK. Syn. Cataplas- 
MA CoNii. Prep. (P. L.) Extract of hemlock 
§ij ; water 1 pint ; dissolve and thicken with lin- 
seed meal. In painful nipples, cancer, glandular 
tumors, irritable sores, «fec. 

POULTICE, LINSEED. Syn. Cat. Linl 
Prep. (P. L.) Linseed meal made into a stiffs paste 
with water. Used to promote suppuration. A 
little oil should be added, and some smeared over 
the surface as well, to prevent its getting hard. 
*** For small gatherings, as of the finger, a little 
chewed bread and butter is an efiicient and con- 
venient substitute. 

POULTICE, MUSTARD. Syn. Cat. Si- 
NAPis. Prep. (P. L.) Equal parts of flour of 
mustard and linseed meal, made into a poultice 
with hot vinegar. As a powertul countei -irritant, 
stimulant, and rubefacient ; in low fevers, &c. It 
should not be left on long enough to fcise a blister. 

POULTICE, YEAST. Syn. Cat. Fermentl 
Prep. (P. L.) Flour lb. j ; yeast ^ pint ; mix and 
apply a gentle heat till they begin to swell. In 
gangrenous or foul ulcers, &c. 

POUNCE. Powdered gum sandarach. (For 
Liquid pounce see Indelible Ink.) 

POWDER, ALOES. The powdered Socotrine 
aloes of the shops is mostly a factitious article 
made by grinding together equal parts of Cape and 
hepatic aloes. (See Aloes.) 

POWDER; ALOES, (COMP.) Syn. Pulvis 
Aloes compositus. Prep. (P. L.) Aloes §iss ; 
guaiacum resin fj ; compound cinnamon powder 
§ss ; powder and mix. Purgative and sudorific. 
Dose. 10 to 20 grs. 

POWDER, ANTIMONIAL. Syn. Fever 
Powder. James's do. Pulvis Antimonii comp. 
(P. L.) P. Antimonialis, (P. E. & D.) P. Jacobl 
P. Febrifugus Jacobl Prep. (P. L.) Sesqui- 
sulphuret of antimony lb. j ; hartshorn shavings 
lb. ij ; powder, mix ; throw them into a red-hot 
crucible, and stir constantly until vapor no longer 
arises ; cool, powder, put it into a crucible with a 
perforated cover, and calcine at a red heat for 2 
hours ; reduce the residue to fine powder. Dose. 
3 to 8 or 10 grs. as a febrifuge and diaphoretic, in 
fevers, rheumatic affections, and chronic skin 
diseases. It is a very uncertain and variable prep- 
aration. (See Antimonious Acid.) *** A fac- 
titious article, made by adding 1 oz, of tartar emet- 
ic to 18 or 19 oz. of burnt hartshorn, is frequently 
sold in the shops for antimonial powder. 

POWDER, AROxMATIC. Syn. Pulv. Aro- 
maticus. Prep. (P. E.) Cinnamon, cardamom 
seeds, and ginger, equal parts ; powder and mix. 
Aromatic and carminative. Dose. 10 to 30 grs. 

POWDER, ASARABACCA. Syn. Pulv. 
AsARi CoMP. Prep. (P. D.) Asarabacca leaves 
1] ; lavender flowers 5j ; both dried ; mix and 
powder. Used as an errhine in headache and oph- 
thalmia. (See Asarabacca Snuff.) 



POW 



486 



POW 



POWDER, BASILIC. Syn. Royal Powder. 
PuLV. Basilicus. Prep. Scammony, calomel, 
cream of tartar, and cerussa antimonii, (antimonic 
acid.) equal parts ; powder and mix. The com- 
pound powder of scammony is now universally 
substituted. 

POWDER, CHALK, (COMPOUND.) Syn. 
PuLv. Cret^ Comp., (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. 
L.) Prepared chalk lb. ss ; cinnamon §iy ; tor- 
mentil and gum acacia, of each §iij ; long pepper 
fss ; powder and mix. Aromatic, astringent, and 
antacid ; in atonic diarrhoea. Dose. 10 to 30 grs. 
*^* The following form is used by many whole- 
sale houses : prepared chalk 4 lbs. ; powdered 
cassia 2 lbs. ; do. calamus aromaticus | lb. ; do. 
gum 1^ lbs. ; long pepper \ lb. ; mix. 

POWDER, CHALK, (WITH OPIUM.) Syn. 
PuLv. Cret^ Comp. cum Opio, (P. L. & D.) Pulv. 
Cret^ Opiatus, (P. E.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Cora- 
pound chalk powder §viss ; powdered opium 9iv ; 
mix. — 2. (Wholesale.) Compound chalk powder 
2H oz., (avoird. ;) powdered opium 3iv, (troy ;) 
mix. Dose. 10 to 30 grs. in diarrhcsa. 

POWDER, CINNAMON, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Aromatic Powder. Pulv. Cinnamoni Comp. 
(P. L.) P. Aromaticus, (P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Cinnamon §ij ; cardamoms §iss ; ginger §j ; long 
pepper §ss ,^powder and mix. Dose. 10 to 30 
grs. ; as an "aromatic and carminative. ^^^ In 
the powder of the shops cassia is almost universal- 
ly substituted for cinnamon. 

POWDER, COLOCYNTH, (PULP.) A fac- 
titious article is met with in trade, made by grind- 
ing bryony root 1 lb. ; with colocynth seeds 3 lbs. ; 
adding a very small quantity of gamboge. 

POWDER, CRYSTAL. From quartz, like 
Powdered Glass. Used to make glass and as a 
dryer for paints. 

POWDER, CURRIE. Syn. It^dian Currie 
Powder. Prep. 1. Coriander seeds and black 
pepper, of each 8 lbs. ; turmeric and cumin seeds, 
of each 4 lbs. ; (all in powder,) mix. ^:^^ This 
receipt is employed by a wholesale house that does 
very largely in currie powder. — 2. Coriander seeds 
\\ lb. ; black pepper 3 oz. ; cayenne do. 1 oz. ; 
turmeric and cumin seeds, of each \ lb. ; fenu- 
greek seed i oz. ; mix. — 3. To No. 1, add cayenne 
\ lb. Used as a sauce and condiment. 

POWDER, FILTERING. Pure clay or ful- 
ler's earth, dried by a gentle heat, and ground to 
powder. Used to filter and bleach oils. (See 
Filtration.) 

POWDER, FLY. Prep. White arsenic 4 oz. ; 
white sugar 6 lbs. ; rose pink 1 oz. ; mix, and put 
6 drs. in each paper. Used to kill flies. *,^* It 
IS poisonous, and should be employed with great 
caution, especially where there are children. 

POWDER, ESCHAROTIC. Syn. Pulv. 
EsciiAROTicA Arsenicalis. Poudre Caustique 
Du Freres Cosme ou de Rousselot. Prep. (P. 
Cod.) Finely powdered cinnabar and dragon's 
olood, of each 16 grs. ; do. arsenious acid 8 grs. ; 
mix Used to cauterize cancerous wounds, but 
should bo applied with great caution, and only to 
a Hmall surface. It is made into a paste with the 
saliva when used, and is hence called Arsenical 
Paste, (Pasta Arsenicalis.) 

POWDERS, GINGER BEER. Prep. Pow- 
dered white sugar 2 dr. ; powdered ginger 5 grs. ; 



carbonate of soda 26 grs. ; mix, and wrap in blue 
paper ; tartaric acid 30 grs. ; wrap in white paper 
For use dissolve each separately in half a glass of 
water, mix, and drink while effervescing. 

POWDER, HAIR. Starch powdered and sifted 
very fine, and scented at pleasure. (See Poudre.) 

POWDERS, INK. Prep. Aleppo galls 3 lbs. ; 
copperas (dry but not calcined) 1 lb. ; gum arable 
6 oz. ; white sugar 2 oz. ; all in powder ; mix. 
*5^* 1 pint of boiling water poured on 1^ or 2 oz., 
makes a pint of ink. 

POWDER, IPECACUANHA, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Dover's Powder. Pulv. Do- 
verl p. Ipecacuanha Comp., (P. L. E. & D.) 
Prep. 1. (P. L.) Powdered ipecacuanha and 
hard opium, of each 3j ; do. sulphate of potash §j ; 
mix. — 2. (Wholesale.) Powdered ipecacuanha 
and opium, of each 1 lb. ; do. sulphate of potash 8 
lbs. ; mix. A powerful and valuable sudorific. 
Dose. 5 to 15 grs. ; in inflammatory affections, 
rheumatisms, colds, &.c. 

POWDER, JALAP, (COMP.) Syn. Pulv. 
Jalapa Comp. (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Jalap §iij ; cream of tartar ^vj ; ginger 3ij ; all in 
powder ; mix. Dose. 20 to 60 grs. as a purgative 
in habitual costiveness, dropsies, &c. 

POWDER, KINO, (COMP.) Syn. Pulv. 
Kino Comp. Prep. (P. L.) Kino 3xv ; cinna- 
mon ^ss ; hard opium 3j ; powder and mix well. 
Dose. 5 to 20 grs. in diarrhoea, &c. 

POWDER, MERCURIAL. Syn. Quick- 
silver WITH CHALK. HYDRARGYRUM CUM CR^TA, 

(P. L. E. & D.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Mercury §iij ; 
prepared chalk ^v ; triturate till the globules dis- 
appear. Dose. 5 to 30 grs. as a mild mercurial. 
*** " When pure, part is evaporated by heat ; 
what remains is colorless, and totally soluble in 
acetic acid with effervescence ; this solution is not 
colored by sulphureted hydrogen. These sub- 
stances can scarcely be so diligently triturated that 
no globules shall be visible." (P. L.) As common- 
ly met with, this powder contains too little mercu- 
ry. When properly prepared, it effervesces when 
digested in cold dilute acetic acid, and the dark 
undissolved portion when dried should be equal to 
about I of the weight of the powder employed ; it 
should also be totally dissipated by heat, without 
incandescence, and readily and entirely soluble in 
nitric acid ; when examined by the microscope it 
should exhibit minute globules of mercury unmixed 
with foreign matter. The Dublin Ph. orders pre- 
cipitated chalk. 

II. (Tyson.) Calomel ^'v; liquor of potassa 
f ^vj or q. s. ; rub together, add liquor of ammonia 
§ss, and again triturate ; decant the clear, well 
wash and gently dry the bluish powder, and mix 
it with twice its weight of prepared chalk. Stronger 
than the former. 

III. {Mercury with Magnesia, Hydrargyrum 
cum Magnesia, P. D.) Mercury and manna, of 
each 8 parts ; triturate together (adding enough 
water to make a paste) till the globules disappear, 
then add carbonate of magnesia 1 part, mix, and 
further add warm water 64 parts ; again well mix, 
and after repose decant the clear ; repeat the 
washing withj"resh water a second and third time, 
then add 3 parts more of carbonate of magnesia, 
mix well, and dry on bibulous paper. Uses and 
dose the same as of mercury and chalk. 



POW 



487 



POW 



IV. (Quicksilver and Sugar. Mercurius Sac- 
charatus.) Quicksilver and white sugar, of each 
§j ; oil of tansy 3ss ; triturate till the globules dis- 
appear. Dose. 3), as a vermifuge. 

POWDER, PEARL, (COSMETIC.) Prep. 
Pure pearl white, {trisnitrate of bismuth,) and 
French chalk scraped fine by Dutch rushes, equal 
parts , mix. Some add more French chalk. A 
skin cosmetic. This is preferable to pearl white 
alone, from being more adhesive. 

POWDER, PLATE. Prep.—\. Quicksilver 
with chalk 1 oz. ; prepared chalk 7 oz. ; mix. — 
2. Polisher's putty, and burnt hartshorn, of each 
i lb. ; prepared chalk 1 lb. Used to clean and 
polish plate. 

POWDER, PLATE BOILING. Prep. Cream 
of tartar, common salt, and alum, equal parts ; mix. 
A little of this powder, added to the water in which 
plate is boiled, gives it a silvery whiteness. 

POWDER, PLUMMER'S. Syn. ^thiops 
Plummeri. Prep. Calomel, and sulphuret of an- 
timony, equal parts. Alterative. 

POWDER, PORTLAND, (DUKE OF.) Syn. 
PuLV. Dacis PoRTLANDi.E. Prep. Roots of gen- 
tian and birthwort ; tops and leaves of germander, 
ground pine, and lesser centaury, of each equal 
parts ; powder and mix. For gout. 

POWDER, RHUBARB, (COMP.) Syn. 
Gregory's Powder. Pulv. Rh^i Comp. Prep. 
(P. E.) Magnesia ib. j ; rhubarb ^iv ; ginger §ij ; 
all in fine powder ; mix, and preserve it in a cork- 
ed bottle. An excellent antacid, stomachic, and 
mild purgative. Dose. 20 to 30 grs. 

POWDER, SCAMMONY, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Basilic Powder. Royal do. Pulv. Ba- 
siLicus. P. ScAMMONii CoMP., (P. L. E. and D.) 
Prep. 1. (P. L.) Scammony, and hard extract 
of jalap, of each fij ; ginger ^ss ; powder and mix. 
Dose. 10 to 20 grs. — 2. (P. E.) Scammony, and 
bitartrate of potash, equal parts; triturate together 
to a very fine powder. Dose. 15 to 30 grs Both 
are used as cathartics in worms, especially for 
children. 

POWDERS, SCENT. Prep. 1. Corianders, 
orris root, rose leaves, and calamus aromaticus, of 
each 4 oz. ; lavender flowers 8 oz. ; rhodium wood 
1 dr. ; musk 20 grs. ; mix, and reduce to coarse 
powder. — 2. Corianders, orris, calamus aromaticus, 
and red roses, of each 1 oz. ; lavender flowers 2 
oz. ; mace and cloves, of each 1 dr. ; essential oil 
of almonds 10 drops ; mix as last. — 3. As last, but 
substitute musk 3 grs. for oil of almonds. Used to 
fill scent bags, and for boxes, «&c. 

POWDERS, SEIDLITZ. Prep. 1. Tartrate 
of soda 3ij ; carbonate of do. 9ij ; mix, and put it 
in a blue paper ; tartaric acid 35 grs., to be put in 
white paper. For ^ pint of water, as ginger-beer 
powders. Laxative. — 2. {In one bottle.) Tartrate 
of soda 12 oz. ; carbonate of do. 4 oz. ; tartaric 
acid 3i oz. ; white sugar 1 lb. ; all in fine powder ; 
dry each separately by a gentle heat, add essence 
of lemon 20 drops ; mix well, pass it through a 
sieve, and put it at once into clean dry bottles. 
Dose. A dessert-spoonful to a glass of water. 

POWDER, SENNA. (Battlei/s Green.) Sen- 
na leaves dried and heated till they turn yellow, 
then powdered along with (blue) charcoal, q. s. to 
give a green color. 

POWDER, SILVERING. Prep. 1. Silver 



dust (fine) 20 grs. ; alum 30 grs. ; cream of tartar, 
and common salt, of each ^ oz. ; powder and mix. 
— 2. Silver dust 1 oz. ; common salt and sal am- 
moniac, of each 4 oz. ; corrosive sublimate \ oz. ; 
mix as last. Used to silver copper previously well 
cleaned, by friction, adding a little water to form 
a paste. 

POWDERS, SODA. Syn. Effervescing 
Powders. Saline do. Aerated Soda do. Prep. 
Carbonate of soda 30 grs. in each blue paper ; tar- 
taric acid 25 grs. in each white paper ; dissolve 
each separately in ^ of a glass of water, mix, and 
drink immediately. A cooling, wholesome sum- 
mer beverage. *^* Midgeley's Soda Powders 
are made by adding § of a grain of tartarized anti- 
mony to each paper of acid. Refrigerant and dia- 
phoretic. 

POWDERS, SPRUCE BEER. As ginger- 
beer powders, substituting essence of spruce 3 or 
4 drops, for the powdered ginger. 

POWDER, TIN. Sf/n. Tin Filings. Grain 
Tin. Pulvis Stanni, (P. E. and D.) Prep. 1. 
(P. E.) Melt tin in an iron vessel, pour it into an 
earthenware mortar heated a little above its melt- 
ing point, and triturate briskly as the metal cools, 
then sift the product and repeat the process. — 2. 
Pour melted tin into a wooden box, the inside of 
which is rubbed with chalk, and shake ''"'olently 
till the metal is reduced to powder, then sift as be- 
fore. Dose. 2 to 4 drs., as a vermifuge. *^* Pol- 
ishers' putty, colored with ivory black, is frequently 
substituted for this powder, and hence arise the 
ill effects that sometimes follow its use. 

POWDERS, TOOTH. Prep. 1. Red bark, 
and Armenian bole, of each 1 oz. ; powdered cin- 
namon, and bicarbonate of soda, of each ^ oz, ; oil 
of cinnamon 2 or 3 drops ; all in fine powder ; 
mix. (Lancet.) — 2. Substitute cassia for cinna- 
mon, and cream of tartar, carbonate of magnesia, 
or prepared chalk, for bicarbonate of soda. — 3. 
(Grosvenor's.) Rosepink 3 lbs. ; orris powder ^ 
lb. ; oyster shells 2^ lbs. ; oil of rhodium 25 drops ; 
as above. — 4. (Asiatic dentifrice.) Prepared red 
coral 8i lbs. ; Venetian red | lb. ; ochre and pum- 
ice-stone, of each 1^ lb. ; China musk 30 grs. ; all 
in fine powder ; mix. — 5. (Hemefs dentifrice.) 
Cuttlefish bones 6 oz. ; cream of tartar 1 oz. ; or- 
ris root ^ oz. ; as last. — 6. (RuspinVs dentifrice.) 
Cutttefish bones 8 oz. ; roach alum and orris root, 
of each 1 oz. ; cream of tartar 2 oz. ; oil of rho- 
dium 6 drops ; as before. (See Cosmetics.) 
POWDER, TRAGACANTH, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Pulv. Tragacanth^ Comp., (P. L. and E.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Tragacanthi, gum arabic, and starch, 
of each ^iss ; white sugar §iij ; powder and mix. 
Demulcent, and as a vehicle. 

POWDER, VERMIFUGE.. Prep. 1. (Col- 
lier.) Powdered jalap and scammony, of each 3j; 
cream of tartar 3ij ; Ethiop's mineral 3iij ; mix. 
Dose. 10 to 20 grs., for children.— 2. (E. H.) 
Scammony and calomel, of each 3j ; rhubarb 
3iij ; all in fine powder ; mix. Dose 15 to 30 grs. 
or more. 

POWDER, VIOLET. Prep. 1. Powdered 
starch 28 lbs. ; do. orris root 1 lb. ; essence of ber- 
gamotte \ oz. ; oil of rhodium i dr. ; mix and pass 
through a sieve. — 2. Powdered starch scented with 
a little bergamotte. Used as a dusting powder in. 
excoriations, and for children. 



PRA 



488 



PRI 



POWDER, WARWICK, (EARL OF.) Syn. 
PuLV. CoMiTis Warwicensis. Prep. Scammony 
4 oz. ; diaphoretic antimony 2 oz. ; cream of tar- 
tar 1 oz. ; all in fine powder ; mix. 

POX, CHICKEN. Syn. Waterpox. Vari- 
cella. (Dim. of Variola.) An eruptive skin 
disease, consisting of smooth vesicles of various 
sizes, which afterwards become white and straw 
colored, and about the fourth day break and scale 
off. In hot weather the discharge sometimes be- 
comes purulent, and at others the eruption is at- 
tended with considerable fever. The treatment 
consists in the adoption of a light vegetable diet, 
and in the administration of mild aperients and 
cooling drinks. 

POX, COW. Syn. Vaccinia. Variola Vac- 
cina. This disease was proposed as a substitute 
and preventive of smallpox, by Dr. Jenner in 1798. 
The success which has followed its artificial pro- 
duction has nearly led to the extinction of small- 
pox in England. The process of vaccination is 
similar to that of inoculation for the smallpox, be- 
fore noticed. About the third day the puncture 
usually becomes red and elevated, and continues 
to enlarge and become vesicular, until at about the 
8th or 9th day, it is at its height, and the vesicle is 
surrounded with a florid areola. About the elev- 
enth or twelfth day these symptoms decline ; the 
centre of the pustule becomes brown, and a dark 
scale gradually forms and separates, leaving the 
arm as heretofore. This disease seldom requires 
medical treatment ; but should febrile symptoms 
come on, an aperient may be given. 

POX, SMALL. Syn. Variola. (From va- 
rius, changing color, because of its action on the 
skin.) This disease comes on with the usual symp- 
toms of inflammatory fever. About the third day, 
red spots, resembling flea bites, make their appear- 
ance on the face and head, and gradually extend 
over the whole body. About the fifth day small 
circular vesicles, depressed in the centre, surround- 
ed by an areola, and containing a colorless fluid, 
begin to form, when the feverish symptoms abate ; 
about the sixth day the throat becomes sore ; about 
the eighth day the face is swollen, and about the 
eleventh day the pustules acquire the size of a pea, 
and cease to enlarge, the matter which they con- 
tain becomes opaque and yellow, a dark central 
spot forms on each, the swelling of the face^ sub- 
sides, and secondary symptoms of fever come on ; 
the pustules become rough, break and scab over, 
and a dark spot remains for some days, often fol- 
lowed by permanent indentation. At the end of 
the sixteenth or eighteenth day, the symptoms 
usually disappear. In the confluent smallpox, the 
pustules coalesce, the eruption is irregular in its 
progress, and the inflammatory symptoms are more 
severe. The treatment of ordinary cases of small- 
pox resembles that mentioned above for chicken- 
pox. When great irritability exists, small doses of 
morphia, opium, or camphor, may bo administered, 
and obstinate vomiting arrested by effervescing sa- 
line draughts. The application on the third day 
of a mask formed of thick muslin, covered with 
mercurial ointment, and having holes cut out for 
the nostrils, eyes, and mouth, will cftectually pre- 
vent " pitlinfT." (Dr. Stewardson.) (^old leaf is 
also applied f^or the same purpose. 

PRADIER'S CATAPLASM. Prep. Balm 



of Mecca 3vj ; rectified spirit of wine f xvj ; dis- 
solve ; red cinchona bark, sarsaparilla, and sage, 
of each f j ; saffron ^ss ; rectified spirit of wine 
fxxxij ; digest for 48 hours, filter, mix the two li- 
quors, and add twice their weight of lime water. In 
gout, f ^ij sprinkled on the surface of a hot linseed- 
meal poultice sufficiently large to surround the af- 
fected part. *^* The Eniperor Napoleon gave 
^£2500 for this receipt. 

PRECIPITATE, GREEN. Syn. Mercu- 

RIUS PRiECIPITATUS ViRIDlS. LaCERTA ViRIDIS- 

Prep. Quicksilver §j ; nitric acidf^iss; dissolve; 
copper §j ; nitric acid f §j ; water f §iss ; dissolve ; 
mix the solutions, evaporate to dryness, and cal 
cine till red fumes cease to arise. Caustic. 

PRECIPITATE, WHITE. Syn. Cosmetic 
Mercury. Ammoniated Mercury. Muriate of 
Ammonia and Mercury. Ammoniated Submuri- 
ate of Mercury. Amivioniacal Oxychloruret 

OF DO. ChLORAMIDE OF DO. ChLORO-AMIDIDE OF 

DO. Mercurius Pr^cipitatus Albus, (P. L 
1745.) Calx Hydrargyri Alba, (P. L. 1788.) 
Hydrargyrus Pr^ecipitatus Albus, (P. L. 1809.) 
Hydrargyrum Pr^cipitatum Album, (P. L. 1824, 
& P. E.) Hydrargyri Ammonio Chloridum, (P 
L. 1836.) Hydrargyri Submurias Ammoniatum, 
(P. D.) Prep. I. (P. L.) Bichloride of mercury 
§vj ; distilled water 3 quarts ; dissolve, and add 
liquor of ammonia f fviij ; wash and dry the pre- 
cipitate. 

II. Corrosive sublimate and sal ammoniac, of 
each §vij ; dissolve in water 3 quarts, and precipi- 
tate with liquor of potassa. Some use only 4 oz. 
of sal ammoniac. 

Remarks. A white, inodorous solid or powder, 
insoluble in alcohol, partially soluble in boiling wa- 
ter, and wholly dissolved by sulphuric, nitric, and 
muriatic acids, without effervescence. It is " to- 
tally dissipated by heat. Digested with acetic acid, 
it yields no yellow or blue precipitate with iodide 
of potassium. Its powder triturated with lime wa- 
ter does not become black. When heated with so- 
lution of potash it exhales ammonia, and assumes 
a yellow color." (P. L.) Used to make an oint- 
ment, in various skin diseases, &c. 

PRESERVES AND PRESERVING. (See 
Fruits, Jellies, Jams, Marmalades, Conserves, 
&c.) 

PRINTING INK. Syn. Encre dTmprimerie, 
{Fr.) Buchdruckerfarbe, (Ger.) Prep. — 1. 
The varnish. 10 or 12 gallons of linseed oil are 
set over the fire in an iron pot, capable of contain- 
ing at least as much more, to allow of its swelling 
up without running over. When it boils it is kept 
stirred with an iron ladle, and if it does not take 
fire of itself soon after the smoke begins to rise, it 
is kindled by means of a piece of burning paper, 
stuck in the cleft end of a long stick. The pot is 
then shortly afterwards removed from the fire, and 
the oil is suffered to burn for about half an hour, 
or till a sample of the varnish cooled upon a pallet 
knife, may be drawn info strings of about half an 
inch long, between the fingers. The flame is now ex- 
tinguished by the application of a closely-fitting tin 
cover, and as soon as the froth of the ebullition has 
subsided, black rosin is added, in the proportion of 
() lbs. to every 6 quarts of oil thus treated ; the 
mixture is next stirred until the rosin is dissolved, 
when 1| lbs. of brown soap, cut into slices, is fur- 



PRO 



489 



PRU 



Ther added, {cautiously,) and the ingredients are 
again stirred with the spatula until united, the pot 
being once more placed over the fire to promote 
the combination. When this is etfected, the var- 
nish is removed from the heat, and after thorough 
stirring, covered over and set aside. *«* It is ne- 
cessary to prepare two kinds of this varnish, vary- 
ing in consistence, from more or less boiling, to be 
occasionally mixed together as circumstances may 
require ; that which answers well in hot weather 
being too thick in cold, and vice versa. Large 
characters also require a thinner ink than small 
ones. A good varnish may be drawn into threads 
like glue, and is very thick and tenacious. The 
oil loses from 10 to 13§ by boiling. — 2. Maklng 
THE Ink. a. {Black.) Finely-powdered indigo and 
Prussian blue, of each 2^ oz. ; best mineral lamp- 
black 4 lbs. ; do. vegetable lampblack 3^ lbs. ; put 
them into any suitable vessel, and mix in gradually 
the warm varnish. The mixture must now be 
submitted to careful grinding, either in a mill or 
with a slab and muller. On the large scale steam 
power is employed for this purpose. — 6. {An ex- 
temporaneous superfine ink.) Balsam of copaiba 
(pure) 9 oz. ; lampblack 3 oz. ; indigo and Prus- 
sian blue, of each 5 dr. ; Indian red | oz. ; yellow 
soap (dry) 3 oz. ; grind to an impalpable smooth- 
ness. Canada balsam may be substituted for bal- 
sam of copaiba where the smell of the latter is ob- 
jectionable, but it dries quicker. 

Remarks. Old linseed oil is preferable to neu>. 
Yellow rosin soap is preferred for black and dark 
colored inks, and white curd soap for light ones. 
Vegetable lampblack takes the most varnish. The 
addition of indigo and Prussian blue is to correct 
the brown color of the black. The Indian red is 
added to increase the body and richness of the co- 
lor. Some persons find much trouble in grinding 
up the indigo, from its running into a mass and 
clogging the mill ; but this may be avoided by 
mixing it as above, or by first grinding it with a 
sufficient quantity of Canada balsam or copaiba, 
and using a proportionate quantity, of varnish, and 
that of a little thicker consistence. The French 
employ nut oil instead of linseed. i\Ir. Savage ob- 
tained tlie large medal of the Society of Arts for 
his black ink made as above. It is unrivalled. 
%* Colored inks are made in a similar way. The 
pigments used are — Carmme, lakes, vermilion, 
chrome red, red lead, orange red, Indian red, Ve- 
netian red, orange clirome, chrome yellow, burnt 
terra di sienna, gall stone, Roman ochre, yellow 
do., verdigris, Scheele's green, Schweinfurth's do., 
blues and yellows mixed for greens, indigo, Prus- 
sian blue, Antwerp do., cobalt do., charcoal do., 
lustre, umber, sepia, «Si:-c. &.c. (See Savage's " Prep- 
aration OF Printing Ink," and the " Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica.") 

PRINTS, ACKERMAN'S LIQUOR FOR. 
Prep. Best pale glue and white curd soap, of each 
4 oz. ; hot water 3 pints ; dissolve, then add pow- 
dered alum 2 oz. Used to size prints and pictures 
before coloring them. 

PRO METH FANS. Prep. Chlorate of potash 
ana loaf sugar, equal parts ; vermilion to color ; 
powder each separately, mix, and make a stiff 
paste with a weak solution of gum arable. This 
paste is divided into small pieces. A number of 
small oval glass beads are now made from a small 
^ 62 



thin glass tube by means of a candle, one end of 
which is closed while soft. These are dipped while 
still hot into sulphuric acid, and the open end is then 
closed by having the flame directed upon it by a 
blowpipe. A slip of paper 2 inches long and 1 
wide is next taken, and one of the corners cut off. 
A little gum arable is applied, and the paper is 
rolled into a small cylinder, leaving a hollow at 
the gummed end. Into this hollow, one of tho 
glass beads, surrounded with a little of the red mix- 
ture, is then gently squeezed with the fingers, and 
finished off by smoothing the external surface with 
the finger moistened with gum water. The whole 
is now dried. Used to procure a light. The bead 
containing the oil of vitriol at the loaded eud is 
broken by a smart blow, and on corning into con- 
tact with the chlorate mixture, causes it to barst 
into flame. *^* The bead and red paste togethei 
should not be larger than a barley corn. (See 
Chlorate Matches.) 

PROTEINE, (from irpwrtw.), / take the first 
place, because it is the original matter from which 
albumen, caseine, and fibrine are derived.) A 
compound of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxy- 
gen, discovered by Mulder. It is obtained when 
albumen, caseine, or fibrine is dissolved in ir-'^der- 
ately strong liquor of potassa, the solution he?.ted 
for some time to 120°, and acetic acid added ; a 
gelatinous precipitate forms, which, after being 
washed and dried, is proteine. It is insoluble in 
water and alcohol. With sulphuric acid it forms 
sulphoproteic acid, and with chlorine, chloropro- 
teic acid. When digested in nitric acid xantho- 
proteic acid is formed along with ammonia and 
oxalic acid. *^* Proteine is produced by vegeta- 
bles alone, and cannot be formed by animals, al- 
though the animal org^anism possesses the power 
of converting one modification of proteine into an- 
other, fibrine into albumen, or ^fce versa, or both into 
caseine. Vegetable albumen, caseine, Ad fibrine, 
are therefore the only sources of proteine for ani- 
mal life, and consequently of nutrition, strictly so 
called, or the growth in mass of the body. (Lie- 
big, Animal Chem. p. 106.) 

PRUSSIAN BLUE. Syn. Berlin Blue. 
Prussiate of Iron. Ferro-prussiate of do. 
Cyanuret of do. Ferro-cyanide of do. Per- 

CYANIDE of do. SESaUIFERROCYANIDE OF DO. 

Cyanure ferroso-ferrique, (Berzelius.) Eisen- 
BLAUsauREs EisENOXYD ; Berlinerblau, {Gcr.) 
Bleu de Prusse ; Prussiate de Fer, {Fr.) Fer- 

RI PERCYANIDUM, (P. L.) Do. CyANURETUM, (P. 

D.) Do. ferro-sesquicyanidum. Prep. I. Pre- 
cipitate the crude but clear solution of prussiate of 
potash {blood lye) by a mixed solution of 2 parts 
of alum, and X part of green sulphate of iron. 
The dingy green precipitate that falls, gradually 
becomes blue by absorption of atmospheric oxy- 
gen, which is promoted by exposure and agitation 
of the liquor. As soon as it has acquired its full 
color, the whole must be allowed tto repose, the 
clear portion decanted, and the sediment repeated- 
ly washed with water, drained, and dried, at first 
in a stove, but afterwards on chalk stones. 

II. Partly saturate the free alkali in the crude 
lye, with dilute sulphuric acid, before precipitation. 
Very superior. 

III. Repeatedly digest and wash the precipitate 
obtained by either of the above processes, in verj 



PRU 



490 



PRU 



dilute muriatic acid, and then in pure water; 
drain and dry. Superior. 

IV. (Paris Blue.) Neutralize the solution of 
prussiate of potash above, with dilute sulphuric 
acid, and precipitate with a solution of any persalt 
of iron, (as the persulphate, nitrate, sesquichloride, 
or peracetate ;) well wash, and dry the precipi- 
tate. A very rich and intense color. 

V. (Hochstatter.) Crystallized prussiate of pot- 
ash and green vitriol, of each 6 parts ; dissolve 
each separately in water 15 parts ; then add oil 
of vitriol 1 part ; fuming muriatic acid 24 parts ; 
agitate well. After some hours, treat the whole 
with chloride of lime 1 part, dissolved in water 80 
parts, and strained, observing to stop the addition 
of the latter solution as soon as an effervescence 
from the escape of chlorine gas is observed ; after 
standing some hours, thoroughly wash the precip- 
itate, and dry it ; or, instead of the above, at once 
wash the precipitate in dilute nitric acid, till it ac- 
quires a deep-blue color. Product. Of the finest 
quality. 

Remarks. The object of employing alum is to 
prevent or lessen the precipitation of oxide of iron 
by the free alkali iii the blood lye, but a portion 
of alumina is in consequence thrown down with 
the blue, and tends to render it paler, and increase 
the product. The same purpose is effected by 
neutralizing the alkali with dilute sulphuric acid, 
and omitting the alum from the precipitating solu- 
tion ; but in this case, if green copperas is em- 
ployed, it will be necessary to treat it with very 
dilute muriatic acid, to remove the excess of per- 
oxide of iron, before the precipitate acquires its 
full richness of color. The quantity of alum em- 
ployed may be varied according to the shades of 
the intended blue. The quality of Prussian blue 
may be estimated by its color, and by the quanti- 
ty of pot^h or soda required to destroy its blue 
color. I* it effervesces with acids, it contains 
chalk ; and if it forms a paste with boiling water, 
it is adulterated with starch. It is pure, if, " af- 
ter being boiled with dilute muriatic acid, ammo- 
nia throws down nothing from the filtered liquid." 
(P. L.) It has been occasionally used in medi- 
cine, but is principally employed as a pigment. It 
is purgative, and not poisonous. *^* Prussian 
blue is distinguished from indigo by exhibiting a 
coppery tint when broken, but which is removed 
by rubbing with the nail. 

PRUSSIATE OF POTASH. Syn. Ferro- 

PRUSSIATE OF PoTASH. TrIPLE DO. DO. FerRU- 
RETED HydrOCYANATE OF DO. FerrOCYANATE OF 
DO. FerROCYANIDE OF PoTASSIUM. CyaNURE FER- 

roso-potassique, (Berzelius.) Ferrocyanure de 
Potassium ; Prussiate jaune de Potasse, (Fr.) 
Kalium eisencyanur ; Cyaneisen Kalium, (Ger.) 

PoTASSn FERROCYANIDUM, (P. L. «&/ E.) Prep. I. 

Dried blood, horns, or hoofs, 5 parts; good pearl- 
ash 2 parts ; both reduced to coarse powder, mix, 
and inject into an egg-shaped iron pot in a state 
of moderate ignition ; Ktir well with an iron spatu- 
'fa, so as to prevent it running together, and con- 
tinue the calcination till fetid vapors cease to be 
evolved. During the latter part of the process, 
th6f pots should remain covered, and only occasion- 
ally stirred. The calcination is known to be fin- 
ished when flame is no longer seen on stirring the 
mixture. When this is the case, remove the pasty 



mass with an iron ladle, and when cold, dissolve ' 
in water ; filter or defecate, and evaporate, that 
crystals may form on cooling ; redissolve in hot 
water, and cool very slowly, when large and beau- 
tiful yellow crystals will be deposited. *^* The 
greaves obtained from the tallow-chandlers are 
employed as an economical substitute for horns or 
blood, by one of the largest Scotch manufactur- 
ers ; but blood is the best where it can be pro- 
cured, and after that, horns and hoofs. 

II. (L. Thompson.) Potash or pearlash, and 
coke, cinders, or coal, of each 10 parts ; iron turn- 
ings 5 parts ; all in coarse powder ; mix, and ex- 
pose for half an hour to a full red heat in an open 
crucible, stirring occasionally till small jets of pur- 
ple flame are no longer seen, then cool, dissolve 
out the soluble matter, and proceed as above. If 
this solution be precipitated by sulphate of iron, 
and the precipitate brightened by muriatic acid, as 
before described, 25§ of the weight of the pure 
potash employed, will be obtained in Prussian 
blue. 

III. (Pure.) Fuse effloresced commercial prus- 
siate of potash in a glass vessel, dissolve in water, 
neutralize with acetic acid, precipitate with strong 
alcohol, wash the precipitate with a little weak al- 
cohol, redissolve in water, and crystallize. 

Remarks. The yellow ir-ussiate of potash is 
chiefly used in dyeing and calico printing, and in 
chemistry, as a test and a source of prussic acid. 
When pure, it is totally dissolved by water ; loses 
12*6§ of its weight by a gentle heat ; scarcely, if 
at all, alters the color of turmeric ; is precipitated 
deep blue by the sesquisalts of iron, and white by 
zinc ; its ashes dissolved by muriatic acid, are 
again thrown down by ammonia ; it yields 18-7§ 
of sesquioxide of iron. (P. L.) *^* Ferrocya- 
NiDE OF Iron precipitates solutions of antimony, 
bismuth, protoxide of mercury, and zinc, white — 
Cadmium, pale yellowish white — Protoxide of ce- 
rium, white, soluble in acids — Protoxide of copper, 
white, changing to red — Protoxide of iron, white, 
rapidly turning blue — Lead, white, with a pale 
yellowish cast — Protoxide of manganese, white, 
rapidly passing into peach or blood-red — Peroxide 
of viercury, white, turning blue — Oxide of nickel, 
white, turning green — Silver, white, turning brown 
in the light — Protoxide of tin, white, (gelatinous) 
Cobalt, green, turning reddish gray — Peroxide of 
copper, brown-red — Peroxide of iron, dark blue — 
)Deutoxide of manganese, greenish gray — Molyb- 
denum, dark brown — Protoxide of palladium, 
green, (gelatinous) — Tantalum., burnt yellow^ 
Peroxide of tin, yellow, (gelatinous) — Uranium, 
reddish brown, t+t Red Prussiate of Potash 
(ferridcyanide of potassiiun) is distinguished by 
precipitathig solutions of bismuth, (pale,) cad- 
mium, peroxide of mercury, and zinc, (deep,) of a 
yellow color — Protoxide of mercury — Cobalt, 
(dark) — Protoxide of copper, molybdenum, silver, 
and uranium, reddish brown — Peroxide of copper, 
greenish yellow — Protoxide of iron, blue — Man- 
gancse, brown — Nickel, yellowish and green — 
and protoxide of tin, white. It does not aftect so- 
lutions of peroxide of iron. 

PRUSSIC ACID. Hydrocyanic Acid. Aci- 

DUM HYDROCYANIC'UM. Prcp. I. A^'HYDROUS. a, 

(Liebig.) Pure crystallized ferrocyanido of potas- 
sium 15 parts ; water and sulplmric acid of eac!> 



PRU 



49] 



PRU 



9 parts ; distil in a glass retort into a well-cooled 
receiver, containing chloride of calcium in course 
fragments, 5 parts ; stop the process as soon as 
the chloride in the receiver is perfectly covered by 
the distilled fluid, and decant the acid into a bottle 
furnished with a good stopper. Keep it in the 
dark, with the bottle inverted, b. (Gay-Lussac.) 
Treat bicyanide of mercury with strong hydro- 
chloric acid, and pass the vapor first over carbon- 
ate of lime, and then over chloride of calcium. 

II. Dilute, a. (Acidum Hydrocyanicum di- 
lutum.) Sulphuric acid ^iss ; water f §iv ; mix 
in a glass retort, cool, add ferrocyanide of potas- 
sium ^ij ; dissolved in water ^ pint, and distil f^vj 
into a well-cooled receiver, containing f §viij of 
water ; lastly, add f ^vj of water more, or as much 
as may be sufficient, so that a solution of 12-7 grs. 
of nitrate of silver may be accurately saturated by 
100 grs. of the acid. Contains 2^ of real acid. 
h. (Everitt.) Cyanide of silver 48^ grs. ; distilled 
water f ^j ; mix, add 39^ grs. of muriatic acid, 
agitate, and decant the clear into another vial. 
(P. L.) Contains 2g of pure acid. c. (P. D.) Bi- 
cyanide of mercury §j ; muriatic acid f 3vij ; wa- 
ter f ^viij ; distil f ^viij. Sp. gr. 0*998. Contains 
1*6§ of pure acid. d. (Laming.) Cyanide of po- 
tassium 22 grs. ; water f 3vj ; dissolve, add crys- 
tallized tartaric acid 50 grs., dissolved in rectified 
spirit f 3iij ; shake well together, and decant the 
clear: f3j contains 1 gr. of pure acid. e. (P. E.) 
Similar to the P. L., but contains 3'23§ of pure 
acid. /. (Dr. Clark.) Tartaric acid 1 part ; wa- 
ter 40 parts ; dissolve, add 2§ parts of pure cya- 
nide of potassium, agitate, and decant. Contains 
3§ of pure acid, and a little bitartrate of potash. 
g. (Majendie.) Pure anhydrous acid f §j ; water 
f §vj, (or 1 to 8i by weight.) Contains 12§ of 
pure acid, or 6 times as strong as that of the 
P. L. h. (Winckler.) Powdered crystals of prus- 
siate of potash (pure) 120 grs. ; solution of pure 
phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1-25) 240 grs. ; alcohol of 
80§, 480 grs. ; mix in a retort connected with a 
receiver containing 120 grs. of rectified spirit of 
w^ine, infuse for 24 hours, with occasional agita- 
tion, and then distil, adding to the distilled liquid 
sufficient alcohol to make it up to exactly 1^ ok 
Contains 2§ of pure acid. i. (Dr. R. D. Thomson.) 
Dilute sulphuric acid (P. L.) f3ij ; distilled water 
f3vj ; mix, cool, add pure cyanide of lead 43*36 
grs. ; agitate well, and decant the clear. Con- 
tains 2§ of pure acid. k. (Scheele.) Prussian blue 
(pure) §ij ; red oxide of mercury §vj ; distilled 
water f |vj ; boil till the blue turns green, wash 
the sediment with hot water f ^x ; pour the liquid 
upon clean iron filings 3iij ; add oil of vitriol 3j ; 
pour the liquid from the quicksilver that has sepa- 
rated, and distil ^th. The strength of the product 
/aries. An acid of 4§ is usually sold under this 
name ; but the acid prepared as above is generally 
much stronger. 

Remarks. Pure anhydrous prussic acid is a 
most deadly poison ; 1 or 2 drops, either swallowed 
or applied to the skin, being sufficient to cause 
speedy death : even its vapor has a like effect. 
Dilute prussic acid has been taken with apparent 
advantage in chronic coughs, phthisis, and some 
other diseases. The dose of the acid (P. L.) 
may be from 2 to 5 minims 3 or 4 times a day, 
made into a mixture with water flavored with 



^m or sirup. It is also used externally in some 
skin diseases. 

%* Prussic acid, even when dilute, is very 
liable to spontaneous decomposition, and this 
speedily occurs when it is exposed to the light. 
To promote its preservation, it is usual to sur- 
round the bottles containing it with thick purple 
paper, and to keep them inverted in an obscure 
situation. The addition of a very small quantity 
of muriatic acid renders it much less liable to 
change, and is generally made by manufacturers 
for that purpose. But in testing the strength of 
such acid by nitrate of silver, it is necessary to 
deduct the weight of the chloride of silver from 
that of the mixed precipitate. The cyanide of 
silver is soluble in a concentrated solution of 
nitrate of silver, and also in boiling nitric acid ; 
but the chloride is insoluble in either of those 
menstrua. For estimating the strength of the 
commercial acid the following plan, proposed by 
Dr. Ure, will be found very exact and convenient, 
and may be used as a check to tlie above : — To 
100 grains, or any other convenient quantity of 
the acid contained in a small vial, add in suc- 
cession, small quantities of the peroxide of mer- 
cury in fine powder, till it ceases to be dissolved 
on agitation. The weight of the red precipitate 
taken up being divided by four, gives a quotient 
representing the quantity of real prussic acid 
present. By weighing out beforehand, on a piece 
of paper or a watch-glass, 40 or 50 grains of the 
peroxide, the residual weight of it shows at once 
the quantity expended. The operation may be 
always completed in five minutes, for the red pre- 
cipitate dissolves as rapidly in the dilute prussic 
acid, with the aid of slight agitation, as sugar dis- 
solves in water. Should the presence of muriatic 
acid be suspected, then the difference in the vola- 
tility of prussiate and muriate of ammonia may 
be had recourse to with advantage ; the former 
exhaling at a very gentle heat, the latter re- 
quiring a subliming temperature of about 300° 
F. After adding ammonia in slight excess to 
the prussic acid, if we evaporate to dryness at a 
heat of 212°, we may infer from the residuary 
sal ammoniac the quantity of muriatic acid 
present. 

Tests. — 1. It is distinguished by a strong odor 
of bitter almonds. — 2. Neutralized by potash, .and 
tested with a solution of sulphate or tincture of 
iron, it gives a blue precipitate, or one turning 
blue on the addition of dilute sulphuric or muriatic 
acid. — 3. Nitrate of silver gives a white precipi- 
tate, soluble in boiling nitric acid. — 4. Super- 
saturated with potash, it gives a greenish blue 
precipitate with sulphate of copper, which is turn- 
ed white by the cautious addition of muriatic 
acid. — 5. Tincture of guaiacum gives a white 
precipitate, and when a few drops of solution of 
sulphate of copper are added, a blue color is pro- 
duced, which is heightened by adding alcohol. 
(Pagenstecher.) — 6. In cases of poisoning, if the 
above tests cannot be applied, the contents of the 
stomach may be introduced along wiih a little 
sulphuric acid into a retort, and distilled, and the 
reagents applied to the distilled liquor. 

Ant. — 1. Chlorine water, or solution of chloride 
of lime or soda, in doses of 2 or 3 spoonfuls diluted 
with water, frequently ; also apply it externally.— 2 



PUN 



492 



PUT 



Small quantities of ammonia water diluted with 
10 or 12 parts of water ; also the fumes inhaled. — 3. 
The joint administration of carbonate of potash 
and sulphate of iron. This has been lately very 
strongly recommended. *^* Cold affusion should 
be adopted in all cases, and is almost of itself a 
certain cure, if employed before the convulsive 
stage is over ; and it is often successful even 
during the stage of insensibility and paralysis. 
(Herbst.) Artificial respiration should also be at- 
tempted. Unfortunately the poisonous action of 
prussic acid is so rapid that life is usually extinct 
before antidotes can be applied. 

PUFF PASTE. Take a quarter of a peck of 
flour, and rub into it a pound of butter very fine. 
Make it up into a light paste with cold water, 
just stiff enough to work well. Next lay it out 
about as thick as a crown-piece ; put a layer of 
butter all over, then sprinkle on a little flour, 
double it up, and roll it out again. Double and 
roll it with layers of butter three times or more, 
and it will be fit for use. By repeating this pro- 
cess 10 or 12 times, a very light paste will be 
formed. Bake in a moderately quick oven. 

PULVERIZATION OF SALTS. Many 
salts which are pulverized with difficulty, and do 
not dissolve in spirit of wine, are easily transform- 
ed into a fine powder, by agitating their concen- 
trated aqueous solution with a considerable quan- 
tity of spirit of wine ; the disengaged fine c;-ys- 
tallized powder may then be dried, and further 
divided by trituration. (Du Menil.) A large 
number of salts may also be reduced to coarse 
powder by keeping their solutions in a state of 
constant agitation during tiie evaporation. 

PUNCH. Prep.—l. Juice of 3 or 4 lemons ; 
yellow peel of 1 or 2 lemons ; lump sugar | lb. ; 
boiling water 3^ pints ; infuse ^ an hour, strain, 
add porter ^ pint ; rum and brandy, of each | to 

1 pint, (or either alone 1^ to 2 pints,) and add 
more warm water and sugar, if desired weaker or 
sweeter. — 2. {Cold Punch.) Arrack, port wine, 
and water, of each 1 pint ; juice of 4 lemons ; 
white sugar 1 lb. ; mix. — 3. (Gin Punch.) Yel- 
low peel and juice of 1 lemon ; gin | pint ; water 
1| pints ; sherry 1 glass ; mix. — {Iced Punch.) 
Champagne or Rhenish wine 1 quart ; arrack 1 
pint ; juice and yellow peels of ft lemons ; white 
sugar 1 lb. ; soda water 1 or 2 bottles ; ice as 
cream. — 4. {Milk Punch or Verder.) Yellow 
rinds of 2 dozen lemons ; steep for 2 days in rum 
or brandy 2 quarts ; then add spirit 3 quarts 
more ; hot water 3 quarts ; lemon juice 1 quart ; 
loaf sugar 4 lbs. ; 2 nutmegs, grated ; boiling milk 

2 quarts ; mix, and in 2 hours strain through a 
jelly bag. — 5. {Norfolk Punch.) French brandy 
20 quarts ; yellow peels of 30 oranges and 30 
lemons ; infuse for 12 hours ; add 30 quarts of 
cold water, 15 lbs. of lump sugar, and the juice of 
the oranges and lemons ; mix well, strain through 
a hair-sieve, add new milk 2 quarts, and in 6 
weeks bottle. Keeps well. — 6. {Orantre Punch.) 
As No. 1, using oranges, and adding a little 
orange jv^ine. A little Cura^oa, Noyeau, or 
Marcschino, improves it. — 7. {Raspberry Punch.) 
As last, but using raspberry juice or vinegar for 
oranges or lemons. — 8. {Re^enVs Punch.) Strong 
hot green tea, lemon juice, and capillaire, of each 
li pints ; rum, brandy, arrack, and Cura^oa, of 



each 1 pint ; Champagne 1 bottle ; mix, and slice 
a pine-apple into it. — 9. {Tea Punch.) Hot tea 
1 quart ; arrack ^ bottle ; white sugar 6 oz. ; 
juice of 8 lemons; yellow rinds of 4 lemons; 
mix. — 10. {Wine Punch.) Sugar 1 lb. ; yellow 
peel of 3 lemons ; juice of 9 lemons ; arrack 1 
pint ; port or sherry wine (hot) 1 gallon ; cinna- 



mon i oz. ; nutmeg 1 dr. 



*** All the 



above are pleasant intoxicating beverages. (See 
Shrub.) 

PURL. Prep. To warm ale or beer add bitters 
1 wine-glassful, or q. s. Some add spirit. 

PURPLE OF CASSIUS. Syn. Purple Pre- 
cipitate. Cassius' do. Gold Purple. Pourpre 
DE Cassius, {Fr.) Gold-purpur, {Ger.) Aurum 

STANNO PARATUM, (P. Cod.) PuRPURA MINERALIS 

Cassii. Prep. I. Crystallized protochloride of tin 
1 part ; crystallized perchloride of tin 2 parts ; dis- 
solve each separately, mix, and add it to a solution 
of crystallized terchloride of gold 1 part; wash, 
and dry the precipitate. Veiy fine. 

II. (Frick.) Dissolve tin in cold dilute aqua re- 
gia, till the fluid becomes faintly opalescent, then 
take the metal out and weigh it ; dilute largely 
with water, and add simultaneously a dilute solu- 
tion of gold and dilute sulphuric acid, in such pro- 
portion, that the tin in the one shall be to the gold 
in the other, in the ratio of 10 to 36. 

III. Silver 150 parts; gold 20 parts; tin 35-1 
parts ; fuse together under charcoal and borax, 
cool, laminate, and dissolve out the silver with ni- 
tric acid. Used as a purple in porcelain painting, 
and to communicate a ruby red color to glass, 
when melted in open vessels. 

PURPURINE. A coloring p'rinciple found by 
Robiquet and Colin in madder. It dissolves in al- 
cohol, ether, and water, and solutions of alum and 
alkalis. It is also called madder purple. 

PUTREFACTION. Syn. Putrefactio. {Lat., 
from putrefacio, I make rotten.) The spontane- 
ous decomposition of animal and azotized vegeta- 
ble substances, under the joint influence of warmth, 
air, and moisture. The solid and fluid matters are 
resolved into gaseous compounds and vapors, which 
escape, and earthy matters which remain. The 
most striking characteristic of this species of fer- 
mentation or decay, is, the ammoniacal or fetid 
exhalations that accompany it. We have already 
notiq^ed some of the most useful antiseptic process- 
es, (see p. 62,) and shall therefore merely observe 
here, that putrefaction may be prevented by the 
abstraction or exclusion of any of the conditions 
essential to its occurrence. This may be effected 
by — reduction of temperature, — exclusion of at- 
mospheric air, or — the abstraction of moisture. 
Frozen meat may be preserved for an unlimited 
period, while the same substance will scarcely 
keep for more than a few days at the ordinary 
heat of summer. Animal substances will also re- 
main uninjured for a long period if kept in vessels 
from which the air is entirely excluded, as in the 
process which is described below. The third con- 
dition is fulfilled when azotized matter is preserved 
in alcohol or in any similar fluid, or is dried. In 
either case water is abstracted from the surface, 
which then loses its propensity to putrefy, and 
forms an impervious layer, which excludes atmo- 
spheric oxygen from the interior and softer portion 
of the substance. Creosote, alcohol, Ujt itcids, and 



PYR 



493 



PYR 



some of the salts, act in the latter way. One of 
the commonest methods of effecting this purpose, 
is to immerse the substance in alcohol of GO to 70§, 
to which some camphor, ammonia, or common 
salt may be added ; but a cheaper and equally 
efficient plan, is to employ a weak spirit holding a 
little creosote in solution ; a solution of sulphurous 
acid may be substituted for alcohol. Meat im- 
mersed for 1 hour in water holding 5^,'-oth part of 
creosote in solution, may be preserved unchanged, 
even' during summer. In Messrs. Donkin and 
Gamble's patent process, the substances, previous- 
ly parboiled, are placed in small tin cylinders, 
which are then filled up with rich soup ; the lids 
are next soldered on quite air-tight, and a small 
hole afterwards made in the centre ; the cylinders 
are then placed in a bath of brine, and heated to 
the boiling point, to complete the cooking process, 
when the hole in the lid is hermetically sealed, by 
soldering while the vessel still remains boiling hot. 
The ends of the tins on cooling assume a concave 
form from the pressure of the atmosphere, without 
which they cannot be air-tight. The patentees 
expose the canisters prepared as above for at least 
a month to a heat of 100 to 110°, when if the pro- 
cess has failed, putrefaction commences, and the 
ends, instead of remaining concave, bulge and be- 
come convex. This is called the " test." This 
process was invented by M. Appert in France. 
Fish, flesh, and poultry may be thus preserved for 
years in any climate. (See Fermentation, Ani- 
mal Substances, Anatomical Preparations, «Sl-c.) 

PUTTY, GLAZIER'S. Whiting worked up 
with drying oil. 

PUTTY, POLISHER'S. Syn. Potee d'Etain. 
Calcine. Cineres Stannl Prep. — 1. Melt tin, 
rake off the dross as it is formed, and calcine this 
dross till it becomes whitish. — 2. Melt tin 1 oz. 
with an equal weight, or 1^ oz. of lead, and then 
raise the heat so as to render the mixed metal red 
hot, when the tin will be immediately flung out in 
the state of putty. Both are very hard, used for 
polishing glass and japan work, and to color opaque 
white enamel. 

PUZZOLANA. A volcanic ash found at Pom- 
peii, Vesuvius, &.C. Mixed with lime it forms an 
excellent hydraulic cement. A good artificial puz- 
zolene may be made by heating a mixture of 3 
bushels of clay and 1 bushel of slaked lime, for 
some hours, to redness. (M. Bruyere.) 

PYRETHRIN. An acrid resinous principle 
extracted by alcohol and ether from the bark and 
root of pellitory of Spain, (anthemis pyrethrum.) 
It is also soluble in acetic acid. 

PYRO ACIDS. (From wp, fire.) This term 
is applied to several acids that are obtained by the 
action of heat on other acids. — Pvrocitric Acid, 
(Citricic do. Itaconic do.) — Pyrogallic do. — Py- 
rolithic do. — Pyromalic do. — Pyromeconic do. 
— Pyromocic do. — Pyrophosphoric do., (formed 
by exposing a concentrated solution of phosphoric 
acid for some time to a heat of 415°.) — Pykotar- 
taric and Pyruvic do., (obtained together from 
tartaric acid,) are examples of the pyroacids. The 
salts of the pyroacids are also distinguished by the 
prefix pyro. 

PYRODIGITALINA. A semi-solid, poison- 
ous empyreumatic oil, obtained by Dr. Morries by 
the destructive distillation of the dried leaves of 



foxglove. Pyroconia is obtained in the samo 
way. 

PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. Syn. Vinegar of 
Wood. Spirit of do. Smoking Liquor. Essence 
OF Smoke. Acidum Pyrolignosum. (From imp, 
fire, and lignum, wood.) Impure acetic acid ob- 
tained by the destructive distillation of wood in 
close vessels. It comes over along with tar and 
gaseous matter. In this state it is very impure, 
and contains much empyreumatic matter in solu- 
tion ; but by separation from the tar, saturation 
with slaked lime or chalk, defecation, and evapo- 
ration, an impure acetate of lime is obtained, which, 
after being gently heated, to destroy part of its 
empyreumatic matter without injuring its acetic 
acid, is again dissolved and defecated, and then 
precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda, when 
a solution of acetate of soda and a precipitate of 
sulphate of lime are formed by double decomposi- 
tion. The solution is next evaporated to dryness, 
the dry mass dissolved in water, and the new solu- 
tion filtered and recrystallized. The crystals of 
acetate of soda obtained by the last process yield 
pure acetic acid by distillation along with sulphuric 
acid. (See Acetic Acid and Animal Sub- 
stances.) 

PYROPHORUS. (From 7rt;p, fire, and ^cpw, 
I hear.) Syn. Luft-zunder, (G^er.) A substance 
that inflames spontaneously when exposed to the 
air. Prep. — 1. (Romberg's.) Alum and brown 
sugar, equal parts ; stir the mixture in an iron ladle 
over the fire till dry, then put it into an earthen or 
coated glass vial, and keep it at a red heat so long 
as flame is emitted ; it must then be carefully 
stopped up and cooled. — 2. (Dr. Hare.) Lamp- 
black 3 parts ; burnt alum 4 parts ; carbonate of 
potash 8 parts ; as above. — 3. (Gay Lussac.) Sul- 
phate of potash 9 parts ; calcined lampblack 5 
parts ; as last. — 4. (Gobel.) Heat tartrate of lead 
red hot in a glass tube, and then hermetically seal 
it. — 5. Alum 3 parts ; wheat flour 1 part ; as No 
1. *^* When the above are properly prepared, a 
little of the powder becomes glowing hot and in- 
flames on exposure to the air. The accession of 
the combustion is promoted by moisture, as a damp 
atmosphere or the breath. They all (except the 
fourth) owe their combustibility to the presence of 
sulphuret of potassium. (Gay Lussac.) 

PYROTECHNY. (From nvp, fire, and rtxvri, 
art.) The art of making fireworks. " The three 
prime materials of this art are, nitre, sulphur, and 
charcoal, along with filings of iron, steel, copper, 
zinc, resin, camphor, lycopodium, &c. Gunpow- 
der is used either in grain, half-crushed, or finely 
ground, for different purposes. The longer the 
iron filings, the brighter red and white spots they 
give ; those being preferred which, are made with 
a coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel fil- 
ings and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and 
afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. 
Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame ; those 
of 2i«c, a fine bhie color; the sulphuret of anti- 
mony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with 
much smoke ; amber affords a yellow fire, as well 
as colophony, (rosin,) and common salt; but the 
last must be very dry. Lampblack produces a 
very red color with gunpowder, and a pink one 
with nitre in excess ; it serves for making golden 
showers." When lightly mixed with gunpowder 



PYR 



494 



PYR 



and put into cases, it throws out small stars re- 
sembling the rowel of a spur ; this composition has 
hence been called " spur fire." " The yellow sand, 
or glistening mica, communicates to fireworks 
golden radiations. Verdigris imparts a pale 
green; sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac give 
a palm-tree green. Camphor yields a very white 
fiame and aromatic fumes, which masks the bad 
smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax 
are used also on account of their agreeable odor. 
Lycopodium burns with a rose color and a mag- 
nificent flame ; but it is principally employed in 
theatres to represent lightning, or to charge the 
torch of a fury." (Diet, of Arts, Manuf., and 
Mines.) — Our space will only permit a brief notice 
of the process of making gunpowder, and the com- 
position for rockets and colored fires. 

Gunpowder is composed of saltpetre, charcoal, 
and sulphur. (See page 347.) The saltpetre hav- 
ing been trebly refined, is melted into cakes, which 
are then brushed to remove any adhering grit or 
dirt, broken into pieces with a mallet, ground to a 
fine powder in a mill, and sifted through a fine 
bolting sieve of brass wire. The charcoal is that 
of the dogwood, alder, or willow, and is carefully 
burnt, as described at p. 177, and is then reduced 
to powder as above. The sulphur is refined and 
ground to the same fineness as the charcoal and 
saltpetre. The ingredients are then weighed out 
in the proper proportions, and mixed by placing 
them gradually in a wooden vessel, in alternate 
and equal layers, after which the whole is tho- 
roughly and perfectly mixed together. The mix- 
ture is then sifted, and carefully ground to a paste 
with water, and pressed into a hard cake, which is 
next broken into pieces, granulated by agitation in 
parchment sieves, and after being glazed by fric- 
tion, and the dust separated, is dried with proper 
precaution in a stove heated to about 100°. 

Colored Fires. I. {Blue.) Prep.~l. Saltpe- 
tre 5 parts ; sulphur 2 parts ; metallic antimony 1 
part ; mix. — 2. (Ruggieri.) Gunpowder 4 parts ; 
sulphur and zinc, of each 3 parts; saltpetre 2 
parts. — 3. Nitrate of baryta 77 parts ; sulphur 13 
parts ; chlorate of potash 5 parts ; charcoal 3 parts ; 
realgar 2 parts; mix. — 4. (Marsh.) Chlorate of 
potash 69 grs. ; sulphur 24 grs. ; sulphate of cop- 
per 7 grs.— 5. (Bird.) Black sulphuret of antimony 
giv ; nitre f xij ; sulphur fxvj ; charcoal and orpi- 
ment, of each 3ij. 

II. {Crimson.) Prep. (Marsh.)— a. Chlorate of 
potash A\ parts ; nitrate of strontia 67^ do. ; char- 
coal (alder or willow) 5| do. ; sulphur 22^ do. ; 
mix, lightly press it into teacups or small pots, and 
prime with a quick-match. — h. Chlorate of potash 
17^ parts ; sulphur 18 parts; nitrate of strontia 55 
parts ; charcoal 4^ parts ; sulphuret of antimony 
5i parts ; mix, load pill-boxes with it, and prime 
with a quick-match. For stars. 

in. {Green.) Prep.— I. Nitrate of baryta and 
charcoal, equal parts. Used in ghost scenes. — 2. 
Sulphur 13 parts; nitrate of baryta 77 do. ; chlo- 
rate of potash 5 do. ; charcoal 3 do. ; metallic 
arsenic 2 do. Very beautiful. It shows best when 
burnt before a reflector.— 3. (A. Bird.) Nitrate of 
baryta ^xx ; sulphur ^'ss ; black sulphuret of an- 
timony §ss; chlorate of potash fj 3ij ; charcoal 
3ij to 3iv. — 4. (Marsh.) Nitrate of "baryta 02^ 
parts; sulphur lOi do.; chlorate of potash 23^ 



do. ; charcoal and sulphuret of arsenic, of each 1| 
do. Put it into small pill-boxes for stars. 

IV. {Lilac.) Prep. (Marsh.)— a. Chlorate of 
potash 49 parts ; sulphur 25 do. ; dry chalk 20 do. ; 
black oxide of copper 6 do. For pans.— i. Chlo- 
rate of potash 50 parts ; sulphur 25 do. ; dried 
chalk 22 do. ; black oxide of copper 3 do. For 
stars. 

V. {Purple.) Prep.—l. Lampblack, realgar, 
and nitre, of each 1 part ; sulphur 2 parts ; chlo- 
rate of potash 5 do. ; fused nitrate of strontia 16 
parts ; mix.— 2. (Marsh.) a. Chlorate of potash 
42 parts ; nitrate of potash and sublimed sulphur, 
of each 22| do. ; black oxide of copper 10 do. ; 
sulphuret of mercury 2| do. For pans.— &. Chlo- 
rate of potash 77i parts ; sulphur 13 do. ; sulphate 
of copper 9| do. For stars. 

VI. {Red.) Prep.—l. (Ruggieri.) Fused nitrate 
of strontia 40 parts ; sulphur 13 do. ; chlorate of 
potash 5 do. ; sulphuret of antimony 4 do. A lit- 
tle charcoal or lampblack will make it burn quick- 
er.— 2. (Marsh.) Dried nitrate of strontia 72 parts ; 
sulphur 20 do. ; gunpowder 6 do. ; coal dust 2 do 
— 3. (Bird.) Dried nitrate of strontia f xx ; sul- 
phur f viss ; chlorate of potash §iiss ; black sul- 
phuret of antimony f ij ; charcoal f ss. — 4. Sulphur, 
sulphuret of antimony, and nitre, of each 1 oz. ; 
dried nitrate of strontia 5 oz. 

VII. {Yellow.) Prep. (Marsh.) Nitrak- of soda 
(pure and dry) 74^ parts ; sulphur 19^ do. ; char- 
coal 6 do. For pans. 

VIII. {White.) Prep.—l. (Ruggieri.)— a. Ni- 
tre 48 parts ; sulphur 13^ do. ; sulj^uret of anti- 
mony 17i do.— 6. Nitre 24 parts; sulphur 7 do.; 
realgar 2 do.— c. Nitre 75 parts ; sulphur 24 do. ; 
charcoal 1 do. — d. Gunpowder 100 parts ; iron or 
zinc borings 25 do.— 2. (Bird.) Black antimony 
5iv ; nitre f xij ; sulphur f xvj ; white arsenic 3ij ; 
charcoal 3ij ; or more.— 3. (Marsh.)— a. Saltpe- 
tre 46i parts ; sulphur 23 do. ; gunpowder 12^ do. ; 
zinc filings 18 do. For pans.— 6. Saltpetre 57 
parts; sulphur 28 do.; zinc filings 15 do. For 
stars. 

Remarks. In preparing colored fires, the ingre- 
dients should be separately reduced to fine powder, 
and sifted through lawn ; and should be kept in 
well-corked wide-mouthed bottles till the time of 
mixing them, when the requisite quantity of each 
should be weighed out, and thoroughly but care- 
fully mixed, with a bone or wooden knife, on a 
sheet of clean white paper. The mixed ingredi- 
ents are then lightly packed in small cups or pans 
for illuminations, or into small pill-boxes for stars; 
in either case affixing a piece of quick-match. 

*** The process should be conducted with great 
care to prevent explosion. They sometimes in- 
flame spontaneously by keeping. Colored fires 
should not be kept long before being used. (See 

CULORATE OF PoTASH.) 

Rockets. The cases are made of stout cartridge 
paper rolled on a mould and pasted, and then 
throttled a little below the mouth, like the neck 
of a vial. The (external ?) diameter of a rocket 
should be exactly equal to that of a leaden ball of 
the same weight, and the length should be equal 
to 3i times the internal diameter. (Mareh.) They 
are filled with the following mixtures tightly driven 
in, and then " garnished," and alfixed to willow rod* 
to direct their flight. — I. (Marsh.)— «. {For 2 ox. 



QUE 



495 



QUI 



rockets.) Nitre 54^ parts ; sulphur 18 do--; char- 
coal 27\ do. ; all in fine powder, and passed 
through lawn. — b. (For 4 oz. do.) Nitre 64 parts ; 
sulphur 16 do. ; charcoal 20 do. ; as last. — c. (For 
^Ib. to 1 lb. do.\ Nitre 62| parts; sulphur 15 J 
do.; charcoal 21^ do.; as last. — II. (Ruggieri.) 
a. For rockets of | inch diameter use nitre 16 
parts ; charcoal 7 do. ; sulphur 4 do. — b. For | to 
1^ inch, use 1 part more nitre. — c. For If inch, 
use 2 parts more nitre. — d. By using 1 part less 
charcoal, and adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts 
of fine steel filings, the above are converted into 
brilliant fires. — e. By the substitution of coarse 
cast-iron borings for filings, and a further omission 
of 2 parts of charcoal from each, the latter are 
converted into Chinese fire. — Hand or ground 
rockets are usually loaded with nothing but meal 
gunpowder and filings or borings. After sky- 
rockets are charged, a piece of clay is driven in, 
through which a hole is pierced, and the head or 
garniture filled with stars, and a little cornpowder 
is then applied. 

Stars for Rockets. 1. Brilliant. (Marsh.) 
Nitre 52 i parts ; sulphur and black antimony, of 
each 13 parts ; powder, mix, and make a stiff 
paste with isinglass 1^ parts, dissolved in vinegar 
6^ parts, spirits of wine 13 parts ; form into small 
pieces, and while moist roll them in meal gunpow- 
der. — 2. White. (Ruggieri.) Nitre 16 parts ; sul- 
phur 7 do. ; gunpowder 4 do. ; make a paste^ as 
last. — 3. Golden Rain. a. (Ruggieri.) Nitre and 
gunpowder, of each 16 parts ; sulphur 10 do. ; 
charcoal 4 do. ; lampblack 2 do. ; mix and pack 
it into small paper tubes. — b. (Ruggieri.) Nitre 16 
parts ; sulphur and gunpowder, of each 8 do. ; 
charcoal and lampblack, of each 2 do. ; as last. — 
c. (Marsh.) Mealed gunpowder 66| parts ; sul- 
phur 11 do. ; charcoal 22^ do.; as last. 

PYROTIiONIDE. (From nvp, fire, and dOdvr,, 
linen.) A popular remedy for the tooth-ache and 
skin diseases, obtained by distilling rags, (rag oil,) 
or by burning a small cone of paper on a cold 
plate, (paper oil.) 

PYROXILENE. Syn. Pyroxanthine. Eb- 
LANiN. An orange red crystalline substance ob- 
tained by Scanlan from raw pyroxilic spirit by 
adding potash water, pressing the precipitate, 
washing with cold alcohol of sp. gr. 0-840, and 
crystallizing from boiling alcohol. With oil of vit- 
riol it gives a rich crimson, and with muriatic acid 
a deep purple. 

QUASS. Syn. Pose a. Prep. Mix rye flour 
and warm water together, and keep it by the fire- 
side till it has turned sour. Used as vinegar in 
Russia. 

QUASSIA, ROASTED. Used when reduced 
to powder, to embitter beer and give it color, but 
the liquor soon grows turbid. 

QUASSIINE. A white crystalline substance, 
intensely bitter, extracted by alcohol from quassia 
wood, (quassia amara.) 

QUEEN'S METAL. A species of pewter 
used to make teapots, &c., made by fusing under 
eharcoal a mixture of tin 9 parts ; antimony, bis- 
muth, and lead, of each, 1 part ; or tin 100 parts ; 
antimony 8 do. ; copper 4 do. ; bismuth 1 do. 

QUERCITRINE. The yellow coloring prin- 
ciple of quercitron bark. It is crystallizable. 



QUILLS. Prep. Suspend the quills in a cop* 
per, over water sufficiently high to touch the nibs ; 
then close it steam-tight, and apply four hours 
hard boiling; next withdraw and dry them, and 
in 24 hours cut the nibs and draw out the pith ; 
lastly, rub them with a piece of cloth and expos^' 
them to a moderate heat in an oven or stove 
The quills prepared in this way are as hard as 
bone, without being brittle, and as transparent as 
glass. 

QUININE. Syn. Chinine. Quina. Quinina. 
QuiNiA. QuiNiNUM. A white, odorless, bitter, fu- 
sible and crystallizable alkaloid, discovered by Pel- 
letier and Caventou in cinchona bark. It is most 
readily obtained by precipitating a solution of the 
sulphate or disulphate by ammonia, and washing 
and drying the precipitate. By solution in alcohol 
sp. gr. 0-815, and spontaneous evaporation, it may 
be procured in crystals. Crystals may also be ob- 
tained from its solution in hot water with a little 
ammonia, (Liebig.) Quinine is not used in medi- 
cine, but several of its salts are largely ernployed 
on account of their tonic and febrifuge powers. 
They may all be made hy saturating the dilute 
acids with the base, evaporating and crystaUi- 
zing. 

QUININE, FERRO-CITRATE OF. Syn. 
QuiN^ Ferro-Citras. Prep. To a solution cf 
pure citrate of peroxide of iron add as much pure 
quinine as it will dissolve ; filter, evaporate, and 
spread it on hot plates, as directed under Ammo- 
nio-Citrate of Iron. 

QUININE, FERRO-SULPHATE. Syn 
QuiNvE Ferro-Sulphas. From a mixed solution 
of the sulphates of iron and quinine in atomic 
proportions ; as last. 

QUININE, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Sub- 
sulphate OF DO. Disulphate of do. Quin^ 
Sulphas. Quin^ Disulphas, (P. L.) Prep. I. (P. 
L.) Heartleaved (yellow) cinchona bark, bruised, 
lb. vij ; sulphuric acid §iv 3ij ; diluted with water 
6 gallons ; boil 1 hour and strain ; repeat the boil- 
ing a second time for 1 hour, with a like quantity 
of acid and water, and again strain ; next boil 
the bark in water 8 gallons, and strain ; to the 
mixed liquors, add moist hydrated oxide of lead 
nearly to saturation, decant the supernatant fluid, 
and wash the sediment with distilled water ; boil 
down the liquor for 15 minutes and strain, then 
precipitate the quina by solution of ammonia, and 
wash the precipitate (with cold water) until noth- 
ing alkaline is perceptible ; saturate what remains 
with sulphuric acid fss diluted with water, digest 
with animal charcoal §ij, and strain ; lastly, the 
charcoal being well washed, evaporate the mixed 
liquors that crystals may form. 

II. (P. E.) This process varies -from the former 
in first boiluig the bark (lb. j) in water, (4 pints,) 
along with carbonate of soda, (^iv,) pressing, and 
moistening the residuum with fresh water and 
pressing it a second and a third time, for the pur- 
pose of removing the acids, coloring matter, gum, 
and extractive, before proceeding to extract the 
alkaloid. Lime (Stolze) and caustic potash (Ba- 
dollier and Scharlau) have been proposed for the 
same purpose. An excellent process. 

III. (Wholesale.) Boil coarsely-powdered cali- 
saya, or yellow bark, in water acidulated with 
sulphuric or muriatic acid, strain with pressure, 



QUI 



496 



RAT 



and repeat the process with fresh water, a second, 
third, and fourth time ; filter the mixed liquors, 
and when cold, add finely-powdered slaked lime 
or milk of lime till the fluid becomes distinctly al- 
kaline and acquires a dark color ; collect the pre- 
tpitate, drain on a linen filter, and then submit 
le mass to a powerful hydraulic press ; dry the 
cake, powder, and digest in rectified spirit ; filter, 
distil off the spirit till the liquor acquires the con- 
sistence of sirup or honey, carefully saturate with 
very dilute sulphuric acid, filter, and set it aside to 
crystallize ; drain the crystals on a linen filter, 
submit them to pressure, dissolve in boiling water, 
decolor with animal charcoal, recrystallize, and 
dry the resulting salt. In some laboratories, the 
sulphuric acid is added before distilling oflf the 
spirit. 

Remarks. The use of spirit of wine does not 
increase the expense above | to Id. per oz., which 
is more than counterbalanced by the saving of 
time and the superiority of the product. Disul- 
phate of quinine is extensively employed as a sto- 
machic in doses of ^ to 1 gr. ; as a tonic 1 to 3 
grs. ; and as a febrifuge^ to 20 grs. When pure 
it forms light, delicate, white needles. " It is en- 
tirely soluble in water, (hot,) and more readily so 
when an acid is present. Precipitated by ammo- 
nia, the residuary liquid after evaporation should 
not taste of sugar. By a gentle heat it loses 8 or 
log of water, ft is wholly consumed by heat. 
If chlorine be first added, and then ammonia, it 
becomes green." (P. L.) "A solution of 10 grs. 
in f 5J of distilled water, and 2 or 3 drops of sul- 
phuric acid, if decomposed by a solution of ^ss of 
carbonate of soda, in two waters, and heated till 
the precipitate shrinks and fuses, yields on cooling 
a solid mass, which, when dry, weighs 7*4 grs., 
and in powder, dissolves entirely in a solution of 
oxalic acid." (P E.) It is often adulterated with 
starch, magnesia, gum, sugar, cinchonine, «fcc. 
The first three remain undissolved when the salt 
is digested in spirit ; the fourth is dissolved out by 
cold water, and the last may be detected by pre- 
cipitating the quinine by liquor of potassa, and 
dissolving the precipitate in boiling alcohol ; cin- 
chona crystallizes out as the solution cools, but 
the quinine remains in the mother liquor. (Perei- 
ra.) *^* The Neutral Sulphate of Quinine is 
formed by dissolving disulphate of quinine fj, in 
water acidulated with sulphuric acid f3ss, and 
crystallizing. 

QUINOMETRY. The art of estimating the 
quantity of quinine in cinchona bark. 

Proc. (P. E.) " A filtered decoction of 100 grs. 
in f ^ij of distilled water, gives with ffj of a con- 
centrated solution of carbonate of soda, a precipi- 
tate, which when heated in the fluid, becomes a 
fused mass, weighing, when cold, 2 grs. or more, 
and is easily soluble in solution of oxalic acid." 
Quinine may be separated from cinchonine by di- 
gestion in ether. (Scharlau.) 

QUINOVINE. Syn. Cinchovine. An alka- 
loid obtained from the bark of quina ovata by a 
like process to that by which quinine is obtained 
from yellow bark. 

QUINTESSENCE. A term used by the al- 
chemists synonymously with essence. 



RACEMIC ACID. .Syn. Paratartaric Acir 
An acid found in the juice of the grape, replacing 
tartaric acid. It is distinguished from tartaric acid 
by being less soluble in water, and by not giving 
indications of electricity when one of its crystals, 
held by a pair of platinum tongs, and gently heated 
in the flame of a spirit lamp, is brought into con- 
tact with the plate of an electroscope, whereas a 
crystal of tartaric acid causes electrical excite- 
ment. (Boettger's Beitrage.) By the action of 
heat it yields paratartralic, paratartrelic, and an- 
hydrous racemic acids. It is principally found in 
the grape juice of the district of the Vosges. Ra- 
cemic and tartaric acids are isomeric compounds. 

RADCLIFFE'S ELIXIR. Prep. Socotrine 
aloes 3vj ; cinnamon, cochineal, and zedoary root, 
of each, 3ss ; rhubarb 3j ; sirup of buckthorn f 3ij { 
proof spirit 1 pint ; water f §v ; digest a week. 
Aromatic, stomachic, and purgative. Dose. 1 to 
4 dr. 

RATAFIA. A liquor prepared by imparting to 
sweetened spirit the flavor of various kinds of fruit. 
The following are examples : — 

1. {Ratafia de Cassis.) Prep. — a. Black cur- 
rants, stoned and^ crushed, 3 lbs.; cloves 1 dr.; 
cinnamon 2 dri. ; spirit at 18° B. 4 quarts ; white 
sugar ^i lbs. ; digest in a corked bottle for a fort- 
night, occasionally shaking, then strain through a 
cloth and filter through paper. — h. Black currants 
6 lbs. ; cloves ^ dr. ; cinnamon 1 dr. ; proof spirit 
2i gallons ; sugar 4 lbs. ; as last. A delicious 
liquor. 2. (Curagoa. Ratafia de Curagoa.) Spirit 
of 18° B. 5 quarts ; yellow peels of 5 or 6 smooth 
Portugal oranges ; infuse for 14 days, add white 
sugar 4 lbs., dissolved in pure water ^ a gallon ; 
cinnamon and mace, of each, well bruised, 48 grs. ; 
ground Brazil wood 1 oz. ; infuse with frequent 
agitation for 10 days longer, bring up the color 
with burnt sugar, and filter. Very fine. — b. Proof 
spirit 1 gallon ; Seville orange peel cut thin, dried, 
and coarsely powdered, or cut small, \ to ^ lb. ; 
digest 14 days, press out the liquor, filter, and add 
an equal measure of simple sirup or capillaire, and 
coloring q. s. Stomachic. 3. {Ratafia d'AngC' 
lique.) Angelica seeds 1 dr. ; do. stalks 4 oz. ; 
blanched bitter almonds, bruised, | to 1 oz. ; proof 
spirit 6 quarts ; white sugar 2 to 3 lbs. ; digest for 
10 days, and filter. 4. {Ratafia d'Anis.) Bruised 
aniseeds 2 oz. ; proof spirits 2 quarts ; sugar | lb., 
dissolved in water 1 pint ; as last. 5. {Ratafia de 
Caffe.) Coffee, ground and roasted, 1 lb. ; proof 
spirit 1 gallon ; sugar 1^ lbs., dissolved in water 1 
quart ; as last. 6. {Ratafia de Cerises.) Morello 
cherries, with their kernels bruised, 7 or 8 lbs. ; 
proof spirit 1 gallon ; sugar 1^ lbs. ; as last. 7. 
{Ratafia de Grenoble.) Small wild black cherries, 
with their kernels bruised, 2 lbs. ; proof spirit 1 
gallon ; white sugar 2^ lbs. ; citron peel a few 
grains ; as last. 8. {Ratafia de Cacao. R. de 
Chocolat.) Caracca cacao nuts 1 lb. ; West In- 
dian do. i lb. ; both roasted and bruised ; proof 
spirit 1 gallon ; digest for 14 days, filter, and add 
white sugar 2^ lbs. ; tincture of vanilla i dr. ; or a 
shred of vanilla may be infused with the nuts in 
the spirit instead. 9. {Ratafia de Coin^^.) Quince 
juice 6 pints ; bitter almonds 4 drs. ; cinnamon 3 
drs. ; coriander seeds 2 drs. ; mace i dr. ; cloves 
15 grs. ; all bruised ; rectified spirit 3 pints ; digest 
for a week, filter, and add sugar 2^ to 3 lbs 10, 



RED 



497 



RES 



(Ratafia de framboises.) — a. Raspberries 8 lbs. ; 
proof spirit 2 quarts ; sugar 1 lb. ; digest, press, and 
filter. — b. Raspberry juice and proof spirit, of each 
2 quarts ; sugar 3 lbs.; as last. 11. {Ratafia de 
genievre.) Juniper berries (whole) 1 oz. ; proof 
spirit 1 quart ; sugar 5 oz. ; digest. 12. {Ratafia 
de Brou de noix.) Young walnuts with soft shells 
60 in no. ; brandy 2 quarts ; sugar if to 1 lb. ; 
mace, cinnamon, and cloves, of each 15 gi-s. ; di- 
gest for 8 weeks ; press, filter, and keep for some 
months before use. Stomachic. 13. {Ratafia de 
Noyeau.) — a. Peach or apricot kernels, bruised, 
120 in no. ; proof spirit 2 quarts ; white sugar | 
lb. ; digest for a week, press and filter. — b. For 
proof spirit use juice of apricots or peaches 3^ pints ; 
rectified spirit of wine 4^ do. 14. {Ratafia de 
(Billets.) Clovepinks without the white buds, 4 
lbs. ; cinnamon and cloves, of each 15 grs. ; proof 
spirit 1 gall. ; white sugar 1 to 1^ lbs. ; digest for 
10 days, press and filter. 15. {Ratafia a la Pro- 
vengale.) Striped pinks 1 lb. ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 
sugar 7 or 8 oz. ; juice of strawberries | lb. ; saf- 
fron 15 grs. ; as last. 16. {Ratafia d'ecorces 
V Oranges.) Fresh yellow peel of Seville oranges 
4 oz. ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; white sugar 1 lb. ; 
digest for 6 hours. 17. {Ratafia de fleurs d' or- 
anges.) — a. Fresh orange flowers 2 lbs. ; proof 
spirit 1 gallon ; sugar 1^ to 2 lbs. ; as last. — b. in- 
stead of orange flowers use neroli 1 dr. 18. {Rat- 
afia d la Violettes.) Orris powder 1^ oz. ; Effchil 
4 oz. ; rectified spirits of wine 2 gallons ; digest for 
10 days, strain, and add white sugar 9 lbs., dis- 
solved in water 1 gallon. 19. {Ratafia de baume 
de Tola.) Balsam of Tolu 1 oz. ; rectified spirit 1 
quart ; dissolve, add water 3 pints ; filter,* and fur- 
ther add sugar 1^ lbs. Pectoral. 20. {Red Rat- 
afia.) Juice of black chemes 3 quarts ; do. 
strawberries and raspberries, of each 1 quart ; cin- 
namon 1 dr. ; mace and cloves, of each 15 grs. ; 
proof spirit 2 gallons ; sugar 6 lbs. ; macerate. 

21. {Dry Ratafia.) Juice of gooseberries 5 pints ; 
do. of cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, of each 
1 pint ; proof spirit 6 quarts ; sugar 6 lbs. ; as last. 

22. {Cream Ratafia.) Noyeau, sherrj' wine, capil- 
laire, of each ^ pint ; cream 1 pint ; beat together. 

23. {Ratafia des quatre fruits.) Cherries 30 lbs. ; 
gooseberries 15 lbs. ; raspberries 8 lbs. ; black cur- 
rants 7 lbs. ; express the juice, and to each pint 
add white sugar 4 to 6 oz. ; cinnamon 6 grs. ; 
cloves and mace, of each 3 grs. *^^ The addi- 
tion of a few drops of essence of ambergris, or a 
grain of ambergris infused in the spirit, imparts a 
delightful flavor and boquet which is much ad- 
mired. 

RATS AND MICE may be most easily and 
safely exterminated by mixing powdered nux vom- 
ica with oatmeal, and laying it in their haunts, 
observing to use the proper precautions to prevent 
accidents. White arsenic is also employed in a 
similar manner. Dr. Ure has recommended the 
use of oatmeal mixed with a little powdered phos- 
phorus for this purpose. 

RECTIFICATION. Syn. Rectificatio, 
{Lat.) (From rectus, right, and fio, to be made.) 
A second distillation of a fluid for the purpose of 
rendering it purer. 

RED DYES. — 1. Give the goods a mordant of 
alum, rinse, dry, and boil them in a bath of mad- 
der. If acetate of iron be used instead of alum, 
63 



the color will be purple, and by combining the tw« 
any intermediate shade may be produced. — 2. 
{Adrianople or Turkey red.) This is given by 
many distinct operations. The first consists in 
cleansing or scouring the goods by alkaline baths, 
after which they are steeped in oily liquors brought 
to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda solu- 
tion. Infusion of sheep's dung is often used as an 
intermediate or secondary steep. The operation 
of oiling, with much manual labor, and then re- 
moving the superfluous or loosely-adhering oil with 
an alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, 
taking care to dry hard after each process. Then 
follows the galling, aluming, maddering, and 
brightening, for removing the dun-colored princi- 
ple, by boiling at an elevated temperature with 
alkaline liquids and soap. The whole is often con- 
cluded with a rosing by salt of tin. — 3. The yeirn 
or cloth is put into a very weak alkaline bath at 
the boiling temperature, then washed, dried, and 
galled ; or, when the calico is to be printed, for this 
bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subse- 
quent exposure to the air for a day or two, and 
immersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this 
way the stuff" gets opened, takes and retains the 
color better. After the galling, the goods are 
dried, and alumed twice ; then dried, rinsed, and 
passed through the madder bath. This is com- 
posed of three-fourths of a pound of good madder 
for every pound weight of the goods. The bath is 
slowly raised to the boiling point in the course of 
fifty or sixty minutes, more or less, according to 
the shade of color wished for. When the boiling 
has continued a few minutes, the stuff" is taken 
out, washed slightly, and dyed a second time in the 
same manner, and with as much madder. It is 
then washed and dried, or passed through a hot 
soap bath, which carries off" tlie fawn-colored par- 
ticles. Other dyes likewise are added to the mad- 
der bath, to obtain other shades of color ; for in- 
stance, a decoction of fustic, weld, logwood, quer- 
citron, or knoppeni, the mordants being modified 
accordingly. When bran is added to the madder 
bath, the color becomes much lighter, and of a 
more agreeable tint. *^* Red dyes are also given 
by archil, carthamus, cochineal, Brazil wood, &,c 

RED LIQUOR. The crude acetate of alumi- 
na, used by dyers. (See Alumina.) 

RED PIGMENTS. The principal of these are 
brown red, Indian do., light do., (burnt light 
ochre — makes a flesh color with white-lead and 
oil,) orange red, {sandix — made by calcining 
wln'te-lead,) stone do., Venetian do., red ochre, 
chrome red, vermilion, red lake, ^c. * 

REGULUS, (dimin. of rex, a king.) A term 
applied by the alchemists to various metallic mat- 
ters obtained by fusion ; as Regulus of antimony, 
arsenic, <^c. The former was often distinguished 
by the simple term Regulus. Martial Regulus 
OF AntiiMony is sulphuret of antimony reduced by 
fusion with 1^ times its weight of old nails or iron 
filings, and some nitre and tartar. Regulus Jovib 
is made by melting a mixture of equal parts of 
martial regulus of antimony and tin. Both are cast 
into cups. Wine kept in them for a night becomes 
emetic. 

RESINS. Syn. Resixes, {Fr.) Harze, {Ger.) 
Resins, {Lat., from ^£w, / flow.) Proximate 
vegetable principles, the ultimate composition of 



RHO 



498 



RIN 



which is carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They 
are distinguished by their solubility in alcohol, in- 
solubility in water, fusing by a moderate heat, and 
not being volatile without decomposition. Their 
sp. gr. varies from 0-9 to 1-2. According to Liebig, 
they are oxidized essential oils. Common resin, 
and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are 
familiar examples of these substances. 

RELISH, KITCHINER'S. Prep. Ground 
black pepper, and salt, of each 1 oz. ; ground all- 
spice, scraped horseradish, and minced shalotes, of 
each i oz. ; walnut pickle, or mushroom ketchup, 
i pint ; infuse 14 days, and strain. Used as a 
sauce, &c. 

RENNET. Syn. Calves' Maw. Coagulum. 
The stomach of calves, washed, and preserved 
either in brine or dry salt. Used to curdle milk. 
Two square inches from the bottom are sufficient 
for a cheese of 60 lbs. (See Cheese.) 

RESINEONE. An oily liquid obtained along 
with resinone when resin and lime are distilled to- 
gether. (Fremy.) 

RHABARBERIN. Syn. Rheumin. Rhein. 
Rhabarberic Acid. Rheumic Acid. The yel- 
low coloring principle of rhubarb. It is obtained 
by digesting powdered rhubarb in ether, distilling 
off greater part of the ether, and submitting the 
remainder to spontaneous evaporation. The crj^s- 
tals thus procured are purified by repeated solu- 
tions and crystallizations in alcohol. OraHge yel- 
low. Gripes, but does not purge. (Brandes.) 

RHAMNINE. Prep. Express the juice from 
buckthorn berries scarcely rips, boil the residue 
with water, strain, and press ; crude rhamnine will 
be obtained as the liquid cools, which, by solution 
in boiling alcohol and filtration, may be procured 
in crystals. 

RHAPONTICIN. A peculiar, yellow, odor- 
less, tasteless, and cryst all iz able substance, obtain- 
ed from the root of English rhubarb. It is extracted 
by boiling absolute alcohol. 

RHEUMATISM. Syn. Rheumatismus, {Lat) 
^evuaTiajjiog, (Gr., from ^ev/xart^o), to be afflicted 
with defluxions.) A painful affection of the joints, 
attended by swelling and stiffness, an : also attack- 
ing the muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures. 
Acute Rheumatism, or rheumatic fever — Ar- 
thritis, inflammation of the synovial membrane, 
or rheumatic gout — Sciatica, or rheumatism of the 
cellular eilvelope of the great sciatic nerve, affect- 
ing the hip — and Lumbago, or rheumatism of the 
loins, are all varieties of the same disease. The 
treatment consists in the administration of purga- 
tives^ and sudorifics, accompanied by a course of 
bark, quinine, or other tonics. Calomel and opi- 
um, and iodide of potassium, have also been large- 
ly and successfully administered in this complaint. 
When the inflammatory symptoms are severe, 
occasional venesection should be had recourse to. 
The compound powder of ipecacuanha taken at 
night will generally promote the ease and sleep of 
the patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend con- 
siderably to promote a cure. Where possible, a 
dry atmosphere and regular temperature should 
be sought. Stimulating embrocations, blisters, fric- 
tions, and the hot or vapor bath, are frequently 
very serviceable in rheumatism, especially in lum- 
bago, and casual attacks arising from cold. 

RHODIZON [C ACID. Prep. When dry car- 



bonic acid gas is passed over fused potassium, a 
black porous mass is obtained, and this substance 
exposed to moist air, deliquesces into a solution of 
rhodizonate of potassa of a scarlet color, from 
which the excess of alkali may be taken by alco- 
hol. By treatment with sulphuric acid and alco- 
hol, the rhodizonic acid may be separated. When 
its solution is heated, it is converted into croconic 
acid. The latter acid is obtained by adding fluo- 
silicic acid to a solution of croconate of potash, 
evaporating to dryness, and dissolving out the cro- 
conic acid with water. This acid, as well as its 
salts, is yellow, hence its name, (from crocus, 
saffron.) 

RHODIUM, (from poSov, a rose, because of the 
color of the solutions of its salts.) A whitish metal 
discovered by Wollaston in 1803, associated with 
palladium, in the ore of platinum. It is obtained 
from the nitromuriatic solution of platinum ore, 
previously saturated with soda, by precipitating the 
palladium by bicyanide of mercury, filtering, add 
ing muriatic acid, evaporating to dryness, powder- 
ing, and digesting in alcohol of sp. gr. 0-837 ; the 
undissolved portion (double chloride of rhodium 
and sodium) is then washed with alcohol, and 
either exposed to a very strong heat, or gently 
heated in a stream of hydrogen gas, and after 
wards well washed with water. Another meth.d 
is to dissolve in water the portion left after the ac- 
tion of the alcohol, and to precipitate by a plate 
of zinc. In this state it is a black powder. This 
powder exposed to heat continues black ; but with 
borax it acquires a white metallic lustre, though it 
remains infusible. Sulphur or arsenic, however, 
renders it fusible, and may afterwards be expelled 
by continuing the heat. The button is not malle- 
able. Oxide of Rhodium {peroxide) is prepared 
by heating pulverulent rhodium mixed w!tJ' hy- 
drate of potassa, and a little nitre, in a silver cruci- 
ble, and well washing the resulting powder, first 
with water, then with muriatic acid, and again 
with water. A greenish gray powder. In this 
state it is insoluble in acids. An impure soluble 
oxide is precipitated when carbonate of potash, or 
soda, is added in excess to the double chloride of 
rhodium and potassium. — Chloride of Rhodium 
{perchloride) is obtained by adding to a solution 
of the double chloride of rhodium and potassium, 
silico-hydrofluoric acid, as long as the double fluo- 
ride of potassium and silicon is generated, then 
filtering, evaporating, and redissolving in water. 
(Berzelius.) ^^* Pure rhodium is insoluble in acids, 
but dissolves in aqua regia when alloyed with other' 
metals. Its sp. gr. is about 11. It is employed 
for making the points of the " rhodium pens." 

RINGWORM. Syn. Scald-Head. Porrigo. 
A disease that appears in circular patches of little 
pustules that afterwards form scabs, leaving a red 
pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs of the 
liair in its progress. It spreads rapidly, and is 
ve7-y infectious, often running through a whole 
school. It chiefly affects the neck, forehead, and 
scalp, of weakly children. The proper treatment 
consists in shaving the part, and keeping it clean 
with soap and water. When the scabbing com- 
mences, dressings of tar ointment, or the ointment 
of nitrate or nitric oxide of mercury of the London 
Ph., or a mixture of equal parts of the iirst, and 
either the second or third, should be applied in 



RUM 



499 



SAC 



each case, diluting- the mixture with lard to suit it 
to the state of irritability of the part. (See Acetic 
Acid.) 

ROB. (Arab., dense.) A term formerly ap- 
plied to an inspissated vegetable juice. 

ROCELLINE. ^-^z?. Roc ellic Acid. A fat- 
ty crystallizable substance, obtained from rocella 
tintoria, or dyer's orchil. 

ROLL, WINE. Prep. Soak a French roll, or 
sponge-biscuit, in raisin or sherry wine, surround 
it by a custard or cream tliickened with eggs, and 
add some spice and ornaments. 

ROSACIC ACID. The red crystalline sub- 
stance deposited by the urine of persons laboring 
under intermittent or nervous fevers. It is purified 
by alcohol. 

ROUGE. Syn. Rouge for the Toilette. 
Rouge d'Espagne ; Fard, (Ft.) Prep. Wash 
safflowers (any quantity) until the water comes off 
colorless ; dry, powder, and digest in a weak solu- 
tion of carbonate of soda ; then place some fine 
cotton wool at the bottom of the vessel, and throw 
down the coloring matter by gradually adding lem- 
on juice or white vinegar till it ceases to produce 
a precipitate. Next wash the cotton in cold water, 
then dissolve out the color with a fresh solution of 
soda, add a quantity of finely-powdered talc, or 
French chalk, proportional to the intended quality 
of the rouge ; mix well, and precipitate as before ; 
lastly, collect the powder, dry with great care^and 
triturate it with a minute quantity of oil of olives, 
to render it smooth and adhesive. *** This is the 
only article which will brighten a lady's complex- 
ion without injuring the skin. The relative fine- 
ness and proportion of talc employed determines 
the quality of the rouge. 

t^t Rouge Indiennejs the terra persica, or In- 
dian red, imported from Ormuz ; — Liquid Rouge, 
the red liquid left from the preparation of carmine, 
or a solution of carmine in weak carbonate of pot- 
ash water, or of pure rouge in alcohol acidulated 
with acetic acid ; — Rouge de Prusse, burnt yel- 
low ochre ; — Vert Rouge d'Athtnes, or " pure 
rouge," is obtained from safflowers as above, but 
without the use of any talc or French chalk ; in- 
tense copper-bronze color when dry ; red when 
moistened or diluted ; — Spanish Lady^s Rouge is 
cotton wool repeatedly wetted with ammoniacal 
solution of carmine, and dried. 

ROUSSEAU'S DROPS. Syn. Gouttes de 
l'Abbe Rousseau. Vinum Opii fermentations 
PARATUM, Prep. Honey §xij ; warm water lb. iv ; 
set in a warm place till it begins to ferment, then 
add opium ^iv ; dissolved in water f fxij ; ferment 
for 1 month, filter, evaporate to §x ; strain, and 
add rectified spirit ^ivss. Milder than common 
laudanum. Dose. 5 to 30 drops. 

ROYAL PREVENTIVE. Syn. White Wash. 
A quack lotion formed of solution of diacetate of 
lead and proof spirit, of each §j ; water 1 pint. 
Used against infection. 

RUM. Syn. Spiritus sacchari. An ardent 
spirit obtained by distillation from the fermented 
skimmings of the sugar-boilers, (sirup scum,) the 
drainings of the sugar pots and hogsheads, (molas- 
ses,) the washings of the boilers, and occasionally 
the juice of the sugar-cane. Rum is imported 
from the West Indies, and the best comes from 
Jamaica. LeAvard Island Rum is less esteemed. 



Rum owes its flavor to a volatile oil and butyric 
acid. The duty on West India rum is 9.9. pel 
proof gallon; that on East India 156-. ; the latter 
amounts to a prohibition. The consumption of 
rum has long been declining in England ; its place 
being supplied by gin or British brandy. In Ja- 
maica it is usual to put sliced pine-apples into the 
puncheons containing the finer qualities of rum, 
which is then termed pine-apple rum. (See Al- 
cohol.) 

RUPERT'S DROPS are made by letting drops 
of melted glass fall into cold water ; the drop as- 
sumes by that means an oval form with a tail or 
neck resembling a retort. They possess this sin- 
gular property, that if a small portion of the tail is 
broken off, the whole bursts into powder with an 
explosion, and a considerable shock is communica- 
ted to the hand that grasps it. 

RUSKS. Prep. 7 eggs well beaten ; new milk 
i pint ; melted butter \ lb. ; yeast \ pint ; sugar 3 
oz. ; beat well together with as much flour, added 
gradually, as will make a very light paste ; let it 
rise before the fire for half an hour, then add a 
little more flour, form into small loaves or cakes 5 
or 6 inches wide,- and flatten them ; bake mode- 
rately, and when cold, cut them into slices the size 
of rusks, and put them into the oven to brown a 
little. A nice tea-cake when hot, or with cara- 
ways to eat cold. 

RUTILINE. A name given by Braconnot to 
the product of the decomposition of salicine by 
sulphuric acid. A brownish red solid, colored 
blood-red by acids, and violet by alkalis. 



SABADILLIC ACID. Syn. Cevadic Acid. 
A crystalline, fusible, volatile, fatty acid, obtained 
from the oil extracted by ether from the seeds of 
veratrum sabadilla. The sabadillate of baryta is 
prepared in the same way as the butyrate of baryta 
is from butter. When this salt is heated with con- 
centrated phosphoric acid, the sabadillic acid sub- 
limes in white needles. It has an odor resembling 
butyric acid. 

SABADILLINA. An alkaloid obtained by 
Couerbe from cebadilla seeds. According to Si- 
mon, it is merely a compound of the resinates of 
soda and veratria. 

SACCHARIC ACID. Syn. Oxalhydric 
Acid. Prep. Sugar or gum 1 part ; nitric acid 2 
parts ; diluted with water 10 parts ; dissolve by 
the aid of heat, and continue the heat as long as 
reaction takes place, then neutralize by carbonate 
of lime, precipitate by acetate of lead, and decora- 
pose the precipitate, suspended in water, by sul- 
phureted hydrogen ; neutralize the filtered liquid 
with potash, concentrate, and crystallize ; redis- 
solve the resulting saccharate of potassa, decolor 
by animal charcoal, reprecipitate by acetate of 
lead, and decompose the precipitated saccharate 
of lead by sulphureted hydrogen, as before. It 
forms salts with the bases called Saccharates. 

SACCHAROMETER. (From saccharum, su- 
gar, and metrum, a measure.) An hydrometer 
for determining the sp. gr. of brewers and distil- 
ler's worts. (See Hydrometer and Brewing.) 

SACCHULMIC ACID. A light brown pow- 
der, obtained by Malaguti and Boullay, by boiling 
sugar along with dilute sulphuric acid It is solu- 



SAG 



500 



SAL 



ble In ammonia and the fixed alkalis, forming 
salts. 

SACCHULMINE. An insoluble substance, 
obtained like the last, by boiling 10 parts of sugar, 
30 of water, and 1 of sulphuric acid for a very long 
time. It is deposited in brilliant, brown scales, 
along with some sacchulmic acid. The latter is 
removed by the action of ammonia water. 

SACHET. Syn. Sacculus. Sachets are little 
bags, containing dry substances, used as local ap- 
plications. 

SACHET, ANTI-PHTHISIC. Syn. Saccu- 
lus Anti-phthisicus. Prep. Dissolve f j of aloes 
in f fxij strong decoction of fresh rue. Fold a large 
piece of soft muslin in 8 folds, large enough to 
cover the chest and part of the stomach. Steep it 
in the decoction and dry it in the shade. Wear it 
on the chest constantly 
mestic remedy for consumption. 

SACK. (From sec, dry.) A wine used by our 
ancestors, supposed by some to have been Rhenish 
or canary ; but, with more probability, by others 
to have been dry mountain or " vin d'Espagne ; 
vin sec ;" (Howell, Fr. and Eng. Diet., 1650.) Fal- 
staff calls it " sherris sack," (sherry sack,) from 
Xeres, a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of 
sack (wine) is made. (Blount.) 

SAFFRON. The prepared stigmata of the 
crocus sativus. There are two kinds of safFron 
•found in commerce.— 1. Hay Saffron (crocus in 
foeno) consists of the stigmas with parts of the 
style carefully dried. Of this sort the Spanish is 
the best. — 2. Cake Saffron, (crocus in placenta.) 
This is properly merely the former compressed into 
cakes ; but the cake safFron of commerce is now 
mostly, if not entirely, composed of safflower made 
into a paste with gum-water, and rolled out on 
paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches long, 9 or 10 
broad, and one-tenth of an inch thick, and dried. 
" I can detect neither safFron nor marigold in 
them." (Dr. Fereira.) Pur. Saffron is largely 
adulterated ; abroad it is frequently mixed with 
safHower, and in England with " prepared mari- 
golds," or French (mock) safFron. These frauds 
may be detected by the inferiority of the color, and 
by soaking the leaves in water, when the stigmas 
of the crocus may be reauily distinguished from 
the florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds. 
Winckler and Gruner propose to detect these sub- 
stances by means of a solution of silver or of per- 
chloride of iron. The infusion of true saffron is not 
altered by these reagents, but the extract of either 
of the above-mentioned adulterants is rendered 
opaque, and at length precipitated. (Jahrbuck 
fur Prakt. Pharm.) The writer of this article 
knows one wholesale drug house alone, who a 
short time since had a stock of several hundred- 
weight of prepared marigolds, which they not only 
employed to mix with genuine saffron, but sold ex- 
tensively to the country dealers. Old and dry saf- 
fron is ''freshened up" by rubbing it between the 
hand, slightly oiled. 

SAGAPENUM. This substance is described 
in the London Pharmacopa'ia as a gum resin, the 
production of an uncertain species of ferula. The 
mass of tbe sagapenum sold to the retail trader is, 
however, factitious, and foruicd by mixing together 
asaf(Etida, galbauum, and other drugs in variable 
proportions. This is generally done by the con- 



scientious druggists, by softening a mixture of 3 
parts of asafoetida and 15 parts of galbanum, in a 
water or steam bath, and then stirring in about 
one -seventeenth of their weight of oil of turpen- 
tine, to which a little oil of juniper has been added. 
This mixture is called " gummi sagapeni Opt.," 
an inferior sort being made by adding sundry por- 
tions of yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth 
to the above. (Cooley, Chem., v. 369.) 

SAGO. A species of fecula or starch, obtained 
from the pith of the sago palm-tree. (See Jel- 
lies.) 

SALADS. These articles being eaten raw, are 
mostly of difficult digestion, especially those of the 
more cooling kind. They are, however, antiseptic, 
and tend to correct " the grossness" of animal food. 
They are made of various vegetables (either singly 
or mixed) seasoned with oil, vinegar, mustard, and 
other condiments. Salads are useful in scurvy. 

SAL ALEMBROTH. Syn. Hybrargyro- 
CHLORiDE OF Ammonia. Sal Sapienti^. Prep. Sal 
ammoniac and corrosive sublimate, equal parts ; 
dissolve in water, evaporate, and crystallize. 

SALEP. Syn. Salop. The prepared root of 
the orchis mascula. It chiefly consists of bassorin 
and fecula. Mixed with boiling water, it forms a 
nutritious jelly. 

SALICINE. A white, crystalline substance, 
discovered by Le Roux and Buchner, and obtained 
from several species of salix and populus. It is 
found in the bark and leaves of all bitter willows. 
Prep (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by repeated 
coction with water, concentrate the mixed liquors, 
and while boiling, add litharge till the liquid is 
nearly decolored ; remove the dissolved oxide of 
lead, first by sulphuric acid, and afterwards by 
sulphuret of barium ; filter, and evaporate. The 
salicine that crystallizes must be purified by re- 
peated solutions and crystallizations. From willow 
bark which is fresh and rich in salicine, it may be 
obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold 
aqueous infusion. 

Remarks. Salicine forms white, silky needles 
and plates, is bitter, inodorous, neutral, fusible at 
230° F., and soluble in water and ether. Hydro- 
chloric and dilute sulphuric acid convert it into a 
tasteless powder called Saliretine, which is insolu- 
ble in water, but dissolves in alkalis and alcohol 
With chlorine it forms Chlorosalicine. It has been 
given in dyspepsia, intermittents, and other dis- 
eases in which quinine is commonly administered 
Dose. 10 to 30 grs. 

SALICULIC ACID. A volatile, cmtalliza- 
ble acid discovered by Piria, and obtained by heat- 
ing saliculous acid with caustic potash till the mix- 
ture turns white and gas is disengaged, and treat- 
ing the residue with a mineral acid, "to separate the 
potash. 

SALICULOUS ACID. Syn. Hydruret of 
Salicule. Hydrihiet of Spiroyle. Saliculio 
Acid ? A nearly colorless, oily, inflammable li- 
quid, discovered by Pagenstecher in the volatile 
oil of spircea ulmaria, (meadoio-sipeet,) and by 
Piria, as a product of the decomposition of salicine. 
It is either obtained by distilling the oil of spirjca 
along with liquor of potassa, as long as oil conies 
over, decomposing the residuum of .saliculije of po- 
tassa with dilute sulphuric acid, and again distill- 
ing, when saliculous acid comes over along mih 



SAL 



501 



SAL 



water ; or by distilling a mixture of 1 part each of 
salicine and bichromate of potash, 2^ parts of oil 
of vitriol, and 20 parts of water. The salicine is 
dissolved in part of the water, the acid diluted 
with the remainder, and the whole mixed in a 
retort, but not distilled till the effervescence ceases. 
Prod. 25§. (Ettling.) %* Saliculous acid is so- 
luble in ether and alcohol, and sMghtly so in 
water. It combines with the bases to form salts 
called saliculites. It also forms several inter- 
esting compounds with iodine, bromine, chlorine, 

i&C. 

SALOOP. Sassafras (chips) tea flavored with 
milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful drink 
in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. 

SALT. Syn. Sel, {Fr.) Salz, {Ger.) Sal, 
(Lat., from aAj, sea-salt.) In Chemistry, a com- 
pound of an acid with an alkali or a salifiable base, 
or of bromine, chlorine^^ fluorine, or iodine, with a 
metal. The names of 'the salts are derived from 
the acids which they contain ; as sulphate of soda, 
a compound of sulphuric acid and soda; sul- 
phite of lime, a compound . of lime and sulphu- 
rous acid. When the name of a salt terminates in 
ate, it implies that the acid that it contains is at 
the maximum of oxidizement, (or ends with ic,) 
and when the name terminates in ite, that the acid 
contains less oxygen, (or ends with ous.) — Neutral 
salts are such as contain 1 eq. each of acid and 
base ; basic, or subsalts, such as contain 2 or rnore 
atoms of base^ to one of acid ; acid, or supersalts, 
such as contain more than I eq. of acid ; hydrous 
or hydrated salts are such as contain water of 
crystallization, or combined water ; anhydrous 
salts, those that are destitute of water. Deliques- 
cent salts are those that attract moisture from the 
atmosphere ; efflorescerit salts, such as part with 
their combined water, and become opaque and 
pulverulent under like circumstances. The salts 
formed by the direct union of the archeal ele- 
ments, chlorine, iodine, «fec., as sea-salt, are 
termed haloid salts, and their names are formed 
by adding ide or uret to the first portion of the 
names of their electro-negative elements ; as chlo- 
ride of sodium, or common salt, a compound of 
chlor-'me and sodium ; iodide, or ioduret of iron, 
a compound of iod-ine and iron. See Oxide. 

SALT OF WORMWOOD. Syn. Sal Ab- 
8INTHII. Carbonate of potash. 

SALT, RED. Common salt wetted with an 
infusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture of 
red Sanders wood, then dried and rubbed throi\gh 
a sieve. Used to impart a color to gravies, &c. 
Infusion of saflTron also gives a beautiful color for 
this purpose. *^* It has been proposed to color 
Epsom salts in this way to distmguish them from 
oxalic acid. 

SALT, SORE THROAT. Syn. Sal Pru- 
nelljE. Lapis do. Crystal Mineral. Prep. 
Melt nitre, and when it flows smooth, pour it into 
moulds, either balls or cakes. Prod. 50§. 

SALTS, SMELLING. Syn. Sal volatile 
oleosus. Prep. 1. — Sesquicarbonate of ammonia 
1 lb. ; oil of lavender 3 oz. ; grind together, and 
sublime with a gentle heat. — 2. To the last adti, 
before distillation, oil of verbena ^ oz. Very fine. — 
3. Subcarbonate of potash and sal ammoniac, of 
each §viij ; powder, add leaves of Syrian herb 
mastich (marum Syriacum) fss ; alcohol 1^ pints, 



holding in solution oil of cloves 3ss, oil of nutmeg 
9ij, oil of cinnamon 9j, oils of sweet marjoram, 
lemon, and orange, of each 3j ; water 1 quart ; dis- 
til with a very gentle heat, and slop the process as 
soon as the liquid that rises begins to dissolve the 
salt. Very fragrant. — 4. (Extemporaneous.) — a. 
Sal ammoniac 1 dr. ; pure potassa .3 dr. ; grind 
together, and add essence of lemon 15 drops. — b. 
Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, bruised, q. s. ; essen- 
tial oil a few drops to perfume. 

SALTING AND PICKLING. (In domes- 
tic Economy.) This is best performed by well 
rubbing the meat with a mixture of salt 2 lbs. ; 
saltpetre 2 oz. ; and moist sugar 1^ oz., till every 
crevice is thoroughly penetrated, after which it 
should be set aside till the next day, when it 
should be covered with fresh salt in such parts as 
require it. It may then be advantageously placed 
in any proper vessel, and subjected to pressure, ad- 
ding a little fresh salt as necessary, and turning it 
daily till sufficiently cured. When the brine as it 
forms is allowed to drain from the meat, the pro- 
cess is called di-y salting ; but when, on the con- 
trary, it is allowed to remain on it, the article is 
said to be wet salted. On the small scale, the lat- 
ter is most conveniently performed by rubbing the 
meat with salt, &c., as above, and after it has lain 
a few hours, putting it into a pickle formed by dis- 
solving 4 lbs. of salt, ^ or 1 lb. of sugar, and 2 oz. of 
saltpetre in 2 gallons of water. This pickling liquor 
gets weaker by use, and should therefore be occa- 
sionally boiled down a little and skimmed, at the 
same time adding some more of the dry ingredients. 
*^* The sooner meat is salted after being killed 
the better, as it then possesses considerable absorb- 
ent power, which it gradually loses by age. On 
this property is based the process of M. Gannal for 
the preservation of animals intended for food in a 
fresh state. This operation consists in injecting a 
solution of chloride of aluminum, at 10° Baume, 
into the carotid, by means of a syphon, as soon as 
the blood ceases to flow from the slaughtered ani- 
mal ; both extremities of the jugular vein being 
previously tied. 9 to 12 quarts of the solution are 
sufficient for an ox. When the animal has been 
well bled, and the injection skilfully performed, it 
is scarcely perceprtible that the animal has under- 
gone any preparation. The injected animal is cut 
up in the usual way ; and when intended to be 
eaten within 2 or 3 weeks, merely requires to be 
hung up in a d^y situation free from flies ; but if it 
is to be kept for a longer period, it is directed to 
be washed with a mixed solution of common salt 
and chloride of aluminum at 10° B., and then 
simply dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels, 
and kept in a cool, dry place. If the air cannot 
be perfectly excluded, it should be packed in dry 
salt, not for the purpose of preserving it, but to 
prevent the vegetation of bissus ; as without this 
precaution, the meat becomes musty, from ex- 
posure and the action of moisture. Meat preserved 
by this process may be kept for several years, and 
merely requires soaking for 24 hours in water, for 
the purpose of swelling its pores, to give it the ap- 
pearance and taste of fresh meat, fit either for 
roasting or boiling. 

SALVE. A name indiscriminately applied by 
the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation 
(See Cerates, Ointment, &c.) 



SAR 



502 



SAU 



SALVE, LIP. Syn. Ceratum labiale. Prep, 
— 1. (White.) Spermaceti ointment or cerate 3 
oz. ; finely-powdered white sugar 1 oz. ; scent q. 
& ; mix.— 2. {Bed.) Spermaceti ointment ^ ib. ; 
alkanet root 1 oz. ; melt together till sufficiently 
colored, strain, and when considerably cooled, add 
20 drops of oil of lavender, or 3 drops of oil of rho- 
dium, or otto of roses, or 1^ dr. of balsam of Peru. 
SANDAL WOOD. Syn. Red Sanders Wood. 
Santal, {Fr.) Sandelholz, {Ger.) Lignum san- 
TALi RUBRi ; Lignum santalinum rubrum, {Lat.) 
The wood of pterocarpus santalinus. Wool may 
be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alternately 
into an infusion of this wood, and an acidulous 
bath. (TrommsdorfF.) Prepared with a mordant 
of alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of 
sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish yel- 
low. (Bancroft.) The coloring principle of red 
Sanders wood is called santaline, and may be ob- 
tained as a reddish resinous mass by evaporating 
its alcoholic infusion, or by digesting the rasped 
wood in ammonia water, and precipitating by an 
acid. Its spirituous solution gives a rich purple 
precipitate with protochloride of tin, and a violet 
one with acetate of lead. 

SANDIVER. Syn. Siit de Verre. Glass 
Gall. Fel Vitri. The saline scum that swims 
on glass when first made. It is occasionally used 
in tooth powders. 

SANGUINARIN. Obtained from the root 
of sanguinaria Canadensis by digesting it in anhy- 
drous alcohol, precipitating by water of ammonia, 
washing the red precipitate in water, boiling with 
water and animal charcoal, filtering, and digesting 
the solid portion in alcohol ; this solution by dis- 
tillation yields a pearl-gray or yellowish substance 
which is sanguinarin. It excites sneezing, and is 
turned red by acids. 

SANTONINE. Prep. Worm seed {semen 
cyncB) 4 parts ; slaked lime 2 parts ; alcohol of 
90§, 20 parts ; digest, evaporate the clear liquid, 
dissolve in dilute acetic acid, filter, again evapo- 
rate, dissolve in 10 parts of alcohol at 80g, and 
boil with some animal charcoal. The filtered 
liquid deposites colorless crystals of santonine as 
it cools. Tasteless, inodorous, fusible, volatizable, 
solubie in ether and alcohol, and slightly so in 
water. It is much esteemed as " a tasteless 
worm medicine," and is especially adapted to re- 
move lumbricales, (large round worms.) Dose. 
10 to 30 grs. repeated night and morning, followed 
by a brisk purge.— Lozew^es of Santonine. San- 
tonme 3j ; sugar fv ; tragacanth 3ss ; all in 
powder; make a mass with water and divide 
mto 144 lozenges. Dose for a child 5 to 10 
daily. 

SAPONINE. A white non-crystallizable sub- 
stance obtained by the action of alcohol on the 
root of saponaria officinalis, (soap wort.) It is 
soluble in water, and the solution froths strongly 
on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder 
causes violent sneezing. By the action of acids 
and alkalis it is converted into a white powder 
termed saponic acid, which is sollible in alcohol 

SARSAPARILLA. Syn. Radix Sarz.e, 
{Liat.) The Jamaica, red Jamaica, or red- 
bearded sarsnparilla, is the variety which should 
alone be used in medicine. Tiiis kind yields 33 
to 40g of its weight of extract, (Ilenuell, Battley, 



Pope,) and contains less starchy matter than the 
other varieties. It is distinguished by the dirty 
orange-reddish color of its bark, and by its cold 
decoction being darkened, but not rendered blue 
by a solution of iodine. Its powder has also a 
pale reddish brown color. The other varieties of 
sarsaparilla,viz.— the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, 
and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the 
Jamaica by the fraudulent druggist in the prepara- 
tion of the^ decoction and extracts of this drug • 
but the products are vastly inferior in quantity, 
color, taste, and medicinal virtue. Decoction of 
sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root, 
IS very liable to ferment even by a iew hours' ex- 
posure in hot weather. I once saw a pan holding 
3 hogsheads of the" strong decoction, that had 
been left exposed all night, in as active a state of 
fermentation as a gyle of beer ; it bore a frothy 
head, and evolved a most disagreeable odor, 
that was not wholly removed by several hours' 
boiling. 

SARSAPARILLINE. S-yn. Smilacin. 
Salseparin. Paralline. Pariglin. Paralinic 
Acid. A white, crystallizable, odorless, and nearly 
tasteless substance, discovered by Palotta and 
Folchi, in sarsaparilla. It is best obtained by 
treating the bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla with hot 
alcohol, decoloring the solution by animal char- 
coal, and repeatedly dissolving and crystallizing 
the impure smilacin that deposites as the liquid 
cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water. 
Water holding a very small quantity of this sub- 
stance in solution, froths considerably on agitation. 
This is especially the case with infusion of Ja- 
maica sarsaparilla, and this property has conse- 
quently been proposed as a test of the quality of 
sarsaparilla root. Dose. 2 to 10 grs. in the usual 
cases in which the root is given. 

SAUCES. Prep.—l. (Anchovy.) 3 or 4 an- 
chovies, chopped ; butter 3 or 4 oz. ; water 2 oz. • 
vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls ; flour 1 do. ; stir over 
the fire till it thickens, then rub it through a 
coarse hair-sieve— 2. (Chetney. Quihi do.) Sharp 
apples, pared and cored, tomatoes, salt, brown 
sugar, and raisins, of each 8 oz. ; red chillies, and 
powdered ginger, of each 4 oz. ; garlic and sha- 
lotes, of each 2 oz. ; pound well, add vinegar 3 
quarts, and lemon juice 1 do. ; digest with fre- 
quent agitation for a month, pour off nearly all 
the liquor, and bottle. Used for fish or meat, 
either hot or cold, or to flavor stews, &.c. The 
residue is the Chetney, and must be put into pots 
or jars. It is used like mustard.— 3. (Fish.) a. 
Port wine 1 gallon ; mountain 1 quart ; walnut 
ketchup 2 quarts ; anchovies and liquor 2 lbs. ; 8 
lemons; 36 shalotes ; scraped horseradish 1^ lb. ; 
flour of mustard 8 oz. ; mace 1 oz. ; Cayenne 
q. s. ; boil up gently, strain, and bottle.— 6. 24 
anchovies; 10 shalotes; scraped horseradish 3 
spoonfuls ; mace and cloves, of each ^ oz. ; 2 
sliced lemons ; anchovy liquor 8 oz. ; water 1 
pint ; Hock or Rhenish wine 1 bottle ; walnut 
ketchup i pint ; boil to 2^ lbs., strain, and bottle. — 4. 
(Quin's.) a. Walnut pickle, and port wine, of 
each 1 pint ; mushroom ketchup 1 quart ; an- 
chovies and shalotes, chopped, of each 2 dozen ; 
soy i pint ; Cayenne i oz. ; simmer for 10 minutes! 
strain, and bottle. — b. Walnut pickle, mushroom 
ketchup, and soy, of each 1 pint ; chopped cloves 



SCA 



503 



SEA 



of garlic and anchovies, of each 1 dozen ; Cayenne 
and bruised cloves, of each 1 dr. As last. — 5. 
(Sauce Superlative.) Port wine and mushroom 
ketchup, of each 1 quart ; walnut pickle 1 pint ; 
pounded anchovies ^ lb. ; lemon peel, minced 
shalotes, and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz. ; 
allspice and black pepper, bruised, of each 1 oz. ; 
Cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each \ 
oz., (or currie powder | oz. ;) digest 14 days, strain, 
and bottle. — 6. (Tomato.) Bruised tomatoes 1 
gallon ; salt ^ lb. ; in 3 days press out the juice, 
to each quart add sllalotes 2 oz. ; black pepper 1 
dr. ; boil for 30 minutes, strain, add mace, all- 
spice, ginger, and nutmegs, of each \ oz. ; corian- 
der seed and cochineal, of each 1 dr. ; simmer 
gently for 15 minutes, strain, cool, and bottle. — 7. 
{Sauce Aristocratique.) Green walnut juice, 
anchovies, equal parts ; cloves, mace, and pimento, 
bruised, of each 1 dr. to every' pound of juice ; 
boil and strain, then to every pint add 1 pint of 
vinegar, ^ pint of port wine, -j pint of soy, and a 
few shalotes. Let the whole stand for a few days, 
and decant the clear liquor. — 8. {Sauce au Roi.) 
Brown vinegar (good) 3 quarts ; soy and walnut 
ketchup, of each \ pint ; cloves and shalotes, of 
each i doz. ; Cayenne pepper 1 oz. ; mix, and let 
them stand for 14 days. — 9. {Sauce Piquante.) 
Soy 1 part ; port wine and Cayenne, of each 2 
parts ; brown vinegar 16 parts ; mix, and let them 
stand for 3 or 4 days before bottling. 

SAUR KRAUT. Prep. Clean white cabbages, 
cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a 
cask along with salt and a few juniper berries 
and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down 
as hard as possible with a wooden rammer, and to 
cover them with a lid pressed down with a heavy 
weight. The cask shbuld be placed in a cold 
situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived. 
Much used by the northern nations of Europe. 

SAUSAGES. Fat and lean of pork or beef 
chopped small, flavored with spice, and put into 
skins, or pressed into pots. Cnmib of bread is also 
freqr.?ntly added. 

SA\ ELOYS. Prep. Young pork, free from 
bone and skin, 3 lbs. ; salt it with 1 oz. of salt- 
petre, and ^ lb. of common salt for 2 days ; chop 
it fine ; put in 3 teaspoonfuls of pepper ; 1 doz. 
sage leaves chopped fine, and 1 lb. of grated 
bread ; mix it well, fill the skins, and bake them 
half an hour in a slack oven. They are good 
either hot or cold. 

SAVONETTES, {Fr., Wash-balls.) Prep. 1. 
{Communes.) — a. Soap 5 lbs. ; starch 2 lbs. ; 
essence of orange or citron 1 oz. ; eau pour la 
barbe 1 gallon ; beat together, and form into 
balls. — b. Soap shavings 5 lbs. ; eau de citron 1 
quart ; digest, force it through a coarse cloth, add 
starch 2 lbs., and essence of orange or citron 1 
oz. ; mix well. As last. — 2. {Sand balls.) Soap 
and sili<^ious sand, of each 1 lb. ; perfume (any) 
q. s — 3. Soap shavings 1 lb. ; orange flower or 
rose water i pint ; mix, and when sufficiently 
soft, add scent q. s., and form into balls. 

SCAM:M0NY. The mass of the scammony 
of the shops is adulterated. The following re- 
ceipts are current for factitious Smyrna scam- 
mony: — 1. Aleppo scammony 1 lb. ; jalap 7 lbs. ; 
Benna and charcoal, of each 2 lbs. ; manna 6 lbs. ; 
gamboge 4 lbs. ; ginger i lb. ; sirup of buckthorn, 



q. s. — 2. Jalap 2 lbs. ; senna, Aleppo scammony, 
and gamboge, of each 8 oz. ; charcoal and ginger, 
of each 4 oz. ; as last. — 3. Aleppo scammony 1 
lb. ; extract of jalap 5 lbs. ; gum guaiacum and 
sago, of each 10 lbs. ; ivory-black 4 lbs. ; mix. 
These imitations may be detected by the want of 
the resinous fracture of true scammony, and by 
their inferior solubility. Sulphuric ether separates 
from pure scammony fully 78§ of resinous matter 
dried at 280° F. ; and its cold decoction is neither 
rendered blue by iodine, nor its tincture turned 
green by nitric acid. 

SCARLET DYE. Proc. {For 1 lb. of cloth.) 
Cream of tartar 1| oz. ; water q. s. ; boil in a 
block-tin vessel, and when dissolved, add solution 
of tin (made by dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in a 
mixture of 1 lb. each of nitric acid and water, 
and 1^ oz. of sal ammoniac) 1| oz. ; boil for 3 
minutes, then introduce the cloth and boil it for 
2 hours ; drain and cool. Next, take cream of 
tartar ^ oz. ; water q. s. ; boil, and add powdered 
cochineal 1 oz. ; boil for 5 minutes, then gradually 
add solution of tin 1 oz., stirring well all the time ; 
lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as pos- 
sible. (Poerner.) 

SCENTS, POMATUM. Prep.— I. {Cow- 
slip.) Essence of bergamotte 1 lb. ; essence of 
lemon i lb. ; oil of cloves \ lb. ; mix. — 2. {Jon- 
quille.) Essences of bergamotte and lemon, of 
each, 8 oz. ; oil of cloves 2 oz. ; oils of sassafreis 
and orange, of each, 1 oz. ; mix. — 3. {Millefleur.) 
Essence of ambergris 4 oz. ; essence of lemon 3 
oz. ; oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of 
each, 2 oz. ; essence of bergamotte 1 oz. ; mix. 

SCHWARTZ' DROPS. Prep. Barbadoes tar 
f fj ; tincture of asafoetida f §iss ; mix. Dose. 40 
drops 3 times a day for tapeworm. 

SCHEELE'S GREEN. Syn. Arsenite of 
Copper. Prep. Powdered arsenious acid 11 oz. ; 
carbonate of potash 2 lbs. ; boiling water 1 gal- 
lon ; dissolve, filter, and add the solution, grad- 
ually, to a filtered solution of 2 lbs. of crj'stallized 
sulphate of copper in 3 gallons of water, as long 
Eis it produces a grass-green precipitate ; well 
wash with warm water and dry. Prod. 1^ lb. 
A very fine color. Used as a paint. 

SCiLLITIN. Syn. Scillitina. Scillitite. 
A whitish, resinous, transparent, bitter, deliques- 
cent substance, obtained from squills. It is soluble 
in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and is purgative 
and poisonous. 

SCUDAMORE'S GOUT LOTION. Prep, 
Camphor mixture f §ix ; alcohol f ^iij ; mix. Ap- 
plied on rags or poultices, adding, for the former, 
enough hot water to warm it. 

SCURVY. Syn. Scorbutus. The treatment 
of ordinary cases of this disease mainly consists in 
employing a diet of fresh animal" and green vege- 
table food, and mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as 
beverages, scrupulously avoiding salted and dried 
meat. 

I SEA SICKNESS. The most effectual pre- 
ventive is the horizontal position. When there is 
: much pain, a few drops of laudanum may be ta- 
ken, or an opium plaster applied over the region 
of the stomach. Persons should put their stomach 
and bowels in proper order by the use of mild 
aperients, and an emetic if required, before pro- 
ceeding to sea, when it will generally be founds 



SEN 



504 



SHR 



, that a glass of warm weak brandy and water, to 
which 15 or 20 drops of laudanum, or still better 
1 or 2 drops of creosote have been added, will ef- 
fectually prevent any disposition to sea sickness, 
provided excess in eating and drinking is at the 
same time avoided. 

SEBACIC ACID. (From sebum, suet) Prep. 
Distil fat. oil, or suet, in an earthen retort, and 
treat the product with hot water as long as that 
liquid deposites any thing on cooling; wash the 
crystals in cold water, and crystallize from hot 
water, repeating the process till the crystals be- 
come colorless. Volatile, light, pearly scales, re- 
sembling benzoic acid. With the bases it forms 
salts called sebales. It is very soluble in hot wa- 
ter, ether, and alcohol. 

SEDATIVE. Syn. Sedativus. {Lat., from 
sedo, to ease or assuage.) Medicine that dimin- 
ishes the animal energy without destroying life: 
opium, henbane, and several of the neutral salts 
and acids, are sedatives. 

SELENIUM. (From •Z,\r,vr,, the moon.) A 
chemical element discovered by Berzelius in 1818. 
Prep. (Magnus.) Native sulphuret of selenium 
1 part ; binoxide of manganese 8 parts ; expose 
the mixture to a low red heat in a glass retort, the 
beak of which dips in water. 

Props , ^c. A brittle opaque substance, having 
somewhat the appearance of lead, when in mass, 
but forming a deep red powder ; sp. gr. 4-30 to 
4-32 ; softens at 212° ; fuses at 220<^ ; boils at 
650°. With the metals it forms compounds called 
selemurets.— Oxide of selenium is a gaseous sub- 
stance obtained by heating selenium in a vessel of 
air, and washing the product with water.— ^e/e- 
■mous acid may be obtained by digesting selenium 
m aqua regia or nitric acid, and evaporating to 
dryness. It may be sublimed unchanged, is solu- 
ble in water and alcohol, and forms salts with the 
bases, termed selenites.Selenic acid is best ob- 
tained by fusing selenium or seleniuret of lead 
along with nitrate of soda or potassa, acting on 
the fused mass with water, filtering, boiling briskly 
to throw down the seleniate of soda, cooling to 
separate the nitrate of soda, and repeating the 
process until all the former salt is separated. The 
seleniate of soda is then decomposed by nitrate of 
lead, and after well washing the precipitate, it is 
decomposed by sulphureted hydrogen, when a so- 
lution of selenic acid is obtained. It is a colorless 
liquid, and forms salts called seleniates.—Seleniu- 
reted hydrogen (hydroselenic acid) is obtained by 
the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the proto- 
selenmret of iron, manganese, or potassium. It is 
a colorless gas, freely absorbed by water. Its 
most remarkable property is its power of irritating 
the nose, exciting catarrhal symptoms, and de- 
stroying the sense of smell. This has led to the 
suggestion by Dr. Prout, that the evolution of this 
substance by volcanoes, and its diffusion through 
the atmosphere, may be the cause of certain forms 
of the epidemic disorder called influenza.— iSuZ- 
phuret and phosphoret of selenium are made by 
simply fusing their elements together. 

SENEGINE. Syn. Polygaline. Polygalic 
Acid. A white odorless powder discovered by 
Gehlin in the bark of soneka root, {Polygala Se- 
nega.) It is a powerful errhine and poison. It is 
\roiiitile, and soluble in water and alcohol. 



SEPIA. The mk of the cuttle fish. ] part is 
capable of making 1000 parts of water nearly 
opaque. Ihe dried native sepia is prepared for 
artists by boiling it for a, short time in a weak lye 
ot caustic alkali, precipitating by an acid, and 
well washing the precipitate, and drying it by a 
gentle heat. A fine brown color. Used, like In- 
dian ink, by artists. 

SEVUM, PREPARED. Mould candles, at 
least 2 years old, melted by a very gentle heat 
and stramed from the wicks. (Pharm. Journal.) 
Used to make mercurial ointment. Triturated 
with 8 to 12 times its weight of quicksilver, it ex* 
tmguishes the globules in less than a quarter of an 
hour. *^« The magnetic adeps sold for the same 
purpose, IS made by pouring melted lard, in a 
small stream, into cold water, placing the thin 
fragments thus obtained in a sieve covered with 
paper, or other suitable apparatus, and exposing it 
to the air for 3 or 4 months. (Guibourt.) Speedily 
" kills" 30 or 40 times its weight of silver. " Fresh 
lard reduced by oil of almonds, or a gentle warmth, 
to the consistence of a thick cream, will extinguish 
7 or 8 times its weight of running mercury." (Ann 
de Chim.) ^ 

SHERBET. (Arab.) A cooling drink used in 
the East, prepared with the juices of fruit and 
water, variously sweetened and flavored. 

SHOEMAKER'S BLACK. A solution of 
copperas m water. Rubbed on leather it turns 
black. 

SHOT METAL. Lead 1000 parts ; arsenic 3 
parts : or if the lead is coarse, 6 to 8 parts. 

SHRUB. A species of concentrated cold punch 
Prep. I. (Brandy Shrub.) a. Brandy 1 gallon ; 
orange and lemon juice, of each 1 pint ; peels of 
2 oranges ; do, of 1 lemon ; digest for 24 hours, 
strain, and add white sugar 4 lbs., dissolved in wa- 
ter 5 pints, b. Brandy at proof 34 gallons ; essen- 
tial oils of oranges and lemons, of each 1 oz., dis- 
solved in rectified spirit 1 quart ; good lump sugar 
300 lbs. ; dissolved in water 20 gallons ; mix well 
by rummaging, and gradually and cautiously add 
of a solution of tartaric acid in water, or of Seville 
orange juice q.s. to produce a pleasant but scarce- 
ly perceptible acidity ; next " rummage" well for 
15 minutes, add water to make the whole meas- 
ure exactly 100 gallons, and again " rummage" 
well for half an hour ; lastly, bung down loosely; 
m 10 or 12 days it will usually be sufficiently 
brilliant to be racked. This is 66 u. p. 

II. (Rutn Shrub.) As the last, but substituting 
rum for brandy. 

III. (Punch Shrub.) Concentrated punch, made 
with equal parts of spirit and water. Used to 
make punch. 

IV. (Lemonade Shrub.) Concentrated lemon- 
ade. Used to make lemonade or lemon sherbet. 

Remarks. Rum shrub is the kind in the great- 
est demand, and that having a slight preponder- 
ance of the orange flavor is the most esteemed. If 
wholly flavored with lemon, it is apt to acquire a 
knid of " dead" or " musty" flavor by long keep- 
ing. The substitution of a few gallons ofTjrandy 
for a portion of the rum, or the addition, after 
racking, of about 1 oz. each of bruised bitter al- 
monds, cloves, and cassia, the peels of a dozen or 15 
oranges, and a " thread" of tlie essences of ani- 
I bergris and vanilla, renders it delicious. *^* I 



SIL 



505 



SIL 



have employed the above formuloe for the manu- 
facture of some score hogsheads of shrub, which 
have been highly admired in the wholesale 
trade. 

SIGHS OF LOVE. Prep. a. Spirit at 18° 
B. 1 gallon ; white sugar 4 lbs., dissolved in water 
^ gallon ; mix, perfume with otto of roses, and 
color to a pale pink with cochineal, b. As last, 
but dissolve the sugar in rose water, and omit the 
otto. A pleasant cordial. 

SIGNATURES, FAC-SIMILES.OF. Proc. 
Write your name on a piece of paper, and while 
the ink is wet, sprinkle over it some finely-pow- 
dered gum arabic, then make a rim round it, and 
pour on it some fusible alloy in a liquid state. Im- 
pressions may be taken from the plates formed in 
this way, by means of printing ink and the cop- 
perplate press. 

SILICA. Prep. Levigated porcelain, plaster 
of Paris, and iron filings, equal parts ; mix, and 
make them into a paste with the thickest quick- 
drying copal varnish. Used to fill hollow teeth. 

SILICA. St/n. Silicic Acid. Silex. Sili- 
cious Earth. (From silex, a flint, or x«^ts, a peb- 
ble.) The earth of flints, and the basis of glass 
and all silicious minerals. 

Prep. 1. Heat quartz or rock crj'stal to red- 
ness, plunge it into cold water, dry, and powder. 
Insoluble. 2. Powdered quartz, as last, 1 part ; 
carbonate of potash 3 parts ; fuse together. This 
substance (soluble glass) dissolves in water, form- 
ing a true solution, (liquor of flints, silicum 
liquor,) from which concentrated acids throw down 
a gelatinous hydrate of silicic acid. ■• 

SILICO-FLUORIDES. Double fluorides, 
formed by precipitating or saturating silico-hydro- 
fluoric acid with the bases. (See Fluosilicic 
•Acid.) 

SILICON. 8yn. Silicium. The combustible 
base of silica. It was first procured by Berzelius 
in 1824, by the action of potassium on fluosilicic 
acid ; but it is more conveniently obtained from 
the double fluoride of silicon and potassium or so- 
dium, previously dried at nearly a fed heat. This 
substance, gently heated with potassium in a glass 
tube, and the resulting compound washed with 
water, yields silicon under the form of a dark 
brown powder. It dissolves in a mixture of nitric 
and fluoric acids, and burns or explodes when 
heated with the hydrates and carbonates of the 
alkalis. It is permanent in !v-3 air, even when 
heated. ' 

SILKS. No silks look well after washing, 
however carefully it b© done, and this method 
should therefore never be resorted to, but from ab- 
solute necessity. It is recommended to sponge 
faded silks with warm water and soap, then to rub 
them with a dry cloth on a flat board, after which 
to iron them on the inside with a smoothing iron. 
Sponging with spirits will also improve old black 
silks. The ironing may be done on the right side, 
with thin paper spread over them to prevent 
glazing. 

SILLABUB. Prep. Grate oft* the peel of a 
lemon with lump-sugar, and dissolve the sugar in 
I of a pint of wine ; add the juice of ^ a lemon, 
and -^ of a pint of cream ; beat the whole together 
until of a proper thickness, and then put it into 
glasses. *it* Milk 1 pint is often substituted for 
64 



cream, and cider or perry for wine. Grated nut- 
meg is often added. When " whipt" to a froth it 
is called " whipt sillabub." 

SILVER, Syn. Silber, (Ger.) Argent, (Fr.) 
Argentum, {Lat.) Diana; Luna, {Ale.) This 
metal, like gold, appears to have been as much 
valued in the most remote ages of antiquity of 
which we have any record, as at the present day. 
It is procured from its ores chiefly by amalgama- 
tion and cupellation. Its sp. gr. is 10-474, and 
melting-point 1873°, (Daniel!,) or bright redness 
It is soluble in nitric acid, and in sulphuric acid by 
the aid of heat. Refined Silver {Argentum Cu^ 
pellatum) is silver that has passed the cupel. (See 
Assaying.) Pure SiLVEiR is obtained by placing a 
copper rod in a solution of the nitrate, digesting 
the precipitate in caustic ammonia, and washing 
with water; or by boiling recently precipitated 
and still moist chloride of silver in a bright iron 
vessel along with water. Silver leaf {Argen- 
tum foliatvm) is used by dentists, and for silver- 
ing. It is only yTrnVoo^^^ ^^ ^" '"*^^^ thick. Sil- 
ver SHELLS are used by artists, and are made like 
gold shells. Silver dust {Crocus argenti) is pure 
pulverulent silver obtained as above, and used by 
japanners. 

Pur., Tests, ^c. " Entirely soluble in diluted 
nitric acid. This solution, treated with an excess 
of miudate of soda, gives a white precipitate en- 
tirely soluble in ammonia water, and a fluid which 
is not affected by sulphureted hydrogen." (P. E.) 
The nitric solution of silver giA'es, — 1. A white 
curdy precipitate {chloride of silver) with mui'i- 
atic acid, soluble in ammonia and insoluble in ni- 
tric acid, and blackened by exposure to light. 
2. It gives lohite precipitates with solutions of the 
alkaline carbonates, oxalates, and prussiates. 3. It 
gives yellow precipitates with the alkaline arsen- 
ites and phosphates. 4. With the arseniates, red 
precipitates. 5. With the fixed alkalis, brown 
precipitates. 6. With sulphureted hydrogen, a 
black powder, and, — 7. With phosphorus, and me- 
tallic copper, pure silver. 

SILVER, CHLORIDE OF. ^n. Argenti 
Chloridum. Prep. Precipitate a soiation of chlo- 
ride of silver by dilute muriatic acid ; wash and 
dry in the shade. Dose. 3 grs. 3 or 4 times daily ; 
in epilepsy, chronic dysentery, diarrhoea, &c. 
(Dr. Perry.) 

SILVER, CYANIDE OF. Syn. Hydrocy- 
ANATE OF Silver. Cyanodide of do. Argentum 
ZooTiNicuM. (See Cyanide of Silver.) 

SILVER, FULMINATING. Syn. Argen- 
tum FuLMiNANs. Fulminate of Silver. Prep. 
I. Digest oxide of silver (recently precipitated, and 
dried by pressure between bibulous paper) in con- 
centrated liquor of ammonia for 12 or 15 hours, 
pour off" the liquid, and cautiously dry the black 
powder in the air. The decanted ammonia, when 
gently heated, yields, on cooling, small crystals, 
which possess a still more formidable power of det- 
onation, and will scarcely bear touching, even 
while under the liquid. 

II. Dissolve chloride of silver in liquor of ammo- 
nia, cautiously add fragments of pure potassa, and 
when effervescence ceases, decant, and wash and 
dry the powder. Inferior. 

III. (Brunatelli's.) Silver 1 part ;4ipitrie acid 
(sp.gr. 1-36 to 1-33) 10 parts; dissolve at a gentle 



SIL 



506 



SIL 



heat, and add the solution to alcohol of 85§, 20 
parts; apply a gentle heat till the liquid begins to 
boil, then remove it from the fire, and set it aside 
to cool ; the fulminate of silver is deposited in lus- 
trousy snow-white, acicular crystals, and when 
washed and dried, equals in weight the silver era- 
ployed. (Liebig.) 

Remarks. This compound is exploded by the 
slightest friction or percussion ; and should there- 
tore be only made in very small quantities at a 
time, and handled with great caution. Its explo- 
sive powers are tremendous ; in fact, it can hardly 
be handled with safety, even in the moist state. 
Many frightful accidents have happened from the 
spontaneous explosion of this substance. 1 or 2 
fafeT^ ^""^ ^^^ '"''^^ ^^^* ^^" ^® exploded with 

SILVER GERMAN. >Syn. Nickei. Silver. 
Albata. White Copper. Prep. 1. (Gersdorff.) 
Nickel and zmc of each 1 part; copper 2 parts 
Very fine. 2. (Gersdorff.) Nickel 25 parts ; zinc 
dnriVl^'Prf^^^"- ^^^^f«r rolling. 3. (Gers- 
dorff.) Nickel and zmc, of each 20 parts; copper 
60 do ; lead 3 do. For castings. 4. (Gersdorff) 
To either of the above add 2 to 3§ of white sheet 
iron. 5. (Keferstem.) Copper 40^ parts; nickel 
m do. ; zmc 25i do. ; iron 2^ do. This resem- 

nf hm!/^''u"'^ ^^'""^^ "'^^^^ n^ade from the ore 
of Hildburghausen, as well as Pakfong, as ana- 
lyzed by Dr^ Fyfe. 6. (Keferstein.) isf^kel and 
zmc, of each 7 parts; copper 5 do. This is the 
composition of the Chinese white copper, Tute- 
nag or Pakfong. 7. Nickel 15 parts ; copper 21 
do. ; zmc 28 do. Malleable, resembles the Chi- 
nese pakfong *^* All the above are used as sub- 
stitutes for silver. 

SILVER, IODIDE OF. Syn. Argenti lom- 
DUM. Prep. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of 
silver by another of iodide of potassium. Green- 
ish yellow ; msoluble in water and ammonia. Used 
m some of the French hospitals. 

SILVER, NITRATE OF. Syn. Argenti 
NiTRAs. Pr.;,. (P.L.) Pure silver fiss; nitric 
acid f |j ; suited with water f ^ij ; dissolve by the 
heat of a sand-bath, evaporate till ebullition ceases 
and the water is expelled, then pour it into (iron) 
moulds In this state it forms the Lunar Caustic 
{Oausticum Lunare, Argenti Nitras Fusum, Ar- 
gentum Nztratum) of the shops; but when the 
solution is cautiously evaporated and crystallized, 
/^ !-Ar ''^''' transparent, rhombic prisms, 
{Argenti Nztratis Crystalli; Crystalli Lunar es!) 
^ Kemarks. Pure nitrate of silver is entirely soluble 
m water, yielding a colorless solution, from which 
metallic silver is precipitated bv a piece of bright 

TTl I't ^"'"^ "'^^^*" '^ originally white, but 
IS darkened by exposure to light and contact with 
organic matter. "29 grs. dissolved in f^i of wa- 
ter acidulated with nitric acid, precipitated bv a 
solution of 9 grs. of muriate of ammonia, brisldy 
agitated for a few seconds, and then allowed to 
rest tt little; yields a clear supernatant liquor, 
whjch IS still precipitable by more of the test." 
(r. J^.) Dose. One-sixth of a grain gradually in- 
creased, 2 or 3 a day, made into a pill with crumb 
ot bread, in chorea, epilepsy, &c. Its continued 
use colors the skin. Jt is also used externally. 
Antidote. A solution of common salt, emetics, and 
aemulcents. 



SILVER, OXIDE OF. Syn Argenti Oxt- 
BUM. Prep. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of 
silver by hme water, ora solution of potassa ; wash 
and dry m the shade at a gentle heat. Olive- 
brown, darkened by light. Dose, i gr. in epi- 
lepsy, gastralgic irritations, &c. It is much used 
m Jb ranee. 

SILVER, POWDER. OF. ^^„. Argenti 
PuLvis. Prep. Heat the oxide to a dull red in a 
porcelain crucible, cool, triturate in an agate mor- 
tar, and pass it through a fine sieve. Both this 
and the last are used at the hospital of Mont- 
peilier. 

SILVER SULPHATE OF. Syn. Argenti 
S5ULPHAS. Prepared by dissolving silver in sulphu- 
ric acid containing one-tenth of nitric acid ; or by 
precipitating a solution of the nitrate by another 
of sulphate of soda. It dissolves in 80 parts of 
hot water, and falls in small needles as the solu- 
tion cools. 

SILVER, SULPHURET. Prepared by pass- 
mg sulphureted hydrogen through a solution of 
nitrate of silver. 

SILVERING OF METALS. The art of 

covering the surface of bodies with a thin coatinff 
01 silver, 

■^J?""'. ^: ^^^''f Gilding.) This is performed 
with leaf silver in the way described at p. 334, for 
Gilding of Polished Metals. 

11. {Cold Silvering.) Mix 1 part of chloride 
of silver with 3 parts of pearlash, 1^ parts of com- 
mon salt, and 1 part of whiting, and well rub the 
mixture on the surface of brass or copper, (previ- 
ously well cleaned,) by means of a piece of soft 
leather, or a cork moistened with water and dip- 
ped into the powder. 1 part of precipitated silver 
powder, mixed with 2 parts each of cream of tar- 
tar and common salt, may also be used in the 
same way. When properly silvered the metal 
should be well washed in hot water slightly alka- 
lized, and then wiped dry. 

III. {By the electrotype.) M. de Ruolz per- 
fornis this by means of a solution of oxide of sil- 
ver in cyanide of potassium, in the way described 
m the article Voltaic Gilding. Citrate of silver 
has also been used with advantage. 

*** Leather, paper, wood, &c., are silvered 
with silver leaf by a similar process to that em- 
ployed in gilding them. 

SILVERING OF GLASS. Proc. I. Mirrors 
are silvered as follows :— A sheet of tin foil corre- 
sponding to the size of the plate of glass is evenly 
spread on a perfectly smooth and solid marble 
table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully 
rubbed down with a brush ; a portion of mercury 
IS then poured on, and rubbed over the foil with a. 
clean piece of soft woollen stuff, after which two 
rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured 
on to the depth of a crown piece, when any oxide 
on the surface is carefully removed, and the sheet 
of glass, perfectly clean and drv, is slid alono- over 
the surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt, 
or oxide, can possibly either remain or get between 
them. When the glass has arrived at its proper 
position, gentle pressure is applied, and the table 
sloped a little to carry off the waste morcnrv, after 
which it is covered with flannel, and loaded with 
heavy weights ; iii 24 hours it is removed to a 
wooden table aui farther slanted, and this positiou 



SIR 



507 



SIR 



is progressively increased during a month, till it 
becomes perpendicular. 

II. {DraijtorCs Patent.) Proc. A mixture is 
first made of coarsely-pulverized nitrate of silver 
1 oz. ; spirits of hartshorn ^ oz., and of water 2 oz. ; 
which, after standing for 24 hours, is filtered, (the 
deposite upon the filter, which is silver, being pre- 
served,) and an addition is made thereto of spirit, 
(by preference, spirit of wine,) at 60° above proof, 
or naphtha 3 oz. ; from 20 to 30 drops of oil of 
cassia are then added ; and, after remaining for 
about 6 hours longer, the solution is ready for use. 
The glass to be silvered is well cleaned and pol- 
ished, placed in a horizontal position, a wall of 
putty, or other suitable material, formed around it, 
and the solution poured over it to the depth of 
from I to 4: inch ; from 6 to 12 drops of a mixture 
of oil of cloves and spirit of wine (in the proportion 
of 1 part, by measure, of oil of cloves, to 3 of spirit 
of wine) are next dropped into it, at different places ; 
or the diluted oil of cloves may be mixed with the 
solution before it is poured upon the glass. The 
more oil of cloves used, the more rapid will be the 
deposition of the silver ; but the patentee prefers 
that it should occupy about 2 hours. When the 
required deposite has been obtained, the solution is 
poured off; and as soon as the silver on the glass 
is perfectly dry, it is varnished with a composition 
formed by melting together equal quantities of 
beeswax and tallow. The solution, after being 
poured off; is allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days itx a 
close vessel ; as it still contains silver, and may 
be again employed after filtration, and the addition 
of a sufficient quantity of fresh ingredients to sup- 
ply the place of those which have been used. The 
patentee states, that, by experiment, he has ascer- 
tained that about 18 grains of nitrate of silver are 
used for each square foot of glass ; but the quan- 
tity of spirit varies somewhat, as its evaporation 
depends upon the temperature of the atmosphere, 
and the duration of the process. If the glass be 
placed in an inclined, or even a vertical position, 
and the surface covered over, leaving a narrow 
space for the solution between the surface of the 
glass and the cover, which fits close, then, by using 
spirit without water in the mixture, the object will 
be accomplished. By the addition of a small 
quantity of oil of caraway or thyme, the color of 
the silver may be varied. (Newton's Journal.) 
This method seems likely to supersede all others 
for silvering mirrors, and the backs of diamonds 
and pastes. 

SIRUP. Syn. Sirop ; Syrop, {Fr.) Syrupus, 
{Lat., from serab, Arab., a potion.) A thick solution 
of sugar in water, either simple, flavored, or medi- 
cated. In the preparation of sirups care should be 
taken to employ the best refined sugar, as they 
will thus be rendered less liable to spontaneous de- 
composition, and if made with distilled water, or 
filtered rain water, will be perfectly transparent, 
without the trouble of clarification. When the 
latter operation is required, it should be conducted 
in the manner described at article Capillaire. 
When vegetable solutions enter into the composi- 
tion of sirups, they should be rendered perfectly 
transparent by filtration or clarification, before be- 
ing added to the sugar. In general, 2 lbs. (av.) 
will be required to every imperial pint of water or 
thin aqueous fluid to make a sirup of a proper con- 



sistence or density, which will allow for the por- 
tion that is lost by evaporation during the process. 
It is proper to employ as little heat as possible, as 
a solution of sugar, even when kept at the temper- 
ature of boiling water, undergoes slow decomposi- 
tion. A good plan is to pour the water (cold) on 
the sugar, and to let the two lie together for a few 
hours, occasionally stirring, and then to apply a 
gentle heat (preferably that of steam or a water- 
bath) to finish the solution. Some persons (falsely) 
deem a sirup ill prepared unless it has been allowed 
to boil ; but if this method be adopted, the ebulU- 
tion should be only of the gentlest kind, {simmer- 
ing,) and should be checked after the lapse of 1 or 
2 minutes. If it be desired to thicken a sirup by 
boiling, a few fragments of glass should be intro- 
duced, as ebullition takes place under the usual 
boiling point when these are ]»resent. In most 
pharmaceutical works directions are given to com- 
pletely saturate the water with ^sugar, so that the 
sirup shall have the sp. gr. 1-321 when cold ; but 
I find, from extensive experience in the manufac- 
ture of sirups, both in England and abroad, that, 
under all ordinary circumstances, a sirup with a 
very slight excess of water keeps better than one 
fully saturated. In the latter case, a portion of 
sugar generally crystallizes out on standing, and 
thus, by abstracting sugar from the remainder of 
the sirup, so weakens it that it rapidly ferments 
and spoils. This change proceeds at a rapidity 
proportionate to the temperature. Saturated sirup 
kept in a vessel that is frequently uncorked or ex- 
posed to the air, loses sufficient water by evapora- 
tion from its surface to cause the formation of mi- 
nute crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom 
of the vessel, continue to increase in size at the 
expense of the sugar in solution. I have seen a 
single six-gallon stone bottle, in which sirup has 
been kept for some time, the inside of which, when 
broken, has been found to be entirely cased with 
sugar-candy, amounting to 16 or 18 lbs. On the 
other hand, sirups containing too much water also 
rapidly ferment, and become ascescent ; but of the 
two, this is the less evil, and may be more easily 
prevented. The proportions of sugar and water 
given above will form an excellent sirup, provided 
care be taken to allow but little to be lost by evap- 
oration. To make transparent sirups, the sugar 
should be in a single lump, and by preference taken 
from the bottom or broad end of the loaf, as, if 
powdered or bruised, the sirup will be cloudy. Sir- 
ups are judged to be sufficienth' boiled when some 
taken up in a spoon pours out like oil ; and when 
a thin skim appears on blowing upon the sirup^ it 
is judged to be completely saturated. A fluid 
ounce of saturated sirup weighs 577^ grs., and a 
gallon 131 lbs., (avoird. ;) its sp. gr. is 1-320, or 35° 
of Baume's areometer ; its boilirig point is 221° 
F., and its density at the temperature of 212° is 
equal to 1-260, or 30° B. The sirups prepared with 
the juices of fruits, or that contain much extrac- 
tive matter, as those of sarsaparilla, poppies, &c., 
should be made to mark about 2° or 3° more on 
Baume's scale than the other sirups. 

*** The decimal part of the number denoting 
the specific gravity of a sirup, multiplied by 26, 
gives the number of pounds of sugar it contains 
per gallon very nearly. (Ure.) In boiling sirups, 
if they appear likely to boil over, a little oil, oi 



SIR 



508 



SIR 



rabbing the edges of the pan with soap, will pre- 
vent It. r r 

Pres. vSirups, as well as all saccharine solutions, 
should be kept in a cool place. " Let sirups be 
kept m a situation where the temperature never 
rises above 55°." (P. L.) The best plan is to keep 
them m small, rather than in large bottles, as the 
longer a bottle lasts, the more frequently it will be 
opened, and consequently the more exposed it will 
be to the air. By bottling sirups while boiling hot, 
and immediately corking down, and tying the bot- 
tles over with bladders perfectly air-tight, they 
may be kept, even at a summer heat, for years 
without fermenting. A certain wholesale druff 
house, remarkable for the quality of their sirups 
adopt this method, employing thick green Mass 
bottles for quantities of 2 quarts and under, and 
stoneware bottles for larger quantities. Each bot- 
tle IS labelled with the name of the sirup, and the 
date at which it was made. On lately examining 
the stock of the parties alluded to, I observed some 
that had been bottled upwards of two years, and 
which still preserved its transparency and usual 
appearance. The addition of a little citric or tar- 
taric acid (3ij to 3iv to the gallon) will prevent 
sirap candying, unless it be boiled too thick : and 
a little sulphite of potassa or lime will efFectnallv 
prevent fermentation ; but the two must not be 
used together. The one method is applicable to 
saturated or nearly saturated sirups ; the other to 
those that are scarcely saturated with sugar, and 
which cannot be preserved in a cool situation. 
Chlorate of potash has also been proposed on theo- 
retical grounds to prevent the access of the vinous 
fermentation, and I am told that its application is 
advantageous. 

SIRUP OF BUCKTHORN. Syn. Svkupus 
^Rhamni, (P. L. E. and D.) Syr. Spin^ Cervi- 
N^. Prep.— I. (P. L.) Juice of buckthorn, defe- 
cated, 2 quarts ; ginger and allspice, bruised, of 
each 3vj ; macerate the spice in 1 pint of the iuice 
»t a gentle heat for 4 hours, and filter ; boil the 
rest to li pints, mix the liquors, and dissolve therein 
white sugar lb. iv.- -2. {Wholesale.)~a. Buckthorn 



SIRUP EMPYREUMATIC. Syn'^^r,^^, 
H^MPYREUMATicus. F^x Sacchari. Treacle. Mo- 



juice 3 gallons ; bruised pimcaito and ginger, sifted 
from the dust, of each ^ lb. ; simmer for 15 min- 
utes, strain, and add sugar 44 lbs.— 5. Buckthorn 
juice 3 gallons ; boil to 2 gallons, add bruised pi- 
mento and ginger grufFs, free from dust, of each 
5 lb.; boil to 1 gallon, strain, add molasses 72 lbs • 
and finish the boiling. Cathartic. Dose. I oz to 
1 oz. %* Should the color be dull, the addition 
otS^t ^^■'^'"^ °^ tartaric acid will brighten it. 
SIRUP OF CAPILLAIRE. Syn. Sirup of 
Maidenhair. Syrupus capillorum Veneris. Sir- 
pp DE Capillaire. Prep. Maidenhair f v ; liquor- 
ice root ^ij ; boiling water lb. vj ; steep for 6 hours, 
St"i^tTt? ^';J white sugar q.s. (See Capillaire.) 
SIRUP OF COCHINEAL. Syn. Syrhpus 
CocciNELL^. Prep. Powdered cochineal 3j ; wa- 
ter l\ pmts ; boil to a pint, filter, and add white 
sugar 2 lbs. 1 oz. Used as coloring sirup, and often 
sold for sirnp of clovepinks. 

SIRUP OF COLTSFOOT. Syn. Syrupus 
TussiLAGiNis. Prep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of colts- 
loot lb. J ; (or dried flowers ^ij ;) boiling water lb ii • 
macerate 12 hours ; strain, press, filter, and add 
sugar lb. IV. A popular remedy in co^ighs, cold, 
&c. Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls ad libitum. | 



Syrop de Gomme. Prep. (P. Cod.) Dissolve pale 
and picked gum arable in an equal weight of water 
by a gentle heat, and add the solution to twice its 
weight of simple sir.up, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, 
remove the scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent! 
1 he addition of 1 or 2 oz. of orange-flower water to 
each pint, renders it very agreeable 

SIRUP OF GINGER. '' Syn. Syrupus Zingi- 
BERis, (P. L. E and D.) Prep /p. L.) Bruised 
ginger ^iiss; boiling water 1 pint; macerate for 4 
hours, strain, and add white sugar lb. iiss. Used as 
a flavoring. 

SIRUP OF HOREHOUND. Syn. Syrupus 
Marubii. Syrop de Prassio. Prep.~l (P Cod ) 
Dried horehound f j ; horehound water Ib.ii ; di- 
gest in a water-bath for 2 hours, strain, and add 
white sugar lb. iv.— White horehound (fresh) 1 lb • 
boiling water 1 gallon ; infuse for 2 hours, press 
out the liquor, filter, and add sugar q. s. A popu- 
lar remedy in coughs and diseases of the lungs. 
Dose. A tablespoonful ad libitum. " It is sold for 
any sirup of herbs that is demanded, and which is 
not in the shop." (Gray.) 

SIRUP OF IODIDE OF IRON. Syn. Syr- 
upusFerriIodidi. Prep.-l. (RE.) Dry iodine 
^UU grs.; fine iron wire 100 grs. ; water f ?vi • 
mix m a flask and boil, at first gently, and after-' 
wards briskly, till reduced to two-thirds; filter 
While hot into a matrass containing white sugar 
^ivss ; dissolve, and add water if necessary to make 
the whole measure exactly f f vj. mxij contain 1 
gr. of iodide of iron.— 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Con- 
tains 24 grs. of dry or 32 grs. of hydrated iodide 
of^rwi m each oz.~3. (Ricord.) 2 grs. to the 07. 
*** Euher of the last two may be made from 
the former by adding simple sirup.— 4. (Whole- 
sale.) Dry iodine 6 oz. ; iron filings 3 oz. ; boiling 
wa er 2i lbs.; sugar 5^ lbs.; mix as No. 1, and 
make it up to 8i lbs. This is of the strength rec- 
ommended by Dr. A. T. Thomson. Dose Of 
either (except the third) 3ss to 3j, as a tonic and 
resolvent, in debility, scrofula, &c. *^* It should 
be perfectly transparent and colorless, or at most 
ony of a very pale green tint, and should be with- 
out sediment even when exposed to the air. (P E ) 
It keeps best in well-closed bottles, excluded from 
the light. (See Iodide of Iron.) 

SIRUP OF IPECACUANHA. Syn. Syruf 
,usIpecacuanh^. Prep. (R E.) Coarselv-pow 
dered ipecacuanha fiv; rectified spirit 1 pint; di 
gest 24 hours, strain, add proof spirit f f xiv ; again 
digest and strain, and repeat the process with wa- 
ter ffxiv ; distil off" the spirit from the mixed Ii- 
quors, evaporate to f f xij ; filter, add rectified spirit 
1 ^v, and simple sirup 7 pints ; mix well. Dose. 
Ap an emetic for infants i teaspoonful ; for adults 
SttAt^t^;].^^ ^" ^''P^f^forant, 1 to 3 teaspooufuls. 
^^^S^^^^^MONS. Syn. Syrupus Limo- 
NUM, (P. L E. and D.) Prep. (R L) Lemon 
juice (strained or defecated) 1 pint : sugar lb. iiss; 
dissolve by a gentle heat, and set it aside ; in 24 
hours remove the scum, and decant the clear. A 
pleasant refrigerant sirup in fevei-s, &c. Dose. 1 
to 4 drs. in any diluent. With water it forms an 
extemporaneous lemonade. 



SIR 



509 



SIR 



SIRUP OF MARSHMALLOW. Syn. Syr- 
DPUS Alth^.e, (P. L. E. and D.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Marshmallow root, fret?h and sliced, 3viij ; boiliuo; 
water 2 quarts ; boil to one-half, set aside for 24 
hours, decant the clear, add white sugar lb. iiss, 
and gently evaporate to a proper consistence. De- 
mulcent and pectoral. Dose. 1 to 4 drs., in coughs, 
&,c., added to mixtures, 

SIRUP OF MULBERRIES. Syn. Syrupus 
Mori. Prep. (P. L.) Juice of mulberries, strained, 
I pint ; sugar lb. iiss ; dissolve. Used as a color- 
ing and flavoring where alkalis and earths are not 
present. Sirup of red poppies, (Rhaeados.) slightly 
acidulated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is 
verv generally sold for it. 

SIRUP OF ORANGE-PEEL. Syn. Syrupus 
Aurantii, (P. L. E. D.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) Fresh 
orange-peel 3iiss ; boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 
for 12 hours in a covered vessel, strain, and add 
sugar lb. iij. — 2. (Wholesale.) a. Fresh orange-peel 
18 oz., (or dried | lb. ;) sugar IS lbs. : water q. s. — 
b. Tincture of orange-peel f 3J ; simple sirup f 3xix : 
mix. As an agreeable flavoring and stomachic. 
Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 

SIRUP OF POPPIES. Syn. Sirup of White 
Poppies. Syrupus Papaveris, (P. L. E. & D.) Do. 
DO. ALBi. Syr. de Mecoxio. Diacodio.n. Prep. 
I. (P. L.) Poppy heads, dried, bruised, and without 
the seeds, lb. iij ; water 5 gallons ; boil to 2 gal- 
lons, press out the liquor, boil to 2 quarts, set it 
aside for 12 hours, decant, strain, boil to 1 quart, 
and add sugar lb. v. — 2. (Wholesale.) Extract of 
poppies 1^ lbs. ; boiling water 2^ gallons : dissolve, 
clarify, or filter, so that it may be perfectly trans- 
parent when cold, then add white sugar 44 lbs. 
and dissolve. Anodyne and soporific. Dose. For 
an infant i to ^ teaspoonful ; for an adult 2 to 4 
drs. 

SIRUP OF RED POPPIES. Syn. Sirup of 
Corn poppy. Syrupus Rh.eados, (P. L. E. & D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Petals of the red poppy lb. j ; boil- 
ing water 1 pint ; mix in a water bath, remove 
the vessel, macerate for 12 hours, press out the 
liquor, and after defecation or filtering, add sugar 
lb. iiss. — 2. (Wholesale.) Dried red poppy petals 3 
lbs. ; boiling water q. s. ; white sugar 44 lbs. ; as 
last. Employed as a coloring. A little acid 
brightens it. *jf* The color of this sirup is injured 
bv contact with iron or copper. 

' SIRUP OF RHUBARB. Syn. Syrupus Rilei. 
Prep. — 1. (P. Cod.) Bruised rhubarb fiij ; water 
§xvj ; macerate 12 hours, filter, and add white 
sugar fxxxij. — 2. (Wholesale.) Bruised rhubarb IJ 
lbs. ; water q. s. ; sugar 20 lbs. : as last. Stomachic 
and purgative. 

SIRUP OF ROSES. Syn. Syrupus Ros.e. 
(P. L. 6c D.) Syr. Ros^ centifoli.e, (P. E.) Prep. 
— 1. (P. L.) Dried petals of red roses (Rosa centi- 
folia) 5vij ;. boiling water 3 pints : macerate for 12 
hours, filter, evaporate in a water bath to 1 quart, 
and add white sugar lb. vj. — 2. (Wholesale.) Rose 
leaves 1 lb. ; sugar 19 lbs. ; water q. s. ; as last. 
Gently laxative. Dose. -^ to 1 oz. It is usual to 
add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to brighten 
the color. Alkalis turn it green. 

SIRUP OF RUE. Syn. Syrupus Rut.e. Prep. 
Oil of rue 12 drops ; rectified spirit f ^ss : dissolve, 
and aad simple sirup 1 pint. Dose, i to 2 tea- 
Bpoonfuls in the flatulent colic of children 



SIRUP OF SAFFRON. Syn. Syrupus Croci, 
(P. L. & E.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) Hay saffron 3x ; 
boiling water 1 pint ; macerate 12 hours, strain, 
and add sugar lb. iij. — 2. (Wholesale.) Hay saffron 
6 oz. ; boiling water 6 quarts ; white sugar 24 Ibe. ; 
as last. Used for its color and flavor. 

SIRUP OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. Syrupus 
Sarz^, (P. L. &. E.) Syr, Sarsaparill.e, (P. D.) 
Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Sarsaparilla, sliced, ^xv ; boil- 
ing water 1 gallon ; macerate for 24 hours, boil to 
2 quarts, strain, add sugar §xv, and boil to a sirup. 
— 2. (Wholesale.) Extract of sarsaparilla 3 lbs.; 
boiling water 3 quarts ; dissolve, strain, and add 
white sugar 12 lbs. Alterative and tonic. Dose 2 
to 4 drs. 

SIRUP OF SARSAPARILLA, (COM 
POUND.) Syn. Syrupus Sarz^e Compositus. Sy - 
Rop DE Cusi.nier. Prep. (P. U. S.) Sarsaparilla, 
bruised, lb. ij. ; guaiacum wood, rasped, ^iij ; red 
roses, senna, and liquorice-root bruised, of each ^ij j 
i diluted alcohol 10 pints, (wine measure :) mace- 
rate for 14 days, express, filter thivjgh paper, and 
evaporate in a water bath to 4J pints ; then add 
sugar lb. viij, and when cold oils of sassafreis and 
aniseed, of each 5 drops, and oil of* partridge berry 
(gualtheria procumbens) 3 drops, previously tritura- 
ted with a little of the sirup. An excellent prepa- 
ration. Dose, i^ss, 3 or 4 times a day, as^an al- 
terative, tonic, and restorative, *5ie* The sirup of 
the P. Cod. is made with water instead of spirit, 
and is vastlv inferior as a remedy. 

SIRUP OF SENNA. Syn. Syrupus Senn^, 
(P. L. «Sc E.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) Senna siiss; 
bruised fennel seed 3x ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
macerate with a gentle heat for 1 hour, strain, add 
manna §iij ; white sugar fxv, and evaporate to a 
proper consistence. — 2. (Wholesale.) The manna 
is usually omitted. — 3. (P. E.) Senna §iv ; boiling 
water f fxxiv : strain, add treacle ^xlviii, and 
evaporate to a proper consistence. Cathartic 
Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 

- SIRUP, SIMPLE. Syn. Syrupus. ^P.L.) Syrup- 
us Simplex, (P. E. & D.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) White 
sugar lb. x ; water 3 pints ; dissolve. — 2. (Whole- 
sale.) Double refined sugar 44 lbs. ; distilled water 
2| gallons ; make a sirup. It should be as trans- 
parent as water. Used as a flavoring, and to give 
cohesiveness and consistence to pulverulent sub- 
stances in the preparation of electuaries, pills, &c. 
(See Capit.laire, and the introducton' remsirks on 
Sirup-) 

SIRUP OF SQUILLS. Syn. Syrupus Scilla 
Prep. — 1 . (P. E.) Vinegar of squills 3 pints ; white 
sugar lb. vij ; dissolve by a gentle heat. — 2. (Whole- 
sale.) Vinegar of squills 14 lbs., (perfectly trans- 
parent ;) double refined sugar 28 lbs. ; dissolve in 
a stoneware vessel in the cold, or at most by a 
Yerv gentle heat. It should be as clear as water, 
and nearly colorless. Dose. 1 to 2 drs., as an ex- 
pectorant in chronic coughs and asthma. In large 
doses it proves emetic. 

SIRUP OF TOLU. Syn. Balsamic Sirup. 
Syrupus Tolutaxus, (P. L. & E.) Syr. Balsami 
ToLUTAXi, (P. D.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) Balsam of 
Tolu 5x ; boiling water 1 pint ; boil in a covered 
vessel for i an hour, frequently stirring, cool, strain, 
and add sugar lb, iiss. — 2. (JP, E.) Simple sirup 
(warm) lb. ij ; tmcture of Tolu fj ; mix well to- 
gether in a close vessel. — 3. (Wholesale.) Wann 



SMA 



510 



SNU 



water 23 lbs. ; add tincture of Tolu, gradually, 
until il will bear no more without becoming opaque 
constantly shaking the bottle, cork down and oc- 
casionally agitate till cold ; filter through paper, 
add double refined sugar 44 lbs. ; and dissolve in a 
close vessel, by a gentle heat in a water bath. 
This sirup should be clear and colorless as water, 
but as met with in the shops it is usually milky. 
Pectoral. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. in mixtures. 

SIRUP, VELNO'S VEGETABLE. Accord- 
ing to ]>. Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this .celebrated 
nostrum is prepared as follows : — Young and fresh 
burdock root, sliced f ij ; dandelion root f j ; fresh 
spearmint, senna, coriander seed, and bruised 
liquorice root, of each 5iss ; water IJ pints ; boil 
down gently to a pint, strain, add lump sugar 1 lb., 
boil to a sirup, and add a small quantity of corro- 
sive sublimate, previously dissolved in a little spirit. 
Used as an alterative and purifier of the blood. 

SIRUP OF VINEGAR. Syn. Syrupus Aceti. 
Prep. (P. E.) Vinegar (French wine) f f xj ; white 
sugar ^xiv ; make a sirup. Dose 1 dr. to 1 oz. as 
an expectorant in coughs and colds, or diffused 
through anv mild diluent, as a drink in fevers. 

SIRUP OF VIOLETS. Syn. Syrupus Viol^e. 
(P. E. «fe D.) Syr. Violarum. Prep.~l. (P. E.) 
Fresh violets 1 lb. ; boiling water 2^ pints ; infuse 
for 24 hours in a covered vessel of glass or earthen- 
ware, strain off the liquor, (with gentle pressure,) 
filter, add white sugar lb. viiss, and dissolve. — 2. 
(Wholesale.) Double-refined white sugar 66 lbs. ; 
anthokyan* 11 lbs. ; water 22 lbs. or q. s. ; dissolve 
in earthenware. Gently laxative. Dose. A tea- 
spoonful for an infant. *^^* Genuine sirup of vio- 
lets should have a lively violet blue color, and 



SNUFF. Syn. Tabac, {en poudre, Fr.) Tho 
finer kinds of snu^ are made from the best de- 
scription of tobaccG, separated from the damaged 
leaves ; but the ordinary snuffs of the shops are 
mostly prepared from the coarser and damaged 
portions, the stems or stalky parts that remain 
from the manufacture of shag tobacco, the dust or 
powder sifted from the bales, and the fragments 
that are unfit for other purposes. To impart to the 
dried leaves the characteristic odor and flavor of to- 
bacco, and to render them agreeable to " smokers" 
and « snuffers," it is necessary that they should 
undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fermenta- 
tion. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco be crushed 
between the fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous 
smell common to most plants ; but if it be tritu- 
rated in a mortar along with a very small quantity 
of quicklime or caustic alkali, it will immediately 
exhale the peculiar odor of manufactured tobacco. 
This arises from the active and volatile ingredients 
being liberated from their previous combinavion, by 
the ammonia developed by fermentation, or the 
action of a stronger base. Tobacco contains a 
considerable quantity of muriate of ammonia, and 
this substance, as is well known, when placed in 
contact with lime or potassa, immediately evolves 
free ammonia. If we reverse the case, and satu- 
rate the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the 
addition of any mild acid, its characteristic odor 
will entirely disappear. In the preparation of to- 
bacco previously to its manufacture into snuff, 
these changes are effected by a species of fer- 
mentation. The tobacco, either unpi-epared or 
cut into pieces, is placed in layers or heaps, and 
sprinkled with a weak solution of common salt and 



should be reddened by acids and turned green by I water, (about the sp. gr. 1-107,) or sauce as it is 
alkalis, and should smell and taste of the flowers, called ; the salt being added to prevent the to- 
It IS frequently used as a test. A spurious sort is bacco becoming mouldy, and to keep it moist, as 



met with in the shops, which is colored by litmus, 
and slightly scented by orris root. The purest 
sugar, perfectly free from either acid or alkaline 
contamination, should alone be used in its manu- 
facture. The P. E. orders the infusion to be strain- 
ed without pressure, and the P. Cod. and other 
Ph. direct I^b flowers to be first washed in cold 
water. 

SIZE. Obtained like glue from the skins of ani- 
mals, but is evaporated less, and kept in the soft 
state. 

SMALTS. Syn. Powder Blue. Smalta. Azu- 
RUM. Prep. I. Roast cobalt ore to drive off the 
arsenic, make the residuum into a paste with oil 
of vitriol, and heat it to redness for an hour ; pow- 
der, dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of 
iron by carbonate of potash, gradually added, until 
a rose colored powder begins to fall, then decant 
the clear, and precipitate by a solution of silicate 
of potash prepared by fusing together for 5 hours a 
mixture of ten parts of potash, 15 parts of finely- 
ground flints, and 1 part of charcoal. The precip- 
itate, after being dried, may be fused and powder- 
ed. Very fine. 

II. Roasted cobalt ore and potash, of each 1 
part ; silicious sand 3 parts ; fuse together, cool, 
and powder. Used in painting, to color glass, and 
b) get up linen. 

* The expressed juice of violets, defecated, gently hent- 
ed in eartiicnwnre to 192^, skimmed, cooled, filtere.!, iilitUe 
•pirit added, and agutu filtered. 



well as to moderate the fermentation. Molasses is 
also frequently added to the sauce when a violet or 
dark-colored snuff is desired, and some persons 
with a like intention add a decoction or solution of 
extract of liquorice. I am informed, however, that 
pure water, without any addition, is quite sufficient 
to promote and maintain the perfect fermentation 
of tobacco, and that of late years the larger and 
more respectable houses have employed nothing 
else. The leaves soon become hot, and evolve 
ammonia ; during this time the heaps require to be 
occasionally opened up and turned over, lest they 
become too hot, take fire, or run into the putrefac- 
tive fermentation. The extent to which the pro- 
cess is allowed ' to proceed varies with different 
kinds of snuff, from one to three months. When 
the leaves have arrived at the proper state, they 
are sufficiently dried to bear being pulverized. This 
is either performed in a mill, or with a kind of pes- 
tle and mortar. While powdering, the tobacco 
should be frequently sifted, that it may not be re- 
duced to too fine a powder, and it should be moist- 
ened with rose or orange-flower water, or eau 
d'ange, which are the only waters fit for the supe- 
rior kinds of snuff. This moistening is usually re- 
peated several times. Tonca beans are put into 
snuff-boxes to scent the snuff', but the concentrated 
essence of tonca beans is now mostly used ; the 
leaves of orchis fusca, and those of several other 
species of orchides that have the scent of the tonca 
bean, are also used to scent snuff. French suuff 



SNU 



511 



SOA 



is scented with the root of calamus aromaticus. 
During the grinding of tobacco it is but too fre- 
quently mixed with dark-colored rotten wood, va- 
rious English leaves, coloring and other matter, 
which substances are added by the fraudulent 
manufacturer to reduce the cost. It is a general 
practice with many dealers to add ammonia to 
their snuffs to increase their pungency. I have 
seen 1 cwt. of powdered sal ammoniac sent at one 
time to a certain London tobacconist. Powdered 
glass and hellebore are also frequently added for a 
like purpose. The moist kinds of snufF are gener- 
ally drugged with pearlash, for the triple purpose 
of keeping them moist and increasing their pun- 
gency and color. The dry snuffs, especially Welsh, 
are commonly adulterated with quicklime, the 
particles of which may often be distinguished by 
the naked eye. This addition causes its biting and 
desiccating effect on the pituitary membrane. 
Scotch, Irish, Welsh, and Spanish snuffs, Lundij- 
foot, <Scc., are examples of the dry snuffs. Among 
MOIST snuffs or rappees, brown black, Cuba, ca- 
rotte, ^c, may be mentioned. Hardham^s mix- 
ture. No. 37, is a mixed rappee, and Princess 
mixture, princeza, ^c, are scented rappees. The 
Scotch, Irish, and in fact most of the ordinary 
snufife of the shops, are prepared from the midribs 
and waste pieces ; but the Strasburgh, French, 
Russian, and Macouba snuffs, from the soft parts 
of the leaves. The immense variety of snuffs 
kept in the shops, depend for their distinguishing 
characteristics on the length of the fermentation, 
the ^fineness of the powder, the height to which 
they are dried, and the addition of odorous sub- 
stances. Among some of the most esteemed 
French snuffs are the following : — Tabac de ce- 
drat, bergamotte, and neroli, are made by adding 
the essences to the snuff — Tabac parfumee aux 
fieurs, by putting orange flowers, jasmins, tube- 
roses, musk-roses, or common roses, to the snuff in 
a close chest or jar, sifting them out after ^4 hours, 
and repeating the infusion with fresh flowers as 
necessary. Another way is to lay, paper pricked 
all over with a large pin between the flowers and 
the snuff. — Tabac musquee. Any scented snulf 1 
lb. ; musk (ground to a powder with white sugar 
and moistened with ammonia water) 20 grs. ; mix. 
— Tabac ambre. Tabac aux fieurs 1 lb. ; amber- 
gris powdered as last 24 grs. — Tabac en odeur de 
Malthe. Tabac de nerole 1 lb. ; ambergris 20 
grs. : civette 10 grs. ; sugar q. s. — Tabac d la 
pointe d'Espagne. Snuff aux fieurs 1 lb. ; musk 
20 grs. ; civette 6 grs. ; sugar q. s. — Tabac en 
odeur de Rome. Snuff aux fieurs 1 lb. ; amber- 
gris 20 grs. ; musk 6 grs. ; civette 5 grs. ; sugar q. 
s. — Tabac de Pongibou. Yellow snuff scented 
with orange flowers 1 lb. ; civette 12 grs. ; sugar 
q. s. ; essence of orange flowers 2 to 4 drs. ; other 
essences may be used, the snuff having been pre- 
viously scented with the same flowers. — Tabac Jin 
fagon d'Espagne. Red snuff perfumed with 
flowers. — Macouba snuff is unitated by moistening 
the tobacco with a mixture of treacle and water, 
and allowing it to ferment well. — Spanish snuff. 
Unsifted Havannah snuff ground and reduced by 
adding ground Spanish nut-shells, sprinkling the 
mixture with treacle water, and allowing it to 
sweat for some days before packing. Most of the 
imitations of foreign snuff require to be well packed 



to give them a good appearance. — Yellow snuff 
Yellow ochre the size of an egg, add chalk to lower 
the color, grind with 4 drs. of oil of almonds till 
fine, then add water by degrees, and 2 spoonfuls 
of mucilage of tragacanth, till you have about a 
quart ; mix this with purified snulf q. s. and dry it ; 
then grind some gum tragac. with some scented 
water, and moisten your snuff with it, and when 
dry, with a very fine sieve sift out the color that 
does not adhere to the snuff. — Red Snuff. As 
last, but use red ochre. — Eye Snuff'. Subsulphate 
of mercury ^ dr. ; dry Scotch snuff or Lundyfbot 
1 oz. ; triturate well together. A pinch of this 
occasionally, in inflammation of the eyes, dimness 
of sight, headache, «Slc. 

SOAP. Syn. Savon, (Fr.) Seife, (Ger.) 
Sapo, (Lat.) Spanish or Castile soap, made with 
olive oil and soda, (Sapo. Sapo ex olivoi oleo et 
soda confectus, P. L.,) and soft soap made with 
olive oil and potash, {sapo mollis, sapo ex olivte 
oleo, et potassa confectus, P. L.,) are the only 
kinds directed to be employed in medicine. The 
former is intended whenever soap is ordered, and 
is the only one employed internally ; the latter is 
used in ointments, &c. 

Castile Soap, {Spanish soap. Marseilles do. 
Sapo. Sapo durus. Sapo Hispanicus.) Olive 
oil soda soap is kept both in the white and marbled 
state ; the former is the purest, but the latter is the 
strongest. 

Almond Soap {Sapo Amygdalinus) is made from 
almond oil and caustic soda, and is chiefly used for 
the toilet. 

Curd Soap is made with tallow and soda. 

Mottled Soap with refuse kitchen-stuff, &c. 

Yellow Soap {Rosin soap) with tallow, rosin, 
and caustic soda. 

Soft Soap (of commerce) with whale, seal, or 
cod oil, tallow, and potash. The olive oil soft soap 
of the Pharmacopoeia is not met with in trade. 

SOAP A LA ROSE. Prep. New olive oil 
soap 30 lbs. ; new tallow soap 20 lbs. ; reduce 
them to shavings by sliding the bars along the face 
of an inverted plane, melt in an untinned copper 
pan by the heat of steam or a water-bath, add 1^ 
oz. of finely-ground vermilion, mix well, remove 
the heat, and when the mass has cooled a little, 
add essence of roses (otto ?) 3 oz. ; do. of cloves 
and cinnamon, of each 1 oz. ; bergamotte 2^ oz. ; 
mix well, run the liquid mass through a tammy 
cloth, and put it into the frames. If the soaps 
employed are not new, 1 or 2 quarts of water 
must be added to make them melt easily. Very 
fine. 

SOAP AU BOUQUET. Prep. Best tallow 
soap 30 lbs. ; essence of bergamotte 4 oz. ; oils of 
cloves, sassafras, and thyme, of each 1 oz. ; pure 
neroli ^ oz. ; finely-powdered brown ochre 7 oz. ; 
mix as last. Very fine. 

SOAP, BITTER ALMOND. Prep. Best 
white tallow soap ^ cwt. ; essence of bitter al- 
monds 10 oz. ; as soap k la rose. Very fine. 

SOAP, BLACK. Syn. Sapo Niger. This is 
properly a crude soft soap made of fresh oil, tallow, 
and potash ; but the following mixture is usually 
sold for it : — soft soap 7 lbs. ; train oil 1 lb. ; water 
1 gallon ; boil to a proper consistence, adding ivory 
black or powdered charcoal to color. Used by 
farriers. 



SOA 



512 



SOD 



SOAP, CINNAMON. Prep. Best tallow 
Boap 30 lbs. ; do. palm oil soap 20 lbs. ; essence of 
cinnamon 7 oz. ; do. of sassafras and bergamotte, 
of each 1^ oz. ; finely powdered yellow ochre, 1 
lb. ; mix as soap k la rose. Very fine, 

SOAP, CROTON. Syn. Sapo Crotonis. 
Prep. Croton oil 3j ; liquor of potassa 3ss ; tritu- 
rate together. Purgative. Dose. 2 to 3 grs. 

SOAP, FLOATING. Prep. Good oil soap i 
cwt. ; water ^ gallon ; melt by the heat of a steam 
or water bath in a pan furnished with an agitator, 
which must be assiduously worked till the soap 
has at least doubled its volume, when it must be 
put into the frames, cooled, and cut into pieces. 
Lathers well and is very pleasant. Any scent 
may be added. 

SOAP, MACQUER'S ACID. Syn. Sapo 
ViTRiOLicus. Prep. Castile soap 4 oz. ; soften by 
heat and a little water ; add oil of vitriol q. s., con- 
tinually triturating the mass in a mortar. Deter- 
gent. Used where alkalis would be prejudicial. 

SOAP, MUSK. Prep. Best tallow soap 30 
lbs. ; palm oil soap 20 lbs. ; powdered cloves, pale 
roses, and gilliflowers, of each 4^ oz. ; essences of 
bergamotte and musk, of each 3^ oz. ; Spanish 
brown 4 oz. ; mix as soap k la rose. Very fine. 

SOAP, ORANGE-FLOWER. Prep. Best 
tallow soap 30 lbs. ; palm oil soap 20 lbs. ; es- 
sences of Portugal and ambergris, of each 7^ oz. ; 
yellowish green color (ochre and indigo) 8i oz. ; 
vermilion, 1^ oz. ; mix as soap k la rose. Very fine. 

SOAP, ,PEARL SOFT. Syn. Almond 
Gream. Creme d'Amandes, Prep. Best hog's lard 
20 lbs. ; stir it assiduously in a water bath till it is 
only half melted, and has a thick creamy appear- 
ance, then add 5 lbs. of caustic potash lye at 36° 
B. and continue stirring at the same temperature 
till soapy granulations begin to fall to the bottom ; 
then add 5 lbs. more of lye, and continue the stir- 
ring for 4 hours more, or till the mass becomes too 
stiff to be further stirred, when it must be gently 
beaten and allowed to cool very slowly. When 
quite cold it mu3<^ be beaten in small portions at a 
time in a marble mortar, till it unites to form a 
homogeneous mass, or "pearls" as it is called ; es- 
sence of bitter almonds q. s. to perfume being add- 
ed during the pounding. 

SOAP, PALM OIL. Syn. Violet Soap. 
Made of palm oil and caustic soda lye. Has a 
pleasant odor of violets and a lively color. 

SOAP, STARKEY'S. Syn. Savon Tere- 
BiNTHiNE. Prep. (P. Cod.) Warm subcarbonate 
of potash, oil of turpentine, and Venice turpentine, 
equal parts ; triturate together with a little water 
till they combine ; put it into paper moulds, and 
in a few days slice it and preserve it in a well 
stopped bottle. 

SOAP, TRANSPARENT. Prep.— I. Per- 
fectly dry tallow soap in shavings, and rectified 
spirit of wine, equal parts ; put them into a still, 
apply a very gentle heat to effect the solution, 
allow the liquid to settle for 2 hours, then pour the 
clear portion into frames. — 2. Dissolve dry almond 
or soft soap in spirit of wine, strain while warm, 
distil off the spirit, and pour into moulds. *^* This 
soap does not acquire its full transparency till after 
a few weeks' exposure to a dry atmosphere : the 
pieces mtist tben bo trimmed up and stamped as 
desired. It may be scented and colored by add- 



ing the ingredients to it while soft. It is colored 
rose by tincture of archil, and yellow by tincture 
of turmeric. Does not lather well. 

SOAP, WINDSOR. The best Windsor soap 
is made of a mixture of olive oil 1 part, and ox tal- 
low or suet 9 parts, saponified by caustic soda ; 
but most of the Windsor soap of the shops is mere- 
ly ordinary curd soap scented. On the large scale 
the perfume is added while the soap is in the soft 
state, just before it is put into frames, but on the 
small scale it may be prepared in the same way 
as soap k la rose. 

Prep. — 1. Best beef tallow and oil soap, as 
above, 3 cwt. ; essence of caraway 2 lbs. ; Eng- 
lish oil of lavender, and oil of rosemary, of each J 
ib. ; mix as soap k la rose. — 2. Hard curd soap 1 
cwt. ; oil of caraway 1^ lbs. ; tincture of musk 12 
oz. ; English oil of lavender 2 oz. ; oil of origa- 
num ^ oz. ; as last. — 3. Curd soap melted and 
scented with the oils of caraway and bergamotte 
*^* Brown Windsor soap is the same colored. 

SOAPS, TOILET. I. (Soft.) The basis of 
these is a soap made of hog's lard and potash, 
variously scented and colored. — 2. (Hard.) The 
basis of these is a mixture of suet 9 parts, and olive 
oil 1 part, saponified by caustic soda, and variously 
scented and colored. They are also made of white 
tallow, olive, almond, and palm oil soaps, either 
alone or combined in various proportions, and 
scented. 

SODA. Syn. Oxide of Sodium. Soude, (Fr.) 
Natron, (Ger.) The hydrate of soda, (Sodce Hy- 
dras,) as well as its solution, (Liquor Soda,) are 
prepared from carbonate of soda in the same way 
as the corresponding preparations of potassa. The 
majority of its salts may also be obtained in a eim- 
ilar manner to those of potassa. 

Prop., Tests, ^c. Pure soda resembles potassa, 
but possesses rather less powerful basic and alka- 
line properties. Soda and its salts are recogni- 
sed. — 1. By their solubility in water, and not being 
precipitated by any reagent. — 2. By yielding a 
salt with sulphuric acid, which by its taste and 
form is readily recognised as sulphate of soda. — 3. 
By its salts, when exposed by means of platinum 
wire to the blowpipe flame, imparting a rich yel- 
low color. — 4. A solution of caustic soda or car- 
bonate of soda turns turmeric brown and vegetable 
blues green. — 5. Its muriate imparts a yellow tmge 
to the flame of alcohol. 

SODA, ACETATE. Syn. Sovje Acetas. 
(P. L. & D.) Terra Foliata Mineralts. Prep. 
(P. D.) Saturate dilute acetic acid with carbonate 
of soda, filter, and evaporate to the density of 
1-276 ; dry the crystals deposited as the liquid 
cools, and keep them from the air. Dose. 1 to 2 
drs. as a diuretic ; chiefly used to make acetic acid. 

SODA, PHOSPHATE OF. Syn. Taste- 
less Purging Salts. Tribasic Phosphate of 
Soda and basic water. Rhombic Phosphate of 
Soda. Neutral do. Sal Mirabile Perlatum. 
Soda Phosphorata. Sod^e Phospiias, (P. L. E. 
& D.) Prep. (P. E.) Powdered bone ashes lb. x ; 
sulphuric acid 2 pints and f 5iv ; mix, .add 
gradually water 6 pints, and digest fcr 3 days, re- 
placing the water which evaporates ; add 6 pints 
of boiling water and strain through linen, and wash 
the residue in the filter with boiling water ; mix 
i the liquors, and after defecation decant and evap- 



SOD 



513 



SOI 



orate to G pints ; let the impurities again settle 
and neutralize the clear fluid, heated to hoiling, 
with a solution of carbonate of soda in slight ex- 
cess ; crj'stals will be deposited as the solution 
cools, and by successively evaporating, adding a 
little soda to the niotlier liquor till it is feebly alka- 
line, and cooling, more crystals may be obtained. 
Keep it in closed vessels. 

Remarks. " Exposed to the air it slightly efflo- 
resces. It is totally dissolved by water but not by 
alcohol." (P. L.) — " 45 grs. dissolved in f 3ij of 
boiling water, and precipitated by a solution of 50 
grs. of carbonate of lead in f fj of pyroligneous 
acid, will remain precipitable by solution of acetate 
of lead." (P. E.) Dose. 6 to 12 drs. as a purga- 
tive in broth or soup. It has scarcely any t£iste. 

SODA, POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF. Syn. 
Tartrate of Potash and Soda. Seignette's 
Salt. Rochelle do. Tartarized Soda. Sel de 
Seignette. Sal Rupellensis. Sal Polychres- 
TUM Seig.vetti. Soda Tartarizata Natron 
Tartarizatum. Potass,* et Sod^ Tartras, (P. 
E. & D.) SoD^ PoTAssio-TARTRAs, (P. L.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Carbonate of soda ^xij ; boiling water 2 
quarts ; dissolve, and add, gradually, powdered 
bitartrate of potash ^xvj ; strain, evaporate to a 
pellicle, and set it aside to cn'stallize ; dr}' the 
crystals and again evaporate the liquor that it may 
yield more crystals. *^* Readily soluble in cold 
water. Sulphuric acid added to the solution throws 
down small crystals of bitartrate of potash. "^By 
heat it yields a mixture of the pure carbonates of 
potash and soda. It is a mild and cooling laxative. 
Dose. ^ to 1 oz. largely diluted with water. It 
forms the basis of the popular aperient called 
Seidlitz Powders. 

SODA, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Glauber's 
Salt. Sal Glauberi. Sal Catharticus Glau- 
BERL Sal Mirabile Glauberl jS^atrox Vitrio- 
LATUM. SoD^ Sulphas, (P. L. E. &. D.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Dissolve lb. ij of the salt left in distillingr 
muriatic acid, in Oij of boiling water, saturate with 
carbonate of lime, evaporate and crystallize. 

Remarks. Glauber salts effloresce when exposed 
to the air; are totally dissolved by water; verj^ 
slightly so by alcohol ; the solution is neutral to 
test paper ; nitrate of silver throws down scarcely 
any thing from a dilute solution ; nitrate of baryta 
more, which is not dissolved by nitric acid. It 
loses 55-5§ of its weight by a strong heat. (P. L.) 
Dose. I to 1 oz. as a purge. The dried salt (Sodce 
Sulphas Exsiccata) is twice as strong. *** Sul- 
phate of soda is also made in the same way from 
the residuum of the distillation of nitric acid from 
nitrate of soda, and of sal ammoniac from a mix- 
ture of sulphate of ammonia and common salt. — 
Lyynington Glauber Suits is a mixture of the sul- 
phate of soda and potash obtained from the mother 
liquor of sea- water. 

SODIUM. Syn. Natrium, (Ger.) The me- 
tallic base of soda. It is a soft white metal, 
scarcely solid at common temperatures, fuses at 
200° F., and volatilizes at a red heat, sp. gr. 
0-972 ; its other properties resemble those of po- 
tassium ; but are of a feebler character. It was 
first obtained by Sir H. Dav^^ in 1807, by means 
of a powerful galvanic battery, but it may be 
more conveniently and cheaply procured in quan- 
tity, by the process described under Potassium. 
65 



With oxygen it forms a protoxide (soda) and a per- 
oxide ; with chlorine, a chloride, (common salt ;) 
and with bromine, iodine, fluorine, sulphur, &.C., bra- 
mide, iodide, fluoride, sulphuret, ^c, of sodiunt, 
— all of which may be obtained by similar pro- 
cesses to the respective compounds of potassium. 

SODIUM, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Mlriatk 
OF Soda. Hydrochlorate of do. Salt. Com- 
mon Salt. Sea do. Cullnary do. Sod^e Mu- 
RL\s, (P. E. &i. D.) SoDii Chloridum, (P. L.) 
This important and wholesome compound appears 
to have been known in the earliest ages of the 
world, of which we have any record. It is men- 
tioned by Moses, (Gen. xix. 26.) and by Homer in 
the Iliad, (lib. ix. 214.) In ancient Rome it weis 
subjected to a duty, {vectigal salinarium.) Com- 
mon salt forms no small portion of the mineral 
wealth of England, and has become an important 
article of commerce. The principal portion of the 
salt consumed in this country is procured by the 
evapo.-ation of the water of brine springs. 

Rock Salt {Fossil Salt, Sal Gemmcs, Sal Fos- 
silis) is found in mineral beds in Cheshire ; it has 
commonly a reddish color, and is mostly exported 
for purification. — Salt is also prepared by the 
evaporation of sea water, (hence the term sea 
salt.) bat this process has been almost abandoned 
in England, being more suited to hot dry climates, 
or very cold ones. 

Bay Salt {Sal marinus, Sal niger) is import- 
ed from France, Portugal, and Spain, and is ob- 
tained from sea water evaporated in shallow ponds 
by the sun. It is large-grained and dark-colored. 

Cheshire Stoved Salt, {Lump Salt, Basket 
do.,) is obtained by evaporating the brine of salt 
springs until reduced tp a mass of small flaky 
crystals barely covered with liquor, when it is put 
into baskets and dried. 

London's Patent Solid Salt, is Cheshire rock 
salt melted in a reverberatory furnace and ladled 
into moulds. 

British Bay Salt {Cheshire large-grained 
Salt) is obtained bv evaporating the brine at a 
heat of 130° to 140° F. Hard cubical crj'stals. 
Both the last are used to salt provisions for hot 
climates, as they dissolve very slowly in the brine 
as it grows weaker. 

*^* Common salt is stimulant and antiseptic, 
and is hence employed as a condiment, and for 
preserving animal and vegetable substances. It is 
also occasionally used in medicine, in clysters and 
lotions. For medical purposes the P. E. orders it 
to be dissolved in boiling water and the solution 
filtered and evaporated over the fire, skimming off 
the crystals as they form ; they must be then 
quickly washed in cold water and dried. " A so- 
lution of pure salt is not precipitated by a solution 
of carbonate of ammonia, followed by solution of 
phosphate of soda : a solution of 9 grs. in distilled 
water is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 
26 grs. of nitrate of silver." (P. E.) 

SOIL. The earth in which vegetables grow. 
In cases where a barren soil is examined with a 
view to its improvement, it ought, if possible, to 
be compared with an extremely fertile soil in the 
same neighborhood, and in a similar situation : the 
difference given by their analyses would indicate 
the methods of cultivation, and thus the plan of 
improvement would be founded upon accurnta 



SOL 



514 



SOL 



3 



scientific principles. (See Absorption, Agricul- 
ture, Farming, Manures, &c.) 

SOLANINE. Syn. Solanina. Prep. Filter 
the juice of nightshade berries, (Solanum nigrum,) 
quite ripe, add ammonia, filter, wash the sediment, 
boil in alcohol, filter, and distil off the spirit ; the 
solanine is left as a white powder. Insoluble in 
water, bitter, emetic, narcotic, and poisonous. By 
careful crystallization in alcohol it forms needle- 
like crystals, resembling disulphate of quinine. It 
may also be obtained from the leaves and stem 
of solanum dulcamara, (bitter-sweet.) With the 
acids it forms salts, many of which are crystal- 
lizable. 

SOLDER, FINE. Prep. Tin 2 parts, lead 1 
part; melt together. Melts at 350°. Used to 
tin copper, solder tin plates, «S6c. 

SOLDER, GLAZIER'S. Prep. Lead 3 parts ; 
tin 1 part ; melts at 500°. 

SOLDER FOR TIN, (Smith's.) Prep. Lead 
and tin, of each, 4 oz. ; bismuth 8 oz. ; melts in 
boiling water. 

SOLDERING. Tin-foil applied between the 
joints of fine brass work, first wetted with a strong 
solution of sal ammoniac, makes an exc3llent 
juncture, care being taken to avoid too much 
heat. 

SOLOMON'S BALM OF GILEAD. Prep. 
Compound tincture of cardamoms, made with 
brandy instead of proof spirit, 1 pint ; tincture 
of cantharides, P. L. f fj ; mix. 

SOLUTION OF ALUM, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Bate's Alum Water. Aqua Aluminosa. 
Bateana. Liquor Aluminis Compositus. (P. L.) 
Prep. Alum and sulphate of zinc, of each, §j ; 
boiling water 3 pints ; dissolve, and filter if neces- 
sary. Detergent and astringent. Used as a lo- 
tion for old ulcer, chilblains, excoriation, &c. ; 
and diluted with water, as an eye-wash and in- 
jection. 

SOLUTION OF AMMONIA. Syn. Liquor 
Ammonia ; Liq. Ammonia fortior, (P. L.) Aqua 
Ammonia; do. do fortior, (P. E.) Aq. Ammon. 
Caustics, (P. D.) The London College gives no 
formula for their stronger solution, though in the 
notes to the Ph. it is stated to have the sp. gr. 
0-882. 

SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF AMMO- 
NIA. Syn. Liquor Ammonia Acetatis, (P. L.) 
Ammonia Acetatis Aqua, (P. E. & D.) 

SOLUTION OF SESQUICARBONATE 
OF AMMONIA. Syn. Carbonate of Ammo- 
nia Water. Liquor Ammonia. Sesquicarbo- 
NATis. (P. L.) Ammonia Carbonatis Aqua. (P. 
E. & D.) Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Sesquicarbonate of 
ammonia §iv ; distilled water 1 pint ; dissolve and 
filter. Stimulant and antacid. Dose, f 3ss to f 3iss, 
in water. — 2. (Henry's.) Made up to sp. gr. 1-046. 
Two measures are equal in saturating power to 
one of his carbonate of potash water. Used in 
analysis. 

SOLUTION OF AMMONIO-NITRATE 
OF SILVER. Syn. Hume's Test. Solutio 
Argenti Ammoniati. Prep. (P. E.) Nitrate of 
silver (pure crystallized) 44 grains ; distilled water 
f §j ; dissolve, aud add ammonia water, gradually, 
till the precipitate, at first thrown down, is very 
nearly, but not entirely, redissolvcd. Used as a 
test for arsenious acid 



SOLUTION OF AMMONIO-SULPHATB 
OF COPPER. Syn. Blue eye-water. Aqua 
Sapphirina. Solution of Ammoniated Copper. 
Liquor Cupri Ammonio-sulphatis, (P. L.) So 
LUTio Cupri Ammoniati, (P. E.) Aqua do. Da 
(P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Ammonio-sulphate of cop- 
per 3j ; water 1 pint ; dissolve and filter. Stimu- 
lant and detergent. Applied to indolent ulcers, 
and when diluted, to remove specks on the cor- 
nea ; also used as a test. 

SOLUTION OF ARSENITE OF POTAS 
SA. Syn. Fowler's Solution. Mineral Da 
Liquor Potass^ Arsenitis, (P. L.) Liq. Arse- 
NiCALis, (P. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Arsenious 
acid, coarsely powdered, and carbonate of potash, 
of each, 80 grs. ; distilled water 1 pint ; boil till 
dissolved, add compound tincture of lavender f 3v, 
and water q. s. to make the whole exactly meas- 
ure a pint. Dose. 4 to 5 drops, gradually and 
cautiously increased ; in agues and several scaly 
skin diseases. (See Arsenic) 

SOLUTION OF ARSENIOUS ACID. Syn. 
Tasteless Ague Drop. Prep. Arsenious acid 1 
gr. ; water f f j ; dissolve. Dose. 1 teaspoonful 
twice a day in ague. (See Arsenic.) 

SOLUTION OF BICHLORIDE OF MER- 
CURY. Syn. Solution gt" Corrosive Subli- 
mate. Liquor Hydrargyri jdichloridi. Prep. 
(P. L.) Corrosive sublimate and sal ammoniac, of 
each, 10 grs. ; water 1 pint ; dissolve. Dose, j^ 
to 3 drs. in water. It also forms a most useful lo- 
tion in various skin diseases. 

SOLUTION, BRANDISH'S ALKALINE. 
Prep. American pearlashes lb. vj ; quicklime and 
woodashes, (from the ash,) of each, lb. ij ; boiling 
water 6 gallons ; slake the lime with a portion of 
the water, then add the remainder of the ingre- 
dients, agitate occasionally in a covered vessel for 
1 hour, and after 24 hours' repose decant the 
clear. Resembles liquor of potassa P. L., but the 
strength is variable ; the latter is almost always 
sold for it. It is largely asked for in trade. A 
drop or two of oil of juniper renders it more agree- 
able. 

SOLUTION OF CARBONATE OF POT- 
ASH. Syn. Subcarbonate of Potash-water. 
Oil of Tartar. Oleum Tartari. Aqua Kali. 
Liquor Potass^ Carbonatis, (P. L.) Potassjs 
Carbonatis Aqua, (P. D.) Prep. Carbonate of 
potash .§xx ; water 1 gallon ; dissolve and filter. 
Sp. gr. 1-473. Dose. 10 drops to 1 dr. ; as an an- 
tacid, &c. 

SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF BARI- 
UM. Syn. Liquor Barii Chloridi, (P. L.) So- 
lutio Baryta Muriatis, (P. E.) Aqua do. do., 
(P. D.) Prep. Chloride of barium 3j ; water f^j ; 
dissolve^ Dose. 10 drops graduall)'^ increased ; in 
scrofula, scirrhous aftections, and worms ; also 
used as a test for sulphuric acid. 

SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF CALCI- 
UM. Syn. Solution of Muriate of Lime. Li- 
quor Calcii Chloridi, (P. L.; Solutio Calcis 
Muriatis, (P. E.) Aqua do. do., (F. D.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Fused cliloride of calcium 3iv; (crystals 
^viij, P. E. :) water f^xij ; dissolve and filter. 
Dose. 10 drops to 2 drs. ; for scrofulous tumors, 
bronchocele, &c. ; also used as a test for sulphuric 
acid. 

SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF LIME 



SOL 



515 



SOL 



Syn. Purifying Liquid. Solution of Chlori- 
nated Lime. Sol. of Hypochlorite of do. Li- 
quor Calcis Chlorinat.e. Prep. Chloride of 
lime, dry and good, 9 lbs. ; hdt water G gallons ; 
mix in a stoneware bottle, agitate frequently for 2 
or 3 days, then decant the clear, and keep it in 
well-corked bottles. If filtered it should be done 
as rapidly as possible through coarsely-powdered 
glass in a covered vessel. This is the usual strength 
sold in trade. It is used as a disinfectant, and, di- 
luted with water, as a lotion, injection, or colly- 
rium, in several diseases. (See Lime, Chloride 

OF.) 

SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF POT- 
ASH. Syn. Bleaching Liquid. Aqua Alka- 
LiNA OxYMURiATiCA. Eau de Javelle. Prepared 
like solution of chlorinated soda, but employing 
carbonate of potash. Use. As the last. 

SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF SODA. 
Syn. Labarraque's Disinfecting Liquid. Li- 
queur DE Labarraque. Chloride of Soda. Oxy- 

MURIATE of do. ChLORURET OF OxiDE OF SoDI- 

UM. Hypochloris Sodicus Aqua Solutus. (P. 
Cod.) SoDiE Hypochloris. Liquor Sod^ Chlo- 
RiNATiE. (P. L.) Prep. Carbonate of soda Ib.j; 
water 1 quart ; dissolve, and pass through the so- 
lution the chlorine evolved from a mixture of com- 
mon salt §iv ; binoxide of manganese §iij ; sul- 
phuric acid 5iv ; diluted with water ^iij ; placed 
in a retort ; heat being applied to promote the ac- 
tion, and the gas being purified by passing through 
f f V of water before it enters the alkaline solution. 
Used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, and bleaching 
liquid. Dose. 20 to 30 drops in any bland fluid, 
in scarlet fever, sore throat, «fcc. ; it is also made 
into a lotion, gargle, injection, and eye-water. 
Meat in a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is im- 
mediately restored by washing or immersion in 
this liquid. 

SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD. 
Syn. Extract of Lead. Goulard's Extract. 
Ext. of Saturn. Extractum Saturnl Aqua 
Lythargyri Acetati, (P. L. 1.788.) Liquor 
Plumbi Acetatis, (P. L. 1809.) Liq. Plumbi 
Subacetatis, (P. L. 1824 & P. D.) Liq. Plumiji 
Diacetatis, (P. L. 1836.) Solutio do. do. (P. 
E.) Liq. Plumbl Prep.—l. (P. L.) Acetate of 
lead ^xxvij ; litharge, in fine powder, 5xvj ; water 
3 quarts ; boil for ^ an hour, frequently stirring, 
and then add enough distilled water to make it 
measure 3 quarts ; filter if required, and keep it in 
a closed vessel. — 2. (Wholesale.) Finely-powdered 
litharge 32 lbs. ; distilled vinegar 32 gallons ; boil 
in a bright copper pan for 2 hours, cool, add water 
to make up 32 gallons, and decant. — 3. (Dilute 
Solution of Diacetate of Lead. Water of Saturn. 
Goulard^s Lotion or Water. Goulard. Goulard's 
Vegeto-mineral Water. Liquor Plumbi Diace- 
tatis Dilutus, P. L. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis 
Compositus, P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Solution of 
diacetate of lead f 3iss ; proof spirit f 3ij ; distilled 
water 1 pint ; mix. *^^ These preparations were 
formerly made with common vinegar, and hence 
were colored, but those of the Pharm. are white. 
If wanted colored, a little spirit coloring may be 
added. The formula No. 2 will take a quart. Use. 
The stronger liquor is only used diluted. The di- 
luted solution (No. 3) is employed as a cooling, 
sedative, and astringent wash, m various affectior^. 



SOLUTION, DONOVAN'S. Syn. Solutiok 
OF Hydriodate of Arsenic and Mercury. Li- 
quor Hydriodatis Arsenici et Hydrargyrl 
Prep. — 1. (Mr. Donovan.) Triturate 6-08 grains 
of metallic arsenic, 15'38 grains of mercury, and 
50 grains of iodine with f 3j of alcohol, till dry ; mix 
withf^viij of distilled water, put them into a flask, 
add 3ss of hydriodic acid, and boil a few moments. 
When cold, make it up f^viij. — 2. (Wholesale.) 
Metallic arsenic 61 grs. ; iodine 500 grs. ; mercu- 
ry 154 grs. ; rectified spirit f 3x ; distilled water 2 
quarts ; hydriodic acid f 3v ; as last. It must meas- 
ure exactly f §lxxx, or weigh 5 lbs. 1:^ oz. (av.) 
when cold. — 3. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of arsenic 98 
grs. ; biniodide of mercury 90 grs. ; moisten the 
two iodides with a little hot water, then pour on 
sufficient to dissolve them, filter, and add enough 
distilled water to make the whole weigh, when 
cold, exactly 10,000 grs., (equal to §xx 3vj 3ij, or 
22| oz. and 47^ grs. avoird.) The last formula 
has ihe advantage of yielding a more certain pro- 
duct than the former, as when this liquor is pre- 
pared according to Mr. Donavan's directions, the 
whole of the arsenic is seldom dissolved, unless by 
the most careful trituration, besides which the pro- 
cess is very tedious. Soubeiran recommends the 
employment of 1 part each of the iodides, and 98 
parts of water, as furnishing a simpler formula, the 
decimal parts of a grain not being very easily 
weighed ; besides, these proportions are almost ex- 
actly those employed by Mr. Donovan. Dose. 
10 drops to f33s in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and sev- 
eral other scaly skin diseases. 

SOLUTION OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 
Syn. Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus. (P. L.) 
Prep. Iodide of potassium 10 grs. ; iodine 5 grs. ; 
water 1 pint : dissolve. Dose. 2 to 6 drs. in the 
usual cases where iodine is employed. 

SOLUTION OF IODOHYDRARGYRATE 
OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. Syn. Li- 
quor Iodohydrargyratis Potassii Iodidi. Prep. 
(Puche.) Biniodide of mercury and iodide of po- 
tassium, of each 1 gr. ; distilled water 1000 grs. ; 
dissolve. 

SOLUTION OF IRON, (Alkaline.) Syn, 
Liquor Ferri Alkalim, (P. L. 1824.) Prep. 
Iron filings 3iiss ; nitric acid ^ij ; water f §vj ; dis- 
solve, decant, and gradually add solution of car- 
bonate of potash f §vj. Tonic ; emmenagogue. 
Dose, i to 1 dr. 

SOLUTION OF LIME. Syn. Lime-Water- 
Liq. Calcis Hydratis. Solutio Calcis. Liquor 
DO., (P. L.) Aqua do., (P. E. & D.) Prep. Lime 
lb. ss ; cold water added gradually so as to slake 
the lime 6 quarts ; agitate well together in a cov- 
ered vessel ; after repose decant the clear, and 
keep it in stoppered bottles frwn the air. (See 
Lime.) Dose, i to 3 oz. or more, 2 or 3 times a 
day in milk or broth. It is antacid and astringent, 
and is taken in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, calculous af- 
fections, &c. 

SOLUTION OF MAGNESIA. Syn. Flu- 
id Magnesia. Carbonated Magnesia-Water. 
iERATED do. Aqua vel Liquor Magnesi/e Bi- 
carbonatis. Condensed Solution of Magnesia. 
Prep. (Dinneford's.) Water and Howard's heavy 
carbonate of magnesia, in the proportion of 17J^ grs. 
of the latter to every fluid oz. of the former, are in- 
troduced into a cylindrical tinned copper vessel, and 



SOL 



516 



SOU 



carbonic acid, generated by the action of sulphu- 
ric acid on whiting-, is forced into it by steam pow- 
er, for b^ hours, during the whole of which time 
the cylinder is kept moving. Antacid and laxa- 
tive. *4^* The Paris Codex orders recently pre- 
cipitated carbonate of magnesia to be used while 
still moist. 

SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF MOR- 
PHIA. Syn. SoLUTio MoRPHiiE Acetatis. Prep. 
(Majendie.) Acetate of morphia 16 grs. ; acetic 
acid 4 drops ; rectified spirit f 3j ; water f §j ; dis- 
solve. *^* Each f3ss contains nearly 1 gr. of 
acetate of morphia. Dose. 5 to 1 drops. 

SOLUTION OF CITRATE OF MOR- 
PHIA. Syn. Liquor Morphia Citratis. Prep. 
(Majendie.) Pure morphia 16 grs. ; citric acid 8 
grs.; water f §j ; tincture of cochineal f3ij ; dis- 
solve. Dose. 3 to 10 drops. 

SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF MOR- 
PHIA. Syn. SoLUTio Morphia Muriatis. Prep. 
— 1. (P. E.) Muriate of morphia 3iss ; rectified 
spirit f fv ; water f fxv ; dissolve. Contains 1 gr. 
in 106 minims. Dose. 10 to 30 drops. — 2. (Apo- 
thecaries' Hall.) Muriate of morphia 16 grs. ; 
rectified spirit f 3j ; water f §j ; dissolve. Dose. 
3 to 10 drops. 

SOLUTION OF SULPHATE OF MOR- 
PHIA. Syn. Liquor Morphine Sulphatis. Prep. 
(Majendie.) Sulphate of morphia 16 grs. ; water 
f §j ; rectified spirit f 3j ; dilute sulphuric acid 4 
drops ; dissolve. Dose. 5 to 10 drops. 

SOLUTION OF NITRATE OF BARYTA. 
Syn. SoLUTio Baryta Nitratis. Prep. (P. E.) 
Nitrate of baryta 40 grains ; water 800 grs. ; dis- 
solve. Used as a test for sulphuric acid. 

SOLUTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER. 
Syn. Liquor Argenti Nitratjs, (P. L.) Solu- 
Tio DO. DC, (P. E.) Prep. Nitrate of silver (pure) 
3j, (40 grs. P. E. ;) distilled water f §j, (1600 grs. 
P. E. ;) dissolve. Used as a test for chlorine, 
chlorides, and muriatic acid. It should be kept 
from the light. 

SOLUTION OF OPIUM. (Sedative.) Syn. 
Liquor Opii Sedativus. Prep. (Battley's.)-^!. 
Hard extract of opium 3 oz. ; water 1^ pints ; boil 
till dissolved, cool, filter, and add rectified spirit of 
wine 6 oz. ; water q. s. to make the whole exactly 
measure 1 quart. — 2. Extract of opium (P. L.) 4^ 
oz ; water 1 quart, boil till reduced to 34 oz. ; cool, 
filter, and add rectified spirit 6 oz., and water q. s. 
to make exL,ctly 1 quart. — 3. Hard extract of opi- 
um 22 oz. ; boiling water 13 pints ; dissolve, cool, 
add rectified spirit 3 pints, and filter. Less exci- 
ting than opium. Dose. 10 to 25 drops. (Cooley, 
Chem., v. 170.) 

SOLUTION OF PHOSPHATE OF SODA. 
Syn. SoLUTio Son^ Phosphatis. Prep. (P. E.) 
Crystallized phosphate of soda 175 grs. ; water 
f ^viij ; dissolve, and keep it in a corked bottle. 
Used as a test. 

SOLUTION OF POTASSA. Syn. Caustic 
Potash Water. Liquor Potass^e, (P. L.) Aqua 
Potass^., (P. E.) Do. do. Caustic/e, (P. D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Lime (recently burnt) §viij ; boil- 
ing distilled water 1 gallon ; sprinkle a little of the 
water on the lime in an earthen vessel, and when 
it is slaked and fallen to j)Owdcr, add carbonate of 
potash §xv, dissolved in the rcniaindcr of the wa- 
ter • bung down, and shake frequently, until cold, 



then allow the whole to settle, and decant tlie cleaf 
supernatant portion into perfectly clean and stop- 
pered green glass bottles. If well managed, it 
need not be filtered ; but if it is, clean calico 
should be employed, and the operation conducted 
out of contact with the air, (See Filtratioj .) — 
2. (Wholesale.) Carbonate of potash (Kali) J. lb., 
and quicklime ^ lb., to each gallon of water ; as 
last. The formulae of the E. and D. colleges vary 
only as regards the strength. Sp. gr. of the Liq. 
PotassEB, P. L., 1-063 ; of the P. E. 1-072 ; P. D. 
1-080. *^* It should emit few or no bubbles of 
carbonic acid gas, on the addition of dilute nitric 
acid. Scarcely any thing is precipitated by car- 
bonate of soda, chloride of barium, or nitrate of 
silver. It turns turmeric brown, and is precipita- 
ted by chloride of platina. (P. L.) Dose. 10 to 
30 drops, in any bland diluent, as an antacid, diu- 
retic, or lithontriptic. (See Brandish's Solution.) 
— 3. (Henry's pure potash water.) Made up to 
the sp. gr. 1-1. Two measures possess the same 
saturating power as one of his cax'bonate of potash 
water. Used in testing. 

SOLUTION OF POTASSA, (Effervescing.) 
Syn. Liquor Potass^ Bicarbonatis. Liq. Po- 
tasS/E Effervescens, (P. L.) Aqita do. do. (P. E.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Bicarbonate of potash 3j ; distilled 
water 1 pint ; dissolve and force in carbonic acid 
gas in excess ; keep it in a well -stoppered vessel. 
Resembles soda water. An excellent substitu(;e 
for this preparation is to pour a bottle of soda-wa- 
ter into a tumbler containing 20 grs. of powdered 
bicarbonate of potash, and to drink it immedi- 
ately. 

SOLUTION OF SODA. Syn. Henry's Pure 
Soda Water. A solution of caustic soda made up 
to the sp. gr. 1-07 ; has the same saturating power 
as his carbonate of soda water. 

SOLUTION OF CARBONATE OF SODA. 
Syn. Subcarbonate of Soda Water. Liq. Sod^ 
Carbonatis. Aqua do. do., (P. D.) Prep. Crys- 
tallized carbonate of soda §j ; water 1 pint ; dis- 
solve. Sp. gr. 1 -024. Dose. \ oz. to 2 oz., as an 
antacid ; in heartburn, dyspepsia, &c. 

SOLUTION OF SODA, (Effervescing.) 
Syn. Soda Water. Liquor Sod^ Effervescens, 
(P. L.) Aqua do. do., (P. E.) Liq. Sod^b Bi- 
carbonatis. Aqua Sod^ Carbonatis Acidula, 
(P. D.) Prep. Sesquicarbonate of soda 3j ; dis- 
tilled water 1 pint ; dissolve and force carbonic acid 
gas into the solution. Used as an antacid and 
grateful stimulant, often proving gently laxative. 
The soda water of the shops cannot be substituted 
for this preparation, as, in opposition to its name, 
it is usually made without soda. 

SOLUTION OF SULPHURET OF POTAS • 
SIUM. Syn. Solution of Sulphuret of Pot- 
ash. SoLUTlO POTASSII SuLPHURETI. AqUA Po- 

TAss.E SuLPHURETi, (P. D.) Prep. Washed sulphur 
1 part; water of caustic potassa 11 parts; boil 10 
minutes, filter, and keep the solution in well-closed 
bottles. Dose. 10 to 60 drops, diluted with water, 
and externally made into a lotion, in itch, and sev- 
eral other eruptive diseases. 

SORBIC ACID. Malic acid obtained from 
the berries of the mountain ash. (See Malic 
Acid.) 

SOUP. In Cookery ; a strong decoction of 
flesh, properly seasoned with salt, soices, &c., for 



SPE 



517 



SPI 



the table. The different tastes of people require 
more or less of the flavor of spices, salt, garlic, 
butter, ifcc, which can never be ordered by general 
rules ; and if the cook has not a good taste, and 
attention to that of her employers, not all tiie in- 
gredients which nature and art can furnish will 
give exquisite flavor to her dishes. The proper 
articles should be at hand, and she must propor- 
tion them until the true zest be obtained, and a 
variety of flavor be given to the different dishes 
served at the same time. 

SOUP, PORTABLE. Syru Glaze. Prep. 
1. Break the bones of a leg or shin of beef, put it 
into a digester that will fairly hold it, cover with 
cold water, boil it gently for 8 or 10 hours, strain, 
let it cool, take off the fat, pour into a shallow 
stewpan, add whole black pepper \ oz., boil away 
to about a quart, pour it into a smaller stewpan, 
and simmer gently till it is reduced to the thick- 
ness of a sirup ; then either pour it into small up- 
right jelly-pots, with covers, and when cold, paste 
the joints over with paper ; or pour it out upon flat 
dishes, to lie about i inch deep ; when set, di- 
vide it into pieces and dry them. A shin of 
beef of 9 lbs. produced 9 oz. of portable soup, 
and 2^ lbs. of meat fit for potting. — 2. From gela- 
tin melted with a little water, and flavored. — 
Used on voyages, dissolved in boiling water, to 
make soup. 

SOY. Genuine soy is a species of thick black 
sauce, imported from China, prepared with white 
haricots, wheat flour, salt, and water ; but a spu- 
rious kind is made in England as follows : — Seeds 
of dolichos soja (peas or kidney beans may be used 
for them) 1 gall., boil till soft, add bruised wheat 
1 gall., keep in a warm place for 24 hours, then 
add common salt 1 gall. ; water 2 gall. ; put the 
whole into a stone jar, bung it up for two or 
three months, shaking it very frequently, then 
press out the liquor ; the residuum may be treat- 
ed afresh with water and salt, for soy of an infe- 
rior quality. 

SPECIES. Mixtures of dried plants, or parts 
of plants, in a divided state ; which, for conveni- 
ence, are kept mixed for use. The dry ingredients 
of pills, conserves, electuaries, mixtures, &c., that 
do not keep well when made up, or which are in 
little demand, may be economically and conve- 
niently preserved in this state. 

SPECIFIC FOR WORMS. (Herren- 
schwand's.) Prep. Gamboge 10 grs. ; salt of 
tartar 20 grs. ; mix. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the density of the 
matter of which any body is composed, compared 
to the density of another body, assumed as the 
standard, or 1-000. This standard is pure distilled 
water for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air 
lor gaseous bodies and vapors. In England the 
sp. gr. is usually taken at 62° F. ; but in France 
oX 32°, or the temperature of melting ice. In most 
cases, however, it is sufficient merely to note the 
temperature, and to apply a correction, depending 
on the known density of water or air, at the dif- 
ferent degrees of the thermometric scale To de- 
termine the specific gravity of a solid, we weigh 
it, first in the air, and then in water. In the lat- 
ter case it loses, of its weight, a quantity precisely 
equal to the weight of its own bulk of water ; and 
hoQce, by comparing this weight with its total 



weight, we find its specific gravity. The rule 
therefore is, — Divide the total weight by the loss 
of weight in water ; the quotient is the specific 
gravity. If it be a liquid or a gas, we weigh it in 
a sp. gr. bottle, glass flask, or other vessel of 
known capacity ; and dividing tliat weight by the 
weight of the same bulk of water, the quotient is, 
as before, the specific gravity. (See Hydrom- 
eter.) 

SPECULUM, METAL. Prep. 1. Copper 
64 parts ; pure tin 29 do. — 2. Copper 2 parts ; 
pure tin 1 do. Melt the metals separately under 
a little black flux ; incorporate thoroughly by 
stirring with a wooden spatula, then run the 
metal into the moulds, so that the face of the in- 
tended mirror may be downwards ; cool slowly. 
Used to make the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. 
The addition of a little metallic arsenic renders it 
whiter. 

SPICE, COW. Syn. Horsespice. Species 
Equinus. Prep. — 1. Turmeric, aniseed, liquorice, 
and diapente, equal parts. — 2. Turmeric and 
cumin seed, of each 5 lbs. : ginger 2^ lbs. — 3. 
Cayenne 2 oz. ; bean flour and mustard hulls, of 
each 45 lbs. ; cumin and caraway, of each 15 
lbs. ; «rmeric 12 lbs. ; charcoal 2 lbs. Mix. Used 
by farriers. 

SPICE, RAGOUT. Prep. Flour of mustard, 
black pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each ^ 
lb. ; allspice, ginger, and nutmegs, of each \ oz. ; 
cayenne pepper 2 oz. ; dry salt 1 lb. ; all in powder. 
Mix. 

SPICE, SAUSAGE. (French.) Syn. 

Epices Fixes. Prep. Black pepper 5 lbs. ; cloves 

and nutmegs, of each 1^ lbs. ; ginger 2^ lbs. ; 

I aniseed and coriander seeds, of each | lb. ; powder, 

and mix. 

SPICE, SAVORY. (Kidder's.) Prep. 
Cloves, mace, nutmegs, pepper, and salt, equal 
parts. Used by cooks. 

SPICE, SWEET. (Kidder's.) Prep. Cloves, 
mace, nutmegs, cinnamon, and sugar, equal parts ; 
mix. Used in pastry. 

SPIELMAN'S CAMPHORATED VINE- 
GAR. Prep. Camphor 3j ; alcohol 20 drops ; 
powder ; add sugar §ij ; triturate, and further add 
distilled vinegar §x. Dose. 2 to 4 drs. 

SPIRIT. Under this term are included all the 
inflammable and intoxicating liquors obtained by 
distillation, and used as beverages ; as brandy, 
gin, rum, &c., each of which has been noticed in 
its alphabetical order. Spirit may also be obtain- 
ed by fermentation and distillation from all vege- 
I table juices or solutions that contain sugar. — Al- 
! coHOL P. L. has the sp. gr. 0-815— P. E. 0-796— P. 
; D. 0-810— P. Cod. (Alcohol absolue) 0-797.— 
'■ Rectified Spirit OF Wine (Spiritus rectificatus) 
I P. L. «fc E. has the sp. gr. 0-838- P. D. 0-840— P. 
1 U. S. 0-835. — Proof Spirit (Spiritus tenuior) 
P. L. & E. has the sp. gr. 0-.^20, and is made by 
mixing 5 pints of rectified spirit with 3 pints of 
water,— P. Cod. (Alcohol faihle) 0-923.- The 
Alcohol du Co7nmerce P. Cod. has the sp. gr. 
0-863. Rectified spirit is obtained by the rectifica- 
tion of raw corn spirit at a gentle heat, by v/hich 
the stronger and purer portion alone passes over 
Pearlash or quicklime is commonly added to retaiu 
the oil and water. 

Spirits (in Pharmacy) are prepared by ma- 



SPI 



518 



SPI 



cerating the bruised seeds, flowers, herbs, &c. in 
the spirit for 2 or 3 days before distillation, and 
then drawing off the spirit by a gentle heat. If a 
naked fire be employed, a little water should be 
put into the still along with the spirit, to prevent 
empyreuma. They are also very frequently pre- 
pared extemporaneously, by adding a proper pro- 
portion of essential oil to pure spirit of the pre- 
scribed strength. These spirits are mostly em- 
ployed as aromatics and stimulants, in doses of i 
oz. to 1 oz. 

Spirits (in Perfumery) are prepared from 
aromatic and odorous substances, by a similar 
process to that just described ; but in this case a 
very pure and scentless spirit must be employed, 
and the distillation should be preferably conducted 
by steam heat or a water bath, and the distilled 
spirit should be kept for some time in a cellar 
or other cold situation previously to being used. 
When simple solution of an essential oil in the 
spirit is adopted, care should be taken that the oil 
is pale and new ; or, at least, has not been much 
exposed to the air ; as in that case it would con- 
tain resin, which would make the perfumed spirit, 
or essence, liable to stain delicate articles of 
clothing to which it may be applied. The per- 
fumed spirits of some flowers cannot be well ob- 
tained in either of the above ways, or, at least, 
are not usually so prepared by the foreign per- 
fumers. The spirits of orange flowers, jasmin, 
tuberose, jonquille, roses, and some other flowers, 
and of cassia, vanilla, &c., are commonly pre- 
pared by digesting pure rectified spirit of wine for 
3 or 4 days on half its weight of the respective 
pommades or oils, obtained by infusion or contact. 
The operation is performed in a close vessel placed 
in a water bath, and frequent agitation is em- 
ployed for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed spirit 
is decanted into a second digester, containing a 
like quantity of oil to the first ; and the whole 
process is repeated a second and a third time, 
after which the spirit is allowed to settle and is 
then decanted, when it forms the most fragrant 
and perfect essence or spirit of the perfumer. 
This is called spirit of the first infusion. The 
three portions of oil are then treated again with 
fresh spirit in the same manner, and thus spirits 
or essences of inferior quality are obtained, which 
are distinguished by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4, 
&c. ; or spirits of the first, second, third, «Slc., 
operation or infusion. In some, though very few 
cases, the spirits are afterwards distilled. These 
spirits are also frequently obtained by other pro- 
cesses, which have been already noticed. 

*^* For further information on spirits and their 
preparation, see Alcohol, Alcoholometry, Dis- 
tillation, Brandy, Rum, Gin, Eaux, Esprits, 
Essences, Waters. 

SPIRIT OF AMMONIA. Syn. Alcohol 
Ammoniatum. Spiritus AmmonijE, (P. L. E. &. D.) 
Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Muriate of ammonia ^x ; car- 
bonate of potash ^xvj ; rectified spirit and water, 
of each 3 pints ; mix, and let 3 pints distil. — 2. 
(P. D.) Dissolve ^iiiss of carbonate of ammonia in 
rectified spirit, 3 wine pints. — 3. (P. E.) Quick- 
lime 5xij ; slake with water f §viss ; add finely- 
powdered muriate of ammonia "^vu], and distil in 
a glass retort, furnished with a tube reaching 
nearly to the bottom of a bottle containing 2 pints 



and f 3ij of rectified spirit, and kept well cooled 
A sand heat is to be employed, and the distilla- 
tion continued as long as any thing passes ovei 
Dose. ^ to 1 dr. ; in hysteria, flatulent colic 
nervous debility, &c. 

SPIRIT OF AMMONIA, (AROMATIC; 
Syn. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aromaticum. 
Spirit of Sal Volatile. Spiritus Ammonia 
Aromaticus, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) 
Muriate of ammonia §v ; carbonate of potash 
§viij ; bruised cinnamon and cloves, of each 3ij ; 
fresh lemon peel §iv ; rectified spirit and water, of 
each i gallon ; mix and distil 6 pints. — 2. (P. D.) 
Spirit of ammonia 2 pints, (wine measure ;) oil of 
lemon 3ij ; bruised nutmegs §ss ; do. cinnamon 
3iij ; digest for three days, then distil IJf pints. — 3 
(P. E.) Spirit of ammonia f §viij ; oil of lemon 
f3j ; oil of rosemary f 3iss ; dissolve. Dose. ^ to 
2 drs., diluted with water, in lowness of spirits, 
debility, hysteria, dyspepsia, &c. 

SPIRIT OF AMMONIA, (FETID.) Syn. 
Alcohol Ammoniatum Fcetidum. Spiritus Am- 
monia FoETiDus, (P. L. E. & D.)— 1. (P. L.) 
As spirit of ammonia, but adding asafoetida §v, 
before distillation. — 2. Spirit of ammonia 1 lb. ; 
tincture of asafoetida §ss ; mix. Dose. A tea- 
spoonful in hysteria, &c. 

SPIRIT OF ANISEED. Syn. Spiritus 
Anisi. Prep. — 1. (P, L.) Bruised aniseed §x ; 
proof spirit 1 gallon ; water 1 quart, (or q. s. ;) 
distil 1 gallon. — 2. (>S'^. Anisi Compositus, P. D.) 
Anise and angelica seeds, of each lb. ss ; proof 
spirit 1 gallon ; water q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. When 
colored with saffron, or sap green, the last i, 
sembles the Irish Usquebaugh. (Montgomery.) 
Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 

SPIRIT OF CARAWAY. Syn. Spiritus 
Carui, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Bruised 
caraway seeds §xxij ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; water 
1 quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. Aromatic and 
carminative. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. " Sweetened 
with sugar, this spirit is drunk in G*many as 
a dram, (Kumelliqueur ; Kumelhrandtwein.^') 
(Pereira.) 

SPIRIT OF CASSIA. Syn. Spiritus 
Cassia. Prep. (P. E.) Coarsely-powdered 
cassia lb. j; proof spirit 7 pints; water 1^ pints, 
or q. s. ; draw off" 7 pints. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 
*^* Almost universally substituted for spirit of 
cinnamon. 

SPIRIT OF CINNAMON. Syn. Spiritus 
CiNNAMOMi, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) 
Oil of cinnamon 3ij ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; water 
1 pint, or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. — 2. (P. E.) As 
spirit of cassia, P. E., using cinnamon bark. Aro- 
matic and stimulant. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 

SPIRIT OF CYTHEREA. Prep. Spirits of 
violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower, jasmin, (No. 
2,) roses, (No. 2,) and portugal, of each 1 quart ; 
orange-flower water 2 quarts ; mix. A delightful 
perfume. 

SPIRIT, DYER'S. Prep. Dyer's aquafortis 
7 lbs. ; grain tin 1 lb. ; dissolve, with agitation. 
Used in dyeing with lac dye ; for cochineal use 
less tin. — 2. Nitric acid 3 lbs. ; sal ammoniac 1 
lb. ; tin q.s. to dissolve without effervescence. Used 
with cochineal. (See I'm Mordants.) 

SPIRIT CF THE FLOWERS OF ITALY. 
Syn. EspRr de Fleurs. Prep. Spirits of 



SPI 



519 



SPI 



roses, (No. 1,) jasmin, (No. 2,) oranges, (No. 3,) 
and cassia, (No. 2,) of each 4 pints ; orange-flower 
water 3 pints ; mix. Very fragrant. 

SPIRIT OF HARTSHORN. Syn. Liquor 
VoLATiLis CoRNU Cervi. Originally distilled from 
hafrtshorn, but is now miiversally made by dissolv- 
ing sesquicarbonate of ammonia in water, so as to 
form a solution of the sp. gr. 1*060. The pun- 
gency is commonly increased by passing a little 
ammoniacal gas into it, or by adding a small 
quantity of liquor of ammonia. Dilute liquor oi 
ammonia is also frequently sold for spirit of harts- 
horn. 

SPIRIT OF HORSERADISH, (COM- 
POUND.) Si/n. Spiritus Armoraci^ compos- 
ITUS, (P. L. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Sliced horse- 
radish and dried orange-peel, of each ^xx ; bruised 
nutmegs 3v ; proof spirit I gallon ; water 1 quart, 
or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. Stimulant "^nd diuretic. 
Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 

SPIRIT OF JUNIPER, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Spiritus Juniperi compositus, (P. L. E. & 
D.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) Bruised juniper berries §xv ; 
do. caraway and fennel, of each §ij ; proof spirit 
1 gallon ; water 1 quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. 
2. (Wholesale.) Oil of juniper 3ij ; oils of caraway 
and sweet fennel, of each 3ss ; proof spirit 5 quarts ; 
if foul, filter through magnesia. Stimulant and 
diuretic. Dose. 2 to 4 drs. *^* This spirit, when 
mixed with twice or thrice its weight of proof 
spirit, and sweetened with a little sugar, makes 
no bad imitation of Holland gin. 

SPIRIT OF LAVENDER. Syn. Spiritus 
Lavandula. Prep. (P. L.) Fresh lavender lb. iiss ; 
rectified spirit of wine 1 gallon ; water 1 quart, or 
q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. 2. (Wholesale.) English oil 
of lavender 3 oz. ; rectified spirit 1 gallon ; dis- 
tsolve. Cordial and fragrant. 

SPIRIT OF MURIATIC ETHER. Syn. 
Dulcified Marine Acid. Clutton's Febrifuge 
Spirit. Spiritus Salis Dulcis. Sp. Muriatico- 

iETHEREUS. ^EtHER MuRIATICUS AlCOHOLICUS. 

Prep. 1. (P.E. 1735.) Muriatic acid 1 part; rec- 
tified spirit 3 parts ; digest some days, and distil 
in a sand-bath. 2. Hydrochloric ether and 
spirits of wine, equal parts ; mix. Dose, f 3j to 
f 3iij, in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, 
&c. 

SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER. Syn. Sweet 
Spirits OF Nitre. Nitre Drops. Nitre Dulcis. 
Spiritus Nitri Dulcis, (P. L. 1745.) Sp. ^Ethe- 
Ris NiTRosi, (P. L. 1788.) Sp. JEtheris Nitrici, 
(P. L. 1809, and since, & P. E.) Sp. JEthereus 
Nitrosus, (P. D.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) Rectified 
spirit lb. iij ; nitric acid ^iv ; mix gradually, and 
distil f^xxxij. *^* An earthenware still and con- 
densing worm should be employed. 2. (P. E.) 
Pure hyponitrous ether (P. E.) 1 part ; rectified 
spirit 4 parts ; mix. 3. (Dr. Geisler.) 24 oz. of al- 
cohol of 0'840 are mixed with 4 oz. sulphuric acid, 
left to stand for 8 days, then poured into a retort 
containing 4^ oz. of dried nitre ; 20 oz. of the 
liquid are distilled over at a gentle heat, which is 
then rectified over magnesia. Copper retorts and 
tinned cooling apparatus may be employed in this 
process without any disadvantage. The prepara- 
tion is pretty constant in its amount of ether. 
Mixing of nitric ether with alcohol cannot afford 
an ofii*»aial Spir. tether, nitr., eis it always contains 



aldehyd.* Preservation over magnesia is not 
practicable, as it constantly gives rise to decompo- 
sition and formation of nitrite of magnesia. (Arch, 
der Pharm., xxviii. p. 60.) 

Remarks. Pure sweet spirits of nitre scarcely 
reddens litmus paper, and gives ofF no bubbles of 
carbonic acid gas, on the addition of carbonate of 
soda. Sp. gr. 0-834. (P. L.) " When agitated 
with twice its volume of concentrated solution o. 
muriate of lime, 12§ of ether slowly separates. 
Density 0-847." (P. E.) Dose. ^ to 3 drs. as a feb- 
rifuge and diaphoretic. *^* The mass of the 
sweet spirits of nitre of the shops is of very inferior 
quality, and is scarcely, if ever, jnade directly 
from spirit that has paid the duty. One and a 
very large portion is obtained from Scotland, an- 
other from the manufacturers of fulminating mer- 
cury, and a third, and in fact, the principal part, 
from certain persons in the neighborhood of the 
metropolis, who employ contraband spirit for its 
preparation, as this article is not under the excise. 
The truth of the above is well known, as the price 
at which this spirit is sold is alone sufficient testi- 
mony. The price of rectified spirit, purchased in 
quantity at the distillery, is from l%s. Ad. to 16s. 
8fZ. per gallon, or about 2s. Od per lb., (av.,) 
whereas the sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. -850, is 
commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at Is. Id. 
to Is. 9^. per lb., (av.,) and I have seen it pur- 
chased so low as Is. 6(Z. This calls for the inter- 
ference of the excise. The spirit obtained from 
the manufacturers of fulminating mercury fre- 
quently contains prussic acid, which may be dis- 
covered by testing. (See Prussic Acid.) 

SPIRIT OF NUTMEG. Syn. Spiritus Nu- 
cis Moschat^. Sp. Myristic^, (P. L. E. & D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Bruised nutmegs §iiss ; proof spirit 

1 gallon ; water 1 pint, or q. s. ; distil a gallon. 
Cordial and carminative. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. ; 
mostly used to flavor mixtures and draughts. 

SPIRIT OF PENNYROYAL. Syn. Spir- 
itus PuLEGii. Sp. Menth^e Pulegii, (P. L.) 
Prepared like spirit of peppermint, P. L. Stimu- 
lant ; antispasmodic ; carminative. Dose. ^ to 

2 drs. 

SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT. Syn. Spiritus 
Menth^e Piperita, (P. L. & D.) Sp. Mentha, 
(P. E.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) Oil of peppermint 3iij ; 
rectified spirit 1 gallon ; water 1 pint, or q. s. ; dis- 
solve, and distil 1 gallon. 2. Omit the water and 
distillation. 3. (P. E.) Green peppermint lb. iss ; 
proof spirit 7 pints ; macerate 2 days ; add water 
q. s., and distil 7 pints. Dose. ^ to 2 drs. (See 
Essence of Peppermint.) 

SPIRIT OF PIMENTO. Syn. Spirit op 
Allspice. Spiritus Pimento, (P. L. E. & D.) 
Bruised allspice §iiss ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; water 
1 pint, or q. s. ; distil a gallon. Carminative and 
stomachic. Dose. 1 to 4 drs., in mixtures, &c. 

SPIRIT, PYROACETIC. Syn. Pyroacetic 
Ether. Acctone. Esprit Pyroacetique, (Fr.) 
Brennzlicher Essiggeist ; Mesit, (Ger.) Spir- 
itus Pyroaceticus, (Lat.) An ethereal liquid, 
obtained by passing the vapor of hydrated acetic 
acid through a porcelain tube heated to dull red- 
ness ; or by the dry distillation of the acetates, the 
bases of which retain carbonic acid at a red heat. 

* According to Prof. Liebig, this aldehyd is an essential' 
constituent of the officinal nitric etlier. 



SPI 



520 



STA 



The acetates of lime, manganese, zinc, lead, iron, 
and copper, thus yield it in quantities decreasing 
in the order in which they stand. It is chiefly 
formed during the second half of the process ; the 
liquor which comes over then should be set apart, 
and decanted from empyreumatic oil, &c. Pyro- 
acetic spirit is also obtained in considerable quan- 
tity by distilling the tarry deposite of crude pyro- 
ligneous acid. The product of either process is 
purified by rectification, first from quicklime, and 
next from bone-black. ^^* Pure acetone is a 
clear colorless liquid ; miscible with water, alco- 
hol, and ether, in all proportions ; has a pungent 
taste, resembling that of peppermint, and a pene- 
trating and slightly empyreumatic smell ; sp. gr. 
0-7922 ; boils at 132° ; very inflammable, giving a 
brilliant flame without smoke ; and dissolves resins 
and essential oils. Strong sulphuric acid converts 
it into a species of ether. It is used in lamps, and 
to dissolve gums by the hatters. 

SPIRIT, PYROXILIC. Syn. Pyroligneous 
Spirit. Wood Naphtha. Hydrate of Oxide 
OF Methule. Bihydrate of Methylene. Com- 
mercial pyroxilic spirit is obtained by saturating 
crude pyroligneous acid after it is separated from 
the tar, with quicklime and distilling, when about 
1§ of spirit is obtained, which is purified by 2 or 3 
rectifications. In this state it contains acetone 
and other inflammable fluids, from which it may 
be separated by distilling it along with an excess 
of muriate of lime, in a water-bath, as long as any 
volatile matter passes over, which are the impuri- 
ties. A quantity of water equal to the spirit em- 
ployed is then added, and the distillation continued. 
The product is now pyroxilic spirit combined with 
a little water, from which it may be freed by dis- 
tillation along with quicklime. *^* Pure pyroxilic 
spirit is a transparent, colorless liquid, having a 
penetrating ethereal smell ; it is very inflamma- 
ble, yielding a pale blue flame, by which it may 
be readily distinguished from pyroacetic spirit. It 
is neutral to test-paper, mixes with water, alcohol, 
and ether ; boils at 150° ; sp. gr. 0-798 at 68° F. 
(Liebig. — 0-824, Ure.) It is used to dissolve resins 
and oils. 

SPIRIT, RAISIN. From raisins fermented 
along with water, and the wash distilled by a quick 
fire. Used to give a brandy flavor to malt spirit. 
1 gallon added to 150 gallons of plain spirit, along 
with some coloring, and a little catechu, makes a 
very decent " British brandy." 

SPIRIT OF ROSEMARY. Syn. Spiritus 
RosEMARiNi. (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) 
Oil of rosemary 3ij ; rectified spirit 1 gall. ; water 
1 pint, or q. s. ; distil a gallon. 2. As last ; but 
omit the water and distillation. 3. Rosemary tops 
lb. iiss ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; water q. s. ; distil a 
gallon. Fragrant. 

SPIRIT OF SPEARMINT. Syn. Spiritus 
Mentha Viridis, (P. L. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) As 
spirit of peppermint, P. L. Dose and use the 
eame. 

SPIRIT OF SOUP HERBS. (Kitciiiner's.) 
Prep. Lemon thyme, winter savory, sweet mar- 
joram, and sweet basil, of each, 1 oz. ; grated 
lemon-peel and shalotes, of each, •J oz. ; bruised 
celery seed 1 dr. ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 
10 days and p'rain. Used as a flavoring by 
cooks. 



SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER. Syn. 

Sweet Spirit of Vitriol. ^Ether Sulphuricus 
CUM Alcohole. Spiritus Vitrioli Dulcis. Sp. 

^THERIS SuLPHURICI, (P. E.) Do. do. VlTRIOLICat. 

Prep. (P. E.) Sulphuric ether 1 pint ; rectified 
spirit 1 quart ; mix. Sp. gr. 0-809. It should be 
neutral to test paper, mix (clear) with water, and 
when shaken with twice its volume of concentra- 
ted solution of muriate of lime, 28§ of ether should 
separate. Dose, f 3j to f 3iij ; as a stimulant and 
anodyne. 

SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Hoffman's Anodyne Liquor. 
Mineral do. do. Spiritus ^theris Sulphurici 
CoMPosiTus, (P. L.) Do. do. Vitriolici Comp. 
Prep. (P. L.) Sulphuric ether f §viij ; rectified 
spirit f fxvj ; ethereal oil f3iij ; mix. Dose, f 3ss 
to f 3ij ; as an anodyne. 

SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER, (ARO- 
MATIC.) Syn. Aromatic Spirit of Ether. 
Sweet Elixir of Vitriol. Spiritus ^theris 
Aromaticus. Elixir Vitrioli Dulce. Prep. 
(P. L. 1824.) Bruised cinnamon 3iij ; cardamoms 
3iss ; long pepper and ginger, of each, 3j ; recti- 
fied spirit 10 oz. ; sulphuric ether 5 oz. ; mix, and 
digest 14 days. The last two preparations are 
also frequently called " Sweet Elixir of Vit- 
riol" 

SPONGE, BURNT. Syn. Spongia Usta. 
PuLvis Spongia Ust^. Pre^ (P. D.) Beat 
pieces of sponge to remove the ssnd and stones, 
then burn it in a closed iron vessel till it becomes 
black and friable ; allow it to cool, excluded from 
the air, and reduce it to powder. Used in bron- 
chocele and scrofulous complaints. Dose. 1 to 3 
drs. made into an electuary or lozenges. *^* If 
good it evolves violet fumes of iodine when heated 
in a flask along with sulphuric acid. The burnt 
sponge of the shops is made from the cuttings 
and unsaleable pieces. 

SPONGE, PREPARED. Syn. Spongia Ce- 
RATA. Sponge dipped into melted wax and com- 
pressed between 2 iron plates till cold. Used by 
surgeons to make sponge tents. 

SPONGE, WHITE. Syn. Bleached Sponge. 
Spongia dealbata. Prep. Soak the sponge in 
very dilute muriatic acid to remove calcareous 
matter, then in cold water, changing it frequently, 
and squeezing the sponge out each time ; next 
soak it in water, holding a little sulphuric or sul- 
phurous acid, or chlorine in solution, changing 
the acid frequently till the sponge is sufficiently 
bleached ; last, repeatedly wash and soak in clean 
water, and scent with rose or orange-flower wa- 
ter. 

STARCH. Syn. Amidon ; Fecule, (Fr.) 
Staerke, (Ger.) Amylum, {Lat.) Afiv\ov, {Gr., 
from a, privative, and fivXr}, a mill.) One of the 
commonest frauds practised upon the profession 
and the public is the mixing cheap kinds of starch 
with arrow-root, and vending manufactured for 
genuine tapioca, sago, and other articles of diet, 
used for invalids and children. M. Gobley haa 
proposed a method for the ready detection of these 
frauds, which is very simple, consisting merely in 
placing various kinds of starch, in a moip* state, 
in watch-glasses, and covering them ove witn a 
bell-glass, under which there is also placed iodine, 
and leaving them for 24 hours. The vapor of the 



STl 



521 



STR 



iodine acts upon, and colors all kinds of starch, 
but the color it imparts varies with the different 
kinds. Thus the vapor of iodine colors — 

Wheat-starch, violet. 

Potato-starch, dove gray. 

Genuine arrow-root, bright chocolate color. 

Genuine tapioca, unbroken, uniformly yellow- 
sk. 

Ditto, powdered, chamois color. 

White sago, entire, some granules violet gray, 
others yellowish. 

Ditto, powdered, chamois color. 

Dextrine, no coloring. 

This method, at all events, renders the detec- 
tion of potato-starch very easy, and also whether 
common or potato starch is substituted for tapioca 
powder, and probably some modification of it will 
render it still further applicable. (Jour, de Pharm., 
April, 1844.) 

STEARIC ACID. Syn. Stearine. Hypo- 
MARGARULic AciD. Prep. I. (Commercial) Tal- 
low is boiled in large wooden vessels, by means 
of high-pressure steam, with about 16§ of hydrate 
of lime (eq. to Ll§ of pure lime) for 3 or 4 hours 
till the combination is complete, when the whole 
is allowed to cool. The stearate of ]}me. is then 
transferred to another wooden vessel, and decom- 
posed, by 4 parts of oil of vitriol diluted with wa- 
ter, for every 3 parts of slaked lime employed, the 
action being promoted by steam heat. Aftei^ re- 
pose the liberated fat is decanted from the sedi- 
ment of sulphate of lime and water, and is well 
washed with water, and by blowing steam into it ; 
it is next reduced to shavings by means of a num- 
ber of knives \vorked by machinery, and in this 
divided state is placed in canvass bags and sub- 
mitted to the action of a powerful hydraulic press, 
which expels a large portion of the oleine ; the 
pressed cakes are then a second time exposed to 
the action of steam and water, again cooled and 
coarsely powdered, and again submitted to the 
joint action of steam and pressure ; they are last- 
ly melted and cast into blocks for sale. — 2. (Pure.) 
Repeatedly crystallize commercial stearic acid 
from hot alcohol, till its melting point becomes 
constant at 167°. Brilliant pearly scales, soluble 
in ether and hot alcohol, and forming salts called 
stearates with the bases. The commercial acid 
is used to make candles. 

STEAROPTENE. The name given by Her- 
berger to the concrete portion or camphor of vola- 
tile oils. Bizio calls it stereusin. 

STILL. (From stillare, to drop.) A vessel 
or apparatus employed for the distillation of liquids 
on the large scale. The forms of stills, and the 
materials of which they are made, vary according 
to the purposes for which they are intended. The 
following figure represents the most common and 
useful apparatus of this kind. After the fluid is 
put into the still, the head must be placed on. and 
connected with the refrigerator, and the joints 
must be all securely luted. For ordinary liquids, 
a stiff paste made with linseed meal and water, to 
which a little chalk may be added, will answer 
well for this purpose The worm tub should be 
supplied with cold water in sufficient quantity to 
preserve its contents at a proper temperature ; 
and the application of heat should be so regulated 
that the liquid may drop from the end of the 
68 



refrigerator quite cold and unaccompanied with 
vapor. 




a, Body of still, which may be either placed in a steam 

jacket, or in a brick furnace. 

b, Still head or capital. 

c, Worm tub. 

d, Pewter worm, or refrigerator. 

e, Cold water pipe. 
/, Waste pipe. 

g, Receiver. 

STRAINED GALBANUM. This is either 
prepared by boiling the gum resin in water until 
dissolved, then straining it through a canvass or 
hair sieve and evaporating ; or by melting it in 
the dry state by heat cautiously and quickly ap- 
plied, and straining it through a piece of coarse 
canvass stretched across a frame. (See Filtra- 
tion.) The Strained Galbanum of the shops is 
mostly reduced with inferior drugs, and very fre- 
quently a factitious article is substituted. The 
following forms are those which are frequently 
employed in the wholesale trade : — 

1. (Reduced Strained Galbanum.) — a. True 
galbanum 9 lbs. ; strain as above, and when near- 
ly finished, add black resin (clean) 3 lbs. ; Venice 
turpentine 2 lbs. ; mix well. Product. 12 lbs. — 
b. True strained galbanum and black rosin, of 
each, 6 lbs. ; strained asafoetida 1^ oz. ; mix, and 
add Venice turpentine 3 lbs. Product. 14ij lbs. 

2. (Factitious Strained Galbanum.) Black 
rosin 4 lbs. ; Venice turpentine 3 lbs. ; strained 
asafoetida 2 oz. ; oils of juniper and fennel, of each, 
i oz. ; water \ pint ; mix s. a. The small and 
waste of the galbanum chests are also usually 
boiled up, strained, evaporated, and added to the 
above to irriprove them. 

STRAPPING. Spread adhesive-plaster. Used 
to dress wounds, &lc. 

STRAW PLAIT is bleached by exposing it to 
the fumes of burning sulphur in a close chest or 
box, or by immersing it in a weak solution of chlo- 
ride of lime, and afterwards washing it well in 
water. Water strongly acidulated with oil of 
vitriol or oxalic acid, is also used for the same pur- 
pose. Straw may be dyed with any of the simple 
liquid dyes. 

STRONTIA. Syn. Strontian. Strontites. 
Oxide of Strontium. The oxide of a metal called 
strontium. It greatly resembles barj'ta. Hyorate 
of strontia is freely soluble in boiling water, aud 
the saturated solution deposites crystals on cooling 
The solution exhibits an alkaline reaction, and like 
baryta is precipitated white by sulphuric acid, and 
the alkaline sulphates and carbonates. It is dis- 
tinguished from baryta by its inferior solubility 



sue 



522 



SUG 



and by its soluble salts giving a red tinge to flame, 
while the salts of baryta impart a yellow tinge. 
The salts of strontia may all be prepared by dis- 
solving the native carbonate in the respective acids. 
The nitrate is the only one met with in commerce, 
and is employed to form colored fireworks. The 
metal strontium is obtained in a similar way to 
barium. 

STRYCHNINE. Syn. Strychnina. Strych- 
nia, (P. L. & E.) Vauquelina. Tetanine. Prep. 
Precipitated from a solution of the sulphate, by 
ammonia. The sulphate is formed by digesting a 
watery solution of alcoholic extract of nux vomica 
with magnesia, pouring off the liquid, and boiling 
the residue, pressed nearly dry in cloth, in rectifi- 
ed spirit. The spirit having been distilled ciF, the 
residue is dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid, and 
set aside to crystallize. The nitrate and other 
salts are obtained by dissolving strychnia in the 
diluted acids, and crystallizing. *^* A white 
powder, soluble in 7000 parts of cold water, to 
which it imparts intense bitterness ; soluble in hot 
alcohol of 0-850, and deposited in crystals as the 
solution cools. It is alkaline to test paper ; " Ni- 
tric acid strongly reddens it ; a solution of 10 grs. 
in f3iv of water and f3j of pyroligneous acid, 
when decomposed by f §j of concentrated solution 
of carbonate of soda, yields on brisk agitation a 
coherent mass, weighing Avhen dry 10 grs., and 
entirely soluble in solution of oxalic acid." (P. E.) 
" It melts by heat, and if more strongly urged, is 
totally dissipated." (P. L.) It is a most dreadful 
poison, speedily producing tetanus and death. 
Dose of strychnia and its salts, one-twentieth to 
one-sixteenth of a gr., gradually and cautiously 
increased till it affects the muscular system ; in 
paralysis, tic douloureux, &c. It is also used ex- 
ternally, \ gr. at a time. 

STYRAX, STRAINED, (FACTITIOUS.) 
Prep. — 1. Balsam of Peru 1 lb. ; balsam of tolu 4 
lbs. ; mix. — 2 Gum benzoin 8 lbs. ; liquid styrax 
6 lbs. ; balsam of tolu 3 lbs. ; do. of Peru 2 lbs. ; 
N. S. W. yellow gum 7 lbs. ; rectified spirit 7 gal- 
Ions ; digest with frequent agitation for a fortnight, 
strain and distil off" the spirit (about 5J galls.) till 
the residue has a proper consistence. Prod. 24 
lbs. — 3. Gum benzoin 6 lbs. ; gum styrax 3 lbs. ; 
balsam of tolu 2^ lbs. ; Socotrine aloes | lb. ; rec- 
tified spirit 6 galls. ; digest and distil as last, and 
add to the product balsam of Peru 6 oz. ; olive oil 
4 oz. — 4. Liquid storax 1 oz. ; balsam of tolu 2 lbs. ; 
rectified spirit q. s. 

STYRACINE. A name given by Simon to a 
crystal lizable substance extracted from storax. 

SUBERIN. Cork deprived of all its soluble 
matter by the successive action of water and al- 
cohol. By long boiling in nitric acid, and then 
evaporating the fluid to one half, it yields crystals 
of suberic acid, which may be purified by re-sohi- 
tion and crystallization. Margaric acid treated in 
the same way also yields suberic acid. With the 
bases it forms salts culled suherates, many of 
which are soluble. 

SUCCINIC ACID. Sijn. Volatile Salt of 
AMBfia. AcH) OF no. Sal Succini. Acidum 
Succ/NUM, (P. D.) Prep. From the impure acid 
obtained during the distillation of oil of amber, by 
wrap))ing it in bibulous paper and submitting it to 
Btrong pressure, to remove the oil, and then resub- 



liming it. It may also be prepared from the mo- 
ther liquor of suberic acid, by evaporation and di- 
gesting the resulting crystals in ether, to remove 
suberic acid. Succinic acid forms salts with the 
bases termed succinates. — Succinate of ammonia 
is used as a test for iron. — Succinamide is formed 
by the action of ammonia water on succinic ether ; 
— bisuccinamide, by heating anhydrous succinic 
acid in dry gaseous ammonia. — Succinone is an 
oily liquid obtained by distilling succinic acid with 
lime. Dose. 5 to 20 grs. as an antispasmodic and 
diuretic. Seldom used. 

SUET. Syn. Sevum ; Sebum, (Lat.) This is 
prepared from the fat of the loins of the sheep or 
bullock, by melting it by a gentle heat. — Mutton 
suet (Sevum, P. L., Fat, P. E., Adeps ovillus, 
P. D., Sevum ovillum, Do. praeparatum) is used in 
medicine as the basis of several ointments, cerates, 
and plasters. 

SUET, MELILOT. Syn. Sevum Melilotl 
Prep. Suet 8 lbs. ; melilot leaves 2 lbs. ; boil till 
crisp and strain. Used by farriers, and to make 
melilot plaster. 

SUGAR. Syn. Sucre, (Fr.) Zucker, ((?er.) 
Saccharum, {Lat.) The properties and uses of 
sugar are too well known to require description. 
It constitutes the sweet portion of animal and 
vegetable substances. The sugar consumed ia 
England is prepared from the juice of the sugar 
cane. A similar species of sugar, but of inferior 
quality, is obtained from the juice of the beet-root 
and sugar maple. There are also other kinds of 
sugar procured from grapes and other ripe fruit, 
{grape sugar,) from milk, {sugar of milk,) from 
manna, {mannite,) from mushrooms, liquorice root, 
&c. ; and from glue, fecula, sawdust, &c., by the 
action of dilute sulphuric acid. Cane, beet, and 
maple sugars possess the greatest sweetening 
power, which is more than double that of the 
other varieties. 

Pur. Sugar is largely adulterated. Pure cane 
and beet sugars may be known by their solutions 
bending the luminous rays in circumpolarization 
to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars 
bend it to the left. Pure cane sugar boiled in a 
solution of caustic potassa remains colorless, but if 
starch sugar is present the liquid turns brown. 
(Chevallier.) — A filtered solution of 33 grs. of cane 
or beet sugar in 1 oz. of water, mixed with 3 grs. 
of pure caustic potassa, and then agitated with 1^ 
grs. of sulphate of copper in a close vessel, remains 
clear, even after the lapse of several days ; but if 
starch sugar is present, a red precipitate is formed 
after some time, and if present in considerable 
quantity, the copper will be wholly converted into 
oxide within 24 hours ; the solution first turns blue 
or green, and then entirely loses its color. (E. 
Krantz.) Of late years moist sugar has been 
largely adulterated with the sweet waste liquor 
(solution of glycyrrhine) of the stearine manufac- 
tories ; but this fraud may be detected by the in- 
ferior sweetness, and by the moist and dirty ap- 
pearance of such sugar. 

SUGAR, ALUM. Syn. Alumen Sacchari- 
NUM. Prep. Powdered alum made into small 
sugar-loaves, with white of egg and rose-water. 
Used to make an astringent wash. 

SUGAR, BARLEY. Prep.— I. Saff'rou 12 
grs. ; hot water q. s. ; infuse till colored, straiiu add 



SUG 



523 



SUL 



white sugar 1 lb. ; boil to a full candy height, or 
that state called " crack" or " crackled susar" 
when 2 or 3 drops of clear lemon juice or vinegar 
must be addt-d, the pan removed from the fire, and 
set for a minute in cold water to prevent its burn- 
ing ; after which the sugar must be poured out on 
an oiled marble slab, and cither cut into pieces, or 
rolled into cylinders and twisted as usual. 1 drop 
of oil of citron will flavor a considerable quantity. 
Essence of bergamotte or lemons may also be used. 
*jt* White barley sugar is made with a decoction 
of barley instead of water, or starch is added to 
whiten it. 

SUGAR, BOILING OR CANDYING. Proc. 
Take any quantity of well clarified and perfectly 
transparent sirup, and boil it until it has arrived at 
a weak candy height. This is known by dipping 
the skimmer into the sugar, and touching it be- 
tween the forefinger and thumb : and immediately 
on opening them a small thread will be observed 
drawn between, which will crystallize and break, 
and remain in a drop on the thumb, which will be 
a sign of its gaining some degree of smoothness. 
Boil it again, and it will draw into a larger string ; 
it is now called bloom sugar, and must be boiled 
longer than in the former process. To try- its for- 
wardness, dip again the skimmer, shaking oflT the 
sugar into the pan ; then blow with the mouth 
strongly through the holes, and if certain bladders 
go through, it has acquired the second degree : to 
prove if the liquid has arrived at the state called 
feathered sugar, redip the skimmer, and shake it 
over the pan, then give it a sudden flirt behind, 
and the sugar will fly off" like feathers. It now 
arrives at the state called crackled sugar; to 
obtain which the mass must be boiled longer than 
in the preceding degree. ; then dip a stick in it, 
and put it directly into a pan of cold water, draw 
off" the sugar which hangs to the stick in the wa- 
ter, and if it turns hard and snaps, it has acquired 
the proper degree of crystallization ; if otherwise, 
boil it again until it acquires that brittleness. The 
last stage of refining this article is. called carmel 
sugar ; to obtain which it must be boiled longer 
than in aiiy of the preceding methods ; prove it by 
dipping a stick first into the sugar, and then into 
cold water, and the moment it touches the latter, 
it will, if matured, snap like glass. It has now 
arrived at a full candy height. Be careful that 
the fire is not too fierce, as by flaming up against 
the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolor the 
sugar. The boiling is best conducted by steam 
heat. *^* Any flavor or color may be given to 
the candy by adding the essences or coloring mat- 
ter to the sirup before boiling. (See Cake Staixs, 
p. 153.) 

SUGAR CANDY. Syn. Saccharum Can- 
DUM- Prep. Sugar crystallized, by the saturated 
sirup being left in a very warm place, from 90 to 
100'' Fahr., and the shooting promoted by placing 
sticks, or a net of threads, at small distances from 
each other in the liquor ; it is also deposited from 
compound sirups, and does not seem to retain 
any of the foreign substances with which they 
were loaded ; it may, however, be colored red by 
means of cochineal. The differences of color and 
uality arise from the purity of the sugar employed 
to make the sirup. Chiefly used as a sweetmeat, 
and being longer in dissolving than sugar, in coughs 



to keep the throat moist ; it is also blown into the 
eye, as a very^ mild escharotic in films or dimnesa 
of that organ. 

SUGAR, GRAPE. Syn. Glucose. Diabetic 
Sugar. Starch Sugar. Sugar of Fruits. — 
Brep. 1. {From grape juice.) See page 345. — 2 
From dried raisins.) Pound them, wash with 
cold alcohol, press, dissolve the cake in water, and 
proceed as last. — 3. From diabetic urine, by evap- 
oration, washing the mass in cold alcohol, redissolv- 
ing in water, and crystallizing. — i. {From starch.) 
Starch 100 parts ; water 400 parts ; sulphuric acid 1 
to 10 parts ; boil for 35 or 40 hours, adding water to 
make up for evaporation ; then saturate the acid with 
lime or chalk, and evaporate. Under pressure, the 
conversion is produced much quicker. Prod. 105 
parts. (See Fermentation.) — 5. {From woody 
fibre.) Shreds of linen or paper 12 parts ; strong 
sulphuric acid 17 do., (Braconnot ; — 5 of acid and 
1 of water, Vogel ;) mix in the cold ; in 24 hours 
dilute vv'ith water, and boil for 10 hours ; then neu- 
tralize with chalk, filter, evaporate to a sirup, and 
set the vessel aside to crystallize. Prod. 114§ of 
the weight of the rags. Sawdust, glue. Sec, also 
yield grape sugar by like treatment. 

SUGAR, LEMON. Syn. Portable Lemon- 
ade. Saccharum Limonatum. Prep. Sugar 4 
lbs. ; tartaric acid 3 oz. ; essence of lemons ^ oz. 
Used to make lemonade, &c. 

SUGAR OF MILK. Syn. Saccharum Lac- 
Tis. Lactine. Prep. Evaporate clarified whey 
till it crj'stallizes, and purify the crystals by diges- 
tion with animal charcoal and repeated crystalliza- 
tion. 

SULPHATE. Syn. Sulphas, {Lai.) A saline 
compound of sulphuric acid, with a base. The 
soluble sulphates may all be recognised by yield- 
ing a heavy, white precipitate, with chloride of 
barium or nitrate of baryta, which is insoluble in 
acids and alkalis. They also give a similar pre- 
cipitate with the corresponding salts of lime. An 
insoluble sulphate may be tested by mixing it with 
3 times its weight of carbonate of potash or soda, 
(both in fine powder,) exposing the mixture in a 
platinum crucible to a red heat for half an hour, 
dissolving the mass in water, filtering, neutralizing 
the free alkali with acetic or muriatic acid, and 
then applying the reagents as before, when an in- 
soluble white precipitate will be formed. The 
sulphates of baryta, tin, antimony, bismuth, lead, 
and mercury, are insoluble; those of strontia, 
lime, zirconia, yttria, and silver, very sparingly 
soluble ; the other sulphates are soluble in water. 
Mixed with charcoal, and heated to redness, a 
metallic sulphuret remains. 

SULPHOCYANIC ACID. See Hydrosul- 
phocyanic Acid. 

SULPHOVINIC ACID. Syn. CEnothionio 
Acid. Ethereo-Sulphuric do. Bisulphate of 
Oxide of Ethule. Prep. Mix equal weights of 
sulphuric acid and alcohol, and, in half an hour, 
add as much carbonate of lead as acid employed ; 
filter, when a solution of sulphovinic acid will be 
obtained. This, combined with the bases, forms 
salts called sulphovinates, which may he purified 
bv re-solution and crvstallization. (See Ether.) 

" SULPHOCYANOGEN. Syn. Bisulphuret 
OF Cyanogen. A light, insoluble, deep yellow 
powder, discovered by Liebig, and obtained by sat- 



SUL 



524 



SUL 



urating a concentrated solution of a mf tallic sul- 
phocyauide with chlorine, or by heating it with 
nitric acid. (See Hydrosulphocyanic Acid.) 

SULPHUR Syn. Brimstone. Soufre, (Fr.) 
ScHWEFEL, (Ger.) Sulphur, (Lat.) This sub- 
stance is imported from Sicily and Italy, and is a 
volcanic production. Its general properties are 
well known. It is an undecompounded substance 
or chemical element. With oxygen it unites to 
form oil of vitriol and sulphurous acid, and with 
the metals to form sulphurets. — Sublimed Sul- 
phur, {Flowers of Sulphur, Flores Sulphuris, 
Sulphur sublimatum, P. L. and E.,) is prepared 
by subliming sulphur in iron vessels. It is ordered 
to be washed with water, and dried, (Sulphur lo- 
tum, P. D.) — Stick, Roll, or Cane Sulphur 
{Sulphur in bacculis. Do. in rotulis, Do. rotun- 
dum) is melted sulphur cast in moulds. — Sulphur 
VivuM is crude native sulphur. Dose. As an al- 
terative i dr. ; as a purgative 1 to 3 drs. 

Pur., Uses, ^c. " Pure sublimed sulphur totally 
evaporates at a heat of 600° F. When washed 
with water, it (the liquid) does not alter the color 
of litmus." (P. L.) Sulphur is taken in various 
chronic skin diseases, pulmonary, rheumatic, and 
gouty affections, and as a mild purgative in piles, 
prolapsus ani, &c. Externally, it is extensively 
used in skin diseases, especially the itch, for which 
it appears a specific. 

SULPHUR, PRECIPITATED. Syn. Milk 
OF Sulphur. Hydrate of do. Lac Sulphuris. 
Sulphur Precipitatum. Prep. Sublimed sulphur 
1 part; dry slaked lime 2 parts ; water 8 to ]2 
parts; boil, filter, precipitate by muriatic acid, and 
drain ; well wash, and dry the precipitate. Resem- 
bles sublimed sulphur in its general properties, but 
is much paler, and in a finer state of division. 

Remarks. The precipitated sulphur of the shops 
contains about two-thirds of its weight of sulphate 
of hme, (plaster of Paris,) owing to the substitution 
of sulphuric for muriatic acid in the above process. 
This fraud is detected by heating a little of the sus- 
pected sample in an iron spoon or shovel, when the 
sulphur is volatilized, and leaves behind the sul- 
phate of lime, which, when mixed with water, and 
gently dried, gives the amount of the adulteration. 
A still simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphur 
with a little hot oil of turpentine or li'quor of po- 



SULPHUR, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Hypo- 
chlorite OF Sllphur. Sulphuris Chloridum. 
Prep. Spread washed sulphur thinly on the bottom 
of a wooden box, or other chamber, and pass chlo- 
rine slowly over it till fully saturated. This com- 
nound has been recommended for internal use by 
Derksengi, especially in old gouty affections com- 
bined with j)ains in the stomach ; and also, with a 
salutary effect, in severe nervous fever, when it is 
taken dissolved in ether, in doses of 10 drops, with 
old Hungary wine. It is used externally in Pso- 
riasis inveterata. 

SULPHURET. Syn. Sulphuretum, {Lot.) 
Sulphurets are compounds of sulphur with the elec- 
tro-positive or inflammable bodies. They are either 
prepared by heating a mixture of the metal and 
sulphur, In equivalent proportions, in a covered 
crucible ; by igniting a mixture of the metallic ox- 
ide and sulphur ; by depriving a sulphate of the 
base of its oxygen, by igniting it in contact with 



charcoal ; or by precipitating a salt of the base by 
sulphureted hydrogen or a soluble metallic sui- 
phuret. The sulphurets are mostly opaque, brit- 
tle, fusible, semi-metallic bodies ; those of mercury 
and arsenic are volatile, and those of the alkalis 
and the earths soluble in water. The same prin- 
ciples of nomenclature are adopted in describing 
the sulphurets as are employed to designate the 
oxides and salts. 

SULPHURETS OF ANTIMONY.— 1. {Ses- 
quisulphuret. Sulphuret. Antimonii Sesqui- 
sulphuretum, P. L. Antimonii Sulphuretum, P. 
D.) This is the black antimony of commerce. — 
2. (Bisulphuret.) Formed by transmitting sul- 
phureted hydrogen through a solution of antimoni- 
ous acid, in muriatic acid. (Rose.) — 3. (Persulphu- 
ret.) As the last, but employing antimonic acid. 
(Rose.) The golden sulphuret, prepared by dissolv- 
ing sulphuret of antimony, and sulphur, in a solu- 
tion of potassa, and precipitating by an acid, is 
also a persulphuret. (Liebig.) — 4. (Oxysulphuret. 
Antimonii Oxysulphuretum, P. L. Ant. SulphU' 
return Aureum ? P. E. Sulphur Antimoniatum 
Fuscum, P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Sesquisulphuret 
of antimony §vij ; solution of potassa, 2 quarts ; 
water 2 gallons ; simmer for 2 hours, frequently 
stirring, and adding water to supply that lost by 
evaporation ; filter, precipitate with dilute sulphu- 
ric acid, wash, and dry. — 5. {Golden Sulphuret.) 
By allowing the solution to cool and deposite its 
kermes before adding the acid. This is the per- 
sulphuret. 

Remarks. The oxysulphuret of the pharmaco- 
poeia is a deep orange red powder, " totally soluble 
in nitrornuriatic acid, emitting sulphureted hydro- 
gen." (P. L.) It is " tasteless ; twelve times its 
weight of muriatic acid, aided by heat, dissolves 
most of it, forming a colorless solution, and leav- 
ing a little sulphur." (P. E.) The oxysulphuret 
of the shops has a brighter color than that of the 
pharmacopoeia, and is made by boiling sulphur 
along with the sesquisulphuret, at the same time 
using more alkali. It is, in fact, the persulphuret 
above noticed. (See 3 and 5.) The term Golden 
Sulphuret is wrongly applied by the Ed. College. 
The red antimony ore of mineralogists, liver, 
glass, and crocus of antimony, and Kermes min- 
eral, are also oxysulphurets of antimony, varying 
chiefly in color and state of aggregation. *^* Oxy- 
sulphuret of antimony P. L. is alterative in dooes 
of 1 to 4 grs. ; emetic in doses of 5 to 20 grs. ; it 
is given in skin and liver diseases, glandular en- 
largements, rheumatism, «fcc. 

SULPHURETED HYDROGEN. Syn. Hy- 

DROSULPHURIC AciD. SuLPHOIlYDRIC AcID. He- 

patic Gas. A gaseous compound of hydr^-gen and 
sulphur, first chemically examined by Scheele, in 
1777. Prep. — 1. Sesquisulphuret of antimony 1 
part ; strong muriatic acid, 4 or 5 parts ; mix in a 
glass retort, apply the heat of a spirit-lamp, and 
collect the evolved gas, either over mercury, or in 
bottles, like chlorine. — 2. From protosulphuret of 
iron and oil of vitriol, diluted with 4 or 5 parts of 
water. — 3. As the last, but substitute sulphuret of 
lime or potassium. 

Remarks. Sulphureted hydrogen is a colorless 
gas, possessing a powerful odor of rotten eggs ; sp. 
gr. 1-1912 ; under a pressure of 17 atmospliores, at 
50° it is liquid ; it is absorbed by water, forming 



SUL 



525 



SUL 



liquid sulphureted hydrogen, or hydrosulphuric 
acid. It is a powerful poison. An atmosphere 
containing l-15U0tli of tliis gas instantly killed a 
small bird ; 1-lOUOth killed a large dog, and 
1 -250th a horse. (Diipuytren and Thenard.) Be- 
ing considerably denser than air, it may be poured 
from its generating bottle into cavities, a scheme 
successfully employed by M. Thenard to destroy 
rats in their holes, a method equally applicable to 
other vermin. Sulphureted hydrogen may be re- 
cognised by the odor, and by its blackening moist 
carbonate of lead, and tarnishing silver, and also 
by its precipitating arsenious acid yellow, tartar 
emetic orange, and the salts of lead black. It 
forms saline compounds with the alkalis, and the 
earths termed Hydrosulphates or Hydrosulphu- 
rets, and it precipitates metallic sulphurets from 
solutions of most of the metals ; hence its value as 
a test. Air containing 1 -20,000th part of pure 
hydrogen will sensibly blacken a piece of white 
paper, moistened with a solution of acetate of lead. 
Sulphureted hydrogen is the active ingredient in 
the sulphureous mineral waters. 

SULPHURIC ACID. Syn. Oil of Vitriol. 
Vitriolic Acid. Acid Sulphurique, (Fr.) 

ScHWEFELSaURE, (Ger.) AciDUM SULPHURICUM ; 

A. ViTRioLicuM, (Lat.) This acid, which has been 
known ever since the 7th century, is made by 
bringing the fumes arising from the slow combus- 
tion of sulphur into contact with those evolved 
from a mixture of nitre and oil of vitriol, so that 
the former becomes oxidized at the expense of the 
latter. The process is conducted in a series of 
leaden chambers, having a little water on the floor, 
to absorb the acid, and so arranged as to prevent 
the loss of gas. Sulphuric acid is only made on 
the large scale. Fuming, or Nordhausen sulphu- 
ric acid is made by distilling calcined sulphate of 
iron in an earthen retort. By heating this acid in 
a glass retort, anhydrous sulphuric acid distils 
over. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid 
is a white crystalline solid, resembling asbestos ; 
deliquesces and fumes in the air ; melts at 66° ; 
boils at about 105° ; does not redden dry litmus 
paper; sp. gr. 1-97 at 78°. — Fuming Sulphuric 
Acid is an oily? dark brown, fuming liquid ; sp. gr. 
1'9. — Oil of Vitriol {Acidum Sulphuricum, P. 
L. &. E., A. Sulph. Venale, P. D.) is a colorless, 
odorless, acrid, and corrosive liquid, the general 
properties of which are well known. Its sp. gr. at 
60° should never be greater than 1-8455, or less 
than 1-840. It is immediately colored by contact 
with organic matter. "It is free from color ; sp. 
gr. 1-845 ; what remains after the acid is distilled 
to dryness, does not exceed j^ part of its weight. 
Diluted sulphuric acid is scarcely colored by sul- 
phureted hydrogen." (P. L.) " Diluted with its 
own volume of water, only a scanty muddiness 
arises, and no orange fumes escape." (P. E.) The 
commercial acid frequently contains nitrous acid, 
arsenic, and saline matter. The first may be re- 
moved by adding about 1^ grs. of sugar to each fluid 
ounce of the acid, heated to nearly its boiling 
point, and continuing the heat till the dark color 
at first produced shall have disappeared, when it 
should be distilled ; the second, by adding a little 
Bulphuret of bari'um, or copper-foil, to the acid, 
agitating the mixture well, and after repose de- 



canting and distilling ; the last is removed by sim* 
pie rectification. The distillation is most conve- 
niently conducted, on the small scale, in a glass 
retort, containing a few platinum chips, and heat- 
ed by a sand-bath or gas flame, rejecting the first 
f§ss that comes over. (P. E.) The capacity of 
the retort should be 4 to 8 times as great as the 
volume of the acid, and connected with a large 
tubular receiver, by a loosely-fitting glass tube, 4 
feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. The re- 
ceiver should not be surrounded with cold water. 
(Ure.) Fragments of glass may be substituted for 
platina. The redistilled acid is colorless ; density 
1-845, (1-842, Ure ;) " dilution causes no muddi- 
ness ; solution of sulphate of iron shows no redden- 
ing at the line of contact when poured over it." 
(P. E.) Sulphuric acid is largely employed in the 
arts, and from its superior affinity to disengage 
most of the other acids from their saline combina- 
tions. In the diluted state it is used in medicine. 
When swallowed, it acts as a corrosive poison. 
The antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia, car- 
bonate of soda or potash, mixed with water, or any- 
bland diluent. The tests ioT sulpiuric acid have 
been already noticed. (See Sulphate.) 

Estim. The strength of sulphuric acid is most 
correctly ascertained by its power of saturating 
bases ; but in commerce it is usually determined 
from its sp. gr. See Acidimetry. 

Table of the Quantity of Oil of Vitriol and Dry 
Sulphuric Acid in 100 parts of the Dilute Acid 
at different Densities, by Dr. Ure. 



Liquid.! Sp. Gr. 


Dry. 


100 


1-8485 


81-54 


99 


1-8475 


80-72 


98 


1-8460 


79-90 


97 


1-8439 


79-09 


96 


1-8410 


78-28 


95 


1-8376 


77-46 


94 


1-8336 


76-65 


93 


1-8290 


75-83 


92 


1-8233 


75-02 


91 


1-8179 


74-20 


90 


1-8115 


73-39 


89 


1-8043 


72-57 


88 


1-7962 


71-75 


87 


1-7870 


70-94 


86 


1-7774 


70-12 


85 


1-7673 


69-31 


84 


1-7570 


68-49 


83 


1-7465 


67-68 


82 


1-7360 


66-86 


81 


1-7245 


66-05 


80 


1-7120 


65-23 


79 


1-6993 


64-42 


78 


1-6870 


63-60 


77 


1-6750 


62-78 


76 


1-6630 


61-97 


75 


1-6520 


61-15 


74 


1-6415 


60-34 


73 


1-6.321 


59-52 


72 


1-6204 


58-71 


71 


1-6090 


57-89 


70 


1-5975 


57-08 


69 


1-5868 


56-26 


68 


1-5760 


55-45 



Liq. Sp. Gr. Dry, 



67 
66 
65 

64 
63 
62 
61 
60 
59 
58 
57 
56 
55 
54 
53 
52 
51 
50 
49 
48 
47 
46 
45 
44 
43 
42 
41 
40 
39 
38 
37 
36 
35 



1-5648 
1-5503 
1-5390 
1-5280 
1-5170 
1-5066 
1-4960 
1-4860 
1-4760 
1-4660 
1-4560 
1-4460 
1-4360 
1-4265 
1-4170 
1-4073 
1-3977 
1-3884 
1-3788 
1-3697 
1-3612 
1-3530 
1-3440 
1-3345 
1-3255 
1-3165 
1-3080 
1-2999 
1-2913 
1-2826 
1-2740 
1-2654 
1-2572 



54-63 
53-82 
53-00 
52-18 
51-37 
50-55 
49-74 
48-92 
48-11 
47-29 
46-48 
45-66 
44-85 
44-03 
43-22 
42-40 
41-58 
40-77 
39-95 
39-14 
38-32 
37-51 
36-69 
35-88 
35-06 
34-25 
33-43 
32-61 
31-80 
30-98 
30-17 
29-35 
28-54 



SUL 



526 



SWE 







[Table continued.] 




Liq. 


Sp. Gr. 


Dry. 


Liq. 


Sp. Gr. 


Dry. 


34 


1-2490 


27-72 


17 


1-1165 


13-86 


33 


1-2409 


26-91 


16 


M090 


13-05 


32 


1-2334 


26-09 


15 


1-1019 


12-23 


31 


1-2260 


25-28 


14 


1-0953 


11-60 


30 


1-2184 


24-46 


13 


1-0887 


10-41 


29 


1-2108 


23-65 


12 


1-0809 


9-78 


28 


1-2032 


22-83 


11 


1-0743 


8-97 


27 


1-1956 


22-01 


10 


1-0682 


8-15 


26 


1-1876 


21-20 


9 


1-0614 


7-34 


25 


1-1792 


20-38 


8 


1-0544 


6-52 


24 


1-1706 


19-57 


7 


1-0477 


5-71 


23 


1-1626 


18-75 


6 


1-0405 


4-89 


22 


1-1549 


17-94 


5 


1-0336 


4-08 


21 


1-1480 


17-12 


4 


1-0268 


3-26 


20 


M410 


16-31 


3 


1-0206 


2-446 


19 


1-1330 


15-49 


2 


1-0140 


1-63 


18 


1-1246 


14-68 


1 


1-0074 


0-8154 



SULPHURIC ACID, (DILUTE.) Syn. 
Spirit of Vitriol. Vitriol to clean Copper. 
Spiritus Vitrioll Do. do. tenuis. Acidum Sul- 
PHURiGUM Dilutum. (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. — 1. 
(P. L.) Sulphuric acid f fiss ; distilled water 
fgxivss; mix. Sp. gr. 1-11.— 2. (P. E.) Sul- 
phuric acid f fj ; water f §xiij ; mix. Sp. gr. 1-090. 
—3. (P. D.) Acid 1 part ; water 7 do. Sp. gr. 
1-084. — 4. (Henry's.) Strong acid diluted to the 
sp. gr. 1-135. Has the same saturating power as 
his muriatic and nitric acid. Used for assays. — 5. 
{Common Elixir of Vitriol.) Water acidulated 
with oil of vitriol q. s. to render it grateful. 

Remarks, f 3j of the dilute acid, P. L., weighs 
60-7 grs., saturates 28 grs. of crystallized carbonate 
of soda, and contains 9^ grs. of oil of vitriol, or 7-7 
grs. of dry sulphuric acid. Dose. 10 to 30 drops 
diluted with water, as a refrigerant, to check pro- 
fuse perspiration, in skin diseases to relieve the 
itching, in dyspepsia, &c. ; it is also used exter- 
nally. 

SULPHURIC ACID, (AROMATIC.) Syn. 
Elixir of Vitriol. Acid do. do. Acidum sul- 
PHURicuM AROMATicuM, (P. E. &0 D.) Prep. — 1. 
(P. E.) Oil of vitriol f §iiiss ; rectified spirit 1^ 
pints ; mix, add powdered cinnamon ^iss ; pow- 
dered ginger §j ; digest for 6 days, and filter. — 2. 
(P. L. 1746.) Compound tincture of cinnamon 
f ?xvj ; sulphuric acid §iv; mix, and filter. — 3. 
(Wholesale.) Compound tincture of cinnamon 1 
gallon ; oil of vitriol 1 lb. ; mix, and in a week fil- 
ter. Dose. 10 to 30 drops, in trie same cases as 
the last preparation. 

SULPHURIC ACID, (ALCOHOLIZED.) 
Syn. Acidum sulphuricum alcoholizatum. (P. 
Cod.) See Eau de Rabel. 

SULPHUROUS ACID. Syn. Acidum sul- 
piiUROsuM. This acid is freely evolved in the gase- 
ous form when sulphur is burnt in air or dry oxy- 
gen, and when the metals are digested in hot sul- 
phuric acid ; and, mixed with carbonic acid, when 
chips of wood, cork, and sawdust, are treated in 
the same way. The pure acid is best obtained by 
the action of sulphuric acid on copper or mercury ; 
but for the purposes of the arts, the cheaper meth- 
ods may be employed. According to Berthier, 
very pure sulphurous acid may bo freely obiained 



by heating a mixture of 100 parts of black oxide 
of manganese and 12 or 14 parts of sulphur in a 
glass retort. The gas should be collected over 
mercury, or received into water when it forms 
liquid sulphurous acid. Water absorbs 30 times 
its volume of this gas. Pure liquid sulphurous 
acid can only be obtained by passing the pure dry 
gas through a glass tube surrounded by a freezing 
mixture. Its sp. gr. is 1-45 ; boiling point 14° F. ; 
it causes intense cold by its evaporation. With 
the bases sulphurous acid forms salts called Sul- 
phites, {sulphis, Lat.) Use. To bleach silks, 
woollens, straw, &c., and to remove vegetable 
stains and iron-moulds from linen. 

SUMACH. This dye-stuflf is chiefly used as a 
substitute for galls. With a mordant of acetate 
of iron, it gives, gray or black ; with tin or acetate 
of alumina, yellow \\\A with sulphate of zinc a 
yellowish brown ; alone .it gives a greenish fawn- 
color. 

SUPPOSITORY. Syn. Suppositorium, {Lat., 
from suh, under, and pono, to place.) A medicine 
placed in the rectum for the purpose of remaining 
there, and dissolving gradually. The mode of pro- 
portioning the doses has been noticed in the article 
Enema. 

SUPPOSITORY FOR WORMS. Syn. Sup. 
anthelminticum. Prep. (Swediaar.) Aloes 3iv ; 
common salt 3iij ; flour 3ij ; honey q. s. to make a 
stiff" mass ; divide into proper-shaped pieces weigh- 
ing 15 grs. each. One to be used after a stool. 

SUPPOSITORY FOR PILES. Syn. Sup. 
h^morrhoidale. S. sedativum. Prep. — 1. (El- 
lis.) Powdered opium 2 grs. ; soap 10 grs. : mix. 
— 2. Powdered opium 2 grs. ; finely-powdered galls 
10 grs. ; spermaceti cerate 3j ; mix. — 3. Extracts 
of opium and stramonium, of each 1 gr. ; cocoa 
nut butter 3ij ; mix. Used when the piles are 
very painful. 

SUPPOSITORY, PURGATIVE. Syn. Sup. 
catharticum. — 1. Soap 3j ; elaterium 2 grs. ; mix. 
As a strong purge. — 2. (Nieman.) Soap 3ij ; com- 
mon salt 3j ; honey q. s. ; mix. As a mild cathartic. 

SUSPENDED ANIMATION, {frora hang- 
ing.) In cases where a body is found in a sus- 
pended state, and life is seemingly extinct, the 
chief remedy consists in cupping the temples or 
opening the jugular vein, and so relieving the head 
of the blood which accumulates in its superficial 
veins in consequence of the ligature. Where the 
body is cold, from having been long suspended, 
friction, and the other means used for restoring the 
animal heat in drowned persons, should be likewise 
resorted to. Electricity or galvanism may also 
be of service. See Animation, suspended, and 
Drowning. 

SWEINFURTH GREEN. Syn. Vert de 
MiTis. Vienna Green. Prep. — 1. Acetate of 
copper and arsenious acid, equal parts ; dissolve 
each separately in the least possible quantity of 
boiling water, mix ; an olive green precipitate falls, 
which is a good permanent color ; but which, by 
boiling the liquor from 5 to 8 minutes, changes to a 
dense granular superb green powder. — 2. Instead 
of boiling the solution containing the precipnate, 
let it cool and stand for several hours, till the pow- 
der assumes a granular and beautiful tint. — 3. 
(Kastner.) Arsenious acid 8 lbs., dissolved in water 
as before ; verdigris 9 or 10 lbs., difl'used through 



TAN 



527 



TAN 



water at 120° and the pap passed through a sieve ; 
mix the latter with the former solution, and set 
eiside till the reaction of the ingredients produces 
the proper shade. — 4. Digest Scheele's green in 
acetic acid. *^* A very fine green pigment. The 
use of more arsenic turns it on the yellowish green, 
and boiling it with a small quantity of potasli takes 
off the blue color. The vessel in which the mixed 
liquids are set aside should be covered to prevent a 
premature crystallization on the surface. Scheele's 
green is also commonly sold under the name of 
Mitis green. 

SYDENHAM'S LENITIVE. Prep. Coarse- 
ly-powdered rhubarb 3iij ; tamarinds §ij ; senna 
fss ; coriander seeds 3ij ; boiling water 1 pint ; 
macerate for 3 hours, and strain. An excellent 
stomachic and laxative. Dose. 1 to 4 tablespoon- 
fuls or more. 

SYNAPTASE. Syn. Emulsine. The white 
part of sweet and bitter almonds, which is soluble 
in water. Amygdaline converts it into oil of bitter 
almonds, and prussic acid. 17 grs. of amygdaline 
dissolved in f §j of an emulsion of sweet almonds, 
yield a liquid containing 1 gr. of anhydrous hydro- 
cyanic acid, which does not require to be distilled. 
This solution has been proposed as a substitute for 
dilute prussic acid and bitter almond water. 100 
grs. of amygdaline yield 47 grs. of raw oil, and 5-9 
grs. of annydrous hydrocyanic acid. (Liebig.) 

SYLVIC ACID. Sijn. Silvic Acid. A crys- 
talline substance extracted from rosin by weak al- 
cohol, and purified by stronger alcohol. It is dis- 
tinguished from pinic acid by its insolubility in cold 
alcohol sp. gr. 0-883. With alkalis it forms salts 
called sylvates, which are soluble in alcohol and 
ether. 



TALLOW AND OTHER FATS are com- 
monly purified by melting them along with water, 
passing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and let- 
ting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of cleansed 
fat is obtained. — Another plan is to keep the tal- 
low melted for some time, along with about 2g of 
oil of vitriol largely diluted with water, employing 
constant agitation, and allowing the whole to cool 
slowly ; then to remelt the cake with a large quan- 
tity of hot water, and to wash it well. — Another 
method is to blow steam for some time through the 
melted fat. By either this or the preceding pro- 
cess a white hard tallow may be obtained. Some 
persons add a little nitre to the melted fat, and 
afterwards a little dilute nitric or sulphuric acid, or 
a solution of bisulphate of potash. Others boil the 
fat along with water and a little dilute nitric or 
chromic acid, and afterwards wash it well with 
water. (See Ojls, Fixed.) 

TANGHININE. A crystallizable substance 
extracted by ether from the seeds of Tanghinia 
Madagascariensis after the fixed oil has been re- 
moved by pressure. It is soluble in water, alco- 
hol, and ether ; bitter, acrid, and poisonous. 

TANNIN. Syn. Tan. Tannic Acid. Quer- 
ciTANxXic Acid. Tannin, (Fr.) Gerbstoff, (Ger.) 
AciDUM Tannicum, (Lat.) A peculiar vegetable 
principle, named from its power of converting the 
skins of animals into leather. 

Prep. I. By percolation, in a close vessel, from 
coarsely powdered galls and sulphuric ether, that 
had been previously agitated with water. In 24 



hours the percolated liquid will be found divided 
into two portions ; the lower and heavier being a 
watery solution of tannic acid, and the upper an 
ethereal solution of gallic acid and coloring mat- 
ter. Fresh ether must be passed through the pow- 
der as long as the lower stratum of liquid con- 
tinues to augment. The two fluids are now sep- 
arated, and after the heavier one has been well 
washed with ether, it is gently evaporated to drj'- 
ness ; preferably under the receiver of an air- 
pump, or over sulphuric acid. Prod. About 40§. 

II. To a hot infusion of galls add a few drops 
of sulphuric acid, agitate, filter, and precipitate 
the filtered liquor by sulphuric acid, diluted with 
half its weight of water ; in one hour decant the 
clear, precipitate with strong sulphuric acid, wash 
with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, press 
between the folds of bibulous paper, and dissolve 
in pure w^ater ; gradually add carbonate of lead, 
and digest till the sulpho-tannate is all decom- 
posed, filter, and evaporate ; powder the dry mass, 
digest in ether, and evaporate the ethereal solu- 
tion, as before. 

III. Precipitate an infusion of galls with a con- 
centrated solution of carbonate of potash, avoiding 
excess ; wash with ice-cold water, dissolve in di- 
lute acetic acid, filter, precipitate by acetate of 
lead, wash the precipitate with water, suspend it 
in water, decompose it by sulphureted hydrogen, 
and evaporate the filtered liquid in vacuo or over 
sulphuric acid. 

Props., Uses, ^-c. The uses of tannin in the 
preparation of leather are well known. In the 
pure state it is perfectly white, but acquires a yel- 
low color from the action of the air. It is power- 
fally astringent, reddens vegetable blues, and By 
the action of heat on its solution, is converted into 
ellagic, gallic, and carbonic acids. When heated 
in the dry state, metagallic and pyrogallic acids 
are formed. It unites with the bases forming salts 
called tannates, which are characterized by stri- 
king a deep black with the persalts of iron, (ink.) 
Tannic acid and gelatin are mutually used as 
tests of each other ; a thick flocculent precipitate 
is formed whenever these substances meet in so- 
lution. When a solution of tannin is dropped into 
another of gelatin, thick flocks are precipitated, 
but redissolve when heated with the supernatant 
fluid. The following is a useful and simple form 
for preparing this test : — Infuse 1 oz. of pounded 
galls in 4 oz. of w^ater for several hours ; strain 
with pressure. Add to the turbid fluid 2 oz. of 
common salt, and filter. The filtrate retains its 
transparency and power of precipitating gelatin 
for years. (Chem. Gaz.) Tannic acid is occa- 
sionally employed as an astringent in medicine. 

TANTALUiM. Syn. Columbium. A rare 
metal discovered by Mr. Hatchet in 1801 in a 
mineral from Massachusetts, and by M. Ekeberg 
in 1803 in tantalite. It exists in most of its ores 
in combination with oxygen, from which it is sep- 
arated by fusing the ore with 3 or 4 times its 
weight of carbonate of potassa, dissolving out the 
resulting columbate or tantalate of potassa with 
water, and precipitating by a mineral acid. The 
precipitate is hydrated Columbia or tantalic acid. 
It is insoluble in water, but readily unites with the 
alkalis forming salts termed columhates or tanta- 
laies, which are crystallizable. It is soluble in 



TAR 



528 



TAR 



hydrofluoric acid, and the solution, by evaporation 
at 76°, deposites crystals of terfluoride of Colum- 
hium. — Metallic Columbium is best obtained by 
h<eating potassium with the double fluoride of po- 
tussium and columbium in the way described for 
silicon. "(S^^zelius.) — Oxide of Columbium is 
formed by exposing columbic acid, in a crucible, 
lined with charcoal and luted, for 4^ hours to an 
intense heat. This oxide is insoluble in acids, and 
by fusion with potash or nitre is converted into 
columbic acid. 

TARRAS. Syn. Terras. A volcanic pro- 
duct resembling puzzolene that imparts to mortar 
the property of hardening under water. Several 
other argiilo-ferruginous minerals possess the same 
power, and are used under this term. 

TARTAR, AMMONIATED. Syn. Tar- 
trate OF Potash and Ammonia. Ammonio-tar- 
TRATE OF PoTAssA. Prep. Neutralize a solution 
of cream of tartar with ammonia, evaporate, and 
crystallize. Very soluble in water. A favorite 
laxative on the Continent. This is frequently 
called soluble cream of tartar. 

TARTAR, BORAXATED. Syn. Soluble 
Cream of Tartar. Borotartrate of Potassa. 
Tartarus boraxatus. Cremor Tartari solubi- 
Lis. Tartris boraxata Potass^ et Sod.«. Po- 
tass^ BOROTARTRAs. Prep. — 1. Borax 2 lbs. ; 
cream of tartar 5 lbs. ; both in powder ; dissolve 
in water, and evaporate. — 2. (P. Cod.) Cream of 
tartar f iv ; boracic acid §j ; boiling water lb. ij ; 
dissolve, evaporate without boiling, dry in a stove, 
and powder. A popular laxative on the Conti- 
nent. 

TARTAR EMETIC. Syn. Tartarized An- 
tmmony. Stibiated Tartar. Antimonio-tar- 
trate of Potash. Potassio-tartrate of Anti- 
mony. Potass^ Antimonio-tartras. Tartarus 
emeticus, (P. L. 1720.) Antimonium tartariza- 
TUM, (P. L. 1788, 1824, and P. E.) Antimonii 
potassio-tartras, (P. L. 1836.) Antimonii et 
Potass^ tartras sive Tartarum emeticum, (P. 
D.) Prep. I. (-p. L.) Sesquisulphuret of antimo- 
ny and nitre, powdered, of each, lb. ij ; add grad- 
ually muriatic acid f^iv, and ignite the powder 
spread on an iron plate ; powder the residue when 
cold, and wash it with boiling water till the latter 
passes off tasteless, then mix the powder with bi- 
tartrate of potash §xiv, and boil for 1 hour in a 
gallon of water, strain while hot, and set the li- 
quid aside to crystallize, dry the crystals, and 
again evaporate the liquor and crystallize. 

II. (P. E.) Powdered sulphuret of antimony 
^iv ; muriatic acid (commercial) 1 pint ; dissolve, 
boil for i an hour, filter, and pour the liquid into 
water 5 pints ; collect the precipitate, well wash 
it with cold water on a filter, and dry it by the 
heat of a vapor bath ; then take of this precipitate 
{oxychloride of antimony) §iij ; bitartrate of pot- 
ash ^iv 3ij ; water f ^xxvij ; mix, boil for an hour, 
and set it aside to crystallize as before. 

III. (P. D.) Nitromuriatic oxide of antimony 
{oxychloride') 4 parts ; powdered bitartrate of pot- 
ash 5 parts ; distilled water 34 parts. As last. 

*<e* Finely-divided tartar emetic may be pre- 
pared, according to M.Hoffmann, in tlie following 
manner: — G oz. of tartar emetic are dissolved in 
32 oz. of boiling water, and the solution precipi- 
tated wiih G4 oz. of alcohol. The loss in tartar 



emetic does not amount to more than half a 
drachm, and the alcohol is reobtained by distilla- 
tion. (Jahr. fiir Prakt. Pharm.) 

Remarks. Tartar emetic forms white, transpa- 
rent crystals, which become opaque by exposure 
to the air. Its taste is at first sweetish, then as- 
tringent, and metallic. It dissolves in 14^ parts 
of water at 60°, and in 2^ parts at 212° ; is insol 
uble in alcohol, and decomposed by heat. When 
pure, the crystals and their powder should be per- 
fectly white, and the precipitate, formed by add- 
ing to its boiling solution a few drops of solution 
of carbonate of soda, should not be redissolved. 
If it is, the salt is adulterated with cream of tar- 
tar. (Hennel.) Pure tartar emetic is " totally sol- 
uble in water, no undissolved bitartrate of potash 
remaining in the vessel, and sulphureted hydrogen 
being added, a reddish-colored precipitate is ob- 
tained. Neither chloride of barium nor nitrate of 
silver precipitates its (dilute) solution. Nitric acid 
throws down a precipitate, which is redissolved by 
excess of the precipitant." (P. L.) " Its solution 
is not affected by ferrocyanide of potassium. Dis- 
solved in 40 parts of water, the solution is not af- 
fected by its. own volume of a solution of 8 parts 
of acetate of lead in 32 parts of water, and 15 
parts of acetic acid." (P. E.) For other tests, see 
Antimony. 

Dose. As an expectorant and diaphoretic, one- 
twelfth to one-sixth of a gr. ; as a nauseant, \ to 
^ gr. ; as an emetic, 1 to 3 grs. ; as antiphlogistic, 
i to 4 grs. In large doses it is poisonous. Ant. 
Tannin, infusion of gall, bark, tea, &c., vomiting 
being promoted at the same time by drinking co- 
piously of tepid water. 

TARTAR, REDUCED. Syji. Cremor Tar- 
tari REDUCTUS. An article is sold under the name 
of British cream of tartar, which contains :^th its 
weight or more of bisulphate of potash. 

TARTAR, SOLUBLE. Syn. Tartarum so- 
LUBiLE. Tartrate op Potash. Potass^ Tar- 
tras. Prep. Water 1 gallon ; carbonate of pot- 
ash 1 lb. ; dissolve, add cream of tartar as long as 
effervescence arises, filter, evaporate, and crystal- 
lize. Purgative. Dose. 1 dr. to 1 oz. 

TARTARIC ACID. Syn. Crystallized 
Acid of Tartar. Acidum Tartaricum, (P. L 
E. «Sl D.) Acide tartarique, (Fr.) Weinstein- 
sauRE, {Gert) Prep. (P. L.) Creanj of tartar lb. 
iv ; boiling water 2 gallons ; dissolve by boiling, 
add gradually chalk §xij 3vij ; and when the effer- 
vescence ceases, add another like portion of chalk, 
dissolved in muriatic acid f ^xxviss, or q. s., diluted 
with water 4 pints ; collect the precipitated tar- 
trate of lime, and well wash it with water, then 
boil it for 15 minutes in dilute sulphuric acid 7 
pints and ffxvij, next filter, evaporate, (to the 
density 1-38,) and set- it aside to crystallize. The 
crystals must be dissolved and crystallized a second 
and a third time. 

Remarks. On the large scale, the decomposi- 
tion of the tartar is usually effected in a copper 
boiler, and that of the tartrate of lime in a leaden 
cistern. This part of the process is often perform- 
ed by mere digestion for a few days, without the 
application of heat, as ordered by the College. 
Leaden or stoneware vessels are used as crystal- 
lizors. Good cream of tartar requires 2()§ of chalk, 
and 28-5-3 ^^ ^U chloride of calcium for its perfect 



TAR 



529 



TEA 



decomposition. Dry tartrate of lime requires 75§ 
of oil of vitriol to liberate the whole of the tartaric 
acid. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid may be 
advautageously employed. vSome manufacturers 
bleacii the colored solution of the first crystals by 
treating it with animal charcoal ; but for this pur- 
pose the latter substance should be first purified 
by digesting it in muriatic acid, and afterwards by 
edulcorating it with water, and exposing it to a 
dull red heat in a covered vessel. The general 
management of this manufacture resembles that 
of citric acid. 

Props., Uses, ^'C. Tartaric acid forms inodor- 
ous, sour, sjcarcely transparent prisms, soluble in 
2 parts of water at 60°, and its own weight of 
boiling water. It contains about 9§ of combi- 
ned water. It fuses when heated, and after los- 
ing ^th of its water, is converted into tartralic 
acid, and by continuing the heat until another :|th 
of its water is driven olF, it is converted into tar- 
trelic acid ; by a higher heat it gives off all its 
water, and becomes anhydrous and insoluble. By 
distillation it yields pyrotartaric and pyruvic acids 
with other products ; \vhen strongly heated, it is 
wholly dissipated. With the bases it forms salts 
called tartrates. Tartaric acid is chiefly employed 
in calico printing, and in medicine, as a substitute 
for citric acid and lemon juice, for the preparation 
of cooling drinks and saline draughts. For the 
latter purpose, sesquicarbonate of soda fs the alka- 
line salt commonly employed. 

20 grs. of crystallized tartaric acid 



are saturated by 



27 grs. of crj'stallized bicarbonate of potash. 

22 grs. of commercial carbonate of do. 

22 grs. of crystallized sesquicarbonate of soda. 

38 grs. of do. carbonate of soda. 

15^ grs. of do. sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 

Pur. and Tests. " Tartaric acid is entirely sol- 
uble in water, and the solution throws down bi- 
tartrate of potassa from any neutral salt of potassa. 
The precipitate thrown down by acetate of lead is 
soluble in nitric acid." (F. L.) By heat it is totally 
dissipated. Tartaric acid is known to be such by 
giving white precipitates with solutions of caustic 
lime, baryta, and strontia, and acetate of lead, 
which dissolves in excess of the acid. A solution 
of potash causes a white granular precipitate of 
cream of tartar, soluble by agitation in excess of 
the precipitant. Nitrate of silver gives a white 
precipitate, which, when heated, fumes, and leaves 
pure metallic silyer. At about 570°, all the tar- 
trates are blackened, and yield a peculiar and char- 
acteristic odor. 

TARTRATE OF IRON. Prep. By dissolv- 
ing the hydrated oxides in a solution of the acid, 
and evaporating to dryness. The addition of a lit- 
tle ammonia converts either of these salts into the 
ammo nio -tartrate of the peroxide or protoxide of 
iron, as the case may be. (Stee Iron.) 

TARTRALIC ACID. This acid is distinguished 
from tartaric acid by saturating ^th less base, and 
by forming soluble salts with lime and barj'ta. 
By heat it is converted into tartrelic acid. This 
new acid possesses only half the neutralizing power 
of tartaric acid. In contact with water the tar- 
tralic and tartrelic acids and their salts are recon- 
67 - 



verted into tartaric acid and tartrates. Dry tar- 
tralic, tartrelic, and tartaric acids are isomeric 
compound.s. 

TAURINE. Obtained along with choloidic 
acid and ammonia when bile is boiled with an ex- 
cess of muriatic acid. It forms white crystalline 
needles, soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in 
alcohol. 

TEA. This useful article is said to be frequent- 
ly adulterated, after its arrival in England, with 
the leaves of other plants ; but the only adultera- 
tion which is extensively employed at the present 
day, is mixing it with a certain portion of exhaust- 
ed tea-leaves, which have been redried and curled. 
The leaves which have been found in the posses- 
sion of th^manufacturers of imitation tea, are those 
of the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white 
thorn. They are described as having been boiled, 
in some cases, with logwood, or scalded, then roll- 
ed up and dried, the green bloom being given to 
them by Dutch pink or verditer. The use of 
sheep's dung, verdigris, or copperas, seems a mere 
slander. According to Mr. Warrington, a most 
extensive system of adulteration is practised in 
China, since the very numerous specimens he has 
examined have been obtained from sources which 
renders the fact of their having actually been 
brought from China indisputable. Many samples 
are found not to contain a single grain of tea, be- 
ing made up entirely of other leaves. Green teas 
are for the most part spurious, being manufactured 
out of cheap black teas. This fraud seems to be 
accomplished with great dexterity, and, with the 
greater care, the higher the price of the green tea 
it is intended to imitate. From the common green 
teas the coloring matter may be washed off by agi- 
tating the tea with cold w^ater and drjing it, when 
it is at once converted into black tea without the 
leaf uncurling. On examining it with the micro- 
scope, it is seen that a uniform whitish surface is 
given to it, by means of what appears to be Koalin 
or porcelain clay, which also very conveniently 
adds to the w^eight ; upon this a yellow substance, 
mixed with Prussian blue, is dusted ; hence the 
green color, which may thus be rendered of any 
tint. Chemical examination detected the presence 
of sulphate of lime, Prussian blue, and a vege- 
table yellow-coloring matter, probably turmeric. 
(Chem. Gaz.) It is a common practice among the 
grocers in England to impart what they call a 
" bloom^' to their green teas by " rouncing'' them 
up with a little calcined magnesia, or finely-pow- 
dered aluminous earth. The quantity that ad- 
heres to the tea is very trifling, but it greatly im- 
proves their appearance. This plan is not advisa- 
ble, as I find the presence of even a very small 
quantity of magnesia in water lesse'ns its solvent 
power considerably, and consequently tends to 
make the leaves produce a weaker infusion. It is 
a practice of this kind, but carried on for a more 
dishonest purpose, that is alluded to above by Mr. 
Warrington. Pure China tea is not turned black 
by being put into water impregnated with sulphu- 
reted hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge spirit of harts- 
horn blue. The infusion is amber-colored, and is 
not reddened by adding a few drops of oil or spirit 
of vitriol to it. *^* Among domestic substitutes 
for tea are — the leaves of speedwell, wild german- 
der, black currants, syringa or mock orange, pur- 



THE 



530 



THO 



pie-spiked willow herb, sweetbrier, cherry tree, 
sloe, all of which are used for tea, either singly 
or mixed. In foreign countries a variety of plants 
are used instead of Chinese tea. 

TEARS OF THE WIDOW OF MALA- 
BAR. Prep. Plain spirit at 18° B. 5 quarts; 
cruised cloves ^ oz. ; bruised mace 48 grs. ; digest 
in a corked carboy for a week, add burnt sugar to 
impart a slight color, filter, and add white sugar 4^ 
lbs. ; dissolved in distilled or filtered rain water ^ 
gallon ; some add 2 or 3 oz. of orange-flower wa- 
ter. A pleasant liquor. 

TEETH, (THE.) An object very subservient 
to health, and which merits due attention, is the pre- 
servation of the teeth ; the care of which, consider- 
ing their importance in preparing the food for di- 
gestion, is, in general, far from being sufficiently 
cultivated. Very few persons, comparatively, wash 
their mouths in the morning, which ought always 
to be done. Indeed, this ought to be practised at 
the conclusion of every meal, where either animal 
food or vegetables are eaten ; for the former is apt 
to leave behind it a rancid acrimony, and the lat- 
ter an acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. 
Washing the mouth frequently with cold water is 
not only sei-viceable in keeping the teeth clean, 
but in strengthening the gums, the firm adhesion 
of which to the teeth, is of the greatest inportance 
in preserving them sound and secure. (See Cos- 
metics, Dentifrices.) 

TELESCOPE. Some remarks connected 
with this subject will be found under the heads — 
Achromatism, Glass, Speculum, Metal, &c. 

TELLURIUM, (From tellus, the earth.) A 
rare grayish-white metal, found only in small quan- 
tities in the metallic state, in the gold mines of 
Transylvania. It fuses below redness, and volatil- 
izes at a red heat ; sp. gr. 6-2578 ; with oxygen 
it forms 2 compounds. — Oxide of Tellurium 
(tellur ;."'s acid) is obtained by adding water to 
the nitric solution, or by evaporating it to dryness ; 
a white powder. — Telluric Acid is obtained by 
deflagrating tellurous acid with nitre, and decom- 
posing the resulting tellurate of potassa. — Tellu- 
reted Hydrogen (hydrotelluric acid) is a gase- 
ous substance formed by acting with muriatic acid 
on an alloy of tellurium with zinc or tin. It bears 
some resemblance to sulphureted hydrogen. 

TEMPERANCE DRINKS. (See Lemonade, 
Orangeade, Sherbet, Ginger Beer.) 

TERRA COTTA. (Baked clay.) This term 
is applied to statues, architectural ornaments, &c., 
made of pure white clay, fine sand, and powdered 
potsherds, slowly dried, and baked to a strong 
hardness. 

TEST FOR ARSENIC. Dr. Baumann rec- 
ommends for detecting small quantities of arsenic, 
the suspected body to be triturated with from three 
to six times its amount of iron-filings, which have 
been exposed to a red heat, and are known to be 
free from arsenic, and heating the mixture on 
charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe. 
Even with the smallest quantity of arsenic, the 
odor, at least, is disengaged. (Chem. Gaz.) See 
Arsenious Acid. 

TESTING. The tests both of the purity and 
presence of the principal articles of commerce will 
be found in their alphabetical order. 

THEINE. Syn. T*ieina. A peculiar crystal- 



lizable azotized substance, extracted from tea. (See 
Caffeine.) 

THEBAINE. Syn. Paramorphia. A crys- 
talline substance obtained by Thibourmery from 
an infusion of opium that had had its morphia ex- 
tracted by acting on it by an excess of lime. The 
residue dissolved in dilute acid, precipitated by am- 
monia, and the precipitate dissolved in alcoliol or 
ether, yields pure thebaine on evaporation. It 
has a sharp. metallic taste, is fusible, alkaline, and 
scarcely soluble in water ; with the weak acids it 
forms salts which do not crystallize. It is distin- 
guished from morphia by not becoming blue on the 
addition of sesquichloride of iron. 1 gr. injected 
into the jugular vein of a dog, acts like strychnia, 
and causes tetanus and death in a few minutes. 
(Majendie.) 

THEOBROMINE. A peculiar principle, 
obtained by Woskresensky from the nut of the 
theobroma cacao. It is obtained by digesting the 
nuts in dis(»illed water, straining the decoction, and 
mixing it with acetate of lead ; after filtration, the 
oxide of lead being removed with sulphureted hy- 
drogen, the clear liquor is evaporated. A reddish- 
white powder. 

THERMOMETERS. Fahrenheit's thermom- 
eter is the one universally employed in England; 
while Celsius', or the centigrade scale, is used on 
the Continent Reaumur's is another scale occa- 
sionally employed. As reference to these scales 
are frequently met with in books, it is useful to 
know their relative value, and the method of re- 
ducing the one to the other. The boiling-point 
of water is indicated by 212° on Fahrenheit's scale, 
100° on the centigrade scale, and 80° on that of 
Reaumur ; the freezing-point oftvater marks 32° 
Fahrenheit, and 0, or zero, on the centigrade or 1 
Reaumur. The or zero of Fahrenheit is 32° 
below the freezing-point of water. 

1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those of 
Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, and divide by 5, and 
to the quotient add 32, that is, — 

^^"^•X9 +32=Fahr. 
5 ^ 

2. To reduce Fahrenheit's degrees to Centi- 
grade : — 

Fah.-32X5^Cent. 



3. To reduce Reaumur's to Fahrenheit's :— 

.^^!l21^-f32 = Fahr. 
4 

4. To convert Fahrenheit's to Reaumur's : — 

F_^!^!lII^?_^4^ Reaumur. 



THIONURIC ACID. A white crystalliae 
acid, obtained by the action of sulphurous acid on 
alloxan. Its saturated solution, heated to the boil- 
ing-point, congeals into a semifluid, crystaliine 
maas of uramile. 

THORINA. Syn. Oxide of Thorium. A 
primitive earth discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 
It is obtained from the mineral called thorite, by 
reducing it to powder, digesting in muriatic acid; 
evaporating to dryness, redissolving in dilute acid, 
filtering, passing" sulphureted hydrogen through 
the solution, precipitating by pure ammonia, watli* 



TIN 



531 



TIN 



ing the precipitate with water, dissolving in dilute 
sulphuric acid, evnporating the sohition till only a 
small quantity of fluid remains, collecting the de- 
posited sulphate of thorina, washing it with water, 
and heating it to redness. *^* White ; sp. gr. 
9'402 ; insoluble in all acids except the sulphuric ; 
it is precipitated by caustic alkalis, and by expo- 
sure in this state rapidly absorbs carbonic acid, 
and becomes easily soluble in the acids and alka- 
line carbonates. Its carbonate and subsalts are 
also soluble in the alkaline carbonates. — Thorium, 
the metallic base of thorina, is obtained by the 
action of potassium on the chloride of thorium, 
and washing the resulting mass in water. 

TIN. St/n. Etai.v, (Fr.) Zi\n, (Ger.) Stan- 
NUM, {Lat.) Jove ; Jupiter, (Ale.) This metal 
has been known from the most remote antiquity, 
being mentioned in the books of Moses, (Numb., 
xxxi. 22,) and by Homer, (Iliad, x. 25,) and other 
early writers. The ancients obtained it principal- 
ly, if not solely from Cornwall. The Phoenicians 
traded with England for this metal, at least lOOO 
years before the birth of Christ. 

Prop., Uses, ^c. Tin is only manufactured on 
the large scale. It melts at 442° F., volatilizes at 
a white heat, and has the sp. gr. 7-29. It evolves 
a peculiar odor when rubbed, and when bent back- 
wards and forwards, emits a crackling noise. Its 
uses in the arts are well known. In medicine 1 
to 3 drs. of the filings or powders, made into^in 
electuary with treacle, are given in tapeworm, for 
2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by a purge. 

Pur., Tests, ^c. " It is almost entirely dis- 
solved by muriatic acid, yielding a colorless solu- 
tion ; the precipitate thrown down by potash is 
white, and soluble in excess of the precipitant." 
(P. L.) The salts of tin are characterized by the 
following general properties: — 1. Ferro-prussiate of 
potash gives a white precipitate. — 2. Hydrosul- 
phuret of potash, a brown-black with the protox- 
ide ; and a golden-yellow with the peroxide. — 3. 
Galls do not affect the solutions of these salts. — 4. 
Corrosive sublimate occasions a black precipitate 
with the protoxide salts ; a white with the perox- 
ide. — 5. A plate of lead frequently throws down 
metallic tin, or its oxide, from the saline solutions. 
— 6. Chloride of gold gives, with the protoxide 
solutions, the purple precipitate of Cassius. — 7. 
Chloride of platinum occasions an orange precip- 
itate with the protoxide salts. 

TIN, IODIDES OF. Syn. Stanm Iodidum. 
Prep. — 1. {Iodide. Protiodide.) Granulated tin, 
2 parts ; iodine 5 parts ; heat together. A fusible, 
brownish-red, translucid substance, soluble in wa- 
ter. — 2. (Periodide.) By dissolving hydrated 
peroxide of tin in hydriodic acid. Yellow, silky 
crystals. 

TIN MORDANTS. Prep, I. (Berthollet.) 
Nitric acid at 30° B. 8 parts ; sal ammoniac 1 
do. ; dissolve, then add by degrees tin 1 part ; and 
when dissolved, dilute the solution with ^th of its 
weight of water. 

II. (Poerner.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 
lb.; sal ammonia 1^ oz. ; dissolve, then add by 
very slow degrees pure tin beat into ribands 2 oz. 

III. (SchefFer.) Nitric acid and water, of each 
2 lbs. ; sal ammoniac 2 oz. ; pure tin 4^ oz. ; as 
last. 

IV. (Hellot.) Nitri-; acid and water, of each 1 



lb. ; sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; nitre J oz. ; dissolve, 
then add by degrees granulated tin 2 oz. 

V. (Dambourney.) Muriatic acid, at 17° B., 
4 parts ; nitric acid, at 30° B., 1 do. : dissolve, and 
add by degrees, Molucca tin 1 do. 

VI. Nitric acid, 30° B., 6 parts ; muriatic acid, 
17° B., 2 do.; mix, and add by degrees grain tin 
1 part. 

VII. Aquafortis 8 parts ; sal ammoniac, or 
common salt, 1 part ; dissolve, and add grain tin 
1 part ; as before. This is the common spirit of 
the dyers. 

*^* All the above are used for dyeing scarlet. 
See Dyers' Spirit and Scarlet Dye. 

TIN, MURIATES OF. Prep. I. (Proto- 
chloride or Protomuriate of Tin.) By transmit- 
ting muriatic acid gas over grain tin heated in a 
glass tube. Gray ; solid ; anhydrous. Or by di- 
gesting granulated tin in muriatic acid as long as 
any hydrogen gas is evolved. This solution is used 
as a pov/erful deoxidizing agent. It may be ob- 
tained in crystals by evaporation. — 2. {Bichloride 
of tin. Permuriate of do.) The pure bichloride 
is obtained by heating the protochloride in chlorine 
gas, or by distilling a mixture of 8 parts of grain 
tin with 24 parts of corrosive sublimate, when a 
very volatile, colorless liquid comes over, which 
was formerly called Libavius' fuming liquor. A 
solution of the bichloride or permuriate bf tin is 
obtained by dissolving tin in nitromuriatic acid. 
This solution is much used by dyers, under the 
name of Spirits of Tin, Dyers' Spirits, Tin Mor- 
dant, &c. For this purpose, the acid is best made 
by mixing 2 parts of muriatic acid with 1 part each 
of nitric acid and water, all by measure. (Liebig.) 
The tin should be added by degrees, one portion 
being allowed to dissolve before adding another ; 
as without this precaution the action is apt to be- 
come violent, and .peroxide of tin to be deposited. 
A process which has been highly recommended, 
and seems preferable to all others, is to prepare a 
simple solution of the protochloride, and to con- 
vert it into the bichloride, either by the addition of 
nitric acid and a gentle heat, or by passing chlo- 
rine through it. — 3. (Submuriate, or oxychloride 
of tin.) A white powder, obtained by pouring a 
large quantity of water on crystallized protochlo- 
ride of tin. 

TIN, OXIDES OF. Prep. 1. {Protoxide.) 
Precipitate a solution of chloride of tin by carbon- 
ate of potassa ; well wash and dry the powder at 
a heat under 196°, exposed to the air as little as 
possible. It is also formed on the surface of melt- 
ed tin. It is soluble in acids and the pure fixed 
alkalis. — 2. {Sesquioxide.) By mixing fresh, moist 
hydrated peroxide bf tin with a solution of the neu- 
tral protochloride. The sesquioxide-falls as a sluny 
precipitate. (Fuchs.) — 3. {Peroxide of tin. Stan- 
nic acid.) By the action of nitric acid on metallic 
tin. The white powder must be well washed with 
water. When heated to low redness, it turns yel- 
low, and becomes anhydrous. It may also be ob- 
tained by adding potassa, or an alkaline carbonate, 
to a solution of perchloride of tin. Obtained in the 
latter way, it is readily soluble in acids and pure 
alkalis ; its compounds with the latter are some- 
times called stannates. 

TIN, SULPHURETS OF. Prep. 1. {Pro^ 
tosulphuret.) A brittle bluish-gray compound, 



TIN 



532 



TIN 



obtained by agitating melted tin with its own 
weight of sulphur, in a close vessel. — 2. {Sesqui- 
sulphuret.) By heating the protoeulphuret along 
with J of its weight of sulphur, to low redness. — 
3. (Bisulphuret. Mosaic gold. Aurum Musi- 
vum. Do. Mosaicum.) — a. (Berzelius.) Peroxide 
of tin and sulphur, of each 2 parts ; sal ammoniac 
1 part ; mix, and expose it to a low red heat in a 
glass or earthenware retort, till sulphurous fumes 
cease to be evolved. — h. (Marquis de Bullion.) 
Tin and mercury, of each 8 oz. ; mix, add to the 
amalgam sulphur G oz. ; sal ammoniac 4 oz. ; mix 
well, and expose the mixture for 3 hours on a sand 
heat so as to render the bottom of the matrass 
obscurely red. — c. (Chaptal.) As the last, but 
expose the matrass to a naked fire, and apply a 
violent heat, when the mixture will take fire, and 
a sublimate form in the neck of the matrass, con- 
sisting of the most beautiful aurum musivum, in 
hexagonal plates. — d. Tin filings, sulphur, sal am- 
moniac, equal parts ; sublime. *^* In these sub- 
limations, if the fire is too great, only a gray sul- 
phuret of tin is obtained. Used as a metallic gold 
color in varnish-work and sealing-wax. 

TINNING. Proc. 1. Plates or vessels of brass 
or copper, boiled with a solution of stannate of 
potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in 
the course of a few minutes, covered with a firm- 
ly-attached layer of pure tin. — 2. A similar effect 
is produced by boiling the articles with tin filings 
and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In the above 
way chemical vessels made of copper or brass may 
be easily and perfectly tinned. 

TINCTURE. Syn. Teinture ; Alcoole, 
(Fr.) TiNCTURA, {Lat., from tingo, to dye.) A 
spirituous solution of animal, vegetable, or mineral 
substances. The merit of having invented tinc- 
tures is usually assigned to Arnoldusde Villa Nova, 
who was Professor of Medicine at Montpellier, about 
the end of the thirteenth century. He was the 
first person who employed alcohol for the purpose 
of extracting the active principles of vegetable 
matter. Prep. " Tinctures are usually prepared 
by reducing the solid ingredients to small frag- 
ments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating 
them for 7 days or upwards in proof or rectified 
spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico, 
(or paper,) and finally expressing the residuum 
strongly, to obtain what fluid is still retained in the 
mass. They an also prepared by the method of 
displacement or percolation." (P. E.) " All tinc- 
tures should be prepared in close glass (or stone- 
ware) vessels, and be shaken frequently during the 
process of maceration." (P. L.) Cooper's patent 
jars are very convenient for the preparation of 
tinctures, as they are made with wide mouths, 
large enough to admit the hand, and yet may be 
closed in an instant, with as much ease and cer- 
tainty as an ordinary stoppered bottle. Tinctures 
are better clarified by repose than by filtration, as 
in the latter case a considerable portion is retained 
by the medium, and lost by evaporation. In ordi- 
nary cases, it will be sufficient to allow the tincture 
to settle for a few days, and then to pour off the 
clear supernatant portion through a funnel loosely 
choked with a piece of sponge or tow, to keep back 
any floating fragments of straw or other light sub- 
stances ; after which the remaining foul portion of 
the liquid may be filtered through paper. When 



it is absolutely necessary to filter a tincture, and 
the quantity is large, conical bags should be em- 
ployed. The filtration should be conducted as 
rapidly as possible, for the double purpose of les- 
sening the amount lost by evaporation, and the 
action of the air on the fluid. Tinctures long ex- 
posed to the air frequently lose their transparency 
within a few days after being filtered, owing to the 
oxidizement and precipitation of some portion of 
the matter previously held in solution. Resinous 
and oily tinctures, as those of myrrh, tolu, and 
lavender, (comp.,) may be usually restored to their 
former brightness by the addition of a quantity of 
spirit, equal to that they have lost by evaporation ; 
but many tinctures resist this mode of treatment, 
and require refiltering. Ethereal tinctures are best 
prepared by percolati.-'n, and should be both made 
and kept in stoppered bottles. 

Uses, ^c. Tinctures, from the quantity of al- 
cohol they contain, are necessarily administered 
in small doses, unless in cases where stimulaifts 
are indicated. The most important and useful of 
them are those that contain very active ingredients, 
such as the tinctures of opium, foxglove, hemlock, 
henbane, &c. In many instances, the solvent, 
even in doses of a few fluid drachms, often acts 
more powerfully on the living system, than the 
principles it holds in solution. In ordinary cases, 
this action, when continued for some time, pro. 
duces the same deleterious effects as the habitual 
use of ardent spirits, and often lays the foundation 
of the pernicious custom of dram-drinking. WheQ 
the action of a substance is the reverse of stimu- 
lant, it cannot with propriety be exhibited in this 
form, unless the dose be so small that the operation 
of the spirit cannot be taken into account ; as in 
the tinctures of foxglove and opium, for example. 
The chief use of this class of preparations, there- 
fore, is to enable infusions and decoctions, to which 
they are added, to sit lighter on the stomach, or 
to add to them some active principle which water 
is incapable of extracting. They aj-e also useful 
as means of preserving the active ingredients of 
drugs without alteration. 

Qual. The tinctures of the shops are usually 
very uncertain and inferior preparations. Not only 
is their manufacture carelessly conducted, with- 
out reference to the respective characters of their 
ingredients, but the ingredients themselves are 
usually deficient in strength and quantity. It is a 
general practice among the druggists to substitute 
a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit of wine 
and water, or a spirit of about 26 u. p., for proof 
spirit ; and a mixture of 2 gallons of water with 5 
gallons of spirit of wine, for rectified spirit. The 
dry ingredients are also usually selected from such 
as are unfit for sale. In some wholesale drug- 
houses it is a general practice to make all their 
simple tinctures (except those that are of a very 
active or valuable kind, as laudanum, for instance) 
with 1 lb. of the dry ingredient to the gallon of 
spirit. Appearance is the object which is alone 
aimed at, without reference to quality. If the 
tincture be perfectly transparent, and has a good 
color, the conscience of the seller and the stomach 
of the consumer are alike satisfied. Verily, im- 
agination must be a powerful auxiliary to physic ! 

TINCTURE OF ACONITE. Syn. Tinctu- 
RA AcoNiTi Recentis. Prep. (P. Cod.) Fresh 



TIN 



533 



TIN 



leaves of aconite, bruised in a marble mortar, and 
rectified spirit of wine, equal parts ; macerate for 
15 days, press, and filter. *^* In the same way 
tinctures are prepared from the fresh leaves of bel- 
ladonna, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, strong- 
scented lettuce, {lactnca virosa,) stramonium, 
trailing poison oak, {rhus toxicodendron,) mug- 
wort, (artemisia vulgaris,) colchicum conns, 
squirting cucumber, {momordica elaterium,) ja- 
cobea, lohite poppy, taraxacum, <^c., <^c. These 
tinctures {preserved vegetable juices, alcohola- 
tures) are stronger than those prepared from the 
dried plants, and are not to be used except when 
expressly ordered. Another mode of preparing 
them is to express the juice from the bruised leaves, 
add to it the spirit, and filter. The former method, 
adopted in the Paris Codex, is preferred by M. 
Soubeiran as affording more uniform products. 
(See Vegetable Juices.) 

TINCTURE OF ALOES. Syn. Tinctura 
Aloes, (P. L. E. and D.) Prep. (P. L.) Aloes, 
(hepatic,) coarsely powdered, ^j ; extract of liquor- 
ice 5'ij ; water 1^ pints ; rectified spirit ^ pint ; 
macerate 4 days. Purgative and stomachic. Dose. 

:i to 1 OZ. 

TINCTURE OF ALOES, (COMP.) Syn. 
Tl\ct. Aloes Composita, (P. L. and D.) T. 
Aloes et Myrrhs, (P. E.) Elixir Proprieta- 
Tis. Prep. 1. (P. L.) Aloes, {hepatic,) coarsely 
powdered, ^iv ; hay saffron §ij ; tincture of myrrh 
1 quart ; macerate 14 days with occasional agita- 
tion, and strain. The Dublin College omits the 
saffron. — 2. {Wholesale.) Aloes 1 »b. ; myrrh | 
lb. ; hay saffron 2 oz. ; rectified spirit 5 pints ; wa- 
ter 3 pints ; as last. Purgative, stomachic, and 
emmenagogue. Dose. ^ to 1 dr. 

TINCTURE OF AMMONIA, (COMP.) Syn. 
TiNCT. Ammonite Com?., (P. L.) Spiritus AmxMo- 
Ni.B SucciNATUS. Prep. (P. L.) Mastich 3ij ; rec- 
tified spirit f 3ix ; macerate till dissolved, pour off 
the clear, add oil of lavender 14 drops ; oil of am- 
ber 4 drops ; stronger liquor of ammonia 1 pint, 
and agitate well together. Without the oil of am- 
ber this forms eau de luce, (aqua lucice.) Anti- 
spasmod and stimulant. Dose. 10 to 40 drops, 
in hysteria, «fcc. 

TINCTURE OF ANTIMONY. Syn. Tinct. 
Antimonil Prep. (P. L. 1745.) Crude antimony 
lb. ss ; salt of tartar lb. j ; melt with a strong heat 
for half an hour, powder while still warm, add rec- 
tified spirit 1 quart, and digest for 4 days. 

TINCTURE OF ASAFCETIDA. Syn. Tinct. 

FCETID^, (P. L. 1745.) T. ASAFCETID^, (P. L. E. 

and D.) Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Asafoetida (small) §v ; 
rectified spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 days. — 2. 
{Wholesale.) Asafoetida 2 lbs. ; boiling water 2 
quarts ; dissolve, add rectified spirit 1^ gallons, agi- 
tate well for 3 or 4 days, then let it settle, and de- 
cant the clear. Dose. ^ to 2 drs. ; in hysteria and 
flatulent colic. 

TINCTURE OF ASAFCETIDA, (AMMO- 
NlATED.) Syn. Tinct. Asafoetid^e Ammonia- 
TA. Sp. Ammonia Fcetidus. (See Spirits.) 

TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF PERU. Syn. 
Tinct. Balsami Peruviani. Prep. (P. L. 1788.) 
Balsam of Peru '^iv ; rectified spirit f §xvj ; dis- 
solve. Pectoral, stimulant, and frao-rant. 

TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF TOLU. Syn. 
TiN^T. Tolutanl T. Balsami Tolutani, (P. L. 



I and D.) T. Tolutana, (P. E.) Prep. (P. L.) 
I Balsam of Tolu ^ij ; rectified spirit 1 quart ; dis- 
solve. Pectoral and expectorant. Dose. ^ to 2 
drs. as an adjunct in pectoral mixtures. 

TINCTURE OF BELLADONNA. Syn. 
Tinct. Belladon.VvE. Prep. — 1. (Bailey.) Dried 
leaves of belladonna ^ij ; proof spirit f ^xvj ; mace 
rate 20 days. — 2. {Wholesale.) Dried leaves 1 lb.-, 
proof spirit 1 gallon ; macerate 14 days. Dose. 
15 to 40 drops. 

TINCTURE OF BENZOIN. Syn. Pecto- 
ral Balsam of Honey. Tinct. of Benjamin. T 
Benzoint. T. Benzoes. Prep. — 1. (P. Cod.) Gum 
benzoin ^iv ; rectified spirit 1 pint ; macerate 6 
days. — 2. To the last add liquid storax3vj ; essence 
of jasmine 3ij ; oil of rhodium 3ss ; musk 12 grs. ; 
civet 9 grs. Used to perfume clothes, to evapo- 
rate in sick rooms, mixed with rose water to make 
extemporaneous milk of roses, and in doses of 5 to 
10 drops as a pectoral and antispasmodic. 

TINCTURE OF BENZOIN, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Friar's Balsam. Vervain's do. Wound 
DO. The Commander's do. Balsam for Cuts. 
Wade's Drops. Jesuit's do. Compound Tinct. 
of Benjamin. Baume de Commandeur. Balsa- 
mum Traumaticum, (P. L. 1745.) Tinct. Ben- 
zoes CoMP., (P. L. 1788.) T. Benzoini Com?., 
(P. L. 1809, and since, P. E. and D.) Prep.—h 
(P. L.) Gum benzoin ^iiiss ; strained storax f iiss ; 
balsam of tolu 3x ; aloes (hepat.) i5v ; rectified 
spirit 1 quart ; macerate with frequent agitation 
for 14 days. This produces a most beautiful tinc- 
ture, truly balsamic ; the following is, however, 
very generally substituted in the wholesale trade. 
— 2. Gum benzoin 4 lbs. ; aloes (lively colored) 1^ 
lb. ; liquid storax 1 lb. ; balsam of tolu i lb. ; pow- 
dered turmeric (best) 6 oz. ; rectified spirit 5^ gal- 
lons ; digest with frequent agitation for 10 days, 
then add water 1^ gallons ; again digest for 4 days, 
and after 24 hours' repose, decant the clear. Very 
fine colored. Dose. 10 drops to 2 drs., as a stim- 
ulating expectorant in chronic coughs. It is also 
used to stop the bleeding from cuts, &c. 

TINCTURE OF BUCHU. Syn. Tinct. 
Bucku, (P. E.) T. BucHu, (P. D.) Prep. (P. E.) 
Buchu leaves |v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 7 
days, or percolate. Dose. 1 to 4 drs., as a tonic, 
sudorific, and diuretic. It is inferior to the fresh 
infusion. 

TINCTURE OF CALUMBA. Syn. Tinct. 
Calumb.«, (P. L. and E.) T. Columb^, (P. D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Calumba root §iij ; proof spirit 1 
quart ; digest for 14 days. The P. E. says this 
tincture is more conveniently prepared by percola 
tion. — This tincture is commonly made with 1 lli 
of Calumba root to the gallon of a mixture o{ equa 
parts of rectified spirit and water. Dose. 1 to 2 
drs., as a stomachic bitter and tonic, usually joined 
with soda or chalvbeates. 

TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR. Syn. Spirits 
OF Wine and Camphor. Camphorated Spirit 
Tinct. Camphors, (P. L. E. and D.) Spiritus 
Camphoratus, (P. D.) Prep. Camphor §v ; rec- 
tified spirit 1 quart ; dissolve. Stimulant and ano- 
dyne. Dose. 10 to 60 drops. Also as a liniment 
for sprains, bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c. 

TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Paregoric Elixir. Camphor- 
ated Tincture of Opium. Elixir Paregoricum, 



TIN 



534 



TIN 



(P. L. 1745.) TiNCT. Opii Camphorata, (P. L. 
1788, P- E. and D.) T. Camphors Composita, 
(P. L. 1809, and since.) Prep.-^l. (P. L.) Cam- 
phor 9iiss ; powdered opium and benzoic acid, of 
each 72 grains ; oil of aniseed f 3j ; proof spirit 1 
quart ; macerate for 14 days. The oil of aniseed 
was omitted in the P. L. 1824, but restored in 1836. 
— 2. (Wholesale.) Powdered opium 3 oz. ; benzoic 
acid, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each 2 oz. ; 
rectified spirit and water, of each 3 gallons ; digest 
with agitation a week. An excellent pectoral and 
anodyne where there are no inflammatory symp- 
toms. Dose. 1 to 3 drs. in troublesome coughs, 
&c. ffj contains nearly 1 gr. of opium. 

TINCTURE OF CANTHARIDES. Syn. 
TiNCT. Lytt^, (P. L. 1809.) T. Cantharidis, 
(P. L. 1824.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) Powdered can- 
tharides §ss ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate for 14 
days. — 2. (Wholesale.) Powdered cantharides 2 
oz. ; rectified spirit and water, of each ^ gallon ; 
as last. Dose. 10 drops gradually raised to f 3j, 
in any bland liquid. *** This tincture should be 
used with caution. The Ed. College recommends 
it to be prepared by displacement. 

TINCTURE OF CAPSICUM. Syn. Tinct. 
Capsici, (P. L. E. and D.) Prep. (P. L.) Capsi- 
cum, bruised, 3x ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 
days, (or percolate, P. E.) Dose. 10 to 60 drops ; 
in scarlet fever, ulcerated sore throat, &.c. It is also 
made into a gargle. 

TINCTURE OF CARDAMOMS. Syn. 
Tinct. Cardamomi, (P. L. and E.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Bruised cardamom seeds ^iiiss ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 
digest for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) *^* The 
shells should be sifted from the seeds before mace- 
ration, and they are preferably ground in a pepper 
mill instead of pounding. Aromatic and carmina- 
tive. Dose. 1 to 2 drs. as an adjunct to purgative 
mixtures. 

TINCTURE OF CARDAMOMS, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Stomachic TixNcture. Tinct. 
Cardamomi composita. (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. 
1. (P. L.) Cardamom and caraway seeds, of each 
3iiss ; cinnamon 3v ; cochineal. 3j ; raisins (stoned) 
§v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or 
percolate, P. E.) 2. (Wholesale.) Cardamom and 
caraway seeds, of each 4 oz. ; cochineal (S. G.) 
6 oz. ; cassia 8 oz. ; raisins 5 lbs. ; proof spirit 4 
gallons, (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 
gallons ;) macerate as last. ^^* The Dublin Col- 
lege omits the cochineal and raisins. The order 
of the London College to stone the raisins, is sel- 
dom adopted in practice. If it were necessary, a 
better plan would be to use sultana raisins, which 
have no stones. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. as a cordial and 
stomachic, but chiefly as an adjunct, for its color 
and flavor. 

TINCTURE OF CASCARILLA. Syn. 
Tinct. Cascwul^IuJe, (P. L. E. & D.) T. Croto- 
Nis Elkuthkrive. Prep. (P. L.) Cascarilla §v ; 
proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or perco- 
late, (P. E.) An excellent tonic and stomachic ; 
chiefly employed as an adjunct to mixtures, &lc. 
Dose. 1 to 2 drs. 

TINCTURE OF CASSIA. Syn. Tinct. 
Cassia.. Prep. (P. E.) Cassia ^iiiss ; proof spirit 
1 quart ; macerate for 7 days, or percolate. Stom- 
achic. Dose. 1 to 2 drs. 

TINCTURE OF CASTOR. Syn. Tinct. 



Castorei, (P. L. &c E.) T. Castorei Rossici, 
(P. D.) Prep. Castor §iiss ; rectified spirit 1 
quart ; macerate 14 days, (or percolate.) ^^i^* The 
Dublin College orders Russian castor, but the scar- 
city and high price of that variety preclude its 
use. The tincture of the shops is usually made 
with only 8 oz. of castor to the gallon. Dose. 20 
drops to f 3ij, as an antispasmodic ; in hysteria, 
epilepsy, &c. 

TINCTURE OF CASTOR, (AMMONIA- 
TED.) Syn. Tinct. Castorei Ammoniata, (P. 
E.) T. Castorei comp. Prep. (P. E.) Castor 
§iiss ; asafoetida 3x ; spirit of ammonia 1 quart ; 
digest 7 days. Stimulant and antispasmodic. Dose 
and use as last. *^* This is the Elixir Fatidum 
of For. Ph., and with the addition of ^ss of opium, 
forms the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir Castorei 
Thehaicum. 

TINCTURE OF CATECHU. Syn. Tinct. 
Catechu, (P. L. E. &, D.) T. Japonica. Prep. 
1. (P. L.) Catechu §iiiss ; bruised cinnamon §iiss ; 
proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or perco- 
late, P. E.) 2. (Wholesale.) Catechu 1^ lbs.; 
oil of cassia 3j ; rectified spirit and water, of each 
1 gallon ; macerate 10 days. Dose. 1 to 2 drs., 
as an astringent ; in diarrhoea, &c., combined 
with chalk. 

TINCTURE OF CHAMOMILES. Syn. 
Tinct. Anthemidis. Prep. Chamomile flowers 1 
lb. ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; macerate 10 days. 
Stomachic and tonic. Dose. 1 to 3 drs. 

TINCTURE OF CINCHONA. Syn. Tinct. 
DF Bark. T. Cinchona, (P. L. E. & D.) T. 
CoRTicis Peruviani. Prep. (P. L.) Yellow cin- 
chona bark §viij ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 
for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) *^* Xiie Dublin 
College orders pale bark, and the Edinburgh, either 
species, according to prescription. Tonic and 
stomachic. Dose. 1 to 3 drs. 

TINCTURE OF CINCHONA, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Compound Tincture of Bark. 
Huxham's do. Tinct. Cinchona composita, (P. 
L. E. «& D.) T. CoRTicis Peruviani comp. Prep. 
1. (P. L.) Pale bark §iv ; dried orange-peel ^iij ; 
serpentary root 3vj ; hay saffron 3ij ; cochineal 3j ; 
macerate 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) 2. (Whole- 
sale.) Pale bark 3 lbs. ; dried orange-peel 2 lbs. ; 
serpentary root 4 oz. ; hay saffron 1 oz. ; cochineal 
i oz. ; proof spirit 4 gallons, (or rectified spirit and 
water, of each 2 gallons ;) macerate 14 days. 
*5^* The P. E. orders yellow bark. Dose and use 

TINCTURE OF CINNAMON. Syn. Tinct. 
Cinnamomi, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. Cinnamon 
^iiiss ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or 
percolate, P. E.) In the shops cassia is usually 
substituted for cinnamon, and spirit 26 u. p. for 
proof spirit. Dose. 1 to 4 drs., as a cordial, aro- 
matic, and stomachic. 

TINCTURE OF CINNAMON, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. TiNCT. Cinnamomi composita, 
(P. L. & E.) "T. Aromatica, (PL. 1745.) Prep. 
1. (P. L.) Cinnamon §j ; cardamoms 5ss ; long 
pepper and ginger, of each 3iiss ; proof spirit 1 
quart ; digest 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) The 
P. E. omits the ginger. The following lorm is 
used by many wholesale houses: — 2. Cassia \ lb. ; 
cardamoms, long pepper, and ginger, of each \ lb. ; 
oil of cassia 3ss ; proof spirit 4 gallons, (or spirits 



TIN 



535 



'.TIN 



of wine and water, of each 2 gallons.) Cordial 
and aromatic. Dose. 1 to 2 drs. 

TINCTURE OF CLOVES. Syn. Tinct. 
Caryophilli. Prep. (P. Cod.) Cloves ^iv ; rec- 
tified spirit (sp. gr. 0-863) 1 pint ; digest 7 days. 
Aromatic and stomachic. Dose. 10 to 60 drops, 
as an adjunct. 

TINCTURE OF COLCHICUM, (SEEDS.) 
Syn. Tincture of Meadow Saffron. Tinct. 
CoLciiici, (P. L. & E.) T. Seminum Colchici, 
(P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Meadow saffron seeds, 
bruised, (ground in a coffee-mill, P. E.,) §v ; proof 
spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or percolate, 
P. E.) Dose. f3ss to 3j, in gout, &lc. 

TINCTURE OF COLCHICUM, (EXTRACT.) 
Syn. Tinct. Colchici Extracti. Prep. (Bate- 
man.) Extract of colchicum 8 grs. ; proof spirit 
f 5J ; dissolve and filter. 

TINCTURE OF COLCHICUM, (FLOW- 
ERS.) Syn. Dr. Wilson's Eau Medicinale. 
Tinct. Florum Colchici. Prep. Fresh expressed 
juice of meadow saffron flowers 2 parts ; brandy 
1 part ; shake well together, and in a few days 
decant the clear. 

TINCTURE OF COLCHICUM, (COMP.) 
Syn. Tinct. Colchici comp., (P. L. 1836.) Spir- 
itus Colchici Ammoniatus, (P. L. 1824.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Colchicum seeds (as above) §v ; aromatic 
spirit of ammonia 1 quart ; digest 14 days. Dose. 
f 3ss to f 3j ; in gout, &c. 

TINCTURE OF CUBEBS. Syn. Tinct. 
CuBEB^. T. PiPERis CuBEB^, (P. D.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Cubebs ^v ; rectified (proof, P. D.) spirit 1 
quart ; digest 14 days. Dose. 1 to 2 drs., three 
times a day, in diseases of the urinary organs, 

TINCTURE OF CUSPARIA. Syn. Tinct. 
CusPARi^, (P. E.) T. Angostur^e, (P. D.) T. 
BoNPLANDi^ Trifoliate. Prep. (P. E.) Angos- 
tura bark §ivss ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest or per- 
colate. Tonic, stimulant, and stomachic. Dose. 
1 to 2 drs. 

TINCTURE OF DIGITALIS. Sy?i. Tinct. 
of Foxglove. T. Digitalis, (P. L. E. & D.) 
Dried foxglove leaves §iv ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 
digest 14 days, (or percolate.) Sedative, diuretic, 
and narcotic. Dose. 10 to 40 drops. In fever, 
dropsy, phthisis, asthma, &-c. 

TINCTURE OF ERGOT. Syn. Tinct. Er- 
gots. T. Secalis Cornutl Prep. (Apotheca- 
ries' Hall.) Ergot (ground in a coffee-mill) §ij ; 
proof spirit 1 pint ; digest 7 days. Dose. A tea- 
spoonful, to excite the action of the uterus in 
labor. 

TINCTURE OF GALBANUM. Syn. Tinct. 
Galbani. Prep. (P. D.) Galbanum §ij ; proof 
spirit f ^xxxij ; digest 7 days. Stimulant and an- 
tispasmodic. Dose. 1 to 3 drs. 

TINCTURE OF GALLS. Syn. Tinct. 
Gall.^, (P. L.) T. Gallarum, (P. E. & D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Bruised galls f v ; proof spirit 1 
quart ; digest 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) Astrin- 
gent. Dose. ^ to 2 drs. Chiefly used as a test 
for iron. 

TINCTURE OF GENTIAN, (COMP.) 
Syn. Tinct. Gentians comp., (P. L. E. &l D.) 
T. Amara, (P. L. 1745.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) Gen- 
tian root, sliced and bruised, §iiss ; dried orange- 
peel ?x ; cardamom seeds 3v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 



digest 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) The Edin. 
burgh College substitutes canella for cardamoms, 
and adds cochineal 3ss. 2. (Wholesale.) Gentian 
2 lbs. ; dried orange-peel 1 lb. ; bruised cardamoms 
\ lb. ; proof spirit 4 gallons, (or rectified spirit and 
water, of each 2 gallons ;) digest as last. 

TINCTURE OF GINGER. Syn. Tinct. 
ZiNGiBERis, (P. L. E. «fc D.) Prep. 1. (P. L.) 
Coarsely-powdered ginger §iiss ; rectified spirit 1 
quart ; macerate for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) 
2. (Wholesale.) Coarsely-powdered bleached Ja- 
maica ginger 1^ lb.; rectified spirit (or spirit dis- 
tilled from the essence) 1^ gallons; water ^ gal- 
lon ; digest as above. Stimulant and carminative 
Dose. 1 to 2 drs. 

TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM. Syn. Tinct. 
GuAiAci, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Gum 
guaiacum ^vij ; rectified spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 
days. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. ; in chronic rheumatism, 
gout, &c. 

TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Volatile Tinctltre of Guaia- 
cum. AmMONIATED do. I'iNCT. GuAIACINA VoL- 
ATILIS, (P. L. 1745.) T. GUAIACI COMP., (P. L. 

1836.) T. GuAiACi Ammoniata, (P. E. & D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Guaiacum in coarse powder ^vij ;" 
aromatic spirit of ammonia 1 quart ; digest 14 
days. A powerful, stimulating sudorific and em- 
menagogue, in chronic rheumatism, gout, &,c. 

TINCTURE, HATFIELD'S. Prep. Gum 
guaiacum and soap, of each 3ij ; rectified spirit 1 
piftt ; digest for a week. 

TINCTURE OF (BLACK) HELLEBORE. 
Syn. Tinct. Hellebori, (P. L.) Prep. Black 
hellebore ^v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 days. 
Emmenagogue. Dose. ^ to 1 dr. 

TINCTURE OF (WHITE) HELLEBORE. 
Syn. Tinct. Veratrl T. Hellebori Alci. T. 
Veratri Albi. Prep. (P. E.) White hellebore 
§iv ; proof spirit 1 pint ; digest or percolate. Dose. 
10 drops 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased, 
in gout and rheumatism. 

TINCTURE OF HEMLOCK. Syn. Tinct. 
CoNii, (P. L. E. & D.) T. CicuTE. Prep. 1. (P. 
L.) Dried hemlock leaves f v ; cardamom seeds 
5J ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 days. — 2. (P. 
E.) Fresh leaves §xij, express the juice, and per- 
colate the residue with tincture of cardamoms f^x ; 
rectified spirit 1^ pints ; mix the liquids, and filter. 
Deobstruent and narcotic. Dose of the P. L. 20 
to 60 drops. 

TINCTURE OF HEMP, (INDIAN.) Syn. 
Tinct. Cannabis. Prep. (O'Shaughnessy.) Al- 
coholic extract of Indian hemp 24 grs. ; proof spir- 
it f 5j ; dissolve. Dose. 10 drops every ^ hour in 
cholera ; 3j every ^ hour in tetanus till the parox- 
ysms cease, or catalepsy is induced. 

TINCTURE OF HENBANE. Syn. Tinct. 
Hyoscyami, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Dried 
henbane leaves ^v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 
days, (or percolate, P. E.) Anodyne, sedative, so- 
porific, and narcotic. Dose, f 3ss to 3ij. ^^j.* Tlie 
tinctures of henbane, foxglove, hemlock, hops, ja- 
lap, lobelia inflata, rhatany, savin, squills, senna, 
valerian, wormwood, &c., are usually prepared by 
the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried leaves to each 
gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit 
and water. 

TINCTURE OF HOPS. Syn. Tinct. Lu- 



TIN 



536 



TIN 



PULi, (P. L.) T. HuMULi, (P. D.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Hops §vj ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 days. 
Anodyne, sedative, and soporific. Dose. ^ to 2 drs. 

TINCTURE, HUDSON'S. Prep. Tinctures 
of myrrh and cinchona, and cinnamon water, 
equal parts, with a httle arquebusade and gum 
arabic. Used as a cosmetic for the teeth. 

TINCTURE OF IODINE. Syn. Tinct. 
loDiNii, (P. D.) T. loDiNEi, (P. E.) Prep.—l. 
(P. D.) Iodine ^j ; rectified spirit §x ; dissolve. 
Majendie and the Paris Codex order the same 
proportions. — 2. (P. E.) Iodine §j ; rectified spirit 
f §xvj ; dissolve. Dose. 5 to 30 drops where the 
use of iodine is indicated. 

TINCTURE OF IODINE, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Tinct. Iodinii comp. Prep. (P. L.) Iodine 
§j ; iodide of potassium §ij ; rectified spirit 1 quart ; 
dissolve. Dose. 10 drops, gradually increased to 1 
dr. where the use of iodine is indicated. 

TINCTURE OF IPECACUANHA. Syn. 
Tinct. Ipecacuanha. Prep. (P. Cod.) Ipecac- 
uanha §j ; rectified spirit f §v ; digest. 

TINCTURE OF ACETATE OF IRON. 
Syn. Tinct. Ferri Acetatis. Prep. (P. D.) 
Acetate of potash 2 parts ; sulphate of iron 1 do. ; 
triturate together, dry, digest in rectified spirit 26 
parts, for 7 days, and decant the clear. Dose. ^ 
to 1 dr., as a chalybeate tonic. 

TINCTURE OF ACETATE OF IRON, 
(ALCOHOLIC.) Syn. Tinct. Ferri Acetatis 
CUM ALCOHOLE. Prep. (P. D.) Sulphate of iron 
and acetate of potassa, of each §j ; alcohol 1 quat*ift, 
(wine measure ;) proceed as last, and digest for 24 
hours. Dose and use as the last. 

TINCTURE OF IRON, (AMMONIATED.) 
Syn. Mynsicht's Tincture of Iron. Tincture 
OF ammonio-chloridi of Iron. T. Ferri ammo- 
Nio-CHLORiDi, (P. L.) T. Ferri ammoniati. 
Prep. ' (P. L.) Ammonio-chloride of iron §iv ; 
proof spirit 1 pint ; dissolve. Dose. 20 to 60 drops, 
as a stimulant, chalybeate tonic. 

TINCTURE OF SESQUICHLORIDE OF 
IRON. Syn. Tinct.- of muriate of Iron. T. 
Ferri Sesciuichloridi, (P. L.) T. Ferri muria- 
tis, (P. E.) Liquor Ferri muriatis, (P. D.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Sesquioxide of iron §vj ; muriatic 
acid 1 pint ; digest in glass for 3 days, frequently 
shaking, then add rectified spirit 3 pints, and de- 
cant. A ferruginous tonic. Dose. 10 to 30 drops, 
gradually increased. *^* In the old Tinctura 
Martis, P. L., iron filings, and in the T. Ferri. 
muriatis, P. E. 1817, black oxide of iron, were 
used instead of the sesquioxide or carbonate. 

TINCTURE OF SESQUINITRATE OF 
IRON. Syn. Tinct. Ferri sesquinitratis. Do. 
DO. PERSESQuiNiTRATis. Prep, (Onion.) Iron fil- 
ings §ss ; nitric acid (1-5) f ij 3ij ; dissolve, add 
muriatic acid (l-Ki) 3vj ; simmer for 2 or 3 min- 
utes, cool, add rectified spirit §viij, and filter. 
Proposed as a substitute for the last preparation. 
Dose the same. 

TINCTURE OF JALAP. Srjn. Tinct. Ja- 
laps, (P. L. E & D.) T. Jalapii, (P. L. 1788.) 
Prep. (P. L.) Bruised jalap-root f x ; proof spirit 
I quart; digest 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) Ca- 
'hartio. Dose. 1 to 4 drs. 

TINCTUIiE OF KINO. Syn. Tinct. Kino, 
(P. L. E. &L D.) Prep. Kino ^iiiss ; roctifiod spir- 
' 1 quart ; macerate 14 days. Astringent. Dose. 



1 to 2 drs. combined with chalk mixture in diar- 
rhoea, &LC. 

TINCTURE OF LACTUCARIUM. Syn. 
Tinct. Lactucarii. Prep, (P. E.) Powdered 
lactucarium §iv ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest or 
percolate. Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, and 
sedative. Dose. 20 to 60 drops, inx contain 1 gr. 
of lactucarium. 

TINCTURE OF LAVENDER, (COM- 
POUND.) Syn. Lavender Drops. Red do. 
Red Lavender. Red Hartshorn. Tinct. La- 
vandula COMPOSITA, (P. L.) SpIRITUS liAVAN- 

DULA compositus, (P. E. & D.) Prep. — 1. (P. L.) 
Spirit of lavender 1^ pints ; spirit of rosemary ^ 
pint ; red sanders wood (rasped) 3v ; cinnamon 
and nutmegs, of each 3iiss ; macerate 14 days. — 
2. (Wholesale.) Oil of cassia | oz. ; oil of nut- 
megs 1 oz. ; oils of lavender and rosemary, of 
each 4^ oz. ; red sanders (rasped) 3 lbs. ; proof 
spirit 6 gallons, (or rectified spirit and water, of 
each 3 gallons ;) digest 14 days. Should it be 
cloudy, add a little more proof spirit. Stimulant, 
cordial, and stomachic. Dose. 1 to 3 teaspconfuls 
(i to 2 drs.) in lowness of spirits, faintness, flatu- 
lence, hysteria, «fec. 

TINCTURE OF LOBELIA. Syn. Tinct. 
OF Indian Tobacco. T. Lobelia, (P. E.) T. 
Lobelia inflata. Prep. (P. E.) Dried and 
powdered lobelia inflata §v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 
digest or percolate. Dose. As an expectorant, 10 
to 60 drops ; as an emetic and antispasmodic f 3j 
to f 3ij, every third hour till it causes vomiting. 
It is principally employed in spasmodic asthma, 
and some other pulmonary affections. 

TINCTURE OF LOBELIA, (ETHEREAL.) 
Syn. Tinct. Lobelia athebea. Prep. 1. (P. 
E.) Powdered lobelia inflata §v ; spirit of sulphuric 
ether 1 quart ; digest or percolate in a close vessel. 
— 2. (Whitlaw.) Lobelia lb. j ; rectified spirit and 
spirit of nitric ether, of each 2 quarts ; macerate 
for 14 days in the dark. Use and doses as the 
last. 

TINCTURE OF LUPULINE. Syn. Tinct. 
LupuLiNA. T. LupuLi, (P. E.) Prep. The yel- 
lowish brown powder attached to the scales of 
hops, separated by friction and sifting, §v ; recti- 
fied spirit 1 quart ; digest or percolate. Dose. 
f3ss to f 3ij. (See Tincture of Hops.) 

TINCTURE OF MUSK. Syn. Tinct. 
MosciiL Prep. (P. D.) Musk 3ij ; rectified spir- 
it f^xvj ; digest 7 days. Antispasmodic, but 
principally used as a perfume, beincr too weak for 
medical use. 

TINCTURE OF MYRRH. Syn. Tinct. 
Myrrha, (P. L. E. & D.) Pre;?.— 1. (P. L.) 
Myrrh ^''j ; rectified spirit 1 quart ; digest for 14 
days, (or percolate, P. E.) — 2. (Wholesale.) Bruis- 
ed myrrh 2.^ lbs. ; rectified spirit 2 gallons ; water 
1 gallon. As last. Tonic and stimulant. Dose. 
i to 1 dr., as an adjunct in mixtures, «!tc. Chiefly 
used, diluted with water, as a dentifrice or wash 
for ulcerated spongv gums. 

TINCTURE OF MYRRH, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Tinct. Myrrha comp. Prep. Bruised 
myrrh and Socotrino aloes, of each 2 lbs. ; recti- 
fied spirit and water, of oach 2^ gallons ; digest for 
14 days. This is frequontlv substituted for com- 
pound tincture of aloes in the wholesale trade. 

TINCTURE OF NUX VOMICA. Syn. 



TIN 



537 



TIN 



TiNCT. Nucis Vomica. Prep. (P. D.) Nux 
vomica (ground in a coffee-mill) fij ; rectified spir- 
it f^viij ; macerate 7 (14) days. Dose. 5 to 10 
drops, in paralysis, Sec. It is poisonous. 

TINCTURE, ODONTALGIC. Prep. (Col- 
lier.) Pellitory of Spain ys ; camphor 3iij ; opium 
3j ; oil of cloves 3ij ; rectified spirit f ^xvj ; digest 
for a week. Used for the toothache ; applied on 
lint. 

TINCTURE OF OPIUM. Syn. Laudanum. 
TixcT. Opii, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep.—\. (P. L.) 
Hard opium, powdered, 5'ij ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 
macerate 14 days, and filter. This preparation 
has a deep brownish red color, and iv.xix contain 
about 1 gr. of opium. Its sp. gr. is 0-952. (Phil- 
lips.) Dose. 10 to 60 drops as an anodyne, or 
hypnotic. The following form is substituted for 
that of the Pharmacopoeia by some wholesale drug 
houses. — 2. Turkey opium 2i^ lbs. ; boiling water 
9 quarts ; digest till dissolved, cool, add rectified 
spirit 2 gallons, and after repose, decant the clear. 
Prod. 4 gallons. 

TINCTURE OF OPIUM, (AMMONIA- 
TED.) Syn. TiNCT. Opii ammoniata. Prep. 
(P. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron, of each, 
5vj ; sliced opium 5iv ; oil of aniseed 5j ; spirit of 
ammonia 1 quart ; digest for a week, and filter. 
Stimulant and antispasmodic Dose. 20 to 60 
drops in hooping-cough, «fcc. *5i.* This prepara- 
tion is called paregoric, or paregoric elixir:^ in 
Scotland, but should be carefully distinguished 
from the compound tincture of camphor, which 
passes under the same names in England ; as the 
former contains about 4 times as much opium as 
the latter. 

TINCTURE OF ORANGE PEEL. Syn 

TiNCT. AURANTII, (P. L; & E.) T. CORTICIS AU- 

RAXTii, (P.L.I 788.) Prep. (P. L.) Dried orange 
peel §iiiss ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest for 14 days. 
A grateful bitter stomachic. Dose. 1 to 3 drs., 
mostly as an adjunct to mixtures, &,c. 

TINCTURE OF PELLITORY. Syn. Tinct. 
Pyrethri. Prep. (Pereira.) Pellitory of Spain 
and water, of each, fj ; rectified spirit §v ; digest. 
Used to relieve toothache. 

TINCTURE OF QUASSIA. Syn. Tinct. 
QuAssi.«,^(P. E. & D.) Prep. (P. E.) Quassia, 
in chips, 3x ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest 7 days. 
Bitter. Dose. ^ to 2 drs. in dyspepsia and stoih- 
:.ch diseases. 

TINCTURE OF QUASSIA, (COMP.) Syn. 
Tinct. Quassia comp. Prep. (P. E.) Cardamoms 
and cochineal, bruised, of each, ^ss ; powdered 
cinnamon and quassia chips, of each, 3vj ; raisins 
f vij ; proof spirit 1 quart ; digest for 7 days, or 
percolate. Aromatic and tonic. Dose and use 
as the last. 

TINCTURE OF RHUBARB. Syn. Tinct. 
Rh^i. Prep. (P. E.) Powdered rhubarb §iiiss ; 
cardamom seeds, bruised, ^ss ; proof spirit 1 quart ; 
digest or percolate. Cordial, stomachic, and laxa- 
tive. Dose. 3j to 5J. 

TINCTURE OF RHUBARB, (COMP.) Syn. 
Tinct. Rh.ei comp., (P. L. & D.) T. Riiabar- 
bari comp., (P. L. 1788.) Prep.—l. (P. L.) Rhu- 
barb, sliced, fiiss ; liquorice root, bruised, 3vj ; 
ginger, bruised, and hay saffron, of each, 3iij ; 
proof- spirit 1 quart ; digest 14 days. A popular 
remedy in diarrhoea and colic, especially of drunk- 
68 



ards. Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 3 drs. ; as a 
purgative, i to 1^ oz. The tincture of rhubarb 
of the shops is mostly inferior, being deficient both 
in rhubarb and spirit. The following forms I hava 
seen extensively used in the wholesale trade : — 2. 
East India rhubarb 20 lbs. ; boiling water q. s. to 
cover it, infuse for 24 hours, then slice the rhu- 
barb, and put it into a cask with moist sugar, 14 
lbs. ; ginger, bruised, 3^ lbs. ; hay saffron 1 lb. ; 
carbonate of potash ^ lb. ; bruised nutmegs ^ lb. ; 
rectified spirit 19 gallons ; water 21 gallons ; ma- 
cerate with frequent agitation for 14 days, decant 
the clear, press, and filter the bottoms. Those 
houses that adhere to the L. Ph. for 1824 substi- 
tute cardamom seeds 5 lbs. for the ginger. 

TINCTURE OF RHUBARB AND ALOES. 
Si/n. Tinct. Rujei et Aloes. Elixir sacrum. 
Prep. (P. E.) Rhubarb §iss ; Socotrine or East 
Indian aloes 3vj ; cardamom seeds 3v ; proof spirit 
1 quart ; macerate 7 days, or percolate. A warm 
stomachic purgative. Dose. ^ oz. to 1 oz. 

TINCTURE OF RHUBARB AND GEN- 
TIAN. Syn. Tinct. Rh^i et Gentian^e, (P. 
E.) T. Rh^i amara. Prep. (P. E.) Rhubarb 
^ij ; gentian fss ; proof spirit 1 quart. As last. 
Stomachic, tonic, and purgative. Dose. 1 dr. to 
1 oz. 

TINCTURE, RUSPINI'S. Prep. Orris root 
^viij ; cloves §j ; ambergris 9j ; rectified spirit 1 
quart ; digest for 14 days. A fzishionable denti- 
frice. 

TINCTURE OF SAFFRON. Syn. Tinct. 
Crocl Prep. (P. E.) Hay saffron ^ij ; proof 
spirit 1 quart ; digest or percolate. Stimulant, 
and emmenagogue. Dose. 1 to 2 drs. Chiefly 
used for its color and flavor. 

TINCTURE OF SENNA, (COMPOUND.) 
Syn. Tinct. Senn.e comp., (P. L. E. & D.) Elix- 
ir Salutis. Prep. — 1. (P. L.) Senna §iiiss ; cara- 
way seeds 3iiiss ; cardamom seeds 5j ; raisins §v ; 
proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days, (or per- 
colate, P. E.) — 2. (P. E.) Sugar fuss ; coriander 
seeds ^j ; jalap 3vj ; raisins and senna, of each, 
5iv ; caraways and cardamoms, of each, 3v ; proof 
spirit 1 quart. As last. — 3. (Wholesale.) Senna 
6 lbs. ; treacle 2 lbs. ; caraways | lb. ; carda- 
moms \ lb. ; rectified spirit and water, of each, 4 
gallons ; as before. Carminative, stomachic, and 
purgative. Dose. :J to 1 oz. 

TINCTURE OF SERPENTARY. Syn. 
Tinct. of Snake Root. T. Serpentarl«, (P. L. 
E. «So D.) Prep. Serpentary ^iiiss ; proof spirit 1 
quart ; macerate for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.) 
Tonic and diaphoretic. Dose. 1 to 3 drs. 

TINCTURE OF SQUILLS. Syn. Tinct. 
SciLL.^, (P. L. E. D.) Prep. (P. L.) Dried squUls 
(fresh) fv ; proof spirit 1 quart ; "macerate for 14 
days, (or percolate, P. E.) Expectorant and diu- 
retic. Dose. 10 to 30 drops, in chronic coughs, 
and other bronchial affections. 

TINCTURE OF STRAMONIUM. Syn. 
Tinct. of Thorn Apple. T. Stramonil Prep. 
(P. U. S.) Bruised stramonium seeds §ij ; proof 
spirit ^x-^-j ; digest for 6 days. Anodyne. Dose. 
10 to 20 drops, in neuralgia, rheumatism, &lc. 
Said to be superior to laudanum. 

TINCTURE OF VALERIAN. Syn. Tinct. 
Valeriana, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) Va- 
lerian root §v ; proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate 14 



TIS 



538 



TOB 



days, (or percolate, P. E.) Tonic and antispas- 
medic Dose. 1 to 3 drs in hysteria, epilepsy, 
&c. 

TINCTURE OF VALERIAN, (COMP.) 
Syn. Ammoniated Tincture of Valerian. Vo- 
latile DO. DO. TiNCT. Valeriana Comp., (P. L.) 
T. Valeriana Ammoniata, (P. E. & D.) Prep. 
(P. L.) Valerian §v; aromatic spirit of ammonia 
1 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or percolate P. E.) 
Stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic. Dose and 
use as the last. The tincture of the shops is gen- 
erally made with only 1 lb. of the root to the gal- 
lon. 

TINCTURE OF ACETATE OF ZINC. 
Syn. Tinct. Zinci Acetatis. Prep. (P. D.) 
Acetate of potash and sulphate of zinc, of each, 
§j ; rub together, then add rectified spirit f §xvj, 
and macerate for a week. Astringent. Diluted 
with water, it is used as a collyrium and injection. 

TINCTURES, CONCENTRATED. Syn. 
Tinct. CjONCENTRATiE Haenli. Prep. (Baden Ph.) 
These are much stronger than ordinary tinctures, 
and are thus prepared : — Digest 8 parts of the vege- 
table powder in 16 of spirit of wine 0-857 for 4 
days at 72° F., stirring occasionally. Then press 
and filter. Add to the residue as much spirit as it 
has absorbed, press, and filter. Mix the liquors, 
the weight of which should be 16 parts. In this 
way are prepared concentrated tinctures of aco- 
nite leaves ; arnica and chamomile flowers ; bella- 
donna, conium, digitalis, hyoscyamus, peppermint, 
and savine leaves ; ipecacuanha and valerian 
roots, &c. 

TINCTURES, ETHEREAL. Syn. Tinct. 
iETHERE^. Prep. (P. Cod.) 1. Ethereal Tinc- 
ture OF Aconite. Powdered aconite leaves §j ; 
sulphuric ether ^iv, (f f vj.) It is best prepared by 
percolation in a cylindrical glass vessel furnished 
with a stopper, and terminating at the lower end 
in a funnel, which is to be obstructed with a little 
cotton. The powder being introduced over the 
cotton, pour on it enough ether to moisten it, put 
in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of a bot- 
tle, and leave it for 48 hours. Then add gradually 
the rest of the ether, and, lastly, enough water to 
displace the ether absorbed. *^* In a similar 
manner are prepared the ethereal tinctures of ar- 
nica flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, to- 
bacco, pellitory, snlanum, valerian, stramonium, 
^c, of the Paris C^dex. 

2. Ethereal Tincture of Ambergris. Am- 
bergris §j ; sulphuric ether fiv, (f ^vj ;) macerate 
in a stoppered bottle for 4 days, and filter in a 
covered funnel. *^* In a similar way are made 
the ethereal tinctures of asafostida, cantharides, 
(§ij to acetic ether fviij,) castor, musk, amber, 
tolu, tf-c, of the P. Codex. 

3. Ethereal Tincture of Perchloride of 
Iron. (Restuchefs Tincture.) Perchloride of 
iron, (dried,) 3j ; spirit of sulphuric ether f 3ix ; 
dissolve. 

TINCTURES FOR KITCHEN USE. (See 
Essences.) 

TISANES. Syn. Ptisans. Fluid medicines, 
consisting for the most part of aqueous infusions, 
or decoctions of substances possessing little activi- 
ty, and intended to bo drunk in conKideral)le quan- 
tity. They are much used in France. Thoy may 
be readily formed by slightly medicating barley, 



rice, or tamarind water, lemonade, &c. (See Ju- 
leps, Decoctions, Infusions, &lc.) 

TITANIUM, (after the Titans of ancient fa- 
ble.) A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth, in 
mechanite, in 1794, but first minutely examined 
by Wollaston, in 1822. It is hard, brittle, and in- 
fusible ; sp. gr. 5'3. It is occasionally found at 
the bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works, 
under the form of minute crystals, having a cop- 
pery lustre. — Oxide of Titanium is a deep purple 
powder, obtained by placing a piece of metallic 
zinc or iron in the muriatic solution of titanic acid. 
— Titanic Acid {peroxide of titanium) is found 
nearly pure in the minerals rutile and anastase. 
It may be obtained from rutile by fusing it in pow- 
der, mixed with 3 times its weight of carbonate of 
potash, powdering and washing the resulting com- 
pound ; dissolving in strong muriatic acid ; dilu- 
ting Avith water, and boiling ; when most of the 
titanic acid falls down, and after being collected 
on a filter must be well washed with dilute muria- 
tic acid. It may also be prepared by calcining 
titanium along with nitre, and decomposing the 
resulting titanate of potassa, as above. Metallic 
titanium is insoluble in all acids, except the nitro- 
hydrochloric, and then only when reduced to very 
fine powder. 

TOBACCO. Syn. Tabac, {Fr.) Tabacum, 
{Lat.) The dried and prepared leaves of the ni- 
cotiana tabacum. The name was given by the 
Spaniards, because it was first seen by them at 
Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, in 
Mexico. (See Snuff.) The cheap tobacco vend- 
ed in the shops is largely adulterated. Tobacco is 
now offered for sale at 3d. per ounce, i. e. 4s. per 
pound, while the duty alone amounts to about 3s. 
3d., thus leaving only 9d. to be divided among the 
grower, the importer, the manufacturer, and the 
retailer ; besides which there is a loss by weighing 
it out in small quantities, and by evaporation. Is 
it possible for this tobacco to be genuine ? It can- 
not be. It is a well-known fact that this tobacco 
is largely adulterated with foreign matter. It is a 
general practice to moisten it with treacle water, 
in which a little saltpetre has been dissolved, for 
the purpose of making it sufficiently adhesive to 
retain the fine sand which is afterwards added, 
and to make it burn well. All this is done to in- 
crease the weight. When other vegetable matter 
is mixed with tobacco, " Bengal safflower (at the 
price of 28s. per cwt.) is preferred. It is infused 
in a weak solution of potassa or ammonia, the for- 
mer giving a dark brown color resembling ' Shag,' 
and the latter a light brown, approaching in ap- 
pearance to ' Returns.' Considerable loss, how- 
ever, having occurred from the vegetable matter 
dissolved out, an improvement has lately been in- 
troduced ; the safflower, having*been moistened, ia 
placed in trays in a cask, into which the ammoni- 
acal gas is allowed to pass. By this process the 
weight is increased, whereas, after the earlier 
methods of preparing it, a loss of one half was sus- 
tained." (Chem. iii. 304.) 

TOBACCO, BRITISH HERB. Syn. Spe- 
cies Sternutori^. Prep. Thynio, marjoram, 
and hyssop, of each 2 oz. ; coltsfoot 3 oz. ; betony 
and eyebright, of each 4 oz. ; rosoniary and laven- 
der, of each 8 oz. ; mix, press together, and cut in 
imitation of manufactured foreign tobacco. 



TRE 



539 



ULM 



TODDY. From various species of palms, by 
f'u'ting off the end of the flowering bud, collect- 
ing the sap, and letting it stand a few hours to 
ferment. 

TOKAY. A luscious, yet agreeable wine, made 
in Hungary. It is preferred in the turbid state, 
and hence it is agitated before pouring it into the 
glass. 

TOMBAC, (WHITE.) Syn. White Copper. 
An alloy of copper and arsenic. (See German 
Silver.) 

TONICS. (From roios, I strengthen.) Medi- 
cines that increase the tone of the muscular fibre, 
and impart vigor to the system. The principal 
mineral tonics are — iron, zinc, copper, silver, ar- 
senic, bismuth, mercury, and the mineral acids. 
The principal vegetable tonics are — cinchona, 
cinchonine, quinine, the vegetable bitters, and some 
of the aromatics. Of the above, iron, bark, and its 
preparations, and the aromatic bitters, are those 
generally employed, and which prove most genial 
to the constitution. 

TONQUIN REMEDY. Syn. Pulvis Trun- 
CHiNENsis. P. Alexipharmicus SINENSIS. Prep. 
Powdered valerian 20 grs. ; musk 16 grs. ; cam- 
phor 6 grs. ; mix. Antispasmodic, alexiterial, in 
doses of 6 to 12 grs. in hooping-cough ; to 1 dr. 
in hydrophobia and exanthemata ; to 3iiss in ma- 
nia. 

TOOTHACHE. This frequently arises from 
sympathy with a disordered stomach. In such 
cases administer a saline purgative, and an emetic 
if required. When cold is the cause, the best 
remedy is a hot embrocation of poppy-heads, fol- 
lowed by the use of flannel. When it arises from 
a hollow or decayed tooth, the best application is 
a piece of lint moistened with creosote, or a strong 
Bpirituous solution of creosote, and closely rammed 
into the cavity of the tooth. Laudanum and tinc- 
ture of pellitory of Spain are also used in the same 
way. To prevent the recurrence of the latter 
kind of toothache, the cavity should be filled with 
an amalgam of gold, or with mineral marmora- 
tum. 

TRACING PAPER. In order to prepare a 
beautiful, transparent, colorless paper, it is best to 
employ the varnish formed with Damara resin in 
the following way : — The sheets intended for this 
purpose are laid flat on each other, and the var- 
nish spread over the uppermost sheet by means of 
a brush, until the paper appears perfectly colorless, 
without, however, the liquid therein being visible. 
The first sheet is then removed, hung up for dry- 
ing, and the second treated in the same way. 
After being dried, this paper is capable of being 
written on, either with chalk and pencil, or steel 
pens. It preserves its colorless transparency with- 
out becoming yellow, as is frequently the case 
with that prepared in any other way ; it is at the 
same time cheap, and the operation gives very 
little trouble. (Verb. d. Gew. V. ru. Koln.) See 
Paper. 

TRAGACANTHIN. Syn. Adragantin. The 
sokible gum of tragacanth. It slightly differs from 
arabine. 

TREACLE, GERMAN. Syn. Extract of 
Juniper Berries. Prep. — 1. (Best.) An evapo- 
rated cold infusion of juniper berries. — 2. (Com- 
mon.) An evaporated decoction of juniper ber- 



ries. Both are sweet-tasted, aromatic, and diu- 
retic. 

TREACLE, VENICE. Syn. Theriaca. 
Theriaca Andromachi (P. L. 1746) consists of 61 
ingredients, and contains 1 grain of opium in 75. 
The theriaca of P. Cod. consists of 72 ingredients, 
and contains gr. j of opium in 72. For these the 
following may be substituted : Theriaca edinensis, 
(P. E. 1744.) Serpentary root ^vj ; valerian and 
contrayerva roots, of each §iv ; aromatic powder 
^iij ; guaiacum, resin, castor, and nutmeg, of each 
§ij ; saffron and opium, (dissolved in a little wine,) 
each §j ; clarified honey ^Ixxv ; reduce all the diy 
ingredients to fine powder, then mix. 100 grs. 
contain 1 gr. of opium. 

TUNGSTEN. (From tung sten, Swed., heavy 
stone, from the density of its ores.) Syn. Wool- 

FRAM. WOOLFRAMIUM. ScHEELIUM. TuNGSTE- 

num. a heavy, gray, brittle metal, discovered by 
Messrs. Delhuyart. Its sp. gr. is 17-35. It occurs 
in the mineral woolfram, united with oxygen, 
(tungstic acid,) manganese, and iron, from which 
it m.ay be obtained by the action of charcoal or 
hydrogen gas, assisted by heat. It is, however, 
more conveniently obtained by treating tungstic 
acid as above. Tungstic acid is a yellow powder, 
obtained by digesting native tungstate of lime, 
finely powdered, in nitric acid. It is insoluble in 
water, but soluble in a concentrated solution of pure 
potassa, forming tungstate of potassa. 

TURMERIC. The root of the curcuma longa 
and rotunda, a plant which grows in the East In- 
dies. Its coloring principle is called curcumine. 
Turmeric is employed to give a fugitive golden 
yellow with weld, and an orange tinge to scarlet. 
It dyes wool and silk, mordanted with common 
salt or sal ammoniac, a fugitive yellow. 

TURPENTINE, CHIO, (FACTITIOUS.) 
Syn. Terebinthina Chia Factitia. Prep. Black 
rosin 7 lbs. ; melt, remove the heat, and stir in 
balsam of Canada 7 lbs. Some add a few drops 
of the oils of fennel and juniper. This article is 
now very generally sold in trade for genuine Chia 
turpentine. 

TURPENTINE, VENICE. Syn. Terebin- 
thina Veneta. Genuine Venice turpentine is the 
product of the Larix Europaea, but this is now 
scarcely ever met with in trade. That of the 
shops is wholly a factitious article, made as fol- 
lows : — Black rosin 48 lbs. ; melt, remove the heat, 
and add oil of turpentine 2 gallons. 

TUTTY. Syn. Tutia. Tuthia. Impure Ox- 
ide OF Zinc. The sublimate that collects in the 
chimneys of the furnaces in which ores of zinc are 
smelted. Drying : astringent. Used in eye-wa- 
ters and ointments. 

TYPE METAL. Prep. Lead 3 parts ; anti- 
mony 1 part ; melted together. Small types are 
usually made of a harder composition than large 
ones. A good stereotype metal is said to be made 
of lead 9 parts ; antimony 2 do. ; bismuth 1 do. 
This alloy expands as it cools, and consequently 
brings out a fine impression. 



ULMIN. Syn. Ulmic Acid. This name has 
been given to a peculiar substance examined by 
Klaproth in 1802, and which was a spontaneous 
exudation from the trunk of a species of elm, (UI- 
mus nigra.) It has since been observed on many 



ULT 



540 



URA 



other trees. When dry, it is hard, blackish, resin- 
ous, readily soluble in the mouth, but insoluble in 
alcohol and ether. It may be formed artificially 
by heating caustic potassa with wood, by the ac- 
tion of sulphuric acid on vegetable matter, and by 
combining gallic acid with ammonia and exposing 
the compound to oxygen. 

ULTRAMARINE. Syn. Ultramarine Blue. 

CCERULEUM UlTRAMONTANUM, (Lat.) OUTRE- 

MER, (Fr.) Ultramarins, (6rer.) This beautiful 
pigment is obtained from the blue mineral lazulite 
or lapis lazuli ; the finest specimens of which are 
brought from China, Persia, and Great Bu- 
charia. Prep. Lapis lazuli (reduced to fragments 
about the size of a pea, and the colorless pieces re- 
jected) lb. j, is heated to redness, quenched in wa- 
ter, and ground to an impalpable powder ; to this 
is added, yellow rosin 6 oz. ; turpentine, beeswax, 
linseed oil, of each 2 oz. ; previously melted to- 
gether, and the whole made into a mass ; this is 
kneaded in successive portions of warm water, 
which it colors blue, and from whence it is deposit- 
ed by standing, collected, well washed with clean 
water, dried, and sorted according to its qualities. 
Some persons prefer leaving the pieces of wax for 
14 or 15 days in the water before kneading them ; 
the first water, which is usually dirty, is thrown 
away ; the second gives a blue of the first quality ; 
and the third yields one of less value. The process 
is founded on the property which the coloring mat- 
ter of azure -stone has of adhering less firmly to the 
resinous cement than the foreign matter with which 
it is associated. When azure-stone has its color 
altered by a moderate heat, it is reckoned bad. 
The price of ultramarine of the richest shade of 
blue is 4 to 5 guineas per oz. Genuine ultrama- 
rine, as well as lazulite, when heated to a full red, 
does not change color. Ultramarine is the most 
splendid and permanent blue pigment the painter 
possesses, and works well in oil. 

ULTRAMARINE ASHES. Syn. Saunder's 
Blue. Obtained from the resinous mass of the last 
process after> it has yielded all its ultramarine, by 
melting it with fresh oil, and kneading it in water 
containing a little potash or soda ; or by burning 
away the wax and oil of the mass, and well grind- 
ing and washing the residue with water. Inferior 
to ultramarine. 

ULTRAMARINE, FACTITIOUS. Accord- 
ing to Gmelin, of Tubingen, sulphuret of sodium 
is the coloring principle of lapis lazuli, to which the 
color of ultramarine is owing ; but, according to 
Eisner and Tirnmon, a minute quantity of sul- 
phuret of iron is an essential ingredient. The 
above, and several other chemists, have succeeded 
in preparing artificial ultramarine, by heating sul- 
phuret of sodium with a mixture of silicic acid and 
alumina. In these cases it is said that a minute 
quantity of iron is derived from the alum, (Tirn- 
mon ;) but it appears doubtful whether the color 
can clf'pf'ud on tlie presence of so small a portion 
of that metal. The finer specimens of artificial 
ultramarine are quite equal in durability and beauty 
of color to that prepared from lazulite, while it is 
much less expensive. In Paris it fetches GO francs, 
or about 2 guineas a pound. 

Prep. I. (Tirnmon.) Crystallized carbonate of 
Boda 1075 grs. ; apply a gentle heat, and when 
fused in its water of crystallization, shako in 



finely-pulverized orpiment 5 grs., and when partly 
decomposed, add as much gelatinous hydrate of 
alumina as contains 7 grs. of anhydrous alumina ; 
finely-sifted clay 100 grs., and flowers of sulphur 
221 grs., are then to be added, and the whole 
placed in a covered crucible, and at first gently 
heated to drive off the water ; and as soon as this 
is effected, raised to redness. The heat must be 
so regulated that the mass only " sinters" to- 
gether without fusing. The mass must be then 
cooled, finely pulverized, suspended in river water, 
and brought upon a filter. The product has now 
a beautiful delicate green or bluish color. It must 
next be heated in a covered dish, and stirred about 
from time to time, till the temperature reaches 
that of dull redness, at which it must be kept for I 
or 2 hours. If the heat of the first calcination 
has been properly regulated, the whole of the mass 
taken from the crucible will have a uniform color ; 
but if too little heat has been used, and the ingre- 
dients have not been properly mixed, there will be 
colorless parts, which should be rejected ; if too 
much heat has been used, or the mass allowed to 
fuse, brown parts will appear, especially if the 
crucible is of a bad kind, or easily destroyed. 
(Compt. Rend., Mai 1842, p. 761.) 

II. (Gmelin.) Sulphur 2 parts ; dry carbonate 
of soda 1 part ; mix well, gradually heat them in a 
covered crucible to redness till the mixture fuses, 
then sprinkle in by degrees another mixture of si- 
licate of soda and aluminate of soda, (containing 
72 parts of silica, and 70 parts of alumina,) and 
continue the heat for 1 hour longer. The product 
contains a little free sulphur, which may be sepa- 
rated by water. 

III. (M, Robiquet.) By heating to redness a 
mixture of pure kaolin, sulphur, and carbonate 3f 
soda. 

IV. Artificial ultramarine is occasionally formed 
in preparing Antim. diaphor. ablutum, and fre- 
quently also in the preparation of milk of sulphur. 
When chlorated water is added to a solution of 
sulphuret of potassium made with common potash 
and sulphur of commerce, green or blue flakes are 
thrown down. The earthen vessels in which the 
melting process has been effected, no doubt afford 
the alumina, silica, and iron. (Jahr. fiir Prakt. 
Pharm., iv. p. 83.) 

URAMILE. A product of the decomposition 
t)f thionuric acid, discovered by Wohler and Lie- 
big. It is obtained by treating a hot saturated so- 
lution of thionurate of ammonia, with hydrochloric 
acid in excess, and boiling till a slight turbidity is 
observed, when the whole is converted into a semi- 
fluid mass. Crystalline or pulverulent. Soluble in 
boiling water and alkalis. 

URAMILIC ACID. A product of the decom- 
position of uramile, discovered by Wohler and Lie- 
big. A saturated solution of thionurate of annno- 
nia in cold water, is mixed with a small quantity of 
sulphuric acid, and the mixture evaporated in a 
water-bath, when crystals of uramilic acid are 
slowly deposited. Soluble in water; with the al- 
kalis it forms crystallizablo salts, called urmnilatea, 

URANIUM. Syn. Uuanitk. A metal discov- 
ered by Klaproth iii 1789, and named after the 
planet Uranus, which was discovered about the 
same time. It occurs in the peclihleiidt of Saxony, 
and the uranite of Cornwall. Uranium may be 



URI 



541 



VAL 



extracted from the former mineral by heating it to 
redness, cooling, powdering, digesting it in nitric 
acid diluted with 3 or 4 parts of water, in quantity 
insufficient to dissolve the whole, passing sulphuret- 
ed hydrogen through the solution, boiling to expel 
free sulphurous gas, concentrating by evaporation, 
and setting tiie remaining fluid aside to crystallize, 
when beautiful lemon-colored crystals of pernitrate 
of uranium are slowly deposited. These cr)'stals, 
exposed to a strong heat, yield protoxide of ura- 
nium, (green oxide,) which, by exposure to hydro- 
gen gas and heat, are reduced, and metallic ura- 
nium remains. (Arfwedson.) It is a brittle, gray, 
or reddish-brown metal ; sp. gr. about 9*0. — Perox- 
ide of uranium (yellow oxide, uranic acid) is pre- 
cipitated as a yellow hydrate, when a pure alkali 
is added to a solution of the pernitrate, and as a 
carbonate when alkaline carbonates are used. It 
is soluble in alkalis in excess, acting the part of a 
feeble acid. The salts of protoxide of uranium are 
characterized by their green color ; those of the 
peroxide by a yellow color. With prussiate of pot- 
ash they yield a reddish-brown precipitate, resem- 
bling prussiate of copper, and with infusion of galls 
a brown one. Sulphureted hydrogen turns the 
solutions of the persalts green. 

UREA. Syn. Cyanate of Ammonia, (Anom- 
alous.) A crystalline, colorless, transparent sub- 
stance, discovered by Fourcroy and Vauquelin in 
urine, and by Wohler as the first organic com- 
pound artificially produced. 

Prep. I. (Thenard.) Fresh urine, gently evap- 
orated to the consistence of a sirup, is to be treated 
with its own volume of nitric acid at 24 deg. ; the 
mixture is to be shaken and immersed in an ice- 
bath to solidify the crystals of supernitrate of urea ; 
these are washed w^ith water at 0, drained, and 
pressed between sheets "of blotting paper. When 
they are thus separated from foreign matters, they 
are to be dissolved in water, to which subcarbon- 
ate of potash is added, whereby the nitric acid is 
taken up, and the urea set at liberty. This new 
hquor is evaporated at a gentle heat, nearly to dry- 
ness ; the residue is treated with pure alcohol, 
which only dissolves the urea, the solution is con- 
centrated, and the urea crystallizes. 

II. (Liebig.) See Cyanate of Ammonia, p. 57. 

*** Urea has the sp. gr. 1*3.3, is freely soluble in 
water and alcohol, fuses at 250°, and is decom- 
posed at higher temperatures. It is said to be di- 
uretic, and has been given in the dose of a gros, 
dissolved in sugared water. 

URIC ACID. Syn. Lithic Acid. An acid 
discovered by Scheele, and peculiar to the urine 
of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents 
and several birds of prey. The fasces of the boa 
constrictor consist of little else than urate of am- 
monia. Uric acid forms one of the commonest 
varieties of urinary calculi, and of the red gravel 
or sand, which is voided in certain morbid states of 
the urine. Guano, which is largely imported for 
manure, is also composed in greater part of urate 
of ammonia : hence its immense powers as a fer- 
tilizer of the soil. 

Prep. Dissolve urinary calculi, or the chalk- 
like excrement of serpents, reduced to fine pow- 
der, in a solution of caustic potassa, by boiling, add 
muriatic acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes, 
and well mix the precipitate with water 



Prop.,Tests, ^'C. Brilliant small scales, white and 
silky, tasteless, inodorous, slightly soluble in boiling 
water, soluble in strong sulphuric acid, and again 
precipitated by water, it forms salts with the bases 
called urates. The characteristic of uric acid is, 
that, when moistened with nitric acid and heated, 
it dissolves, and by evaporation yields a red com- 
pound, which, upon the addition of a drop or two 
of solution of caustic ammonia, becomes of a fine 
crimson, {purpurate of ammonia.) 

URIC OXIDE. Syn. Xanthic Oxide. A 
rare constituent of urinary calculi, discovered by 
Marcet. 

USQUEBAUGH. Syn. Escubac. A strong 
compound liquor, much drunk in Ireland, and 
made in the greatest perfection at Drogheda. 

Prep. I. (Yellow.) a. Brandy or proof spirit 3 
gallons ; hay saffron and juniper berries, of each 1 
oz. ; dates, without their kernels, and raisins, of 
each, bruised, ^ lb. ; mace, cloves, coriander, and 
aniseed, of each | oz. ; cinnamon ^ oz. ; digest till 
sufficiently flavored and colored ; filter, and add 
capillaire, or simple sirup, 1 gallon. — b. Proof spl;lt 
1 gallon; stoned raisins 1 lb.; cinnamon, cloves, 
and nutmegs, of each ^ oz. ; aniseed 1 oz. ; hay 
safii-on i oz. ; brown sugar 2 lbs. ; rind of 1 or- 
ange ; digest 14 days, then filter or clarify. — c. Pi- 
mento and caraways, of each 3 oz. ; mace, cloves, 
and nutmegs, of each 2 oz. ; aniseed, coriander, 
and angelica root, of each 8 oz. ; hay saflTron 3 oz. ; 
raisins, stoned and bruised, 14 lbs. ; proof spirit 9 
gallons ; digest 14 days, with frequent agitation, 
then press, filter, or clarify, and add simple sirup 
q. s. Should it turn milky, add a little strong 
spirit, or clarify it with alum, or filter tlu-ough 
magnesia. 

11. (Green.) As the above, but using sap green 
to color, instead of saffron. 



VACCIXE MATTER. Collected either upon 
lancets, or by opening the pustule, and applying a 
small glass ball and tube (like those called by the 
boys in London candle pops, or fire pops) to the 
opening, expelling part, of the air in the ball by 
bringing a lighted taper near it, then withdrawing 
the taper the matter is drawn into the ball, in 
which it may be sealed up hermetically or cement- 
ed, and thus kept for a length of time. It is also 
commonly preserved between two small pieces of 
glass. Used lately for an absolute preventive, of 
the smallpox, but now with a view of diminishing 
the susceptibility of acquiring that disease, and to 
render it milder if acquired. The matter may be 
liquefied with a little clean water. Smallpox mat- 
ter is collected in the same way. Used occasion- 
ally to communicate the disease, under favorable 
circumstances, instead of hazarding it being ac- 
quired under unfavorable ones. ' Both of these 
matters are applied in the way described mider 
Inoculation. 

VALERIANIC ACID. A volatile, fatty acid, 
obtained by distilling valerian root along with wa- 
ter, and acting on the product with caustic potassa, 
when valerianate of potassa is formed, and a vola- 
tile oil is separated ; by evaporating to dryness, the 
latter is dissipated, and the dry mixture, treated 
with dilute sulphuric acid and distilled, yields an 
aqueous solution of valerianic acid. By careful 
redistillation it may be deprived of water. Vale- 



VAR 



542 



VAR 



rianic acid may also be produced artificially, by 
heating fused potassa along with the oil of potato, 
or corn spirit, (hydrated oxide of amule,) when 
valerianate of potassa is obtained, the acid of 
which is identical in all respects with that obtained 
from the root of Valeriana Officinalis. (Liebig.) 
*j^* Colorless, limpid, oleaginous ; boils at 270° ; 
soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 30 parts of 
water ; smells strongly of valerian ; with the bases 
it forms salts called Valerianates, most of which 
are soluble. 

VANADIUM. (From Vanadis, a Scandina- 
vian idol.) A rare metal discovered by Sefstom, 
in 1830, in some Swedish iron, extracted from an 
iron mine near Jonkoping. It has since been found 
in a lead ore from Scotland. It is white, brittle, 
very difficult of reduction, and soluble in nitric and 
nitromuriatic acids, with which it yields dark blue 
colored solutions. Vanadium is obtained from the 
native vanadate of lead, by dissolving the ore in 
nitric acid, passing sulphureted hydrogen through 
the solution, to throw down lead and arsenic, and 
evaporating the resulting blue liquid to dryness ; 
the residuum is then dissolved in a solution of am- 
monia, and a piece of sal ammoniac, considerably 
larger than can be dissolved, introduced ; as the 
latter dissolves, a pulverulent precipitate of vana- 
date of ammonia is formed, which must be washed, 
first in a solution of sal ammoniac, and then in al- 
cohol of 0-860. By exposing this salt, in an open 
platinum crucible, to a heat a little below redness, 
and keeping it constantly stirred, until it acquires 
a dark red color, pure vanadic acid is obtained. 
(Johnston.) From this acid metallic vanadium 
may be procured, by placing fused fragments of it, 
and potassium, of equal size, in alternate layers, 
in a porcelain crucible, the potassium being in the 
largest proportion, and after well luting on the 
cover, heating it carefully over a spirit-lamp ; the 
cooled mass must then be washed with water. 
(Berzelius.) — Protoxide of vanadium is obtained 
by acting on vanadic acid by heat and charcoal, or 
hydrogen j^as. Black. — Binoxide of vanadium, 
by heating to dull redness a mixture of 10 parts of 
the protoxide and 12 of vanadic acid, in an atmo- 
sphere of carbonic acid gas, or out of contact with 
air and combustible matter. It is also formed by 
heating vanadate of ammonia in close vessels. A 
black powder. It is ppecipitated as a grayish-white 
hydrate from its solutions, by carbonate of soda in 
shght excess. — Vanadic acid (peroxide) is orange- 
colored, scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with 
the alkaline bases, soluble salts, called Vanadates, 
and with the other bases, sparingly soluble salts. 
All of these have an orange or yellow color. Va- 
nadium is distinguished from chromium by deox- 
idizing substances giving a blue color to solutions 
of /the former, but a green one to solutions of the 
latter. — " Vanadate of ammonia, mixed with solu- 
tion of galls, forms a black fluid, which is the best 
writing ink hitherto known. The quantity of the 
salt required for this purpose is very small ; the 
writing is perfectly black, and not obliterated by 
alkalis, acids, chlorine, or other reagents, that at 
the same time will not destroy the pai)er." (Ure.) 

VAN SWIETEN'S DROPS. A solution of 
corrosive sublimate. (See Solution ok Biciilo- 
KiDR or Mkiicurv, p. L.) 

VARNISH. Syn. Vkrnis, (Z'V.) Fikniss 



(Ger.) A solution of resinous matter, which, when 
spread thin upon the surface of a solid body, be- 
comes dry, and forms a glossy, transparent coating, 
impervious to air and moisture. Varnishes may 
be conveniently divided into two kinds, viz., spirit 
and oil varnishes. Concentrated alcohol is used 
as the solvent in the former, and fixed or volatile 
oils, or mixtures of the two, for the latter. The 
sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose of making var- 
nishes should not be greater than 0-820. Camphor 
is often dissolved in it to increase its solvent powers. 
The oil of turpentine, which is the essential oil 
chiefly employed, should be pure and colorless. 
Pale drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally 
used for varnishes, but poppy and nut oil are also 
occasionally employed. Among the substances 
which are dissolved in the above menstrua are, — 
turpentine, copal, mastich, lac, elemi, sandarach, 
anime, and amber, to impart body and lustre ; ^ 
benzoin to impart scent ; gamboge, turmeric, saf- 
fron, annotto, and Socotrine aloes, to give a yel- 
low color ; dragon's blood to give a red tinge ; 
asphaltum to give a black color and body ; caout- 
chouc to impart body, toughness, and el'dsticity. 

In the preparation of Spirit Varnishes, care 
should be taken to prevent the evaporation of the 
alcohol as much as possible, and also to presen'^e 
the portion that evaporates. On the large scale, a 
common still, mounted with its head and connected 
with a proper refrigerator, should be employed. The 
capital should be furnished with a stuffing-box, to 
permit of the passage of a vertical rod, connected 
with a stirrer at one end, and a working handle at 
the other. The gum and spirit being introduced, 
and the head of the still closely fitted on and luted, 
heat (preferably that of steam or a water-bath) 
should be applied, and the spirit brought to a boil, 
when the heat should be partially withdrawn, and 
agitation continued till tiie gum is dissolved. The 
spirit which has distilled over should be then add- 
ed to the varnish, and, after thorough admixture, 
the whole should be run off* through a silk gauze 
sieve into stone jars, which should be immediately 
corked down, and set aside to clarify. On the 
small scale, spirit varnishes are best made by ma- 
ceration in close bottles. In order to prevent the 
agglutination of the resin, it is often advantage- 
ously mixed with clear silicious sand, or pounded 
glass, by which the surface is much increased, and 
the solvent power of the menstruum promoted. 

In the manufacture of oil varnishes, one of 
the most important points is the use of good drying 
oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should be pale, 
limpid, brilliant, scarcely odorous, and mellow and 
sweet to the taste. — 100 gi^llons of such oil are put 
into an iron or copper boiler, capable of holding 
150 gallons, and gradually heated to a gentle sim- 
mer for 2 hours, to expel moisture ; the scum is 
then carefully removed, and 14 lbs. of scale litharge, 
12 lbs. of red lead, and 8 lbs. of powdered umber, 
(all carefully dried and free from moisture,) are 
gradually sprinkled in ; the whole is then kept well 
stirred, to prevent the driers sinking to the bottom, 
and the boiling is continued, at a gentle heat, for 
3 hours longer ; the fire is next withdrawn, and, 
in 24 to 36 hours, the scum is carefidly removed, 
and the clear supernatant oil decanted from the 
bottom. This forms the best boiled or drying oil. 
Another method is to heat a hogshead of thi >J 



VAR 



543 



VAR 



gradually for 2 hours, then to gently simmer it for 
about 3 hours longer, and, after removing the scum, 
to add gradually 1 lb. of the best calcined mag- 
nesia, observing to mix it up well with the oil, and 
afterwards to continue the boiling pretty briskly 
for 1 hour, employing constant agitation. The fire 
is then albwed to die away, and, after 24 hours, 
the oil is decanted as before. The product is called 
" clarified oil,'" and requires to bo used with driers. 
It should be allowed to lie in the cistern for 2 or 3 
months to clarify. In the preparation of oil var- 
nishes, the " gum" is melted as rapidly as possible, 
without discoloring or burning it ; and when com- 
pletely fused, the oii, also heated to nearly the 
boiling point, is poured in, after which the mix- 
ture is boiled till it appears perfectly homogeneous 
and clear like oil, when the heat is raised, and the 
driers (if any are to be used) gradually and cau- 
tiously scattered in, and the boiling continued, 
with constant stirring, for 3 or 4 hours, or till a lit- 
tle when cooled on a palette knife, feels strong and 
stringy between the fingers. The whole is next 
allowed to cool considerably ; but while still quite 
fluid, the turpentine, previously made moderately 
hot, is cautiously added, and the whole thoroughly 
incorporated. The varnish is then run through a 
filter or sieve into stone jars, cans, or other vessels, 
and set aside to clarify by subsidence. When no 
driers are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boil- 
ed till it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed 
from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, the 
turpentine is added as above. It is generally con- 
ceived that the more perfectly the " gum'''' is fused, 
or •' rMTi," as it is called, the greater and stronger 
will be the product ; and the longer the boiling of 
the " gum" and oil is continued, within modera- 
tion, the freer the varnish will work and cover 
when made. An excess of heat renders the varnish 
" stringy," and injures its flowing qualities. For 
pale varnishes as little heat as possible should be 
employed throughout the whole process. Body 
varnisbef} should contain 1^ lbs. ; carriage, wain- 
scot, and mahogany varnish 1 lb. ; and gold size, 
and bla'^k japan, fully ^ lb. of " gum" per gallon, 
besides the aspha'tum in the latter. The use of 
too much driers injures the brilliancy and trans- 
parency of the varnish. Copperas does not com- 
bine with varnish, but only hardens it ; sugar of 
lead does. I am informed that boiling oil of tur- 
pentine combines very readily with melted copal, 
and that it is an improvement to use it, either be- 
fore or in conjunction with the oil, in the prepara- 
tion of copal varnish that is desired ven,' white. 
All varnishes require age before use. Trans, of 
the Soc. of Arts, vol. 49 ; and Copal, Amber, 
Caoutchouc. 

*^* From the inflammable nature of the mate- 
rials of which varnishes are composed, their manu- 
facture should be only carried on in a detached 
building, that is of little value, and built of unin- 
flammable materials. When a pot of varnish, 
gum, or turpentine, catches fire, it is most readily 
extinguished by closely' covering it with a piece of 
stout woollen carpeting, which should be always 
kept ready for the purpose. 

t+t To irive lustre to varnish after it is laid on, 
it is rubbed with pumice-stone very finely powder- 
ed, and water ; which being dried with a cloth, 
the work is afterward patiently rubbed with an 



oiled rag and tripoli, till the required polish is pro* 
duced. The surface is last of all cleaned with soft 
linen cloths, cleared of all greasiness with powder 
of starch, and rubbed bright with the palm of the 
hand. 

IFj^lT In varnishing, CdiTQ must be taken that 
the surface is free from grease, or smoke ; as un- 
less this is the case, the best oil or turpentine var- 
nish in the world will not dry and harden. Old 
articles are usually washed with soap and water, 
by the painters, before being varnished. 

VARNISH, AMBER. Prep. I. {Pale.) Am- 
ber, pale and transparent, 6 lbs. ; fuse, add hot 
clarified linseed oil 2 gallons ; boil till it strings 
strongly, cool a little, and add oil of turpentine 4 
gallons. Pale as copal varnish ; soon becomes 
very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes; 
but requires time before it is fit for polishing. 
When wanted to dry and harden quicker, " dry- 
ing" oil may be substituted for linseed, or " driers" 
may be added during the boiling. 

II. Amber 1 lb. ; melt, add Scio turpentine ^ 
lb. ; transparent white resin 2 oz. ; hot linseed oil 
1 pint ; and afterwards oil of turpentine q. s. ; as 
above. Very tough. 

III. (Hard.) Melted amber 4 oz. ; hot boiled oil 
1 quart ; as before. 

IV. (Pale.) Very pale and transparent amber 4 
oz. ; clarified linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of 
each 1 pint ; as before. 

*^* Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, 
where a very hard and durable oil varnish is re- 
quired. The paler kind is superior to copal var- 
nish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase 
its hardness and durability. (See Amber.) 

VARNISH, BLACK. Prep. I. {Black am- 
her varnish.) Amber 1 lb. ; fuse, add hot drying 
oil ^ pint ; powdered black rosin, and asphaltum, 
{Naples,) of each 3 oz. ; when properly incorpo- 
rated and considerably cooled, add oil of turpentine 
1 pint. This is the beautiful black varnish of the 
coachmakers. It is also fit for metals. 

II. {Ironwork black.) Asphaltum 48 lbs. ; fuse, 
add boiled oil 10 gallons ; red lead and litharge, of 
each 7 lbs. ; dried and powdered white copperas 3 
lbs. ; boil for 2 hours, then add dark gum amber 
(fused) 8 lbs. ; hot linseed oil 2 gallons ; boil for 2 
hours longer, or till a little of the mass, when cool- 
ed, may be rolled into pills, then withdraw the 
heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of turpen- 
tine 30 gallons. Used for the ironwork of carriages, 
and other nice purposes, 

III. {Black japan.) Naples asphaltum 50 lbs, ; 
dark gum anime 8 lbs. ; fuse, add linseed oil 12 
gallons ; boil, add dark gum amber 10 lbs.; pre- 
viously fused and boiled with linseed oil 2 gallons ; 
add the driers, and proceed as last. Used for wood 
or metals. 

IV. {Brunsicick black.) — a. Foreign asphaltum 
45 lbs. ; drying oil 6 galls, ; litharge 6 lbs. ; boil as 
last, and thin with 25 gallons of oil of turpentine. 
Used for ironwork, &c. — b. Black pitch and gas 
tar asphaltum, of each 25 lbs. ; boil gently for 5 
hours, then add linseed oil 8 gallons ; litharge and 
red lead, of each 10 lbs.; boil as before, apd thin 
with oil of turpentine 20 gallons. Inferior to the 
last, but cheaper. (See Amber Varnish.) 

VARNISH, BODY. Prep. I. Finest African 
copal 8 lbs. ; fuse carefully, add clarified oil 2 gal- 



VAR 



544 



VAR 



Ions ; boil gently for 4^ hoiTrs, or till quite stringy, 
cool a little and thin with oil of turpentine 3^ gal- 
lons. Dries slowly. 

I [. Pale gum copal 8 lbs. ; clarified oil 2 gal- 
lons ; dried sugar of lead ^ lb. ; boil as before, then 
add oil of turpentine 3^ gallons, and mix it, while 
still hot, with the following varnish : — 8 lbs. of pale 
gum anime ; linseed oil 2 gallons ; dried white cop- 
peras \ lb. ; boil as before, and thin with oil of 
turpentine 3^ gallons ; the mixed varnishes are to 
be immediately strained into the cans or cistern. 
Dries in about 6 hours in winter, and 4 hours in 
summer. Used for the bodies of coaches and other 
vehicles. 

VARNISH, CABINET-MAKERS'. Prep. I. 
Very pale shellac 5 lbs. ; mastich 7 oz. ; alcohol, 
of 90§, 5 or 6 pints ; dissolve in the cold with fre- 
quent stirring. Used for French polishing, «Stc. 
It is always opaque. A similar varnish, made 
with weaker spirit, is used by bookbinders to var- 
nish morocco leather book covers. 

II. As the last, but substitute wood naphtha 6 
pints for the alcohol. 

III. {Japanner^s copal varnish.) Pale African 
copal 7 lbs ; fuse, add clarified linseed oil ^ gallon ; 
boil for 5 minutes, remove it into the open Sir, add 
boiling oil of turpentine 3 gallons, mix well, strain 
it into the cistern, and cover it up immediately. 
Used to varnish furniture, and by japanners, 
coachmakers, &c. Dries in 15 minutes, and may 
be polished as soon as hard. (See French Polish.) 

VARNISH, CARRIAGE. I. {Spirit.) San- 
darach 19 oz. ; pale shellac 9 J oz. ; very pale trans- 
parent rosin, 12^ oz. ; turpentine 18 oz. ; alcohol, 
at 85§, 5 pints ; dissolve. Used for the internal 
parts of carriages, &c. Dries in 10 minutes or 
less. 

II. {Best Pale.) Pale African copal 8 lbs. ; fuse, 
add clarified linseed oil 2^ gallons ; boil till very 
stringy, then add dried copperas and litharge, of 
each I lb. ; boil as before directed, thin with oil of 
turpentine 5^ gallons, mix while hot with the fol- 
lowing varnish, and immediately strain the mix- 
ture into a covered vessel : — Gum anime 8 lbs. ; 
clarified linseed oil 2^ gallons; dried sugar of lead 
and litharge, of each \ lb. ; boil as before, thin 
with oil of turpentine 5^ gallons, and mix it while 
hot with the last varnish as above directed. Dries 
in 4 hours in summer and 6 in winter. Used for 
the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches, 
and other vehicles, and by house painters, decora- 
tors, «fec., who want a strong, quick-drying, and 
durable varnish. 

III. {Second Quality.) Sorted gum anime 8 
lbs. ; clarified oil 3 gallons ; litharge .5 oz. ; dried 
and powdered sugar of lead and white copperas, 
of each 4 oz. ; boil as last and thin with oil of tur- 
pentine .5i gallons. 

VARNISH, COPAL. Prep.—l. {Turpentine.) 
Oil of turpentine 1 pint ; set the bottle in a water 
bath, and add in small portions at a time, 3 oz. of 
powdered copal that has been previously melted 
by a gentle heat, and dropped into water ; in a 
few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is 
very pale and durable. Used for pictures, Slc. 

II. {Oil.) Pale hard copal 2 lbs.; fuse, add hot 
drying oil I pint ; boil as before directed, and thin 
with oil of turpentine 3 pints, or q.s. Very palo. 
Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours. 



III. Clearest and palest African copal 8 lbs. ; 
fuse, add hot and pale drying oil 2 gallons ; boil 
till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with 
hot rectified oil of turpentine 3 gallons, and imme- 
diately strain into the store can. Very fine. Both 
the above are used for pictures. 
' IV. {Spirit.) Coarsely-powdered copal and 
glass, of each 4 oz. ; alcohol, of 90§, 1 pint ; cam- 
phor i oz. ; heat it in a water-bath so that the 
bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing fre- 
quently to stir the mixture ; when cold decant the 
clear. Used for pictures. 

V. Copal melted and dropped into water 3 oz. ; 
gum sandarach 6 oz. ; mastich and Chio turpentine, 
of each 2^ oz. ; powdered glass 4 oz. ; alcohol, of 
85§, 1 quart ; dissolve by a gentle heat. Used for 
metal chairs, &c. 

*^* All copal varnishes are hard and durable, 
though less so than those made of amber, but they 
have the advantage over the latter of being paler. 
They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished 
metal, wood, and other objects requiring good 
durable varnish. (See Body and Carriage Var- 
nishes, and Copal.) 

VARNISH, CRYSTAL. Prep. I. Genuine 
pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine, 
equal parts ; mix, place the bottle in warm water, 
agitate well, set it aside, in a moderately warm 
place, and in a week pour off the clear. Used for 
maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper, 
and also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer 
engravings. 

II. Mastich 3 oz. ; alcohol 1 pint ; dissolve. 
Used to fix pencil drawings. 

VARNISH, ETCHING. Prep. I. (Lawrence.) 
White wax 2 oz. ; black and Burgundy pitch, of 
each ^ oz. ; melt together, add by degrees pow- 
dered asphaltum 2 oz., and boil till a drop taken 
out on a plate will break when cold by being bent 
double 2 or 3 times between the fingers ; it must 
then be poured into warm water and made into 
small balls for use. 

II. (Callofs Hard Varnish. Florentine do.) 
Linseed oil and mastich, of each 4 oz. ; melt to- 
gether. 

III. {Callofs Soft Varnish.) Linseed oil 4 oz. ; 
gum benzoin and white wax, of each ^ oz. ; boil to 
two-thirds. 

VARNISH, FURNITURE. Prep. White 
wax 6 oz. ; oil of turpentine 1 pint ; dissolve by a 
gentle heat. Used to polish wood by friction. 
(See Cabinet-makers' and Copal Varnishes.) 

VARNISH, FLEXIBLE. Prep.—l. Indian 
rubber in shavings 1 oz. ; mineral naphtha 2 lbs. ; 
digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved, 
and strain. — 2. Indian rubber 1 oz. ; drying oil 1 
quart ; dissolve by as little heat as possible, em- 
ploying constant stirring, then strain. 3. Linseed 
oil 1 gallon ; dried white copperas and sugar of 
lead, of each 3 oz. ; litharge 8 oz. ; boil with con- 
stant agitation till it strings well, then cool slowly 
and decant the clear. If too thick, thin it with 
quick-drying linseed oil. The above are used for 
balloons, gas bags, &bc. (See Balloon Varnish 
and Caoutchouc.) 

VARNISH FOR GILDED ARTICLES. 
Prep. (Watin.) Gum lac in grains, gamboge, 
dragon's blood, and annotto, of each 12^ oz. ; saf- 
fron 3i oz. ; each resin must' be dissolved separate- 



VAR 



545 



VAR 



y in 5 pints of alcolit)! of 90^, and two separate 
tinctures must be made with the dragon's blood 
and annotto in a like quantity of spirit, and a 
proper proportion of each mixed together to pro- 
duce the required shade. 

VARNISH, ITALIAN. Prep.—h Boil Scio 
turpentine till brittle, powder, and dissolve in oil of 
turpentine. — 2. Canada balsam and clear white 
rosin, of each 6 oz. ; oil of turpentine 1 quart ; dis- 
solve. Used for prints, &c. 

VARNISH, LAC. Prep.—l. Seed lac 8 oz. ; 
alcohol 1 quart ; digest in a close vessel in a warm 
situation for 3 or 4 days, then decant and strain. — 
2. Substitute lac bleached by chlorine for seed lac. 
Both are very tough, hard, and durable ; the last 
almost colorless. Used for pictures, metal, wood, 
or leather. 

VARNISH, LAC. Syn. Lacquer. Prep. I. 
Seed lac 3 oz. ; turmeric 1 oz. ; dragon's blood \ 
oz. ; alcohol 1 pint ; digest for a week, frequently 
shaking, decant and filter. Deep gold colored. 

II. Ground turmeric 1 lb.; gamboge 1^ oz. ; 
gum sandarach 3^ lbs. ; shellac | lb. ; all in pow- 
der ; rectified spirit of wine 2 gallons ; dissolve, 
strain, and add turpentine varnish 1 pint. Gold 
colored. 

III. Spanish annotto 3 lbs. ; dragon's blood 1 
lb. ; gum sandarach 3:^ lbs. ; rectified spirit 2 gal- 
lons ; turpentine varnish 1 quart ; dissolve and 
mix as the last. Red colored. 

IV. Gamboge cut small 1 oz. ; Cape aloes cut 
small 3 oz. ; pale shellac 1 lb. ; rectified spirit 2 
gallons ; as the last. Pale brass colored. 

V. Seed lac, dragon's blood, annotto, and gam- 
boge, of each ^ lb. ; saffron 1 oz. ; rectified spirit 
of wine 5 quarts ; as last. 

*jt* Lacquers are used upon polished metals 
and wood to impart the appearance of gold. As 
they are wanted of different depths and shades of 
color, it is best to keep a concentrated solution of 
each coloring ingredient ready, so that it may at 
any time be added to produce any desired tint. 

VARNISH, MAHOGANY^Prep. Sorted gum 
anime 8 lbs. ; clarified oil 3 gallons ; litharge and 
powdered dried sugar of lead, of each i lb. ; boil 
till it strings well, then cool a little, thin with oil 
of turpentine 5^ gallons, and strain. 

VARNISH, MASTICH. Syn. Picture Var- 
NISH. TuRPExMTiNE Varnisii. Prep. — 1. (Fine.) 
Very pale and picked gum mastich, 5 lbs. ; glass 
pounded as small as barley, and well washed and 
4vied, 2J^ lbs. ; rectified turpentine 2 gallons ; put 
them into a clean 4 gallon stone or tin bottle, bung 
down securely, and keep rolling it backwards and 
forwards pretty smartly on a counter or any other 
solid place for at least 4 hours ; when, if the gum is 
all dissolved, the varnish may be decanted, strain- 
ed through muslin into another bottle, and allowed 
to settle. It should be kept for 6 or 9 months be- 
fore use, as it thereby gets both tougher and 
clearer. 

II. (Second Quality.) Mastich 8 lbs. ; turpen- 
tine 4 gallons ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and add 
pale turpentine varnish ^ gallon. 

III. Gum mastich 6 oz. ; oil of turpentine 1 
quart ; dissolve. 

*^* Mastich varnish is used for pictures, &.c. ; 
when good, it is tough, hard, brilliant, and color- 
less. Should it get '* chilled" 1 lb. of well-washed 



silicious sand should be made moderately hot, and 
added to each gallon, which must then be well 
agitated for 5 minutes, and afterwards allowed to 
settle. 

VARNISH, OAK. Prep.— I. Clear pale rosin, 
3i lbs. ; oil of turpentine 1 gallon ; dissolve. — 2. 
Clear Venice turpentine 4 lbs. ; oil of turpentine 5 
lbs. ; mix. Both are good common varnishes for 
wood or metal. 

VARNISH, OIL. Prep.— I. Rosin 3 lbs.; 
melt, add Venice turpefitine 2 lbs. ; pale drying 
oil 1 gallon ; cool a little and thin with oil of 
turpentine 1 quart. — 2. Rosin 3 lbs. ; drying oil ^ 
gallon ; melt and thin with oil of turpentine 2 
quarts. Both the above are good varnishes for 
common work. 

VARNISH, PICTURE. Several varnishes 
are called by this name. Pale copal or mastich 
varnish is generally used for oil paintings, and 
crystal, white hard spirit, or mastich varnish, for 
water-color drawings on paper. 

VARNISH, SPIRIT. Prep. L {Brown 
Hard.) — a. Sandarach 4 oz. ; pale seed lac 2 oz. ; 
elemi (true) 1 oz. ; alcohol .1 quart ; digest with 
agitation till dissolved, then add Venice turpentine 
2 oz. — b. Gum sandarach 3 lbs. ; shellac 2 lbs. ; 
rectified spirit, (65 over proof,) 2 gallons ; dis- 
solve, add turpentine varnish 1 quart ; agitate 
well and strain. Very fine. — c. Seed lac and 
yellow resin, of each 1^ lbs. ; rectified spirit 2 
gallons. 

II. (White Hard.) a. Gum sandarach 5 lbs. ; 
camphor 1 oz. ; rectified spirit (65 over proof) 2 
gallons ; washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass 
2 lbs.'; proceed as in making mastich varnish ; 
when strained add 1 quart of very pale turpentine 
varnish. Very fine. — h. Picked mastich and 
coarsely-ground glass, of each, 4 oz. ; sandarach 
and pale clear Venice turpentine, of each 3 oz. ; 
alcohol 2 lbs. ; as last. — c. Gum sandarach 1 lb. ; 
clear Strasburgh turpentine 6 oz. ; rectified spirit 
(65 over proof) 3 pints ; dissolve. — d. Mastich in 
tears 2 oz. ; sandarach 8 oz. ; gum elemi 1 oz. ; 
Strasburgh or Scio turpentine (genuine) 4 oz. ; 
rectified spirit (65 o. p.) 1 quart. Used on metals, 
&c. Polishes well. 

III. (Soft Brilliant.) Sandarach 6 oz. ; elemi 
(genuine) 4 oz. ; anime 1 oz. ; camphor ^ oz. ; 
rectified spirit 1 quart ; as before. 

*j^* The above spirit varnishes are chiefly ap- 
plied to objects of the toilette, as work-boxes, 
card-cases, &c., but are also suitable to other 
articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, 
that require a brilliant and quick-drying varnish. 
They mostly dry almost as soon as applied, and 
are usually hard enough to polish in 24 hours. 
Spirit varnishes are less durable and more liable 
to crack than oil varnishes. 

VARNISH, STOPPING OUT. Syn. Petit 
Vernis. Prep. Lampblack made into a paste 
with turpentine. Used by engravers. 

VARNISH, TRANSFER. Syn. Mordant. 
Prep. Mastich in tears 6^ oz. ; rosin 12^ oz. ; 
pale Venice turpentine (genuine) and sandarach, of 
each 25 oz. ; alcohol 5 pints ; dissolve as before. 
Used for fixing engravings or lithographs on wood, 
and for gilding, silvering, &c. (See Crystal 
Varnish.) 

VARNISH, TURPENTINE. Prep. MasUch 



VEG 



546 



VEG 



in tears 12 oz. ; pounded glass 5 oz. ; camphor ^ 
oz. ; oil of turpentine 1 quart ; digest with agita- 
tion till dissolved, then add Venice turpentine 
(pure) 1^ oz. ; previously liquefied by a gentle 
heat, mix well, and the next day decant. Very 
fine. Used for paintings. See Mastich. 

VARNISH, WAINSCOT. The same as 
mahogany varnish, but using paler gum and oil. 
(See Oak Varnish.) 

VARNISH, WAX. Prep.—\. (Milk of 
Wax.) White wax (pure) 1 lb. ; melt with as 
gentle a heat as possible, add warm spirit of wine, 
sp. gr. 0-830, 1 pint ; mix perfectly, and pour the 
liquid out upon a cold porphyry slab ; next grind 
it with a muUer to a perfectly smooth paste, with 
the addition of more spirit as required, put the 
paste into a marble mortar, make an emulsion 
with water 3^ pints, gradually added, and strain 
through muslin. Used as a varnish for paintings ; 
when dry, a hot iron is passed over it, or heat is 
otherwise evenly applied, so as to fuse it, and 
render it transparent ; when quite cold it is polish- 
ed with a clean linen cloth. The most protective 
of all varnishes. Many ancient paintings owe 
their freshness at the present day to this varnish. 
Also used for furniture. — 2. Wax 3 oz. ; oil of 
turpentine 1 quart ; dissolve by a gentle heat. 
Used for furniture. 

VARNISH, WHITE. Prep. I. Tender 
copal 7^ oz, ; camphor 1 oz. ; alcohol of 95^, 1 
quart ; dissolve, then add mastich 2 oz. ; Venice 
turpentine 1 oz. ; dissolve and strain. Very white, 
drying, and capable of being polished when hard. 
Used for toys. 

II. Sandarach 8 oz. ; mastich 2 oz. ; Canada 
balsam 4 oz. ; alcohol 1 quart. Used on paper, 
wood, or linen. 

VEGETABLES. Vegetabilia, (P. L.) The 
following general directions are given in the Lon- 
don Pharmacopoeia for the collection and preserva- 
tio "f vegetable substances : 

""Vegetables are to he gathered in dry 
weather, and when no dew nor rain is upon 
them ; they are to be collected every year, and 
any which shall have been longer kept, are to be 
thrown away. 

" Roots, for the most part, are to be dug up be- 
fore their stems or leaves shoot forth. 

" Barks are to be collected at that season in 
which they are more easily separated from the 
wood." Spring is the season here alluded to ; as 
at this time, after the sap begins to ascend, the 
bark is in general very easily separated. 

" Leaves are to be gathered after the flowers 
have expanded, and before the seeds are mature. 

" Flowers are to be gathered when just open- 
ed." The red rose, however, must be gathered 
before the buds are expanded. 

" Seeds are to be collected when they are 
ripe, and before they drop from the plant. They 
ought to be preserved in their seed-vessels." 

Pres. " VEGi'yrABLKs, soon after they are gath- 
ered, except those which are to be used in the 
recent state, are to be lightly spread out, and 
dried as quickly as possible, with a heat so gentle 
that their color will not bo altered ; and then pre- 
served in proper situations or vessels, where the 
light and moisture are excluded. 

" Roots, whicli are required to bo preserved 



fresh, should be buried in dry sand. The Squill 
bulb, before it is dried, is to be denuded of the 
arid coats, and cut transversely into thin slices. 
The corms of colchicum, dug up in July or 
August, should be cut into thin transverse slices, 
dried without heat, or in a very gentle heat, and 
preserved in well -stopped bottles. 

" Pulpy Fruits, if they be unripe, or ripe and 
dried, are to be placed in a damp situation until 
they become soft : then the pulp is to be pressed 
out through a hair sieve ; afterwards boiled with a 
gentle heat, frequently stirring ; and, finally, the 
water evaporated in a water-bath, until the pulp 
acquires a proper consistence. 

" Over the bruised pods of Cassia pour boiling 
water, so as to wash out the pulp, which is to be 
first pressed through a sieve with large holes, and 
afterwards through a hair sieve ; then dissipate 
the water in a water-bath, until the pulp acquires 
a proper consistence. 

" The Pulp or Juice of fresh and ripe fruit 
is to be pressed through a sieve without boiling it." 

" Gum-Resins are to be esteemed the best, 
which occur so free from admixture as not to re- 
quire purification ; but, if they appear less pure, 
boil them in water until they soften, and express 
them through a canvass cloth ; then let the resin- 
ous portion subside, and evaporate the effused 
supernatant liquid in a water-bath, adding towards 
the end the resinous part, and mixing it well into 
one mass with the gummy part. Those gum- 
resins that melt easily, may be purified by en- 
closing them in an ox-bladder, and holding them 
in boiling water (or steam) until they become so 
soft that they can be separated from their im- 
purities through a canvass cloth, by means of a 
press." 

Vegetables and their juices may also he 
preserved by heating in welUclosed vessels. The 
substances to be preserved are to be put into 
strong glass bottles, with necks of a proper size, 
corked with the greatest care, luted with a mix- 
ture of lime and soft cheese, spread on rags, and 
the whole bound down with wires across it. The 
bottles are then placed in an oven, the tempera- 
ture of which is cautiously raised to 212°, or they 
are enclosed separately in canvass bags, and put 
into a copper of water, which is gradually heated 
till it boils, and thus kept for several minutes : the 
whole is then left to cool, and the bottles are 
taken out and carefully examined before they are 
laid by, lest they should have cracked, or the lute 
given way. (See Fruit, Milk, Pickles, Pre- 
serving, Putrefaction, Vegetable Juices, Ve- 
getables for distillation, «Slc.) 

*-(f* The generality of vegetable substances that 
exercise no very marked action on the human 
frame, may be taken in powder, iu doses of a 
drachm, night and morning ; or an ounce, or q. 
s. to impart a moderately strong taste or color 
may be infused, or boiled in 1 pint of water, and a 
wine-glassful or thereabouts, taken 2 or 3 times a 
day. 

VEGETABLES FOR DISTILLATION. 
The Dublin College states that " herbs and flow- 
ers from which oils and distilled ivaiers are to be 
obtained, should be dried as soon as they are col- 
lected." This method, however much recom- 
mended by authority or common usage, is vastly 



VEG 



547 



VEN 



inferior to the plan adopted by the large perfumers 
and many of the wholesale druggists, which con- 
sists in preserving the flowers and herbs by means 
of common salt. The objection which is raised 
against the use of fresh aromatic plants is thus ob- 
viated, while the odors of the products of distilla- 
tion are rendered fully equal or superior to those 
obtained from the dried plant, fruit, or flowers, 
without the great loss and trouble attending the 
drying and preserving of them. Besides, many 
aromatic and odorous substances almost entirely 
lose their properties by drying ; while most of them 
yield more oil, and that of a finer quality, in the 
fresh than in the dried state. The odor of roses, 
elder flowers, and a variety of others, are vastly 
improved by this treatment, and these flowers may 
thus be preserved with ease and safety from sea- 
son to season, or even longer, if required. The 
process simply consists in intimately mixing the 
flowers, or other vegetables, soon after being gath- 
ered, with about ^ their weight, or less, of good 
dry salt, and ramming down the mixture as tight- 
ly as possible into strong casks. The casks should 
then be immediately placed in a cold cellar, and 
covered with boards, on which heavy weights 
should be put to keep the mass tight and close. 

VEGETABLE JUICES, (EXPRESSED.) 
The juices of plants are obtained by bruising the 
fresh leaves in a marble mortar, or in a mill, and 
expressing the juice, which, after defecatioij for 
some hours in a cool situation, is either filtered 
through paper, or strained after coagulating its al- 
buminous matter by heat. Some plants require 
the addition of | of water before pressing. The 
expression of the juice of lemons, oranges, quinces, 
&LC., is facilitated by previously mixing the pulp 
with clean chopped straw. Buckthorn berries, 
mulberries, &lc., after being crushed, between the 
hands, are left 3 or 4 days to undergo a slight fer- 
mentation, before pressing. A very powerful 
screw press is required for this purpose. The pres- 
ervation of the juices of the narcotic plants, and 
some other vegetables, has lately assumed consid- 
erable interest, from these preparations bavins^ 
been proposed as substitutes for the common tinc- 
tures. It appears that the juice of young plants 
just coming into flower, yields only f the amount 
of extract which may be obtained from the same 
quantity of juice expressed from the matured plant, 
or when the flowers are fully blown, and the 
strength of the product is also inferior. The leaves 
alone should be preferably employed, and should 
be exclusively of the second years growth, when 
the plants are biennials. (Squire.) Vegetable 
juices preserved with alcohol, {preserved vegeta- 
ble juices, Sued alcoholati, Alcoholatures,) are 
prepared as follows : — 

I. (Bentley.) Bruise the leaves in a marble mor- 
tar, (on the large scale, in a mill.) and submit them 
to the action of a powerful press ; allow the juice 
to remain for 24 hours in a cold place, then decant 
the clear portion from the feculence, add \ part by 
measure of rectified spirit, (56 over proof,) agitate, 
and in 24 hours again decant the clear, and filter 
It through paper. Keeps well under ordinary cir- 
cumstances. 

II. (Squire.) As the last, but adding to the de- 
canted juice one-half its volume of rectified spirit. 
Keeps as well as the corresponding tinctures. 



III. (Gieseke.) As the last, but using only one- 
fifth rectified spirit, 

IV. To the clear depurated juice, add one-for- 
tieth part by weight of alcohol, in 24 hours filter, 
cork down close, and preserve the bottle sunk up 
to its neck in sand, in a cool cellar. 

Remarks. The juices preserved by Mr. Bentley, 
or after his method, are now those generally em- * 
ployed and approved of by the profession, as may 
be seen from the numerous testimonials from the 
leading medical authorities in their favor. These 
preparations have been extensively tried, and in 
no instance have they failed in producing the most 
decided and characteristic effects of the plants 
from which they are prepared. At a moderate 
temperature they will keep any length of time. 
Occasionally there is a slight tendency to deposite, 
but the sediment has been carefully examined and 
found not to contain any of the medicinal virtues 
of the plant. They are confidently recommended 
by iNIr. Bentley as being superior to most other 
preparations of the like nature, from containing 
less SPIRIT. The commencing dose of the narcotic 
juices is about 5 drops. *^* In the above man- 
ner are prepared the preserved juices of aconite, 
belladonna, colchicum, (corms,) hemlock, henbane, 
foxglove, elaterium, lactuca virosa, taraxacum, 
«&c. 

VEGETATION, METALLIC. Prep. L 
{Tin Tree.) Muriate of tin 3 drs. ; nitric acid 10 
to 15 drops ; distilled or rain water 1 pint ; dis- 
solve in a white glass bottle, and hang in it by a 
thread, a small rod of zinc. 

II. {Lead Tree. Arbor Saturni.) Sugar of lead 
1 oz. ; distilled water 1^ pint ; acetic acid 2 drops ; 
dissolve, and suspend a piece of zinc in it, as be- 
fore. Less lustrous and beautiful than the last. 

III. {Silver Tree. Arbor Diance.) Nitrate of 
silver 2() grs. ; water 1 oz. ; dissolve in a vial, and 
add about ^ dr. of mercury. Very brilliant and 
beautiful. 

*^* In the above experiments, the metals are 
precipitated in an arborescent form. It is curious 
to observe the laminae shoot out, as it were, from 
nothing, assuming forms resembling real vegeta- 
tion. This phenomenon seems to result from a 
galvanic action being set up between the liquid 
and the metals. 

VELVET PAINTING. Any of the ordinary 
non-corrosive pigments or liquid colors, thickened 
with a little gum, may be employed in this art ; 
preference being, however, given to those that pos- 
sess the greatest brilliancy, and which dry withdut 
spreading. 

VENTILATION. It is essential to health 
that the habitations occupied by us should be free 
of impure air and all noxious Vapors. The first 
step towards this end is to effect and maintain a 
liberal circulaticn of fresh air, either by ventila- 
tors, or by reg ilarly opening the windows for 
stated daily periods. The kindling of fires also 
promotes the circulation of atmospheric currents. 
Noxious effluvia may be most effectually removed 
by occasional sprinklings of a solution of chloride 
of lime upon the floors and walls, the windows be- 
ing kept open the while. It is always propei, also, 
that an infected house should be whitewashed 
Lives are sometimes lost by sleeping in a close 
room in which charcoal is burning, the person iii 



VER 



548 



VER 



this case being stifled with the noxious gas. We 
advise that every sleeping apartment should be 
well ventilated, and that no one should go to bed 
with charcoal burning in the grate or stove. (See 
Disinfectants, Fumigation, &c.) 

VERATRINE. Syn. Veratria, (P. L. & E.) 
Veratrina. Sabadillin. a vegetable alkali, 
discovered by Pelletier and Caventou in the seeds 
of veratrum sabadilia, (asagrsea officinalis,) in mea- 
dow saffi-on, and white hellebore. Prep. (P. L.) 
Boil sabadilia seeds lb. ij with rectified spirit 1 gal- 
lon for an hour, in a retort with a receiver fitted 
to it, decant the solution, boil the residue with an- 
other gallon of spirit and that which has distilled, 
pour off the liquor, and boil with fresh spirit a third 
time ; press the sabadilia, distil the spirit from the 
liquors mixed and strained, evaporate the residue 
to the consistence of an extract, boil tWs three or 
more times in water acidulated with a little diluted 
sulphuric acid, and evaporate the strained liquor 
with a gentle heat to the consistence of sirup ; to 
this, when cold, add magnesia to saturation, assid- 
uously stirring, then press and wash two or three 
times ; next dry the residue, and digest it two or 
three times in spirit with a gentle heat, and strain 
as often ; distil off the spirit, boil what remains 
with animal charcoal in water, acidulated with 
sulphuric acid, for ^ hour, strain, well wash the 
charcoal, evaporate the liquors carefully to the 
consistence of sirup, precipitate by ammonia, wash, 
and dry. 

Remarks. Pure veratria is perfectly white ; but 
as usually met with, it has more or less of a brown- 
ish or grayish tint. It is odorous, acrid, uncrystal- 
lizable, fusible at 240° F., scarcely soluble in 
water, sparingly so in ether, but freely soluble in 
alcohol. With the dilute acids it forms salts ; with 
sulphuric acid it strikes an intense red color. A 
dilute acetic solution of veratria is precipitated 
white by tincture of galls and by ammonia, and is 
turned to a superb red by strong sulphuric acid. 
The smallest portion of its powder causes violent 
sneezing. " As an external application, it has been 
efficaciously employed by Majendie in France, 
and Dr. TurnbuU in this country ; but the extrav- 
agant eulogies of the latter have not tended to con- 
firm the reputation of the remedy. From 6 to 12 
grs. dissolved in f §j of alcohol as a liniment, or 30 
grs. mixed with 3j of olive oil and ^j of lard as an 
ointment, have been employed in neuralgia, and 
other painful affections, and in gouty and rheu- 
matic paralysis. If it be internally employed, the 
dose should not exceed one-sixteenth part of a 
grain ; and the action of even this minute dose 
should be watched. In large doses, it is a power- 
ful irritant poison." 

VERATRIC ACID. A crystalline, fusible, 
volatile acid, soluble in alcohol, slightly so in wa- 
ter, and insoluble in ether, found by Merck in the 
seeds of sabadilia. It is obtained by exhausting 
the bruised seed with alcohol and sulphuric acid, 
and precipitating the filtered solution by milk of 
lime ; veratrate of lime remains in solution. This 
salt is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, and the 
veratric acid crystallizes. 

VERDIGRIS. Syn. Diacktate of Copper. 
Subacktate OF DO. Vert-i)E-Gri8, (jPr.) GaiiNs- 
PAN, (Ger.) JEmvoo ; Cupri uiacetas impura, 
(P. L.) When this article is of good quality, " it 



is partly dissolved in water ; and is almost entirely 
soluble in liquor of ammonia, and, with the assist- 
ance of heat, in diluted sulphuric acid." (P. L.) 
" Not above 5§ of impurity should be left." 
(P. E.) (See Acetate of Copper. Ant. See 
Copper.) 

VERDIGRIS, ENGLISH. Prep. I. Blue 
vitriol 24 lbs. ; white vitriol 16 lbs. ; sugar of lea.5 
12 lbs. ; alum 2 lbs. ; all coarsely powdered ; mix, 
and heat them in a pot over the fire till they unite 
into a mass. 

II. (Distilled or crystallized.) Sulphate of 
copper I2i lbs. ; dissolve in water, and add a so- 
lution of 19 lbs. of sugar of lead, or q. s. ; filter, 
evaporate, and crystallize. Both are used as sub- 
stitutes foE. foreign verdigris. 

VERDITER, (BLUE.) Syn. Refiners' Ver- 
diter. Cendres bleues. a blue pigment, ob- 
tained by adding chalk, whitii.,g, or milk of lime, 
to the solution of copper in aquafortis ; or by tritu- 
rating recently precipitated and still moist carbon- 
ate or oxide of copper with hydrate of lime. Prep. 
A quantity of whiting, or milk of lime, is put into 
a tub, and upon this the solution of copper is 
poured. The mixtuYe is to be stirred every day 
for some hours together, till the liquor loses its 
color. The liquor is then to be poured off, and 
more solution of copper is to be added. This is to 
be repeated till the whiting has acquired the proper 
color. Then it is to be washed with water, spread 
on large pieces of chalk, and dried in the sun. 

Remarks. The cupreous solution employed in 
the above process, is made by neutralizing the ni- 
tric solution obtained from the refiners of gold and 
silver, by heating it along with metallic copper. 
For the finest qualities of verditer the lime should 
be of the purest kind, and the cupreous precipitate 
should be carefully triturated with it, after' it is 
nearly dry, by which a fine velvety color is pro- 
duced. The cendres' bleues en pates of the French 
differs from the above mainly in a solution of mu- 
riate of copper being employed, and in the result- 
ing green precipitate being turned blue by the 
action of carbonate of potash. Verditer is eithfr 
dried into a powder, or used as a water color in 
the moist state. 

VERDITER, (GREEN.) The process for 
refiners' verditer frequently miscarries, and a green 
color is produced instead of a blue. It may also 
be obtained by omitting the " blueing up" with 
potash, mentioned above. 

VERMICELLI. This is prepared from a stiff 
paste made of a peculiar, fine kind of granular 
wheat flour called semoule, which is mixed up 
with hot water, and, after being well kneaded, is 
formed into small ribands, cylinders, or tubes, by 
being placed in a vertical cylinder press, the bot- 
tom of which is filled with proper shaped holes, 
through which it is driven by the iron plate or 
" follower" being forced down by means of a pow- 
erful screw. The pieces that protrude are broken 
off, twisted into the desired shape upon paper, and 
dried. (See Macaroni.) 

VERMILION. Syn. Factitious Cinnabar. 
BisuLPHURET OF Mercury. Prep. I. By suhli- 
mation. — a. Mercury 202 parts ; sulphur 33 parts ; 
fuse together by a gentle heat, observing not to 
allow tlie mass to take fire ; when fused, cover 
over the vessel, cool, powder, and sublime in a 



VES 



549 



VIN 



close vessel, so placed in a furnace that the flame 
may freely circulate and play upon it to about half 
its height. The heat should be at first gradually 
applied, and afterwards augmented till the lower 
part of the subliming vessel becomes red hot. 
When cold, the sublimate is broken to pieces, 
ground along with water to a fine powder, elutri- 
ated, passed through a sieve, and dried. Prod. 
About 112§ of the weight of the mercury em- 
ployed. — h. By grinding 170 lbs. of quicksilver and 
50 lbs. of brimstone together, throwing the mixture 
by ladlefuls into heated earthen sublimers, where 
it takes fire ; the superfluous sulphur being con- 
sumed, the mouths of the vessels are then covered 
with tiles, which stops the conflagration, and the 
sublimation commences, which is continued until 
the whole is risen up. 

Remarks. It is said that the rich tone of Chi- 
nese vermilion may be imitated by adding to the 
materials 1§ of sulphuret of antimony, and by di- 
gesting the ground sublimate, first in a solution of 
sulphuret of potassium, and next in diluted muri- 
atic acid, after which it must be well edulcorated 
with water, and dried. 

Prod. 10 lbs. for every 9 lbs. of mercury em- 
ployed. 

II. In the humid way. — a. (Brunnea-.) Pure 
quicksilver 300 parts; pure sublimed sulphur 114 
parts; triturate together for several hours till a 
perfect ethiops is formed, and add gradually-^caus- 
tic potassa 75 parts, dissolved in water 450 parts ; 
continue the trituration for some time, then gently 
heat the mixture in an iron vessel, at first con- 
stantly stirring, but afterwards only from time to 
time, observing to keep the heat at about 113°, or, 
at all events, under 122° F., and to add fresh wa- 
ter to compensate for the portion evaporated. 
When the color begins to redden, great caution is 
requisite to preserve the mixture at the lower tem- 
perature, and to keep the sulphuret of mercury 
perfectly pulverulent ; as soon as the color be- 
comes nearly ^ne, the process must be conducted 
with increased caution, and at a lower heat for 
some hours, or till a rich color is produced, when 
the vermilion must be elutriated with water, to 
separate any particles of metallic mercury, and 
carefully dried. Prod. 332 parts of verrriilion, equal 
in brilliancy to the finest Chinese. 

b. Mercury 300 parts ; sulphur 150 do. ; po- 
tassa 152 do. ; water 450 do. ; proceed as last, 
taking care to keep the heat under 130°. Prod. 
382 parts. *^* Vermilion is a beautiful and per- 
manent red pigment, and works and covers well 
both in oil and water. (See Bisulphuret of Mer- 
cury.) 

VESICANTS. Prep.—l. {Vesicant Taffeta. 
Blistering Cloth. P annus Vesicatorius. Spar- 
adrap Vesicans.) Distil oflPthe ether from a con- 
centrated ethereal tincture of cantharides, melt 
the oily residue with twice its weight of wax, and 
spread it on thin oiled silk, (P. Cod.,) or on cloth 
prepared with wax plaster.* — 2. (Blistering Tis- 
sue. Tela Vesicatoria.) Similar to the last. — 
3. (Blistering paper. Charta Vesicatoria.) As 



* White wax f viij ; olive oil f iv ; melt together, 
and add turpentine ^j- This plaster spread on 
doth forms the Toile preparee d la cire of the 
Fwnch. (Henry and Guibourt.) 



above. — 4. (Blisfering paper. Epispastic do. 
Papier Epispastique. Henry and Guibourt.) 
White wax 8 parts ; olive oil 4 parts ; spermaceti 
3 parts ; turpentine, and powdered flies, of each 1 
part; water 10 parts; boil slowly with constant 
agitation for 2 hours, strain through flannel, with- 
out pressure, and spread the mass beforfi it cools 
on paper. *** All the above are used as substi- 
tutes for the ordinary blistering plaster. 

VESICATORIN. Si/n. Cantiiaridin. Can- 
THARiDES-CAMiMioR. The blistering principle of 
Spanish flies discovered by M. Robiquet. Prep. 
I. Prepare a concentrated tincture of cantharides 
by percolating the powder with alcohol, and aban- 
don it to spontaneous evaporation ; the cantharidin 
slowly crystallizes, and may be purified by wash- 
ing with cold alcohol, boiling with alcohol and an- 
imal charcoal, filtering, and again allowing the 
solution to crystallize. — 2. Digest the aqueous ex- 
tract of cantharides in alcohol, filter, evaporate to 
dryness, digest in sulphuric ether, evaporate, and 
slightly wash the resulting crystals w.th cold alco- 
hol. *^* Micaceous plates resembling spermaceti ; 
fusible, vaporizable ; insoluble in water ; soluble in 
ether, oils, and hot alcohol; powerfiiUy vesicant 
and poisonous. Its vapor, even at ordinary tem- 
peratures, frequently produces temporary blind- 
ness. The 1-lOOth part of a grain, placed on a 
piece of paper, and applied to the edge of the 
lower lip, caused small blisters in 15 minutes, 
which, when rubbed with a little simple cerate, 
extended over a large surface, and covered both 
lips with blisters. (Robiquet.) 

VINEGAR. Syn. Acetum, (Lat.) Vinaigre, 
(Fr.) EssiGSAURE, (Ger.) Vinegar is dilute acetic 
acid, more or less contaminated with gum, sugar, 
and other vegetable matter. 

The ordinary colored vinegar consumed in Eng- 
land (malt vinegar ; acetum, P. L. ; acetum Bri- 
tannicum, British vinegar, P. E.) is prepared from 
malt, or a mixture of malt and barley, which is 
mashed with hot water, and the resulting wort is 
fermented as in the common process of brewing. 
The liquor is then run into barrels, placed end- 
ways, tied over with coarse canvass, and arranged 
side by side in darkened chambers, moderately 
heated by a stove, and properly supplied with air. 
Here it remains till the acetous fermentation is 
nearly complete, which usually occupies several 
weeks, or even months. The vinegar is next run 
oflT into two large tuns, furnished with false hot-, 
toms, on which " rape" (the pressed cake from 
making domestic wines, or the green twigs or cut- 
tings of vines) is placed. One of these vessels is 
wholly, and the other only three-fourths filled. 
The fermentation commences and proceeds more 
rapidly in the latter than in the former tun, and 
the liquor it contains consequently matures sooner. 
When fit for sale, a portion of the vinegar is with- 
drawn from the sma'ler quantity, and its place 
supplied with a like quantity from the full tun, 
and this in its turn is refilled from the barrels before 
noticed. This process is carried on with a number 
of tuns at once, which are all worked in pairs. 
Malt vinegar was formerly wholly made by placing 
the wort in casks, loosely covering the bungholes 
with tiles, and exposing them to the joint action of 
sun and air for several months, till the acetification 
was complete. *** The general properties of this 



VIN 



550 



VIN 



kind of vinegar are well known. Its pleasant and 
refreshing odor is derived from acetic acid and 
acetic ether. Its strength is distinguished by the 
makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22, 24, the last of which is 
the strongest, and usually contains about 4'6§ of 
real acetic acid. Its density varies according to 
the quantity of foreign matter it contains. Sp. gr. 
1-006 to 1-012, (P. E. ;) 1-019, (Phillips ;) 1-0135 
to 1-0251, (Thomson.) This vinegar usually con- 
tains a small quantity of sulphuric acid. 

Wine Vinegar (vinaigre d'Orleans, French vin- 
egar, acetum Gallicum, P. E., acetum vini, P. D.) 
is prepared in wine countries by a similar process 
to that employed for making malt vinegar. That 
prepared from white wine (White Wine Vinegar) 
is most esteemed. It is purer and pleasanter than 
malt vinegaV Sp. gr. 1-014 to 1-022, (P. E. ;) 
1-016, (Phillips.) It usually contains from 5 to 6§ 
of acetic acid. 

German, or quicJc method of making Vinegar. 
We have seen that acetification consists in the 
mere oxidation of alcohol in contact with organic 
matter. This fact has led to the adoption of an 
improved method of making vinegar, which con- 
sists in the direct employment of dilute alcohol, 
and in vastly enlarging the surface of the liquid 
exposed to the air. " This is effected by causing 
a mixture of 1 part of alcohol at 80 per cent., 4 to 
6 parts water, j^-^-^ of ferment, honey, or extract 
of malt, to trickle down through a mass of beech 
shavings steeped in vinegar, and contained in a 
vessel called a vinegar generator (essighilder) or 
graduation vessel. It is an oaken tub, narrower at 
the bottom than at the top, furnished with a loose 
lid or cover, below which is a perforated shelf, 
(colander or false bottom,) having a number of 
small holes loosely filled with packthread about 6 
inches long, and prevented from falling through by 
a knot at the upper end. The shelf is also per- 
forated with four open glass tubes, as air vents, 
each having its ends projecting above and below 
the shelf. The tub at its lower part is pierced 
with a horizontal row of eight equidistant round 
holes, to admit atmospheric air. One inch above 
the bottom is a syphon-formed discharge pipe, 
whose upper curvature stands one inch below the 
level of the air-holes in the side of the tub. The 
body of the tub being filled with beech chips, the 
alcoholic liquor (first heated to between 75° and 
83° F.) is placed on the shelf. It trickles slowly 
down through the holes by means of the pack- 
threads, diffuses itself over the chips, slowly col- 
lects at the bottom of the tub, and then runs off 
by the syphon pipe. The air enters by the cir- 
cumferential holes, circulates freely through the 
tub, and escapes by the glass tubes. As the oxy- 
gen is absorbed, the temperature of the liquid rises 
to 100° or 104° F., and remains stationary at that 
point while the action goes on favorably. The 
liquid requires to be passed three or four times 
through the cask before acetification is complete, 
which is in general effected in from 24 to 36 hours." 
(Pereira, Mat. Med. I. 391-2.) A mixture of about 
80 gallons of water, 9 gallons of spirit of from 44 
to 45g Tralles, and 3 gallons of vinegar, containing 
3-53^ of real acid, forming together 92 gallons, yields 
on an average an almost equal quantity of vinegar, 
from 90 I0 91 gallons, of the above-stated strength. 
(Kno!)i».) 



Wood Vinegar is obtained by the destructive 
distillation of wood in iron cylinders. 

Other Vinegars. — Cider Vinegar. From cider 
worked as malt vinegar. — Sugar Vinegar. Brown 
sugar 4 lbs. to each gallon of water ; worked as 
last. — Gooseberry Vinegar. — From bruised goose- 
berries and brown sugar 1\ lbs. to each gallon of 
water ; worked as last. — Raisin Vinegar. From 
the marc left from making raisin wine. 1 cwt. to 
15 gallons of water, along with a little yeast ; 
worked as malt vinegar. — Pickling Vinegar, (Brit- 
ish white wine do.) As malt vinegar, but paler 
and stronger. — Ale Vinegar, (alegar, acetum cere- 
visise.) From strong pale ale, worked upon fine 
cuttings or rape ; as the last. — Crystal Vinegar 
Pickling vinegar 1 gallon, agitated with fresh-burnt 
animal charcoal for 24 hours, and then decanted 
or filtered. Used for pickles. — Argol Vinegar, 
(acetum ex tartaro.) White argol or cream of tartar 
lb. j ; boiling water 2 gallons ; dissolve, cool, add 
proof spirit 3 pints, and keep it lightly covered in a 
warm place till ripe. White and pleasant. — Ger- 
man household Vinegar. Soft water 7^ gallons ; 
honey or brown sugar 2 lbs. ; cream of tartar 2 
oz. ; corn spirit 1 gallon ; as last. 

*5^* See Acetic Acid, Acetification, Ace- 
TOMETRY, Fermentation, and Pyroligneous Acid. 

VINEGAR, AROMATIC. Syn. Aromatic 
Spirit of Vinegar. Acetum aromaticum. Prep. 
I. (P. Cod.) Acetic acid §xx ; camphor §ij ; oil of 
cloves 3ss ; oils of cinnamon and lavender, of each 
9 drops ; mix. 

II. (Acidum aceticum aromaticum, P. E.) 
Rosemary and origanum, dried, of each §j ; dried 
lavender ^ss ; bruised cloves 3ss ; acetic acid 1^ 
pints ; digest a week, press, and filter. This wants 
the addition of about §iiss of camphor. 

III. {Henry'' s.) Glacial acetic acid strongly 
scented with the oils -of cloves, lavender, rosemary, 
and calamus aromaticus, to which camphor is add- 
ed. This is the formula adopted at Apothecaries' 
Hall. 

IV. Glacial acetic acid 1 lb. ; oil of cloves 3j ; 
oil of rosemary 9ij ; oils of bergamotte and cinrfe- 
mon, of each 3ss ; oil of pimento 24 grs. ; oil of 
lavender 3j ; neroli 10 drops ; camphor ^j ; alco- 
hol §ss ; mix. Very fine. 

V. (Extemporaneous.) Acetate of potash (dry) 
3j ; oil of vitriol 20 drops ; oils of lemons and 



cloves, of each 3 drops. 



Aromatic vinegar is 



used as a pungent and refreshing perfume in faint- 
ness, &c. For this purpo.se it is usually dropped 
on a small piece of sponge placed in a stoppered 
bottle or a vinaigrette. It is corrosive, and should 
be therefore kept from contact with the skin and 
clothes. 

VINEGAR, THE CAMP. Prep. Sliced gar- 
Uc 8 oz. ; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut ketch- 
up, of each 4 oz. ; 36 chopped anchovies ; vinegar 
1 gallon ; powdered cochineal ^ oz. ; macerate for 
1 month, and strain. 

VINEGAR, CAMPHORATED. Syn. Aci- 
DUM ACETicuM CAMi'iiouATUM. Prep. (P. E.) Con- 
centrated acetic acid f ^viss ; camphor §ss ; dis- 
solve. Used as aromatic vinegar. 

VINEGAR OF CANTH ARIDES. Syn. 
Acetum C/ANTiiARinis, (P. L. & E.) Prep. (P, 
Ji.) Powdered cantharides 31] ; acetic acid, P. L., 
1 pint ; digest for 8 days, press, and strain. Used 



VIN 



551 



WAF 



as a counter-irritant, and to raise blisters. Many 
wholesale houses employ twice the above quantity 
of flies. 

VINEGAR, CVC\JMBER.—Capsicujn Vine- 
gar, — Garlic Vinegar, — Shalote Vinegar, — Onion 
Vinegar, — Caper Vinegar, — Cress Seed Vine- 
gar, — Celery Seed Vinegar, — Trajfle Vinegar, 
— Seville Orange-peel Vinegar, — Ginger Vine- 
gar, — Black Pepper Vineg<9r,-r-White Pepper 
Vinegar, — Chillie Vinegar, — Horseradish Vine- 
gar, ^c, are all made by steeping about an oz. of 
the articles in each pint of vinegar for 14 days, and 
straining. — Tarragon Vixegar, — Basil Vinegar, 
— Green Mint Vinegar, — Elder-flower Vinegar, 
— Celery Vinegar, — Cherville Vinegar, — Burnet 
Vinegar, ^c. Leaves 2 or 3 oz. ; vinegar 1 pint ; 
steep for 14 days, then strain, and keep in half- 
pmt bottles. The tvhole are used in cookery. 

VINEGAR, CURRIE. Prep. Currie powder 
J lb. ; vinegar 1 gallon ; infuse for 1 week. Used 
as a flavoring. 

VINEGAR, DISTILLED. Syn. Acetum 
DESTiLLATUM, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. L.) 
Malt vinegar 1 gallon ; distil in glass, (or earthen- 
ware,) reserving the first 7 pints only for use. 
*^* If a pewter worm is used, a portion of lead is 
dissolved, and the product becomes cloudy. 100 
grs. should saturate 13 grs. of crystallized carbon- 
ate of soda. It contains about 4-6§ of real acetic 
acid. (See Acetic Acid.) 

VINEGARS FROM FLOWERS. Prep. 
Dried flowers 1 to 2 oz. ; distilled vinegar 1 pint ; 
digest for a week, strain, and repeat the process 
with fresh flowers, if necessary. They may also 
be prepared by adding 2 or 3 drops, or q. s. of the 
respective essential oils to the vinegar. *^* In a 
similar way are made the Vinegars of — orange- 
flowers, (fresh,) elder-fiowers, clove-gilly flowers, 
musk roses, red roses, (vinaigre de rose, acetum 
rosatum,) rosemary flowers, (vinaigre de ros6- 
marin, acetum anthosatum,) lavender, (vinaigre 
Jistille de lavende,) Tarragon, &c. &lc. 

VINEGAR, MARSEILLES. Syn. Vinegar 

OF THE FOUR ThIEVES. PROPHYLACTIC ViNEGAR. 

Acetum prophylacticum. A. antis»cpticuji. A. 

THERIACALE. A. QUATUOR FuRUM. ViNAIGRE DES 

quatre Voleurs. Prep. Summits of rosemary, 
flowers of sage, dried, of each §iv ; dried lavender 
flowers, §ij ; cloves 3j ; distilled vinegar 1 gallon ; 
digest for 7 days, press, and filter. Used as a 
corrector of bad smells, and formerly as a prophy- 
lactic against the plague, and other contagious 
diseases. Said to be a favorite preventive with 
Cardinal Wolsey, who always carried some with 
him. 

VINEGAR OF OPIUM. Syn. Acetum Opii, 
(P. E. &L D.) Prep. (P. E.) Opium ^iv ; dis- 
tilled vinegar f ^xvj ; macerate for 7 days, press, 
and filter. Anodyne antl soporific. Preferable to 
laudanum. Dose. 5 to 30 drops. 

VINEGAR, RASPBERRY. Prep. Bruised 
ripe raspberries and white wine vinegar, of each 3 
pints ; macerate 24 hours, press, strain, and to 
each pint add white sugar 1 lb. ; boil, skim, cool. 



and to each pint add brandy 2 oz. 



In 



similar way may be made Strawberry Vinegar, 
and Cherry do. 

VINEGAR OF SQUILLS. Syn. Acetum 
SciiJ.^, (P. L. E. & D.) A. sciuLiTicuM, (P. L. 



1745.) Prep.— I. (P. L.) Squills, recently dried, 
3xv ; distilled vinegar G pints ; digest at a gentle 
heat for 24 hours, press, filter, and add proof spirit 
i pint.— 2. {Wholesale.) Squills 7 lbs.; distilled 
vinegar 7 gallons ; macerate in the cold for 10 
days, press, and filter. Expectorant and diuretic 
Dose. 3ss to 3iss in chronic pulmonary atTections 
and dropsies. 

VIOLET DYE, like purple, is produced by a 
mixture of red and blue coloring matter, applied 
either together, or in succession. A good violet 
may be given to silk or wool by passing it first 
through a solution of verdigris, then through a de- 
coction of logwood, and lastly through alum water. 
A fast violet may be given by dying the goods a 
crimson with cochineal, without alum or tartar, 
and, after rinsing, passing them through the indigo 
vat. — Linens or cottons are first galled with 18§ 
of gall-nuts, next passed through a mixed mordant 
of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, work- 
ing them well, then worked in a madder bath 
made with an equal weight of root, and lastly 
brightened with soap or soda. Another good 
method is to pass cloth dyed Turkey red through 
the blue vat. — Wool, silk, cotton, or linen, mor- 
danted with alum and dyed in a logwood bath, or 
a mixed bath of Archil and Brazil, also takes a 
pretty, but false violet. 

VIOLINE. Syn. Violixa. EMETiauE indi- 
gene. A white, pulverulent, bitter, acrid sub- 
stance, extracted from the roots, leaves, flowers, 
and seeds of the viola odorata. It is sparingly sol- 
uble in water, and insoluble in ether. Its opera- 
tion resembles emetine, for which it was at first 
mistaken. 

VOMIT, (MARRIOTT'S,) DRY. A mixture 
of equal parts of sulphate of zinc and tartar emetic. 



WAFERS. Prep. I. {Flour wafers.) Mix fine 
wheat flour with water to a smooth pap, add col- 
oring as required, pass the mixture through a 
sieve, to remove any clots or lumps, fill the ' wafer- 
irons' (previously warmed, and greased with but- 
ter or olive oil) with the batter, close them tight, 
and expose them for a short time to the heat of 
a clear charcoal fire. The whole must then be- 
allowed to cool, when the irons must be opened,, 
and the thin cake, which is now hard and brittle, 
must be cut into wafers, by means of sharp annular 
steel punches. *^* The ' wafer-irons' consist of 
two plates of iron, united together in a similar 
manner to a pair of pincers or tongs, and which, 
when closed, leave a space between their internal 
surface proper for the thickness of wafers. 

II. {Gelatin do.. Glue do.. Transparent do.) 
Dissolve isinglass, or the best pale glue, in suffi- 
cient water to form a consistjent mass when cold, 
pour it, while hot, upon the surface of a warm 
plate of mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded 
with a border of card paper, (laid flat ;) next apply 
a similar plate, also warmed and oiled, and press 
the two into as close contact as is permitted by 
the card paper. When cold, the thin cake of 
gelatin must be removed, and cut into wafers 
with punches, as before. 

III. {Medallion.) Color Salisbury glue ; fill up 
the hollow part of a seal with gum water raixei 
with any colored powder, leaving the flat paife 



WAT 



552 



WAT 



clear ; then pour as much of the melted colored 
glue on the seal as will lie upon it, and let it dry 
in a gentle heat ; when used, wet the paper where 
the wafer is to be applied, and place the back of 
the wafer upon the wet paper. 

*j(t* The coloring matters employed for wafers 
are the following : — Red, a decoction of Brazil 
wood, brightened with alum ; — yellow, a decoction 
of French berries, or an infusion of saffron or tur- 
meric ; — blue, sulphate of indigo diluted with wa- 
ter, and partly saturated with potash ; green, blue 
and yellow mixed. Vermilion, gamboge, smalts, 
&c., are also used for the best wafers. 

WAFERS. (In cookery.) Prep. Take fine 
flour, dried and sifted, make it into a smooth thin 
batter with very good milk, or a little cream and 
water ; add about as much white wine as will 
make it. thick enough for pancakes, sweeten it 
with a little loaf-sugar, and flavor with beaten cin- 
namon. When thus prepared, have the wafer- 
irons made ready by being heated over a charcoal 
fire ; rub the irons with a piece of linen cloth dip- 
ped in butter ; then pour a spoonful of the batter 
upon them, and close them almost immediately ; 
turn them upon the fire, and pare the edges with 
a knife, as some of the batter will ooze out. A 
short time will bake them, when the irons are 
properly heated. The wafers must be curled 
round while warm. Wafer Paper is prepared in 
a similar way to the above. Used by cooks, &c. 

WARD'S RED DROP. A strong solution of 
emetic tartar in wine. 

WARTS on the hands may be removed by the 
daily use of a little nitrate of silver, or nitric or 
acetic acid, in the way described at p. 222, (art. 
Corns.) The first of the above applications pro- 
duces a black stain, and the second a yellow one ; 
both of which, however, wear off after the lapse 
of some days. Acetic acid scarcely discolors the 
skin. The papular eruption which covers the 
hands of some persons, and which is occasionally 
called " soft warts," is best removed by the daily 
use of Gowland's lotion. 

WASH FOR FRECKLES. Pre;?. Brandy 
1^ oz., (or spirits of wine 1 oz.,) water 9 oz., dilu- 
ted muriatic acid, a teaspoonful ; mix. To be used 
after washing. The substitution of 1 oz. of orange- 
flower water, or 2 oz. of rose-water, for a like 
proportion of the water ordered above, renders it 
much more asfreeable. 

W^SH FOR THE TEETH. Prep. Chloride 
of lime is oz. ; water 2 oz. ; agitate well together 
m a vial for i an hour, filter, and add spirit 2 oz., 
rose or orange-flower water 1 oz. Used diluted 
with water, by smokers and persons having a foul 
breath. 

WATCHFULNESS. Syn. Sleeplessness. 
Agrvpnia, (from a, friv. and inrvos, sleep.) The 
common causes of watchfulness are thouglitfnlness 
or grief, a disordered stomach or bowels, heavy 
and late suppers, or deficiency of proper exercise. 
The best treatment in ordinary cases consists in 
an attention to those points. The method of pro- 
ducing sleep recommended by a late celebrated 
Hypnotist, consisted in merely adopting an easy 
recumbent position, inclining the head towards the 
chest, shutting the eyes, and taking several deep 
inspirations wijh the mouth closed. Another meth- 
od reeomnjeudcd by an eminent surgeon, and 



which appears infallible if persevered in with prop-' 
er confidence, and which is suitable either to the 
sitting or recumbent posture, consists in tying a 
decanter cork with a metallic top, or any other 
bright object, on the forehead, in such a position 
that the eyes must be distorted or strained to be 
capable of seeing it. By resolutely gazing in this 
way for a short time, without winking, the mus- 
cles of the eyes gradually relax, and the experi- 
menter falls asleep. 

WATER. Syn. Protoxide of Hydrogen. Eau, 
(Fr.) Aqua, {Sp.) Acciua, {Ital.) Wasser, (Ger.) 
Aqua, {Lat.) ^^wp, (Gr.) The ancients regarded 
water as a simple substance, and as convertible 
into earth, and various organic products. Earth, 
air, fire, and water, were at one time conceived to 
be the elementary principles, or essences of matter, 
from which all form and substance derived their 
existence. The true constitution of water was no\. 
discovered till about the middle of the last century, 
when the Honorable Mr. Cavendish proved that 
this liquid was a compound of hydrogen and oxy- 
gen. These gases exist in water in the proportion 
of 1 to 8 by weight, or 2 to 1 by volume ; the sp. 
gr. of hydrogen being to that of oxygen as 1 to 16. 
When water is made a part of the voltaic circuit, 
it is resolved into 2 measures of hydrogen, and 1 
measure of oxygen gas ; and if the gases thus ob- 
tained be mixed, and exploded by the electric 
spark, they again combine, and produce their own 
weight of pure water. The composition of water 
is thus clearly and easily demonstrated, by analy- 
sis and synthesis. In the production of water from 
its constituent gases, there is a condensation of 
nearly 2000 volumes into 1, thus showing the won- 
derful effects of chemical combination. One cubic 
inch of perfectly pure water at 62° F., and 30 
inches of the barometer, weighs 252-458 grs. ; by 
which it will be seen that it is 815 times heavier 
than atmospheric air. Its sp. gr. is 1-0, it being 
made the standard by which the densities of other 
bodies are estimated. The sp. gr. of frozen water 
(ice) is 0-92 ; that of aqueous vapor 0-6202, air 
being TO. Water changes its volume with the 
temperature ; its greatest density is at about 39° 
F., and its sp. gr. decreases from that point, either 
way. By the enormous pressure of 30,000 lbs. on 
the square inch, 14 volumes of water are conden- 
sed into 13 volumes. Water evaporates at all tem- 
peratures, but at 212° this takes place so rapidly, 
that it boils, and is converted into vapor, (steam,) 
whose bulk is about 1700 times greater than that 
of water. The general properties and uses of water 
are too well known to require notice. 

Pur. Pure water is perfectly transparent, odor- 
less, and colorless, and evaporates without residue, 
or even leaving a stain Uehind. The purest natu- 
ral water is that obtained by melting snow or Iro 
zen rain, that has fallen at some distance from any 
town. Absolutely pure water can only be obtain- 
ed by the union of its gaseous constituents : but 
very pure water, suflliciently so for all chemical 
and philosophical purposes, may be procured by the 
careful distillation of common water. The foiiow- 
ing are the tests usually employed to ascertain the 
purity of water, or the nature of the substances it 
liolds in solution : — 1. Ebullition. If a precipitate 
is formed, or a crust deposited on the vessel, it in- 
dicates the presence of carbonate of lime. This 10 



WAT 



553 



WAT 



the cause of the calcareous fur that lines tea- 
kettles and boilers used for common water. — 2. 
Evaporation. The matter left behind when water 
is evaporated is impurity ; if it be organic matter, 
smoke and a peculiar odor will be evolved, as the 
residue becomes dry and charred. — 3. Protosul- 
PHATE OF Iron. If a little of this test be added to 
water, placed in a stoppered vial, and a reddish 
brown precipitate form in a few days, the presence 
of oxygen gas is indicated. — 4. Neither Litmus, 
sirup of violets, nor turmeric, is discolored or af- 
fected when moistened with pure water ; if the 
first two are reddened, it indicates an Acid ; if 
the last is turned brown an Alkali. — 5. Lime- 
water, mixed with pure water, remains transpa- 
rent ; if a milkiness ensues when the test is em- 
ployed before the water has been boiled, and not 
after, carbonic acid is present. — 6. Chloride of 
Barium occasions a white precipitate, insoluble in 
nitric acid, in water containing sulphuric acid, 
(usually in the state of sulphate of lime.) — 7. Ox- 
alate OF Ammonia occasions a white precipitate 
in water, containing carbonate or sulphate of lime. 
— 8. Nitrate of Silver occasions a cloudy white 
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in 
ammonia, in water containing chlorine or muriates. 
— 9. Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia added to 
water that has been boiled, and precipitated by 
oxalic acid, (if required,) produces, in a few hours, a 
white precipitate, if the water contains magnesia. 
— 10. Tincture or Infusion of Galls turns water 
containing iron black ; when this takes place both 
before and after the water has been boiled, the 
metal is present under the form of sulphate ; but 
if it only occurs before boiling, then carbonate of 
iron may be suspected, and will be precipitated as 
a reddish powder by exposure and heat. — 11. Fer- 
rocyanide of Potassium gives a blue precipitate 
in water containing a sesquisalt of iron, and a 
whitefcone, turning blue by exposure to the air, in 
water containing a protosalt of iron. — 12. Sulphu- 
RETED Hydrogen and the hydrosulphurets give a 
brown or black precipitate in water containing iron 
or lead. — 13. Soap, or a solution of soap in alco- 
hol, mixes easily and perfectly with pure water, 
but is curdled and precipitated m water containing 
carbonates, sulphates, or muriates. 

Var. Distilled Water, {Aqua destillata, P. 
L. & E. A. Destillata, P. D. A. depurata. 
Holy water.) The purest kind of artificial water 
is obtained in quantity, by the distillation of com- 
mon water, observing to reject the first and last 
portions thnt come over. The still employed for 
this operation should be used for no other purpose ; 
and where great nicety is required, the distillation 
should be performed in glass or earthenware. Pure 
distilled water is unaffected by solutions of the 
caustic <?\id carbonated alkalis, lime, baryta, oxalic 
acid, acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, or tincture 
of soap. *^* Distilled water should alone be em- 
ployed in the preparation of infusions, decoctions, 
extracts, tinctures, saline solutions, &.c., and in the 
various other processes of chemistry and pharmacy 
where df licacy is required, as its power as a men- 
struum is not only greater than that of common 
water, };ut its purity prevents any secondary Tie- 
compofitions taking place, which frequently vitiates 
produces, in the preparation of which, impure wa- 
ter has been used. When distilled water is not at 
70 



hand, or in large operations, clean filtered or clari' 
fied rain water is the only kind that can be suc- 
cessfully substituted. — Rain Water, {Aqua Plu- 
vialis. A. Pluvia. A. Imhrium.) This is a very 
pure kind of natural water, but contains minute 
quantities of air, carbonic and nitric acids, carbon- 
ate of ammonia, «fcc. — Snow Water, {Aqua Ni- 
valis. A. ex Nive.) The purest of all natural wa- 
ters. — Spring Water. {Aqua, P. E. Aqua Fon- 
tana.) Rain water which has percolated through 
the earth usually contains mineral impurities. 
" For pharmaceutical use, spring water must be 
so far free of saline matter, as not to possess the 
quality of hardness, or contain above 1 -6000th 
part of solid matter." (P. E.) — River Water, 
{Aqua Fluvialis. A. ex Flumine.) Less pure than 
good spring water. Thames water contains about 
l-3500th part of fixed impurities, chiefly carbon- 
ate of lime. — Well Water, {Pump Water. Aqua 
Puteana. A. ex Puteo.) Less pure than either of 
the preceding. Usually contains a large quantity 
of carbonate and sulphate of lime. Hence its " hard- 
ness," and property of curdling soap. — Marsh Wa- 
ter, {Aqua ex Palude,) and Lake Water, {Aqua 
ex Lacu,) resemble river water, but contain more 
organic matter in a state of decomposition, and 
are hence deemed unwholesome. Sea Water. 
{Aqua Marina. A. Maris.) The characteristic of 
tbis variety is its saltness. Its density is about 
1*02 74, and the average quantity of saline matter 
which it contains is about 3 J per cent., of which 
about f ]ths are chloride of sodium, and the re- 
mainder chiefly chloride of magnesium and sul- 
phate of magnesia. 

Purif. Pure water is incapable of putrefaction, 
but ordinary water contains a small quantity of or- 
ganic matter in solution, which speedily undergoes 
decomposition, even in closed vessels. This is es- 
pecially the case with water kept in wooden casks, 
or open cisterns, into which leaves and insects may 
be driven by the wind. Putrescent water is un- 
wholesome as a beverage. Among the simplest 
methods for purifying foul water are the following : 
— 1. Filtration or agitation with coarsely-powdered 
fresh-burnt charcoal, either animal or vegetable ; 
but preferably the former. This will not only re- 
move mechanically suspended matter, but also the 
calcareous and gaseous impurities held in solution. 
— 2. By exposing it freely to the action of the air, 
by which the organic matter, becoming oxidized 
and insoluble, speedily subsides. This operation 
may be easily performed by agitating the water in 
contact with fresh air, or by forcing air through it 
by means of bellows. — 3. The addition of a little 
sulphuric acid to water has a like effect ; 15 or 20 
drops are usually sufficient for a gallon. This ad- 
dition may be advantageously made to water in- 
tended for filtration through charcoal, by which 
plan at least two-thirds of the latter may be saved. 
(Lowitz.) — 4. An ounce of powdered alum, (dis- 
solved,) well agitated with a hogshead or more of 
foul water, will precipitate the foul matter in the 
course of a few hours, when the clear portion may 
be decanted. When the water is ver>' putrid, a 
scruple to a drachm may be employed to the gal- 
lon, and any alum that may be left in sblution may 
be precipitated by the cautious addition of an equiv- 
alent proportion of carbonate of soda. — 5. A solu- 
tion of red sulphate of iron acts in the same way 



WAT 



554 



WAT 



as alum : a few drops are sufficient for a gallon. — 
6. Agitation with about the ^ of 1§ of finely-pow- 
dered black oxide of manganese, has a similar ef- 
fect to the last. — 7. The addition of a little aqueous 
chlorine, or chlorine gas, to foul water, cleanses it 
immediately. This method has the advantage of 
the water being perfectly freed from any excess of 
the precipitant by heat. — 8. Sea water may be 
rendered fit for washing by the addition of a solu- 
tion of carbonate of soda or potash as long as it 
turns milky. After Repose, the clear portion must 
be decanted. (Dr. Mitchell.) — 9. Hard water may 
be softened in the way last mentioned. 

Pres. Water is usually preserved on ship-board 
in iron tanks, or in casks well charred on the in- 
side. It cannot be safely kept in copper or leaden 
vessels, and receives a calcareous impregnation by 
contact with lime, mortar, stucco, or stone con- 
taining lime. The addition of about ^ of 1§ of 
finely -powdered black oxide of manganese to wa- 
ter, materially promotes its preservation, especially 
at sea, as the motion of the vessel and consequent 
agitation of the water increase the points of contact. 

WATER, CHALYBEATE. Prep. (Ure.) 
Protosulphate of iron 3 grs. ; bicarbonate of potash 
61 grs. ; cold (rain) water I quart ; mix and agi- 
tate in a corked bottle. This artificial chalybeate 
water possesses equal tonic powers to that of the 
springs ; but it may be rendered pleasanter by 
forcing in a little carbonic acid gas. 

WATER-COLOR CAKES. These are the 
ordinary colors that work well in water, made into 
a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with gum water, 
or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then 
compressed in a polished steel mould, and dried. 

WATER, FLY. Prep. White arsenic 1 dr. ; 
boiling water 1 pint ; dissolve, and sweeten with 
treacle. ZJsec? to kill flies. A dangerous method, 
and one that should never be adopted where there 
are children. 

WATERPROOF CLOTH. Prep. L {Han- 
cocks Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the 
caoutchouc tree upon the inner surface of the 
goods, and allowing them to dry in the air. 

IL (Potter's Patent.) By imbuing the cloth on 
the wrong side witn a :->.ilution of isinglass, alum, and 
soap, by means of a brush. When dry, it is brushed 
on the wrong side against the grain, aijd then gone 
over with a brush dipped in water. Impervious to 
water, but not to air. 

III. {Sievie7-''s Patent.) By applying first a so- 
lution of Indian rubber in oil of turpentine, and af- 
terwards another Indian rubber varnish, rendered 
very drying by the use of driers. On this, wool or 
other material of which the fabric is made, cut in- 
to proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed 
through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap 
or pile. 

IV. Moisten the cloth on the wrong side, first 
with a weak solution of isinglass, and when dry, 
with an infusion of nutgalls. 

V. As tiie last, but substitute a solution of soap 
for isinglass, and another of alum for galls. 

WATFJIPROOF LIQUID. Prep.— I. In- 
dian rubber ^4 oz. ; oil of turpentine ;| pint ; put 
them into a pot, tie it over with bladder, and set it 
in hot water; when dissolved, add liot "boiled" 
oil 1 pint. — 'J. Hoiled oil 1 (juart ; Indian rubber 1 
oz. ; dissolve by heat. — 3. Linseed oil 1 pint ; yel- 



low wax and common turpentine, of each 2 oz. > 
Burgundy pitch 1 oz. ; melt together. — 4. Linseed 
oil 1 pint ; suet 8 oz. ; beeswax 6 oz. ; rosin 1 oz. ; 
melt together. All the above are used to render 
leather boots and shoes waterproof. 

WATER, ROSE. Prep. Otto 3iij ; rectified 
spirit (warm) 1 pint ; dissolve, add hot water 10 
gallons ; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork, and agi- 
tate till cold. This makes the ordinary rose wa- 
ter of the shops. It is better for distillation. (See 
Distilled Waters.) 

WATER, (CORDIAL.) Liqueurs possessing 
little viscidity. They are prepared in a similar way 
to the balms, creams, oils, and other cordials of 
the hqueuriste, but with less sugar. The following 
is an example of this class of liqueurs : — 

Water of Cedrat. Double refined sugar 6 
lbs. ; boiling rain water 7 quarts ; dissolve, add 
spirit of cedrat 2 quarts ; spirit of citron 1 quart ; 
mix well, and filter while hot, as rapidly as possi- 
ble, through a clean bag into a carK _, or bottle ; 
cork down immediately, and in 2 or 3 monihs bot- 
tle. Very fine. (See Cordials and Liqueurs.) 

WATERS, (DISTILLED.) Syn. Aqua Des- 
TiLLAT^, (P. L.) A. Distillate, (P. D.) Dis- 
tilled Waters, (P. E.) Aromatic do. Per- 
fumed DO. Pure water charged with the odorous 
and aromatic principles of plants. Distilled waters 
are mostly employed as vehicles or perfumes. 
Those intended for medical purposes are common- 
ly prepared by simply distilling the herb or flowers 
along with water in an ordinary still ; a larger 
quantity of water being employed than it is intend- 
ed to draw over, for the purpose of preventing em- 
pyreuma. The aromatic waters for medical pur- 
poses may be prepared extemporaneously, of nearly 
equal quality to those obtained by distillation, by 
carefully triturating a drachm of any of the essen- 
tial oils, with an equal quantity of magnesia, and 
agitating it- well with 2 quarts of warm distilled 
water in a corked bottle ; or as much of a solution 
of the essential oil in rectified spirit may be added 
to the water as it will bear, without becoming 
milky, the whole being well agitated as before, 
and when cold filtered, if necessary, through bib- 
ulous paper. White sugar may be advantage- 
ously substituted for magnesia, as the water is apt 
to dissolve a little of the latter substance, and is 
hence rendered unfit to be used as a solvent for 
metallic salts, especially bichloride of mercury and 
nitrate of silver. The dose of the aromatic or car- 
minative waters, as those of dill, caraway, pep- 
permint, pennyroyal, &c., is a wine-glassful ad 
libitum. 

In the distillation of waters intended for per - 
fumerij, the utmost care is requisite to produce a 
highly fragrant article. The still should be fur- 
nished with a high and narrow neck, and the heat 
of steam, or a salt-water bath, should alone be 
employed. The first few ounces of the runnings 
should be rejected, except when spirit is used, and 
the remainder collected till the proper quantity be 
obtained, observing that the whole product be 
mixed together ; as distilled waters progressively 
decrease in strength the longer the process is con- 
tinued. When a very superior article is desired, 
the waters may be redistilled by a gentle heat, 
the first two-thirds only being preserved. The 
odor of distilled waters is improved by keeping 



WAT 



555 



WAT 



them for some months in a cold cellar loosely cov- 
sred, as they tlius lose the herbaceous smell 
(vhich they frequently possess when recently pre- 
pared. When these waters have been carefully 
prepared, so that none of the liquor in the st:ll has 
" spirited" over into the condensing worm, they keep 
(veil, and are not liable to change ; but should the 
reverse be the case, they frequently become ropy 
and viscid. The best remedy is to redistil them. 
Waters which have acquired a burnt smell in the 
* stilling," lose it by freezing. Distilled waters 
may be prevented from turning sour by adding a 
little calcined magnesia to them ; and those which 
dave begun to spoil, may be recovered by adding 
to each pint, a grain each of borax and alum, 
rhis doctoring is not, however, to be recommend- 
3d. A drop of muriate of gold added to these wa- 
ters shows whether they contain any uucombined 
3ssential oil, by forming in that case a fine metal- 
lic film on the surface. After distilled waters have 
acquired their full odor, they should be carefully 
preserved in well-stopped bottles. Some houses 
keep a separate still for each of the more delicate 
perfumed waters, as it is extremely difficult to re- 
move any odor that adheres to the bottom of the 
still and worm. The best method of cleaning a 
still is to 'employ it for the distillation of pure wa- 
ter with the worm-tub empty. The addition of 
Lhe small quantity of spirit ordered by the colleges 
m the preparation of their waters, in no way tends^ 
to promote their preservation ; in fact, I have ob- 
served that waters so treated, acetify much sooner 
than those without spirit. I have prepared scores 
of hogsheads of rose and elder-flower waters, which 
have shown no disposition to undergo spontaneous 
decomposition, without the use of a single drop of 
spirit. 

The following are the quantities of the respect- 
ive ingredients ordered by the Colleges, for the 
preparation of one gallon of their distilled waters : 
— (2 gallons of water are put into the still along 
with f ^vij of proof spirit, but only one gallon is 
drawn over.) — Dill water, {Aqua Anethi, P. L.) 
— Caraway do., {A. Carui, P. L.) — Fennel do., 
(A. Funiculi, P L.,) bruised seeds lb. iss. — Orange 
Flower do., (A jiorum aurantii, P. L.) — Rose 
DO., (A. RoscB, P. L.) — Elderflower do., (A. 
Sambuci, P. L. ;) fresh flowers lb. x.^Clnnamon 
DO., {A. Cinnamomi, P. L.) — Cassia do., {A. Cas- 
si(B, P. E. ;) bruised bark lb. iss, or essential oil 
3ij. — Orange peel do., {A. Corticis Aurantii, 
P. L. 1746 ;) fresh peel ^v.— Castor do., (A. Cas- 
torei, P. L. 1746;) castor §v. — Spearmint do., 
(A. Mentha. Viridis, P. L.) — Peppermint do., (A. 
Mentha Piperita, P. L.) — Pennyroyal do., {A. 
Mentha Pulegii, P. L. ;) fresh herb lb. iv, or dry 
herb lb. ij, or essential oil 3ij. — Plmento do, {A. 
Pimenta, P. L. ;) berries lb. j, or essential oil 3ij. 
— Lettuce do., {A. Lactuca, P. Cod.) — Borage 
DO., {A. Boracrinis, P. Cod.,) «Stc., &c., fresh 
leaves lb. xij. — Lavender do., {A. Lavandula, P. 
Cod.)— Sa<5e do., {A. Salvia, P. Cod.)— TaxNsy 
DC, {A. Tnnaceti, P. Cod.) — Thyme do., {A. 
T^ymi, P. Cod.,) &c. ; flowering tops lb. vj. — 
Cherry Laurel do., (A. Laurocerasi, P. Cod.) 
—Peach do., {A. Persica, P. Cod.,) &c. ; fresh 
leaves lb. xij. — Bitter Almond do., {A. Amyg- 
dalarujn Aniarum, P. Cod. ;) bitter almond cake, 
from which the oil has been expressed, lb. v ; wa- 



ter q. s. ; macerate 24 hours, and distil. — Balm 
do., \A. Melissa, P. Cod.) — IIvssop do., (A. Ilys- 
sopi, P. Cod.,) &,c., fresh tops lb. xij. — Meliloi 
DO., (A. Meliloti, P. Cod.) — Origanum do, {A. Ori' 
gani, P. Cod.,) Slc, &c. ; dried flowers lb. iij. — 
Angelica do., (A. Angelica, P. Cod.,) &c. ; 
bruised seed lb. iij. — Valerian do., {A. Radicis 
Valeriana, P. Cod.) — Cascarilla do., {A. Corti- 
cis Cascarilla, P. Cod.) — Clove do., {A. Caryo- 
philli, P. Cod.) — Sassafras do., {A. Ligni Sassa- 
fras, P. Cod.) — Juniper do., (A. Bacca Juniperi, 
P. Cod.,) &c., of each, bruised, lb. iij. — Cherry- 
laurel Water, {A. Lauro-cerasi, P. E. ;) fresh 
leaves, chopped, lb. j ; water 2^ pints ; distil 1 
pint, add compound spirit of lavender f ^j, agitate, 
and if milky, filter it. Dose. 3ssto 3j, as a substi- 
tute for hydrocyanic acid. It is commonly imita- 
ted in trade, by dissolving 75 drops of the oil of bit- 
ter almonds in f ^iiss of rectified spirit, and agitating 
the mixture with 1 gallon of warm distilled water. 

*^* In a similar manner may be made the dis- 
tilled waters of other aromatic and odorous sub- 
stances. In general, the druggists draw off" 2 gal- 
lons or more of water from the above quantities of 
the herbs, barks, seeds, or flowers ; hence the in- 
ferior quality of the waters of the shops. They do, 
however, very well for vehicles. The perfumers, 
on the contrary, use an excess of flowers, or at 
least reserve only the first and stronger portion of 
the water that distils over, the remainder being 
collected and used for a second distillation of fresh 
flowers. The most beautiful distilled waters are 
those prepared in the South of France, and which 
are imported into England under the French 
names. Thus, Eau de Rose, Eau de fleurs d'- 
oranges, &.C., are immensely superior to the best 
English rose or orange-flower water, «fcc. The 
water that distils over in the preparation of the es- 
sential oils is usually of the strongest and finest 
class. (See Eaux, Essences, and Vegetables for 
distillation.) 

WATERS, EYE. Syn. Collyria. Prep. 1. 
Vinegar §j ; proof spirit or brandy f ^ss ; rose or 
elder-flower water f §viij ; mix. In simple ophthal- 
mia. — 2. (Krimer.) Muriatic acid 20 drops ; mu- 
cilage 3j ; rose water f fij. To remove particles 
of iron or lime from the eye. — 3. Wine of opium 
3ij ; sulphate of zinc 9j ; rose and distilled water, 
of each f §iv; astringent and anodyne ; in painful 
ophthalmia.— 4. (P. C.) Sulphate of zinc 10 grs. ; 
water f^iv; dissolve. An excellent astringent 
water in ophthalmia. It may be made with rose 
water. — 5. (Bates.) Blue vitriol 15 grs. ; camphor 
4 grs. ; boiling water f ^iv. When cold make it up 
4 pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia. — 6 
(Common.) White vitriol and camphor, of each 
3ss ; boiling water 1 quart ; when cold filter. Used 
in ophthalmia. — 7. Opium 10 grs.; boiling water 
f ^vj ; when cold, add solution of acetate of am- 
monia f ^ij, and filter. In painful ophthalmia. — 8. 
Camphor julep f §vj ; solution of acetate of ammo- 
nia and rose water, of each f ^ij ; mix. For weak 
eyes after ophthalmia. — 9. (Goulard's.) ^olution 
of diacetate of lead 10 drops ; rose or elder-flower 
water f^vj; mix. In the inflammatory stage of 
ophthalmia. — 10. Acetate of lead 10 grs. ; water ^ 
pint; as the last. — 11. Sulphate of copper 4 grs, ; 
camphor mixture 6 oz. ; dissolve. In the purulent 
ophthalmia of infants.— 12. (P. Cod.) Extract of 



WAT 



556 



WAT 



opium 4 grs. ; rose water f fiv ; dissolve. In pain- 
ful ophthalmia. 

WATERS, (In Perfumery.) The simple dis- 
tilled waters of the perfumer have been already 
noticed. They may be prepared from any sub- 
stances which impart their fragrance to water by 
distillation. The compound waters employed as 
perfumes consist of very pure rectified spirit, hold- 
ing iu solution essential oils, or other odorous mat- 
ter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and spirits, 
before noticed. They differ from extraits in being 
mostly colorless, or nearly so, and in being gener- 
ally prepared by distillation, or by the addition of 
the pure essential oils or essences to carefully rec- 
tified and perfectly scentless spirit ; whereas, the 
extraits are mostly and preferably prepared by 
macerating the flowers, «fec. in the spirit, after the 
manner of making tinctures. Extraits are to be 
preferred to eaux and esprits as the basis of good 
perfumery, where the color is not objectionable. 
The sp. gr. of spirit for these preparations should 
always be under 0*88, and for the finer qualities 
should be about 0-838 or 0-840. The following are 
examples of compound perfumed waters : — 

Honey Water. Syn. Sweet-scented Honey 
Water. Aqua Mellis odorifera. Prep. — 1. Spirit 
of roses (No. 3) 2 quarts ; spirit of jasmin and rec- 
tified spirit of wine, of each 1 quart ; essence of 
Portugal 1 oz. ; essences of vanilla and musk, of 
each (No. 3) 4 oz. ; flowers of benzoin 1^ drs. ; 
mix, agitate, and add eau de fleurs d'oranges 1 
quart. Delightfully fragrant. — 2. Honey 3 oz. ; 
essence of bergamot ^ oz. ; essence of lemon ^ oz. ; 
oil of cloves 12 drops ; musk 12 grs. ; ambergris 6 
grs. ; rectified spirit 1 gallon ; orange-flower and 
rose water, of each 1 quart ; macerate 14 days, 
with frequent agitation, and filter. — 3. (Colored.) 



To the last add hay saffron 20 grs. The above :ir« 
used as perfumes, and the last two are made into 
ratafias with sugar. *^* Honey water for the hair 
is a different article to the above. It is obtained 
by the dry distillation of honey, mixed with an 
equal quantity of clean sand, a gentle heat only 
being employed. The product is yellowish and 
acidulous, from the presence of acetic acid. It Is 
used to promote the growth of the hair. 

Lavender Water. (See Eau de Lavende.) It 
may be useful to observe here, that the common 
lavender water, double distilled do., or spirits of 
lavender of the druggists, is made with spirit at 
proof, or under; hence its inferior quality to that 
of the more celebrated perfumers. One ounce of 
true English oil of lavender is all that will prop- 
erly combine with one gallon of proof spirit, with- 
out injuring the color by rendering it muddy 

MiLLEFLEUR Water. Syn. Eau de Millejieurs. 
Prep. Very pure rectified spirit 9 pints ; balsam of 
Peru (genuine) and essence of cloves, of each 1 
oz. ; essences of bergamot and musk, of each 2 oz. ; 
essences of neroli and thyme, of each ^ oz. ; eau 
de fleurs d'oranges 1 quart ; mix well. Very fine 
(See p. 260.) 

Eau de Mousseline. Prep. Eau de fleurs 
d'oranges and spirit of clovegilly flower, of each I 
quart ; spirit of roses, (No. 3,) spirit of jasmin, 
(No. 4,) spirit of orange-flowers, f No. 4,) of each 2 
quarts ; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 
3) 2 oz. ; Sanders wood i oz. ; mix. Very fine. 

WATERS, MINERAL. Syn. Aqvje Min- 
ERALES. Our space will not permit a description 
of these individually. The following tables, ex- 
hibiting their composition, will, however, enable 
the reader, with a little attention, to produce tliein 
artificially : — 



^ 


S 


Bergman. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 
Klaproth. 
Ha.ssenfratz. 

Ditto. 


Garnet. 
Ditto. 
Bergman. 
Parkes &l Brande. 


Bergman. 

Barkes & Brande. 

Carrick. 

Pearson. 

Phillips. 

Saunders. 

Ditto. 
Vauquelin. 
Schnieisser. 
Lambe. 

Ditto. 


Scudamore. 
Parkes & Brande. 
Marcet. 




Total 
of 

Saline 
Contents. 


cp COOO Tj« 

C3 o 00 C5 i) lo 

CN CO r-^OiOl 


lO c^ 

■-^ -^ — lO 
05 (MO 


Q0lO_ScO(3S_ _(MCOtrt 

(MO«3r^-^(fl«0«)-^00C0 
(55 00 r-i CO to 00 i> 


0-56 
73-8 
9-29 






.5 


T3 . . O TS . 


. . o -a 


. . o o o -a o na . . 

T5 XI t- 00 - ^ G^ ^ 0'^'^ 


* 6 6 6 




1 

< 


1 


'. : : CO o : 

■ o o 




: : : : (^ : : « : : : 

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ' 


' 




O 


6- 6 

0-6 

a trace 

2-5 


... CO 

• • • o 


d-03 

a truce 

ditto 

a trace 
0-8 


^OOrf 
i^ 




2; 


11 




lO . . . 

I— 1 • - - 


........ (^j . . 

• • • 


to 

. . 
' • 




LEBRAT] 

gredient 


Muriate 
of Mag. 
ne.sia, 
grains. 


:::::: 


i ■ ■ ■ 


UO , uo lO . 


003 
0-75 




SEVERAL OF THE MORE CE 

e's Manual of Chemistry. 
3, contains the following In 


Muriate 
of 

Soda, 
grains. 


t^ -^ O -r}* 0( •' 


. "? . . 

t^ ^ lO to 
t^ CO 


U5 (M CO : 'ffi 'f' . 

• (O « * -^ Oi CO >-H 

»o 10 ■* 


0-30 
41-3 
3- 




Sulphate 

of 

Lime, 

grains. 


. O. . . . 

• do • • -co 


. . .0^ 




lO lO CO " • ^ 
»0-^rHOCiC^i3 -LO^OO 

C3 r-l rH 


0(M rf 




Sulphate 
of Mag. 
nesia, 
grains. 


1 o 1 : J 1 


CO 


00 r^ CO • 


: ^ : 




Sulphate 

of 

Soda. 

grains. 


. . . lO . . 
• •' • CO ' • 


. . . «o 


10 . 10 .CO i-O 






« i i 


•1.0 r-l -^0 -G^C^OTO 




OSITION 

rom Br 
ne Mes 


Carbon- Carbon- 
ate of ate of 
Magne- Lime, 
sia, grs. grains. 


UO lO i^ lO 


lO . (M . 


0-8 

1-5 
1-3 

0-8 
a trace 
ditto 
0-3 
1- 


2 . . 
• • 




. Tabular View of the Comi 
One Pint, W 


UO . C? lO 

lOO -^ • rlno 
1-1 


t- . . . 
o • • • 


10 10 . . 

<M ••••••• • • 


: : : 




II- 


'^ • rl. iO O • 
r— 1 


• • (fj • 


lO , . . 

••••'•• (M (M •• •' 


: ^ : 
• • 






CO (M lO lO 

(M r^ lO-^ 


uncertain 

8-5? 

a trace 

ditto 


1'^ 




p 


i^S^^g^ 


. ^ : : 
r^ o • ■ 


© 
. . 10 . OJ . . . »o « . 

• 'CO • r^ • ' '• m ^ • 






1— < 


Ed 

H 


:::::: 


OOO , . 

o o • •' 


;.. ff^ ..... -5f CO 

• •' • • • * • • d . 

■ 


' ' 








CARBONATED. 

Seltzer 
Pyrmont . 
Spa . 
Carlsbad . 
Pouges 
Saint Parize 


SULPHUROUS. 

Harrowgate . 
MofFat . 
Aix-la-Chapelle . 
Cheltenham Sulph. Spring 


saline. 
Seidlitz . 

Cheltenham Pure Saline 
Bristol. 
Buxton . 

Bath .... 
Scarborough . 
Bar6ge 
Plombieres 
Kilburn 

Leamington New Bath 
Leamington Old Bath . 


CHALYBEATE. 

Tunbridge 

Cheltenham Chalybeate 
Brighton 





557 



02 o 






^ 



§.9 I 






CO (£>(£>(£> 
t^ O O 00 ^3 

t^ to o : ^ o' «£> 



O 0^3 OOOO l>> CO O t^ Ci 

Tt <X)»OiO OOOOOt^ >-l ^O 0(7QtJ< 

,cn ,oor-H .ojfocoo .>-H .Tj< ,G^i-<o 

•00 -OOu:!© •O'^COCTS -O "O -r-lOO 



O 00 O Jr^ C^ C5 

Ci l>- 00 t- r-l 00 (M CT5 .-H C^ 

ascTiiooo . .Oir- . . , .Or- 1 .oo . 

CNcocorH • -Ofo • • • -oo -oco • 



o o o o 



. CM 

. o 



to lO ^ o 
t^ t- CD as 

CO CO Tt* t^ 
t^ O Xf' o 

OOOO 





00 


to -H 05 


o 


GO to r-l 


Crj 


OS t^ to 


to 


^ coo 


CO 



Tt< 


-* o? 


CM (7? Tj< 


OT 


CM CO 


to to CO 






. CO t- cr> 


-^ 


• 00 (7^ . 


• (M 02 CM 


o 


• C75 CM • 


■ CO <r) rH 



0> ^ (M 
00 ^ to 
CD 00 00 
0> CM ^ 
Xt< ^ o 

o o o 



00 o to 
<x> to o 

to CO o 



t>, -^ to CO 

Ol "^ Oi i-H 

r-l to oi : : o 



Oi CM 

CO 05 

CO t}< O 



O 
CO CM to CO .CO 
CM J> Tj< 05 • rH 



o o to 

O CJD CO 

00 t^ o 

00 r-l O 



O -^ O to O 
to . CO "^ ■^ ■'^ 
l^ . CO to O T-H 



cr? 

05 !>• 

rH 00 
O 00 
O t^ 



00 t- CTi Oi t- 

r-l O CM CO CO CO 

O rH . O — I c^! o 

O O • o ^ o o 



o o 



OOOO 



to 05 to • '—{•^Oi 

05 00 t^ . . t^ . O CM CO 

CO CO 03 • -CO • O O CO 



tJi 00 

CM t- r^ J:^ CD 

O O . . t^ (7^ O 

O O • • to o o 



WW 



'^§ 



^-^ 



«J 5 5 e 



<u 



be s ?i 
bD 



S =^ ^ w 



o <^ o 









• Pi 
a 

bD 




558 



WAX 



559 



WAX 



III. Analysis OF Sea Water, English Channel, 
by Schweitzer. 

Pure water 964-74372 grs. 

Chloride of sodium 27-05948 " 

*' potassium .... 0-7()5.')2 " 

" magnesium . . . 3-666;)8 " 

Bromide of magnesium . . . 0-02929 " 

Sulphate of lime 1-40662 " 

Sulphate of magnesia . . 2-29578 " 
Carbonate of lime 0-03301 " 



1000-00000 grs. 

*#* In addition to the above, it may be re- 
marked that traces of iodine have been found in 
the. water of Cheltenham, (old well,) traces of 
bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both 
hromine and iodine in that of Leamington, (royal 
pump.) Manganese has been found in the waters 
of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marien- 
bad, Saidschiits, «&c. Traces of phosphoric and 
Jluoric acids have also been found in some mineral 
waters. It is the opinion of many high authori- 
ties, that the medicinal virtues of these waters de- 
pend more on the minute quantities of the above 
substances, than on their more abundant saline in- 
gredients. — C. 

WAX. Syn. Cire, (Fr.) Wachs, (Ger.) 
Cera, {Lat.) The substance which forms the 
cells of bees. Pure beeswax {yellow wax, cera 
jlava) has a pleasant ceraceous odor, a pale yel- 
lowish brown color, and the sp. gr. 0-960 to 0-965. 
It is frequently adulterated with farina, rosin, and 
mutton suet or stearine. The first may be de- 
tected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only 
the wax, — the second, by its solubility in cold 
alcohol, and by its terebinthinate taste, — the last 
two, even when forming less than 2§ of the wax, 
may be detected by its affording sebacic acid by 
distillation. When greasy matter is present in 
any considerable quantity, it may also be de- 
tected by the suspected sample having an unctu- 
ous feel, and a disagreeable taste. 

WAX, BEES' (FACTITIOUS.), Syii. Cera 
flava factitia. Prep. — 1. Yellow rosin 16 lbs. ; 
hard mutton suet or stearine 8 lbs. ; palm oil 2^ 
lbs. ; melt together. — 2. As last, but substitute 
turmeric 1 lb. for the palm oil. — 3. Best annotto 
6 oz. or q. s. ; water 1 gallon ; boil till dissolved, 
add hard mutton suet or stearine 35 lbs. ; yellow 
rosin 70 lbs. ; boil with constant agitation till 
perfectly mixed and of a proper color, and as 
soon as it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins 
to cool. When cold rub each cake over with a 
little potato starch. Used instead of wax in oint- 
ments by farriers. 

WAX, REFINED. Crude wax, especially 
that imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, 
and otiier foreign matter. To free it from these 
substances, it undergoes the operation of refi- 
ning. This is done by melting the wax along with 
about 3§ of water in a bright copper boiler, pref- 
erably heated by steam, and after the whole is 
perfectly liquid, and has boiled for a few minutes, 
withdrawing the heat, and sprinkling over its sur- 
face a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of about 
3 or 4 oz. (fluid) to every cwt. of wax. This 
operation should be conducted with great care 
and circumspection ; as, if done carelessly, the 
melted wax will froth up, and boil over the sides 



of the pan. The acid should also be well scat- 
tered over the whole surface. The melted wax 
is next covered over, and left for some hours to 
settle, or till it becomes sufricienlly cool to be 
drawn off into the moulds. It is then very gently 
skimmed with a (hot) ladle, and bailed or decant- 
ed into basins, where it is left to cool. Great 
care must be taken not to disturb the sediment. 
When no more clear wax can be drawn off, the 
remainder in the melting pan is allowed to cool, 
and the cake or ''foot," as it is called, is taken 
out, and the impurities (mostly bees) scraped from 
its under surface. The remaining portion is 
usually reserved for a second operation, but if 
required, may be at once melted, and strained 
through canvass into a mould. — Much of the 
foreign wax has a pale dirty color, which renders 
it, no matter however pure, objectionable to the 
retail purchaser. Such wax undergoes the opera- 
tion of COLORING. This is done as follows : — A 
small quantity of the best roll annotto, cut into 
slices, (i lb. more or less, to wax 1 cwt., depending 
on the paleness of Vue latter,) is put into a clean 
boiler with about a gallon of water, and boiled for 
some time, or till it is perfectly dissolved, when a 
few ladlefuls of the melted wax are added, and 
the boiling continued till the wax has taken up all 
the color, or till the water is mostly evaporated. 
The portion of wax thus treated has now a deep 
orange color, and is added in quantity as required 
to the remainder of the melted wax in the larger 
boiler, till the proper shade of color is produced 
when cold, observing to well mix the whole, and 
to cool a little now and then to ascertain when 
enough has been added. The copper must be 
then brought *to a boil, and treated with vitriol, 
&.C., as before. — Another method is to add palm 
oil (bright) to the wax till it gets sufficient color ; 
but this plan is objectionable from the quantity 
required for the purpose being often so large as to 
injure the quality of the wax ; besides which the 
color produced is inferior, and less transparent 
and permanent. *^* The great art in the above 
process is to produce a wax which shall at once 
be " bright," or semitranslucent in thin pieces, 
and good colored. The former is best ensured by 
allowing the melted mass to settle well, and by 
carefully skimming and decanting the clear por- 
tion without disturbing the sediment. It should 
also not be poured into the moulds too warm, as, 
in that case, it is apt to " separate," and the 
resulting cakes to be " streaky," or of different 
shades of color. It should also be allowed to cool 
very slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if 
a current of air fall upon its surface, it is apt to 
crack, and form cakes full of fissures. Some 
persons who are very nice about their wax, have 
the cakes polished with a stiff brush when quite 
cold and hard. It is necessary to have the " jacks" 
or cans, ladles, and skimmers used in the above 
process kept pretty hot, as without this precaution 
the wax cools, and accumulates upon them in 
such quantity as to render them inconvenient, and 
often quite useless, without being constantly 
scraped out. 

Another method of refining crude wax, and 
which produces a very bright article, is to melt it 
with about 1 per cent, of concentrated nitric acid, 
in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by 



WAX 



560 



WEI 



Bteam or a salt-water bath, and to continue the 
boiling till nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after 
which the whole is allowed to settle, and treated 
as before. 

WAX, SEALING. Syn. Cire a Cacheter, 
(Fr.) SiEGELLACK, (Ger.) Prep. I. (Red.) a. 
Shellac (very pale) 4 oz. ; cautiously melt in a 
bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire, and 
when fused add Venice turpentine V4 oz. ; mix, 
and further add vermilion 3 oz. ; remove the pan 
from the fire, cool a little, weigh it into pieces, 
and roll them into circular sticks on a warm 
marble slab by* means of a polished wooden block ; 
or it may be poured into moulds while in a state 
of fusion. Some persons polish the sticks with a 
rag till quite cold. Fine. — b. Shellac 3 lbs. ; 
Venice turpentine 19 oz. ; finest cinnabar 2 lbs. • 
mix as before. Fine.-rC. As the last, but use ^ 
less vermilion. — d. Rosin 4 lbs. ; shellac 2 lbs. ; 
Venice turpentine and red lead, of each 1^ lb. ; as 
before. Common. 

II. (Black.) a. Shellac 60 parts ; very fine 
ivory-black, reduced to an impalpable powder, 30 
parts ; Venice turpentine 20 parts. Fine. — b. As 
the last, but using lampblack for ivory-black. 
Fine. — c. Rosin 6 lbs. ; shellac and Venice tur- 
pentine, of each 2 lbs. ; lampblack q. s. Inferior. 

III. (Bottle Wax.) — a. (Black.) Black rosin 
6^ lbs. ; beeswax ^ lb. ; finely-powdered ivory- 
black 1^ lb. ; melt together. — b. (Red.) As the 
last, but substitute Venetian red or red lead for 
ivory -black. 

IV. (French.) Shellac (pale) 3 lbs.; Venice 
turpentine 1^ lb. ; vermilion 2| lbs. ; divide into 
sticks 12, 24, 36, or 40 to the lb. Fine. 

V. (Gold.) By stirring gold-colored mica 
spangles or talc, or aurum musivum into the 
melted resins when they begin to cool. Fine. 

VI. (Marbled.) By mixing 2 or 3 different 
colored kinds just as they begin to grow solid. 

VII. (Soft.)— I. (Red.) Beeswax 8 parts; 
olive oil 5 parts ; melt, and add Venice turpentine 
15 parts ; red lead to color. — 2. (Green.) As the 
last, but substitute powdered verdigris for red 
lead. Both are used for sealing certain official 
documents kept in tin boxes ; also as a cement. 

*^* All the above forms for "fine" wax pro- 
duce " superfine," by employing the best qualities 
of the ingredients ; and " extra-superfine,'' or 
" scented," by adding 1§ of balsam of Peru or 
liquid storax to the ingredients when considerably 
cooled. The variegated and fancy-colored kinds 
are commonly scented with a little essence of 
musk or ambergris, or any of the more fragrant 
essential oils. The addition of a little camphor, 
or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. 
Sealing-wax adulterated with rosin, or which 
contains too much turpentine, runs into thin drops 
at the flame of a candle. 

WAX, WHITE. %w. Bleached Wax. Block 
WHITE Wax. Cera alba in massis. From pure 
beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action 
of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently changing 
the surface thus exposed, by remelting it, and re- 
ducing it again to thin flakes. Used in making 
candles, and in white ointments, for tiio sake of its 
color. Virgins' Wax, (Cake white wax, cera 
alba :n ojjis.) The last made into round flat 
cuke». 



WEIGHT. The measure of the force by which 
any body, or any given portion of a substance, 
gravitates towards the earth. The estimation of 
the weight of bodies is called weighing, and con- 
sists in the comparison of the thing to be weighed 
with some conventional standard. This standard 
may be determined by the constant ratio which 
exists between the volume and the weight, or grav- 
itating power of the same substances when placed 
in precisely the same physical condition ; hence 
for the primary creation of a standard weight, ref- 
erence must be had to the measure of the volume 
of some substance, as a cubic foot or inch of pure 
water or mercury, the weight of which is constant 
at the same temperature, and under the same at- 
mospheric pressure. The method of estimating 
the weight of bodies, without reference to their 
volume, or to a standard which is already known, 
is difficult and uncertain.. In fact, it is impossible 
to communicate merely by oral description, with- 
out reference to some sensible object, a proper idea 
of a pound weight, or a foot-rule ; since the mind 
requires some known measure of volume or gravi- 
tating power, for the purpose of comparison. But 
man is not directly supplied by nature with any 
constant standard of weight or volume, by which 
he can accurately determine that of other bodies. 
The original standard of small weight was the 
grains or corns of wheat, and of measure, the foot, 
cubit, span, pace, &c., derived from the human 
body ; but since the size of grains of wheat, and 
the linear surface of the human body, varies under 
different circumstances, and in different individuals, 
however carefully the specimens may be selected 
with a view to an average, it is very evident that 
such bodies can never furnish permanent and ac- 
curate standards of comparison. It may be fairly 
stated, that nature furnishes no standard of weight, 
at the same time invariable and accessible to all 
mankind, and that without reference to some de- 
termined and constant measure of volume, no such 
standard can be created. But the elements ol 
such a standard of measure are furnished by the 
aid of natural philosophy, and a refined knowledge 
of the arts. The form and magnitude of the earth 
are presumed to remain the same in all ages, and 
hence a determined portion of its circumference, eis 
l-360th part, or a degree, will represent an unal- 
terable standard, fit for the purposes of metrology. 
The force of gravitation at the earth's surface is 
also constant under the same parallels of latitude 
and at the same elevation above the level of the 
sea, and hence the length of a second's pendulum 
is invariable at any given place, under precisely 
similar circumstances. This furnishes a second 
element for the determination of a lineal standard, 
which by its involution forms similar standards of 
measure, both of superficies and volume. A meas- 
ure of bulk or volume being determined, it is easy 
to estimate weight, or the gravitating power of any 
substance, by reference to such a standard. As 
soon as a unit of weight or measure has been 
agreed on, and a model weight or measure formed, 
the latter becomes the standard, and others may 
of course be readily formed by mere comparison ; 
but when these standards, or their representatives, 
are lost, recourse must be again had to science and 
calculation. The relation between the weight and 
volume of a body, compared to a given stan- 



WEI 



561 



WEI 



dard taken as unity, constitutes its specific 
gravity. 

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever 
IS required, which, wlieu accurately suspended in 
a state of equilibrium, will be like affected by like 
weights applied to either extremity. The manu- 
facture of these instruments requires great skill 
and experience. A balance, made by Ramsden, 
turning on points instead of edges, was sensibly af- 
fected by the 1-1 600th of a grain, when loaded 
with 4 or 5 ounces. This is 1 -384,000th part of 
the weight ; so that this beam would determme 
the weight of any substance to 5 places of deci- 
mals, besides a sixth figure, which might be esti- 
mated. (Phil. Trans., vol. 75.) A balance made 
by the same artist for the Royal Society, was ca- 
pable of weighing 10 lbs., and yet turned with the 
1-lOOth of a grain, which is only the l-7,000,000th 
part of the weight. A balance with unequal arms 
will weigh as accurately as another, of the same 
workmanship, with equal arms, provided the sub- 
stance weighed be removed, and standard weights 
placed in the same scale till the equilibrium be 
again restored, wlien the weights so employed, be- 
ing exactly in the same condition as the substance 
previously occupying the scale, will of course in- 
dicate its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact 
is useful, as it enables any one to weigh correctly 
with unequal scales, or with any suspended 
lever. 

Small Weights may be made of thin leaf-brass. 
Jewellers foil is a good material for weights below 
1-lOth of a grain, as low as to 1-lOOth of a grain ; 
and all lower quantities may be either estimated 
by the position of the index, or shown by actually 
counting rings of wire, the value of which has 
been determined. The readiest way to subdivide 
small weights, consists in weighing a certain quan- 
tity of small wire, and afterward cutting it into 
such parts, by measure, as are desired ; or the wire 
may be wrapped close round two pins, and then 
cut asunder with a knife. By this means it will 
be divided into a great number of equal lengths, or 
small riugs. The wire ought to be so thin, that 
one of these rings may barely produce a sensible 
effect on the beam. 

The following Tables represent the values and 
relative proportions of the principal Weights 
employed in Commerce and the Arts. 

I. English Weights. 
1. Imperial Avoirdupois Weight. 













^ 






r^ 










!§> 






H 


i 




." 


2 


. & 




> 5 


m 


ce J 


s g 


S'^ 


nt. 


^« 




•— tc 


'3 


"1 


o 


ex, 


eg 




S 


«1 


o 










A 




£ 


27-34 


1 


0-0625 


00039 











1-7705 


437-50 


16 


1- 


00625 








9 


28-328 


7000 


256 


16- 


1- 











453.25 





7168 


448- 


28- 


1 


0-25 










28672 


1792- 


112- 


4 


1- 


005 







573i40 


35840- 


2240- 


80 


20- 


1- 





71 



*if* The standard in avoirdupois weight is the 
same as in troy weight. The avoirdupois drachm 
is now never used except in weighing silk ; when- 
ever a drachm is mentioned in books, the troy, or 
apothecaries' drachm, is intended. The stone of 
butchers' meat is 8 lbs., and of other commodities 
14 lbs., in London. 

2. Imperial Troy Weight. 



Grs. 
grains. 


Dwts. 
pennyweights. 


Oz. 
ounce. 


Lb. 
pound. 


24 

480 
5760 


1 
20 
240 


1 
12 


1 



*^* The standard of the above measure is 1 
cubic inch of distilled water, at 62° F., and 30 
inches of the barometer, which weighs 252-458 
troy grains. 

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3^ 
grains, (nearly.) Troy weight is used in weigh- 
ing gold, silver, jewellery, &.C., and in philosoph- 
ical experiments. 

3. Apothecaries' Weight. 



OS 



(t) 



005 

1 

3 
24 



0-01666 

0-3333 

1- 

8- 



0-002083 
00416 
0-1250 
1- 
12- 



0-0001736 

0003472 

0-0104166 

00833333 

1- 



'2 150 

I 



006475 
1-295 
3-885 
31-08 
372-96 



II. French Weights. 
1. Metrical or Decimal Weights. 



Names. 



Millegramme 
Centignunine 
Decigramme 
Gramme 
Decagramme I 

Hectogramme ' 

Kilogramme, or Kilo 
Myriagramme 



Equiv. in 
grammes. 



1- 

10- 

100- 

1000- 

10000- 



Equiv. in 
troy grains. 



•0154 

•1543 

1^5434 

15-434 

154-3402 

l.-)4340-23 

154340-234 

154340-2344 



Equiv. in 

avoirdupois 

weight. 



lbs. oz. grs. 



Oi 45^ 
3.V 12-152 
2 3i 12-173 
22 Oi 12- 



*^* The standard unit in the above table is 
the gramme. A metrical quintal is 10 myria- 
grammes. A millier is 1000 kilos. 

* As this abbreviation is used to represent both the 
avoirdupois, and troy or apothecaries' pound, it is neces- 
sary to observe, that the former is indicated when tils 
sign is preceded by Arabic figures ; and the latter, when it 
isfollowed by Roman numerals. It was also formerly 
used along with Roman numerals, to reiresent the 
pint. 



WHE 



562 



WHI 





2. 


Binary Weights 


(Syst6me usuel.) 


































A g 


.^ 


t 

.a 


6 

02 


2 

C3 


6 
a 

o 


5 


6 
E 

1 


>' S 




it 


fa 










W 




pi 3 


o 


















Ibs.oz.ffrs. 


1 

















•0542 


•05 


0-837 


24 


] 














1-30 


rso 


201 


72 


3 


1 











3-906 


4- 


60-284 


576 


24 


8 


1 








3125 


32- 


1 45- 


9216 


384 


128 


16 


1 





500- 


500^ 


1 14 61- 


18432 


768 


256 


32 


2 


1 


1000- 


1000^ 


2 3^ 13^ 



an imperial troy grain ; hence, 1 troy grain is 
equal to 1-21 old French grains. The gros, once, 
and other multiples of the grain, are of course pro- 
portionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is 
equal ♦to 0^0542 gramme, or 0-8365228 gr. troy. 
It is said, in some works, to be equal to 0-878 gr. 
troy ; or, in round numbers, 0"9, but this is 
much too high. 



III. Continental Medicinal Weights in 
► Troy Grains. 

From Dr. Christison's Dispensatory. 











Scru 


pies 










. 


consist 


ing of 






T3 
C 


1 


1 


& 

i^ 


& 

T? 




5 


^ 


^ 


s 


s 




o 


French 


5670-5 


470-50 


59-10 


19-7 





0-820 


Spanish 


5326-3 


443-49 


55-14 


18-47 





0-769 


Tuscan 


5240-3 


436-67 


54-58 


18-19 


— 


0-758 


Ron)an 


52350 


436-25 


54-.58 


18-17 


— 


0-757 


Austrian 


6495-1 


541-25 


67-65 





22-5 


1-127 


German 


5524-8 


460-40 


.57-55 


— 


19-18 


0-960 


Russian 


5524-8 


460-40 


57-55 


— 


19-18 


0-960 


Prussian 


.5415-1 


451-26 


56-40 


— 


18-80 


0-940 


Dutch 


5695-8 


474-64 


59-33 





19-78 


0-988 


Belgian 


5695-8 


474-64 


59-33 


_ 


19-78 


0-988 


Swedish 


5500-2 


458-34 


57-29 


— 


1909 


0-954 


Piedmontese 


4744-7 


395-39 


49-45 





16-48 


0-8-24 


Venetian 


4661-4 


388-45 


48-55 


— 


16-18 


0-809 



WELSH RAREBIT. Prep. Cut slices of 
bread, toast and butter them ; then cover them 
with slices of rich cheese, spread a little mus- 
tard over the cheese, and put the bread in a 
cheese-toaster before the fire. Serve it up very 
hot. 

WELD. Syn. Woald. Vouede, {Fr.) 
Reseda luteola, {Lin.) An herbaceous annual 
employed by the dyers. A decoction of the stems 
and leaves gives a rich yellow to goods mordanted 
with alum, tartar, or muriate of tin. The yellow 
coloring principle may be obtained in beautiful, 
transparent yellow needles by sublimation. (See 
Luteoi.ine.) 

WHEAT. The quality of this grain may be 
ascertained in the way directed for wheat flour, p. 
317. 

WFIEY. Syn. Petit Lait, {Fr.) Molken, 
^Ger.) Skrum Lactis, (Lat.) The liquid portion 



of milk after the curd h'ds been separated. It 
consists chiefly of sugar of milk. — A pound of 
milk, mixed with a tablespoonful of proof spirit 
allowed to become sour, and the whey filtered 
from the sediment, yields, in the course of a few 
weeks, a good vinegar (whey vinegar) free 
from lactic acid. (Scheele.) Skimmed milk may 
be used. 

WHISKEY. (From Usquebaugh, the Irish 
name originally applied to it.) Dilute alcohol ob- 
tained from the fermented wort of malt or grains* 
That from the former is the most esteemed. The 
inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared from 
barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only of which 
is malted ; or from potatoes mashed with a portion 
of barley malt, the resulting wash being carelessly 
fermented and distilled, and purposely sutFered to 
burn, to impart the peculiar empyreumatic or 
smoky flavor so much relished by the lower orders 
of whiskey drinkers. The malt whiskey (sold as 
such) of the principal Scotch and Irish distillers, 
is fully equal in quality to London gin, from which 
it merely differs in flavor. The peculiar flavor of 
Scotch whiskey may be nicely imitated by adding 
a few drops of pure creosote to 2 or 3 gallons of 
good London gin ; and the imitation will be still 
more perfect if the liquor be kept for some months 
before drinking it. 

WHITE COPPER. (See German Silver.) 
WHITE PIGMENT S.— Alum White 
(Baume's.) Powdered Roman alum 2 lbs. ; honey 
1 lb. ; mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish 
to whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautiful 
and permanent white both in oil and water. — 
DERBYsmRE WmTE. Cawk, heavy spar, or 
native sulphate of barytes. — Flake White. The 
finer kinds of white lead are so called. — White 
Lead. {Fine White. Carbonate of Lead. Sub- 
carbonate of do. Ceruse. Cerussa. Magistery 
of lead. Plumbi Carbonas, P. L.) Made by 
suspending rolls of thin sheet-lead over malt vine- 
gar, or pyroligneous acid, in close vessels, the 
evaporation from the acid being kept up by the 
vessels being placed in a heap of dung, or a 
steam-bath. Commercial carbonate of lead is 
never quite pure, being commonly adulterated 
with sulphate of bary'ta, {heavy spar,) and some- 
times with chalk. The former may be detected 
by its insolubility in dilute nitric acid, and the 
latter by the nitric solution yielding a white pre- 
cipitate with oxalic or sulphuric acid, or oxalate of 
ammonia, after having been treated with sul- 
phureted hydrogen, or a hydrosulphuret, to throw 
down the lead. " Pure carbonate of lead does 
not lose weight at a temperature of 212° ; 68 grs. 
are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid, 
diluted with f §j of distilled water ; and the solu- 
tion is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 
60 grs. of phosphate of soda." (P. E.) The so- 
lution in nitric acid should not yield a precipitate 
when treated with a solution of sulphate of soda. 
Used as a superior -white paint, and in medicine, 
externally, as an astringent, refrigerant, and 
dcsiccant. — French White Lead. {Blanc de 
Plomb.) Litharge dissolved in dilute acetic acid, 
and the carbonate of lead thrown down by a 
current of carbonic acid gas. Does not cover 
well. — Venetian White Lead, {Cerussa Veneta.) 
Flake white, or pur« white lead and cawk, equal 



WHI 



563 



WIN 



parts. — Hamburgh White Lead. Flake white 1 
cwt. ; cawk 2 cwt. — Best Dutch White Lead. 
Flake white 1 cwt. ; cawk 3 cwt. — Dutch White 
Lead. Flake wliite 1 cwt. ; cawk 7 cwt. The 
last four are commonly substituted in trade for 
genuine white lead. — English White Lead. 
Flake white lowered with chalk. Covers badly, 
and color inferior to the preceding. — Grace's 
White Lead. Made from lead, with the refuse 
(vater of the starch-makers, soured brewer's 
grains, &c. — White Precipitate of Lead. (Sul- 
phate of Lead.) An acetic or nitric solution of 
litharge, precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric 
acid, and the white powder washed and dried. 
The clear liquid decanted from the precipitate is 
poured on fresh litharge, when a second solution 
takes place ; and this may be repeated for any 
number of times. Used in miniature painting, 
being a beautiful and durable white. — Notting- 
ham White. White lead made with alegar. — 
Newcastle White. White lead made with mo- 
lasses vinegar. — Mineral White. A nitric or 
acetic solution of litharge, precipitated by car- 
bonate of soda. — Wilkinson's White. Litharge 
ground with sea-water till it ceases to whiten, and 
then washed and dried. — Permanent White. 
Artificial sulphate of baryta, prepared by precipi- 
tating the muriate by diluted sulphuric acid, or a 
/lolution of glauber salts. A good fast white. 
Used to mark jars and bottles for containing acids 



or alkalis, as it is afFected by very few sub- 
stances. — Pearl White, {Fard's Spanish White.) 
Trisuitrate of bismuth. — Spanish White. {Blanc 
d'Espagne. Blanc de Troyes.) Tiie softest and 
purest white chalk, elutriated, made into balls, 
and well dried. Used as a cheap white paint. — 
Whiting. The same as prepared chalk, but pre- 
pared more carelessly. 

WHITES, SHARP. Prep. 1. Wheat flour and 
powdered alum, equal parts, ground together. — 2. 
(Stuff. Baker's stuff.) Alum ground to the 
coarseness of common salt 1 lb. ; common salt 3 
lbs. ; mix. Both the above are used by bakers for 
the purpose of introducing alum into their bread 
under a disguise. 

WINDOWS, SASH. These may be kept up 
without sash-lines and pulleys, by means of cork, 
in the simplest manner, and with scarcely any ex- 
pense. Bore three or four holes in the sides of the 
sash, into which insert common bottle corks, pro- 
jecting about the sixteenth part of an inch. These 
will press against the window-frames, along the 
usual groove, and by their elasticity support the 
sash at any height which may be required. 

WINDOWS. (Prismatic Diamond Crystals 
for.) Mix a hot solution of sulphate of magnesia, 
with a clear solution of gum arable, and lay it on 
hot. For a margin, or for figures, wipe off the 
part you wish to remain clear with a wet towel 
The effect is very pretty. 



I. Table of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine. By Dr. Christison. 



Names, &c. 



Port 



Sherry 



Madeira 



p Weakest 

j Mean of 7 samples .... 

] Strongest ...... 

LWhite . . . 

'Weakest ...... 

Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very 
long kept in cask .... 

Strongest ...... 

Mean of 9 wines long kept in cask in 
the East Indies .... 

Madre da Xeres ..... 

Long kept in cask in ^ Strongest 
the East Indies \ Weakest 
Teneriffe long in cask at Calcutta 
Cercial ........ 

Lisbon (diy) ........ 

Shiraz 

Amontillado 

Claret. A first growth of 1811 .... 
Chateau-Latour. Do. 1825 .... 

Rosan. Second growth 1825 

Ordinary Claret. (Vin Ordinaire) 

Rivesaltes ........ 

Malmsey ........ 

RiiDESHEiMER. Ist quality ..... 

" Inferior 

Hambacher. Superior quality .... 



Alcohol of 
0-7939 per 
cent, by- 
volume. 



14-97 
16-20 
17-10 
14-97 
13-98 

15-37 

16-17 

14-72 

16-90 

16-90 

14-09 

13-84 

15-45 

16-14 

12-95 

12-63 

7-72 

7-78 

7-61 

8-99 

9-31 

12-86 

8-40 

6-90 

7-35 



Proof spirit 

per cent, by 

volume. 



30-56 
33-91 
37-27 
31-31 

30-84 

33-59 

35-12 

32-30 

37-06 
36-81 
30-86 
30-21 
33-65 
34-71 
. 28-30 
27-60 
16-95 
17-06 
16-74 
18-96 
22-35 
28-37 
18-44 
15-19 
16-15 



WIN 



564 



WIN 



II. Quantity of Alcohol (sp. gr. 0-825* at 60' 
F.) in 100 parts of Wine by volume. 



Names of Wine. 


Alcoholic 
Content. 


Authority. 


Alba Flora 


17-26 


Brande 


Barsac 


13-86 


do. 


Bucellas 


18-49 


do. 


Burgundy (average) . 


14-57 


do. 


Ditto ■ . 


12-16 


Prout. 


Calcavella (average) . 


18-65 


Brande. 


Cape Madeira (do.) . 


20-51 


do. 


Cape Muschat . 


18-25 


do. 


Champagne (average) 


12-61 


do. 


Ditto 


12-20 


Fontenelle. 


Claret (average) 


15-10 


Brande. 


Colares 


19-75 


do. 


Constantia (White) . 


19-75 


do. 


Ditto (Red) . 


18-92 


do. 


Ditto (average) 


14-50 


Prout. 


C6te Rotie . . . 


12-32 


Brande. 


Currant 


20-55 


do. 


Elder 


8-79 


do. 


Frontignac (Rivesalte) 


12-79 


do. 


Gooseberry 


11-84 


do. 


Grape (English) 


18-11 


do. 


Hermitage (Red) 


12-32 


do. 


Ditto (White) 


17-43 


do. 


Hock,^( average) . 


12-08 


do. 


Lachryma Christi 


19-70 


do. 


Lisbon 


18-94 


do. 


Lissa (average) . 


25-41 


do. 


Ditto (do.) 


15-90 


Prout. 


Lunel 


15-.52 


Brande. 


Madeira (average) 


22-27 


do. 


Ditto (do.) . 


21-20 


Prout. 


Malaga 


17-26 


Brande. 


Ditto 


18-94 


do. 


Malmsey Madeira 


16-40 


do. 


Marsala (average) 


25-09 


do. 


Ditto (do.) . 


18-40 


Prout. 


Nice . . . . 


14-63 


Brande. 


Orange (average) 


11-26 


do. 


Port (do.) . 


20-64 


Prout. 


Ditto (do.) . 


22-96 


Brande. 


Raisin (do.) . 


25-41 


do. 


Ditto (do.) . 


15-90 


Prout. 


Red Madeira (do.) 


20-35 


Brande. ^ 


Roussillon (do.) . 


18-13 


do. 


Sauterne . 


14-22 


do. 


Sheraaz 


15-52 


do. 


Sherry (average) 


19-17 


do. 


Ditto (do.) . 


23-80 


Prout. 


Syracuse . 


20-00 


do. 


Ditto 


15-28 


Brande. 


Teneriffe . 


19-79 


do. 


Tent .... 


13-30 


do. 


Tokay 


9-88 


do. 


Vidonia 


19-25 


do. 


Vin de Grave . 


13-94 


do. 


Zante 


17-05 


do. 



WINE. Syn. Vin, (Fr.) Wein, (Gr.) Wvn, 
(Dut.) Win, i^Swed.) Vino, (lial. and Span.) 
Vinum, (Lat.) The fermented juice of the grape. 

* Alcohol of 0-825 contains \)'2C)^ of real or anhydrous 
alcohol, and in round niiinhers may be said to bo about 
twice the strength of brandy or rum, as usually sold. 



The general characters and qualities of wine are 
principally influenced by climate, soil, and aspect, 
the nature and maturity of the grape, and the 
method of conducting the fermentation. Want of 
space will compel us to confine our remarks to the 
properties, uses, and management of grape-juice 
after it has passed through the stage of fermenta- 
tion, or, in reality, become Wine. Some observa- 
tions connected with this subject will be found in 
the articles Fermentation and Manures. 

Officinal Wine. The only wine ordered by 
the British colleges is sherry, (Vinum Xericum, 
P. L. ; V. Album; White Wine, P. E. ; V. Al- 
bum Hyspanicum, P. D. ;) but several other 
wines are employed in medicine, as tonics, stimu- 
lants, antispasmodics, and restoratives. In phar- 
macy, the less expensive Cape or raisin wine is 
usutiAy substituted for sherry in the preparation of 
the medicated wines of the Pharmacopoeia. 

Varieties, characteristics, ^c. Our space will 
not permit a notice of the principal wines of com- 
merce individually ; the reader is therefore refer- 
red to the preceding Tables, which will convey 
much useful information on thie subject in a con- 
densed form. 

Composition. The constituents of wine are — ■ 
alcohol, which is one of its principal ingredients, 
and on which its power of producing intoxication 
chiefly depends ; — Sugar which has escaped the 
process of fermentation, and which is most abun- 
dant in the sweet wines, as tokay, tent, frontignac, 
&c. ; — Extractive, derived chiefly from the husk 
of the grape ; its quantity diminishes by precipita- 
tion, owing to the gradual action of the atmosphere ; 
— Coloring matter; this resides in the husk of the 
grape, and is extracted by the newly-formed alco- 
hol ; its natural color is blue or purple ; its red 
tint is owing to the action of free acid ; — Tartar. 
Bitartrate of potash constitutes the most important 
portion of the saline matter of wine, and appears 
to exercise an important influence over the fer- 
mentation. It is gradually deposited along with 
coloring matter by age; — Odoriferous matter. The 
characteristic vinous odor appears to depend upon 
the presence of oenanthic acid and ether, but the 
bouquet of wine arises from the essential oil, prob- 
ably existing under the form of ether. Besides the 
above, small quantities of tannin, gum, acetic and 
malic acids, acetic ether, lime, ^c, exist in wine. 
The sp. gr. of wine depends on the richness and 
ripeness of the grapes used in its manufacture, the 
nature of the fermentation, and its age. It varies 
from 1-0627 to 1-1283. The sp. gr. of German 
wines is usually from 1039 to 1-091, according to 
the season. 

Purity. The most frequent species of fraud in 
the wine trade is the mixing of wines of inferior 
quality with those of a superior grade. In many 
cases the inferior kinds of foreign wine are flavor- 
ed and substituted for the more expensive ones. 
This is commonly practised with cape wine, which, 
after having a slight " nuttiness" communicated to 
it by bitter almonds or peach kernels, a luscious- 
ness, or fulness, by honey, and additional strength 
by a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made to 
undergo the operation of "fretting in," and is 
then sold for sherry. Formerly, it was a common 
practice of ignorant wine-dealers to add a little 
litharge, or acetate of lead, to their inferior winea 



WIN 



565 



WIN 



to correct their acidity, but it is believed that this 
poisonous substance is now never employed in this 
country, and that the lead which is frequently de- 
tected in bottled wine may be traced to shot being 
left in the bottle, and not to fraud. The presence 
of lead in wine may be readily detected by the 
addition of a little sulphureted hydrooren, or a solu- 
tion of any hydrosulphuret, which will in that case 
produce a black precipitate. Sherry is commonly 
colored in Spain by the addition of must, boiled 
down to one-fifth of its original volume, and in 
England by burnt brown sugar, or spirit coloring. 
Amontillado (a very nutty wine) is commonly 
added to sherries deficient in flavor ; various other 
ingredients, as the essential oil of bitter almonds, 
bitter almonds in substance, cherry-laurel leaves 
and water, &c., are also employed for a like pur- 
pose. In Portugal the juice of elderberries is fre- 
quently added to port wine to increase its color, 
and extract of rhatany for the double purpose of 
improving its color, and imparting an astringent 
taste. The use of the former was once carried to 
guch an extent that the Wine Company of Portu- 
gal put themselves to the expense and trouble of 
rooting out all the elder trees, and prohibiting their 
growth in the wine district. In England, beet-root, 
Brazil wood^ the juice of elderberries and bilberries, 
the pressed cake from making elder wine, extract 
of logwood, &c., are frequently added to port to 
deepen its color ; and oak sawdust, kino, akvm, 
and extract of rhatany, to increase its astriugency. 
Genuine red wines yield greenish gray precipitates 
with sugar of lead, and greenish ones with potassa ; 
but those colored with elderberries, bilberries, and 
logwood, give deep blue, or violet precipitates, 
and those colored with Brazil, red sanders wood, 
or red beet, give red precipitates. A factitious 
bouquet is also commonly given to wine by the 
addition of sweetbrier, orris root, clary, elder-flow- 
ers, &,c. The latter can only be detected by a 
discriminating and sensitive palate. 

Uses. The uses of wine as a beverage are too 
well known to require description. As a medicine, 
port wine is most esteemed as an astringent and 
tonic ; and sherry and Madeira as stimulants and 
restoratives, in diseases where the acidity of. the 
former would be objectionable ; champagne is diu- 
retic and excitant ; and the Rhenish wines are 
refrigerant, diuretic, and slightly aperient. Cla- 
ret, Rhenish, and Moselle wines are the most 
wholesome. In pharmacy wine is used as a men- 
struum. 

Manageme-nt of Wine. Age. The sparkling 
wines are in their prime in from 18 to 30 months 
after the vintage, depending on the cellaring and 
climate. Weak wines, of inferior growths, should 
be drunk within 12 or 15 months, and be preserved 
in a very cool cellar. Sound, well-fermented, full- 
bodied wines are improved by age, within reason- 
able limits, provided they be well preserved from 
the air, and stored in a cool place, having a pretty 
uniform temperature. To promote the ripening of 
wine, some persons cover the mouths of the casks 
or bottles with bladder, and others remove them 
into a warmer situation. A very little dilute sul- 
phuric acid is commonly added to the coarser 
wines for the same purpose ; but a small quantity 
of pure acetic or tartaric acid would be preferable. 
2 or 3 drops of the former, added to a bottle of 



some kinds of new wine, immediately give it the 
-ippearanco of being 2 or 3 years old. 

Bottling. The secret of bottling wine with 
success consists in the simple exercise of care and 
cleanliness. The bottles should be all sound, 
clean, and dry, and perfectly free from the least 
inustiness or other odor. The corks should be of 
the best quality, and immediately before being 
placed in the bottles should be compressed by 
means of a " cork-squeezer." For superior or very 
delicate wines, the corks are usually prepared by 
placing them in a copper or tub, covering them 
with weights to keep them down, and then pour- 
ing over them boiling water, holding a little pearl- 
ash in solution. In this state they are allowed to 
remain for 24 hours, wheu they are drained, and 
reimmersed for a second 24 hours in hot water, 
after ^hich they are well washed and soaked in 
several successive portions of clear rain water, 
drained, dried out of contact with dust, put into 
paper bags, and liung up in a dry place for use. 
The wine should be clear and brilliant, and if it 
be not so, it must undergo the process of " fining" 
before being iLrottled. In fact, it is a common 
practice with some persons to perform this opera- 
tion whether the wine requires it or not ; as if it 
has been mixed and doctored, it " amalgamates 
and ameliorates the various flavors." The bottles, 
corks, and wine being ready, a fine clear day 
should be preferably chosen for bottling, and the 
utmost cleanliness and care should be exercised 
during the process. Great caution should also be 
observed to avoid shaking the cask so as to disturb 
the bottoms. The remaining portion that cannot 
be drawn off" clear should be passed through the 
" wine bag," and when bottled should be set apart 
as inferior to the rest. The coopers, to prevent 
breakage and loss, place each bottle, before cork- 
ing it, in a small bucket, having a bottom made of 
soft cork. They thus seldom break a bottle, 
though they " flog" in the corks very hard. When 
the wine is all bottled, it is stored in a cool cellar, 
and on no account on the bottles' bottoms, or in 
damp straw, but on their sides, in sweet, dry 
sawdust or sand. 

Brandying. Brandy is frequently added to weak 
or vapid wines, to increase their strength, or to 
promote their preservation. In Portugal one third 
of brandy is commonly added to port before ship- 
ping it for England, as without this addition it 
generally passes into the acetous fermentation 
during the voyage. A little good brandy is also 
usually added to sherry before it leaves Spain. 
By recent regulations of the customs of England, 
1U§ of brandy may be added to wines in bond, and 
the increased quantity is only charged the usual 
duty on wine. The addition of brandy to wine 
injures its proper flavor, and hence is chiefly made 
to port, sherry, and other wines, whose flavor is so 
strong as not to be easily injured. Even when 
brandy is added to wines of the latter description, 
they require to be kept for some time to recover 
their natural flavor. To promote this object, the 
wine doctors. employ the process called ''fretting 
in,-' by which they 'effect the same change in 3 or 
4 weeks, as would otherwise require some months, 
at the very least. 

Cellaring. A wine cellar shoo.ld be dry at bot- 
tom, and either covered with good hard gravel, or 



WIN 



566 



WIN 



be paved with flags. Its gratings or windows 
should open toward the north, and it should be 
sunk sufficiently below the surface to ensure an 
equable temperature. It should also be sufficiently 
relmoved from any public thoroughfare, as not to 
suffer vibration from the passing of carriages. 
Should it not be iii a position to maintain a regular 
temperature, arrangements should be made to 
apply artificial heat in winter, and proper ventila- 
tion in summer. A celebrated wine establishment 
known to the writer, whose cellars are above 
ground, have a number of thermometers suspend- 
ed on the walls, and whenever the mercury sinks 
below 48° F., several Arnot's stoves, arranged for 
that purpose, are immediately lighted, and their 
action properly watched and regulated. 

Coloring. Wines are as commonly doctored in 
their color as their flavor. A fawn yellow and 
golden sherry yellow are given by means of a 
tincture or an infusion of saffron, turmeric, or saf- 
flower, followed by a little spirit coloring to prevent 
the color being too lively. All shades of amber 
&nd fawn to deep brown and brandy color, may 
be given by burnt sugar. Cochineal (either alone 
or with a little alum) gives a pink color ; — beet- 
root and red sanders give a red color ; — the ex- 
tracts of rhatany and logwood, and the juice of 
elderberries, bilberries, &c., a port wine color. A 
hogshead of inferior pale sherry or white cape is 
commonly converted into a full-flavored brown 
sherry by the " honest" wine dealer, by the addi- 
tion of ^ pint of spirit coloring, a gallon of brandy, 
and a few drops of the essential oil of bitter al- 
monds dissolved in spirit ; the whole being well 
mixed and fined down. 

Decanting. This only refers to small quantities 
of wine, ready for consumption. In decanting 
wine, be careful not to shake or disturb the crust 
when moving it about or drawing the cork, partic- 
ularly port wine. Never decant wine without a 
wine-strainer, with some fine carribric in it to 
prevent the crust and bits of cork going iifto the 
decanter. In decanting port wine do not drain it 
too near ; there are generally two thirds of a wine- 
glass of thick dregs in each bottle, which ought 
not to be put in ; but in white wine there is not 
much settling ; pour it out, however, very slowly, 
and raise the bottle up gradually ; it should never 
be decanted in a hurry. Be careful not to jostle 
the decanters against each other when moving 
them about, as they easily break, especially when 
full. 

Decoloring. The color of wines is precipitated 
by age and by exposure to the light. It is also 
artificially removed by the action of milk, lime- 
water, or fresli-burnt charcoal. Wine merchants 
avail theiriselves of this property, for the purpose 
of whitening wines that have acquired a brown 
color from the cask, or which are esteemed pale ; 
and also for turning " pricked" red or dark-colored 
wines, into white, in which a small degree of acid- 
ity is not so much perceived. The milk should be 
well skimmed before being mixed with the wine, 
and should be used in the same manner as ordina- 
ry finings, for which it will bo foinid a good sub- 
stitute. In this way brown sherry is commonly 
converted into pale or gold-colored sherry. For 
the latter purpose 1 to 3 pints are usually suflicient, 
but to decolor red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will 



be required, according to the nature and intensity 
of the color, or the shade of color desired. Char- 
coal is seldom used, as it removes the flavor as 
well as color, but a very little milk of lime may 
sometimes be advantageously substituted for milk, 
when the wine has much acidity. 

Fining. Wine is clarified in a similar manner 
to beer. Whitk Wines are usually fined by .sin- 
glass, in the proportion of about 1^ oz. (dissolved 
in 1^ pints of water, and thinned with some of the 
wine) to the hogshead. Red Wines are general- 
ly fined with the whites of eggs, in the proportion 
of 12 or 18 to the pipe ; they must be well beaten 
to a froth with about a pint of water, and after- 
wards with a little of the wine, before adding them 
to the liquor. Sometimes hartshorn shavings, or 
pale swe^t glue, is substituted for isinglass ; and 
for some strong red wines, abounding in tannin, a 
little sheep's or bullock's blood is very commonly 
employed. The use of blood is not, however, to be 
recommended, as it communicates a very trifling, 
but still an unpleasant flavor and odor, which is 
easily recognised by the palate of a professed 
" wine-taster ;" besides which the practice is dirty 
and disgusting. Gypsum is frequently used to 
clear muddy white wines ; as also milk of lime. 
Some persons add about 1 oz. of sugar of lead dis- 
solved in water to a hogshead of such wine, and 
after well mixing it in, further add a like quantity 
of bisulphate of potash, (sal enixum,) also dissolved 
in water, and rummage well. In this process the 
sugar of lead is decomposed and falls down as an 
insoluble sulphate, and hence it is argued that it is 
not so dangerous as has been generally represented 
by Accum, and others afflicted with the poison 
mania. The use of lead, however, in any shape 
is objectionable, and should never be adopted by 
the wine-dealer, however plausible the above 
statements may appear. In France a person 
known to employ lead in wine would subject him- 
self to fine and imprisonment. (See the latter part 
of the article Brewing.) 

Flatness. This is best removed by the addition 
of a little new brisk wine of the same kind ; or by 
rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey, or bruised sultana 
raisins, and 3 or 4 quarts of good brandy per hogs- 
head. By this treatment the wine will usually be 
recovered in about a fortnight, unless in very cold 
weather. Should it be wanted sooner, add a table- 
spoonful or two of yeast, and remove it to a warmer 
situation. 

Flavoring. Various ingredients are added to in- 
ferior wines to give them the favor of others more 
expensive, and to British wines to make them re-" 
semble those imported. Substances are also added 
in a similar manner to communicate the aroma of 
the highly-flavored grape wines. Among the first 
are bitter almonds, or the essetiiial oil of almonds, 
or preferably its alcoholic solution, which are used 
to impart a sherry or nutty flavor to weak- 
flavored wines, as sherry, white cape, malt, raisin, 
parsnip, and other similar British wines ; — rhatany, 
kino, oak sawdust and hai k, alum, &c., to con- 
vey ASTRINGENCY, and — tiucture of the seeds of 
raisi7is to impart a port wine flavor. Among 
the substances employed to commimicate the bou- 
quet of i\w finer wines, may be mentioned — orris 
root, cav. de fleures d'oranges, neroli, ambergriS; 
vanilla, violet petals, cedrat, sweetbrier, clary, 



WIN 



567 



WIN 



elder flowers, quinces, cherry-laurel water, &,c. 
By the skilful, though fraudulent use of the above 
flavoring substances and perfumes, the experienced 
wine-brewer manages to produce, in the dark cel- 
lars of London, from white cape, currant, goose- 
berry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip, and malt wine, 
ver}' excellent imitations of foreign wine, and 
which pass current among the majority of English 
wine-driukers as the choicest productions of the 
grape, " genuine as imported.'' — A grain or two 
of ambergris, well rubbed down with sugar, and 
added to a hogshead of claret, gives it a flavor and 
bouquet much esteemed by some connoisseurs. 

Improving. This is the caiit term of the wine 
trade, under which all the adulteration and " doc- 
toring" of wine is carried on. A poor sherry is 
unproved by the addition of a little almond flavor, 
honey, and spirit ; — a port deficient in body and 
astringency, by the addition of some red tartar, 
(dissolved in boiling water,) some kino, rhatany, 
or catechu, and a little honey and brandy. 

Mixing. Few wines are sold without admixture. 
It is found that the intoxicating properties of wine 
are increased by mixing them with other wines of 
a different age and growth. In man}" cases the 
flavor is at the same time improved. Thus, a thin 
port is improved by the addition of a similar wine 
having a full body, or by a little Malaga, Teue- 
riffe, or rich old sherry ; and an inferior old sherry 
may be improved by admixture with a little full- 
bodied wine of the last vintage. lu this consists 
the great art of '•' cellar management," and to such 
an extent is this carried, both abroad and in 
England, that it may be confidently asserted that 
no wine ever reaches the consumer in an uninixed 
or natural state. 

Mustiness. This is easiest removed by violently 
agitating the wine for some time with a little of 
the sweetest olive or almond oil. The cause of the 
bad taste is the presence of an essential oil, w^hich 
the fixed oil seizes on and rises with it to the surface, 
wlien it may be skimmed off. A little coarsely- 
powdered fresh-burnt charcoal, or even some slices 
of bread toasted black, will frequently have a like 
effect. A little bruised mustard is used by some 
persons. 

Perfuming. This is chiefly performed on British 
wines for family use. For its application to foreign 
wines, see flavoring. Wines may be perfumed by 
the simple addition of any odorous substances pre- 
viously well mixed with a little of the wine, or dis- 
solved in a few oz. of spirit. 

Racking. This should be performed in cool wea- 
ther, and preferably early in the spring. To avoid 
disturbing the dregs, a clean syphon, well man- 
aged, will be found better than a cock or faucet. 
The bottoms, or foul portion, may be strained 
through a wine bag, and added to some other in- 
ferior wine. 

Ripening. To promote the maturation of wine, 
various plans are adopted by the growers and deal- 
ers. One of the safest ways, especially for strono- 
wines, is not to rack them till they have stood 15 
or 13 months upon the lees, at the same time reg- 
ulating the temperature upon the principles de- 
scribed under FeRxMextatio.v. In this way, the 
slow or insensible fermentation which causpo *^^ 
maturation of wine, will be prom'^*^'"'"' ""^^i^^t^ the 
access of the acpt«— ^-.mefitation, or that which 



causes acidity. — Another safe method is, to remove 
the racked wine into a rather warmer situation 
than usual, observuig properly to exclude the ac- 
tion of the air, which cannot be done with wine in 
wood, if the place be very dry. — A third method 
is to remove the corks or bungs, and to substitute 
bladder tied or fastened over air-tight. Bottled 
wine treated in this way, ripens very quickly in a 
temperate situation. 

Roughening. A roughness or astringency is 
readily communicated to wine by the cautious use 
of kino, catechu, or rhatany. 

Ropiness or viscidity. This arises from the 
wine containing too little tannin or astringent mat- 
ter to precipitate the gluten, albumen, or other azo- 
tized substance, occasioning the malady. Such 
wine cannot be clarified in the ordinuy way, be- 
cause it is incapable of causing the coagulation or 
precipitation of the fining. The remedy is to sup- 
ply the principle in which it is deficient. M. Fran- 
cois of Nantes prescribes the bruised berries of the 
mountain ash (1 lb. to the barrel) for this purpose. 
A little catechu, kino, or the bruised foot stalks of 
the grape, may also be conveniently and advan- 
tageously used in the same way. Any other sub- 
stance that precipitates albumen, may likewise be 
employed. See Malt Liquors and Brewing. 

Second Fermentation. (La-pousse of the French.) 
Inordinate fermentation, either primary or second- 
ary, in wine or any other fermented liquor, may 
be readily checked by racking it into a cask which 
has been previously fumigated with burning sul- 
phur ; or one half of the wine may be drawn off" 
from the cask, and a lighted match, made by dip- 
ping some rags in melted brimstone, may be held 
by a pair of tongs in the bung- hole, slightly cover- 
ed, so as to impregnate the liquor with tiie fumes. 
The decanted portion of the wine is then returned 
to the cask, which is immediately bunged down 
close, and well agitated for a few minutes. 1 oz. 
of brimstone thus employed is sufficient for a hogs- 
head. This is the common plan adopted in the 
wine districts of France, either to allay the fer- 
mentation of wine, or to preserve must or grape 
juice in the sweet state. — Another method, which 
is very convenient and harmless, is to mix about ^ 
lb. to 1 lb. of bruised mustard seed with each hogs- 
bead. — A fourth method is to add to the wine 
about 1 -1000th part, or less, of sulphite of lime. 
This substance seldom fails of arresting the fer- 
mentation. — In addition to the above remedies, a 
little sulphuric acid is sometimes employed, and 
the use of black oxide of manganese, or chlorate 
of potash, has been proposed on theoretical grounds. 

Souring. This is either occasioned by the wine 
having been imperfectly fermented, or from its 
having been kept in a cellar where.it has been ex- 
posed to too much heat or air, or to continual vi- 
brations, occasioned by the passage of loaded ve- 
hicles through the adjoining thorou?^^^''^''^' The 
common remedv recommended ^. books for this 
purpose, is to saturate the -^'^"^ "''^'^ chalk, milk 
of lime, or calcined -^ter .shells ; but such addi- 
tions, made in -^^^cient quantity to effect this ob- 
ject des*^-^' ths character of the wine, and render 
it --"-'y and vapid. Formerly it was a very com- 
mon practice to add litharge to alleviate the acid- 
ity ; but the wine was thus rendered highly injuri- 
ous to health, and frequently converted into a cer- 



WIN 



568 



WIN 



tain and deadly poison. Owing to the exertions of 
the Council of Salubrity, this practice has been 
wholly put down in France ; and this example, 
combined with the easy means of detecting lead in 
wine, which are now so generally known, have also 
led to its discontinuance in England. The best 
and safest remedy is to mix it with a considerable 
portion of full-bodied new wine, adding at the 
same time a little brandy, and in 2 or 3 weeks to 
fine it down, and either to put it into bottles, or to 
consume it as soon as possible. 

Sparkling, creaming, and briskness. These 
properties are conveyed to wine by racking it into 
close vessels before the fermentation is complete, 
and while there still remains a considerable por- 
tion of undecomposed sugar. Wine of this de- 
scription which has lost its briskness, may be re- 
stored by adding to each bottle a few grains of 
white lump-sugar or sugar-candy. This is the 
way in which champagne is treated in France. 
The bottles are afterwards inverted, by which 
means any sediment that forms falls into the 
necks, when the corks are partially withdrawn, and 
the sediment is immediately expelled by the pres- 
sure of the gas. If the wine remains muddy, a 
little solution of sugar and finings are added, and 
the bottles are again placed in a vertical position, 
and after two or three months the sediment is 
discharged, as before. Sometimes this process is 
repeated a third and a fourth time, if the wine 
continues muddy. 

Sweating in. The technical terms " sweating" 
and "fretting in," are applied to the partial produc- 
tion of a secondary fermentation, for the purpose 
of " amalgamating" the flavor of foreign ingre- 
dients (chiefly brandy) added to the wine. For 
this purpose 4 or 5 lbs. of sugar or honey are 
commonly added to a hogshead, and when the 
wine is wanted in haste, a spoonful or two of 
yeast, or a little crude tartar, or bruised vine 
leaves, are also mixed in, or the cask is placed in 
a moderately warm situation till the effect is 
nearly complete, when it is removed to the wine- 
cellar, and fined down. 

Taste of Cask. — The remedies for this malady 
are the same as for mustiness. 

*^* For further information connected with 
the nature and management of Wines, and other 
fermented liquors, see Brewing, Fermentation, 
Manures, Malt Liquors, and the following ar- 
ticles. 

WINE, BRITISH. The various processes in 
British wine-making resemble those employed for 
foreign wine, and depend upon the same prin- 
ciples. The Fruit should be preferably gathered 
in fine weather, and not till it has arrived at a 
proper state of maturity, as evinced by its flavor 
when tasted ; for if it be employed while unripe, 
the wliio will be harsh, disagreeable, and un- 
wholesome, -.T^d a larger quantity of sugar and 
spirit will be rehired to render it palatable. 
The common practice w employing unripe goose- 
berries ior the manufacture 6i n,^^^^i^ champagne, 
arises from a total ignorance oi c,,,^ scientific 
principles of wine-making. On the otn^. j^.^^^^j 
if ordinary British fruit bo employed too ripe, u.' 
wine is iipi to be inferior, and deficient in the 
flavor of the fruit. The fruit being gathered, it 
next undergoes the operation of riciciNO, for the 



purpose of removing the stalks and unripe or 
damaged portion. It is next placed in a tub, and 
is well bruised, to facilitate the solvent action of 
the water. Raisins are commonly permitted to 
soak about 24 hours previously to bruising them. 
The bruised fruit is then put into a vat or vessel, 
with a guard placed over the tap-hole, to keep 
back the husks and seeds of the fruit when the 
must or extract is drawn off". The Water is 
now added, and the whole is macerated for 30 or 
40 hours, more or less, during which time the 
magma is frequently roused up with a suitable 
wooden stirrer The liquid portion is next drawn 
off", and the residuary pulp is placed in hair bags 
and undergoes the operation of pressing, to expe 
the fluid it coniAins. The sugar, tartar, &c., are 
now added to the mixed liquors, and the whole is 
well stirred. The temperature being suitable, the 
Vinous Fermentation soon commences, when 
the liquor is frequently skimmed (if necessary) 
and well roused up, and, after 3 or 4 days of this 
treatment, it is run into casks, which should be 
quite filled, and left purging at the bunghole. 
In about a week the flavoring ingredients, in the 
state of coarse powder, are commonly added, and 
well stirred in, and in about another week, de- 
pending upon the state of the fermentation, and 
the attenuation of the must, the Brandy or spirit 
is added, and the cask is filled up, and bunged 
down close. In four or five weeks more, the 
cask is again filled up, and, after some weeks, it 
is " pegged" or " spiled," to ascertain if it be 
fine or transparent ; if so, it undergoes the opera- 
tion of racking ; but if, on the contrary, it still 
continues muddy, it must previously pass through 
the process of fining. Its future treatment is 
similar to that already noticed under Foreign 
Wine. *^* The must of many of the strong- 
flavored fruits, as black currants, for instance, is 
improved by being boiled before being made into 
wine. 

General FoRMULiE for the Preparation of 
British Wines. 

I. From ripe saccharine fruits. 

1. Ripe fruit 4 lbs. ; clear soft water 1 gallon ; 
sugar 3 lbs. ; cream of tartar, dissolved in boihng 
water, H oz. ; brandy 2 to 3§. Flavoring as re- 
quired. Makes a good family wine. 

2. As the last, but using 1 lb. more each of 
fruit and sugar. A superior wine. 

3. As the first, but using 2 lbs. each additional 
fruit and sugar. Very strong. Is good without 
brandy, but better with it. *** 1^ lbs. of.raisins 
may be substituted for each pound of sugar above. 

In the above way may be made the following 
British wines; — gooseberry wins, {British cham- 
pagne ;) — currant wine, {red, white, or black ;) — 
MIXED FRUIT WINE, (currauts and gooseberries, or 
black, red, and white currants, ripe black-heart 
cherries, and raspberries, equal parts ;) this is a 
good family wine ; — cherry wine -, — colepress's 
WINE, (from apples and mulberr es, equal parts ;) 

ELDER WINE ; STRAWBERRY WINK ; RASPBERRY 

WINE ; — MULBERRY WINE, (whcu flavored makes 
British port;) — whortleberry wine, {bilhei-ry 
wine,) makes a good factitious port; — black- 
BKix... wine; — DAMSON WINE, (^uiakes good fac- 
titious port -,)— p, j^ ^ji^p ; — APRICOT WINE ;— 



APPLE WINE : GRAPE WINE 



'NIP WINE ; &.C. 



WIN 



569 



WIN 



II. From dry saccharine fruit, (as raisins.) 

1. Dr)' fruit 4^ lbs. ; clear soft water 1 gallon ; 
cream of tartar (dissolved) 1 oz. ; brandy 1^ to 
2^. Weak. 

2. As the last, but using dried fruit 5^ lbs. A 
superior family wine. 

3. As the last, but using dried fruit 7^ lbs. ; 
and bra^idy 2 to 3-§. A strong wine. Should 
the dried fruit employed be at all deficient in 
saccharine matter, 1 to 3 lbs. may be omitted, 
and half that quantity of sugar, or two thirds of 
raisins added. 

%* In the above manner may be made the 
following wines : — raisin wine — fig wine, &-c. 

III. From acidulous, astringent, or scarcely 
ripe fruits, or those deficient in saccharine 
matter. 

1. Fruit 2^ lbs. ; sugar 3^ lbs. ; cream of tartar 
(dissolved) i oz. ; water 1 gallon ; brandy 2 to 3§. 
Weak refrigerant. 

2. Fruit 3 lbs. ; sugar 4^ lbs. ; creara of laitar ^ 
oz. ; water 1 gallon ; brandy 2 to 3§. A superior 
family wine. 

3. As the last, but with 5^ lbs. of sugar. A 
strong wine. 

*^* In the above way may be made the fol- 
lowing wines : — Gooseberry wine, {English 
champagne ;) — bullys wine, (makes an excellent 
factitious port ;) — damson wine ; &c. 

IV. Fro7n footstalks, leaves, cuttings, ^c- 

1. By infusing them in water, in the proportion 
of 3 to 5 lbs. to the gallon, or q. s. to give a proper 
flavor : and adding sugar to the strained liquor, in 
the proportion of 3 or 4 lbs. to every 6 or 7 lbs. of 
the cuttings used. 

2. As the last, but substitute raisins 1^ lbs. for 
each pound of sugar. . 

*j^* In the above way are made the following 
wines: — Rape wine, (from the pressed cake of 
grapes ;) — English grape wine ; — rhubarb wine, 
(patent or Bath champagne,) from garden rhu- 
barb : &c. 

V. From the saccharine roots and steins of 
plants. 

1. Bruised or sliced vegetable 4 or 5 lbs. ; boil- 
ing water 1 gallon ; infuse till cold, press out the 
liquor, and for each gallon use sugar 3 lbs. ; cream 
of tartar 1 oz. ; brandy about 2§. For some roots 
and stems the water must not be very hot, as 
they are thus rendered troublesome to press. 

2. As the last, but using 1 lb. more sugar. 

*5(t* In the above way may be made the fol- 
lowing wines : — Parsnip wine, (Malmsey ;) — 

TURNIP DO. ; &C. &LC. 

VI. From flowers, spices, aromatics, ^c. 

These are prepared by simply infusing a suf- 
ficient quantity of the bruised ingredients for a 
few days in any simple wine (as that from sugar, 
honey, raisin, &:.c.) previously to racking. 

In the above way are made the following wines : 
Clary wine, (muscadell,) from flowers 1 quart 
to the gallon ;— cowslip wine, (flowers 2 quarts 
to the gallon ;) — elder-flower wine, (fronti- 
gnac,) flowers of white berried elder | pint, and 
lemon juice 2 oz. to the gallon; — ginger wine, 
(li oz. of ginger to the gallon ;) — orange wine, 
(1 dozen sliced, to the gallon ;) — lemon wine, 
(juice of 12 and rinds of 6 to the gallon :) — 
SPRUCE WINE, (\ oz. of csseuce of spruce to the 
72 



gallon ;) — juniper wine, (berries 1 pint to th« 
gallon ;) — peach wine, (4 or 5 sliced, and the 
stones broken, to the gali. ;> — apricot wine, (aa 
peach wine, or with more fruit ;) — quince wine, 
(12 to the gallon;) — rose, clove-gillvklower, 

CARNATION, LAVENDER, VIOLET, PRIMROSE, and 

Other flower wines, (distilled water 1 quart, or 
flowers 1 pint to the gallon ;) — balm wine, (balm 
tops 4 oz. to the gallon ;) &c. 

VII. From saccharine juices, or infusions, or 
from other fermented liquors. 

1. Juice or liquor 1 gallon ; honey or sugar 2 
lbs., (or raisins 3 lbs. ;) cream of tartar 1^ oz. ; 
brandy 1^ to 2§. Very good. 

2. As the last, but using one half more sugar, 
raisins, and brandy. Very fine. 

*5t* In this way are made the following wines : — 
English grape wine ; — mixed fruit wine ; — pine 
apple wine ; — cider wine ; — elder wine ; — birch 
WINE, (from the sap at the end of February or be- 
ginning of March ;) — sycamore wine, (from the 
sap ;) — malt wine, (English Madeira,) from 
strong wort ; — and the wines of any of the saccha- 
rine juices of ripe ^ruit. 

VIII. From simple saccharine matter. 

1. Sugar 2^ lbs. ; cream of tartar ^ oz. ; water 
1 gallon ; honey 1 lb. ; brandy 2 to 3§. Weak. 

2. As the last, but use sugar 3^ lbs. Good. 

3. As the last, but use sugar 5 lbs. Strong. A 
handful of grape leaves or cuttings, bruised, or a 
pint of good malt wort, or mild ale, may be substi- 
tuted for the honey. *** The above are chiefly 
used as bases for other wines, as they have little 
flavor of their own. Raisin wine may be used m- 
stead. 

t4.t In all the preceding formulae lump sugar is 
intended when the wines are wanted very pale, 
and good Muscovado sugar when this is not the 
case. Some of the preceding wines are vastly im- 
proved by substituting good cider, perry, or pale 
ale or malt wort for the whole or a portion of the 
water. Good porter may also be advantageously 
used in this way for some of the red wines. When 
expense is no object, and very strong wines are 
wanted, the expressed juices of the ripe fruits, 
with the addition of 2 or 3 lbs. of sugar per gallon, 
may be substituted for the fruit in substance, and 
the water. 

Examples of British imitations of Foreign 
Wines. 

British Cape. Prep. — 1. (White.) Raisin wine, 
either alone, or worked up with a little cider and 
pale malt wort. — 2. (Red.) British white cape, 
sound rough cider, and mulbeny wine, equal parts ; 
well mixed, and fined down with white of egg or 
bullock's blood. 

British Champagne. Prep. — 1. (White.) a. 
Stoned raisins 7 lbs. ; loaf sugar 21 lbs. ; water 9 
gallons ; crystallized tartaric acid 1 oz. ; Narbonne 
honey ^ lb. ; ferment with sweet yeast 1 lb or less ; 
skim frequently, and when the fermentation is 
nearly over, add coarse-powdered orris root 3 
drachm, and eau de fleurs d'oranges 3 oz. ; lemon 
juice ^ pint ; rack it, bung close, and in 3 months 
fine it down with isinglass ^ oe. ; in 1 month more, 
if not sparkling, again fine it down, and in another 
fortnight bottle it, observing to put a piece of dou- 
ble-refined sugar, the size of a pea, into each bot- 
tle. The bottles should be wired, and covered 



WIN 



570 



WIN 



with tin foil, after the manner of champagne. — b. 
To the last, when the fermentation is nearly over, 
add perry (best pale) 3 gallons. — c. As the pre- 
ceding, but substituting Muscovado sugar for rai- 
sins ; or, what is still better, employ 28 lbs. of dou- 
ble-refined sugar. — d. Bruised amber, hairy cham- 
pagne gooseberries, and cold spring water, equal 
parts ; East India sugar 3^ lbs., to each gallon of 
the strained liquor ; Madeira wine and pale old 
rum, of each 1 quart to every 10 gallons ; fine 
down with isinglass, and bottle in 12 months. A 
sample of this wine obtained the prize of the Hor- 
ticultural Society of Edinburgh. It is better, how- 
ever, when made with lump sugar. — e. From Eng- 
lish grapes and lump sugar. — ■/. From the stalks 
of garden rhubarb and lump sugar ; a little sweet- 
brier, orris, or orange-flower w^ter being added to 
give it a slight bouquet. This forms the patent or 
Bath champagne, of the Champagne Wine Com- 
pany. — 2. (Pink.) To either of the preceding, add 
a little red currant juice to color, or 1 oz. of coarse- 
ly-powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12 gallons, at 
the time of racking. 

*^* The above formulae, managed with judg- 
ment, produce very exact imitations of genuine 
champagne. In fact, it is notorious that two bot- 
tles of wine out of every three sold umder this de- 
nomination in England, is of British manufacture. 
I have myself seen sparkling gooseberry, rhubarb, 
and white sugar wines, sold for imported cham- 
pagne, at 7s. 6d. per bottle, and the fraud has 
passed undetected even by habitual wine-drinkers. 

British Claret. Prep. 1. Good cider and port 
wine equal parts. — 2. To each gallon of the last 
add cream of tartar (genuine) 3 drs., and the juice 
of one lemon. — 3. To either of the preceding 
add French brandy 2 oz. — 4. Instead of port, use 
red cape or British port. *^* If the first three of 
the above are well mixed and fined down, and not 
bottled for a month or five weeks, they can scarce- 
ly be distinguished from good " Bordeaux." A 
mixture of 4 parts of raisin wine with 1 part each 
of raspberry, and barberry or damson wine, also 
forms an excellent factitious claret. 

British Cyprus. Prep. From the juice of 
white elderberries 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar 4 lbs. 
to water 1 gallon, together with ^ dr. each of 
bruised ginger and cloves. When racked add rai- 
sins and brandy, of each 2 oz. 

Honey Wine, (American.) Prep. Honey 20 
lbs. ; cider 12 gallons ; ferment, then add rum ^ 
gallon, brandy j do., red or white tartar (dissolved) 
6 oz., bitter almonds and cloves, of each ^ oz. This 
is also called Mead Wine. 

British Madeira. Prep. Pale malt, ground, 4 
bushels ; boiling water 44 gallons ; infuse, strain 
off this wliile warm, take 24 gallons, and add su- 
gar candy 14 lbs., and cream of tartar 3 oz. ; when 
dissolved, add yeast 2 lbs. ; ferment, keep skim- 
ming off the yeast, and when the fermentation is 
nearly finished, add raisin wine 2^ gallons ; brandy 
and sherry wine, of each 2 gallons ; rum 1 quart ; 
bung it down for G or 9 months. A second infu- 
sion of the inalt may be made for beer. 

British Malmsey. Prep. 1. Sliced parsnips 4 
lbs. ; boiling water 1 gallon ; when cold press out 
the li(iuor, and to each gallon add cr«'am of tartar 
\ oz., and good Muscovado sugar 3 lbs. ; ferment, 
rack, and add brandy 2 to 3g. — 2. Good malt wort 



1 gallon; lump sugar 1^ lbs.; Malaga raisins 9 
lbs. ; brandy 3 to 4§ of the racked liquor 

British Port. Prep. 1. Red cape 2 gallons; 
damson or elder wine 1 gallon ; mix. — 2. To the 
last add brandy ^ pint ; powdered kino 1 dr. — 3. 
{Southampton Port.) Cider 3 gallons ; elder and 
damson wine, of each 1 gallon ; brandy 3^ pints. — 
4. Cider 24 gallons ; juice of elderberries G gallons ; 
port wine 4 gallons ; brandy 1 J gallons ; logwood 
1 lb. ; isinglass 12 oz., dissolved in a gallon of the 
cider ; bung it down ; in 2 months it will be fit to 
bottle, but should not be drunk until the next year ; 
if a rough flavor is required, alum 4 to 6 oz. may 
be added. — 5. {London Port.) Good rough cider, 
red cape, port, and elder wine, of each 6 gallons ;' 
brandy 1 gallon ; as last. 

*^* To make the above wine form a crust on 
the inside of the bottle, i^ spoonful of powdered 
catechu, or ^ a spoonful of finely-powdered cream 
of tartar is added to each bottle before corking. It 
is also a common practice to put the crust on the 
bottle before putting the wine into it, by employ- 
ing a hot saturated solution of red tartar, thickened 
with gc.n, and some powdered tartar. By adding 
a little lemon juice, and a " streak" of orris or or- 
ange-flower water to British port, the ingenious 
wine-brewer converts it into " British Burgundy." 
The latter is also made by mixing together equal 
parts of British port and claret. 

British Sherry. Prep. 1. Cape or raisin wine 
slightly flavored with a very little bitter almond 
cake, or, what is more convenient, a little of tho 
essential oil dissolved in alcohol, {essence of bitter 
almonds.) — 2. To the last add a minute quantity 
of sweetbrier, eau de fleurs d'oranges, or orris, to 
give it a very slight bouquet. — 3. To each gallon 
of strong raisin must, add, when racking, 1 Seville 
orange and 2 bitter almonds, both sliced. By 
omitting the almonds, and adding 2 or 3 green cit- 
rons to each 10 gallons, this forms British Madeira. 
— 4. Loaf sugar 32 lbs. ; sugar candy 10 lbs. ; wa- 
ter 16 gallons ; boil, add pale ale wort (as for Ma- 
deira) 6 gallons ; yeast 1 lb. ; on the third day add 
raisins, stoned, 10 lbs. ; and in another 2 or 3 days 
brandy 1 gallon ; bitter almonds, grated, 1 dr. ; 
bung it down for 4 months, draw it off" into another 
cask, add brandy 1 gallon, and in 3 months bottle 
it. — 5. Teneriffe, slightly flavored with cherry- 
laurel or almonds, forms a most excellent British 
sherry, either alone or diluted with an equal quan- 
tity of Cape or raisin wine. 

*^* The preceding formulae, by skilful manage- 
ment, produce very good imitations of some of the 
imported wines ; but many of the British fruit 
wines possess an equally agreeable flavor, and are 
frequently more wholesome. All British wine re- 
quires to be kept at least a year to " mellow," 
Much of the superiority of foi-eign wine arises from 
its age. 

WINES, IMPREGNATED. These are either 
used in pharmacy or in cookery. The medicated 
wines {vina medicata) are prepared in the same 
manner as tinctures ; they should ho made in well- 
closed vessels and macerated without heat. The 
L. 1*11. of 1824 substituted a diluted s|)!rit for wine, 
still retaining tho name ; but tho wine (sherry) 
was restored in that of 1836. The druggists com 
monly use cape or raisin wine as a menstruum, as 
being cheaper than sherry and equally elUcacious. 



WIN 



571 



WOA 



The vinum' of the P. U. S. is Teneriffe. The 
following are the principal impregnated wines used 
as medicine, or as flavoring. 

Wine, Aloes. Syn. Tinctura Sacra. T. Hierce 
Picr<B. Vinum aloes, (P. L. E. & D.) Prep. (P. 
L.) Powdered aloes f ij ; do. canella ^ss ; sherry 

1 qnart ; macerate 14 day^s. The P. E. substitutes 
cardamoms and ginger, of each 3is3, for canella. 
Dose. As a purgative f §ss to f ^ij ; as a stomachic 
f 3j to f5ij. 

Wine, Antimoniai- Syn. Tartar Emetic 
Wine. Wine of Potas^io-tartrate of Antimony. 
Vinum Antimonii Tartarizati, (P. L. 1788.) Li- 
quor do., (P. L. 1809 and 1824.) V. Antimonii 
Potassio-tartratis, (P. L. 1836) Vinum Antiirio- 
niale, (P. E.) Liq. Tartari Emetici, (P. D.) 
Prep. (P. L. &L E.) Tartarized antimony 9ij ; 
sherry 1 quart ; dissolve. Each fluid oz. contains 

2 grs. of emetic tartar. Dose. As a diaphoretic 
and expectorant 10 to 30 drops, frequently ; as a 
nauseant f 5j to foij ; as an emetic f oij to f ^ss. 

Wine, Basil.. Green basil leaves 4 or 5 oz. ; 
sherry or cape, 1 pint ; di^st for 10 days. Used 
to give a turtle flavor to soups and gravies. 
*#* In a similar way may be made the wines of 
celery leaves and seed, shalotes, and the various 
green and dried herbs used in cookery% 

Wine, Cayenne. Prep. Cayenne 1 oz., sherry 
or cape 1 pint ; steep for a fortnight, and strain. 
%* In a similar way may be made Currie, {pow- 
der,) ragout, (spice,) and several other similar 
wines used in the kitchen. 

Wine. CoLCHicuM. (Root.) Syn. Vinum (Cor- 
mi) Colchici, (P. L. & E.) Prep. (P. L.) Sliced 
and dried conns of meadow saffron ^viij ; sherry 
wine 1 quart ; macerate 14 days. Dose. f3ss to 
f 3j ; in gout, &c. 

Wine, Colchicdm. (Seed.) Sjm. Vinum Sem- 
inum Colchici. Prep. (Dr. Williams.) Seeds of 
meadow saflion (preferably ground in a coffee- 
mill) §ij ; sherry f ^xvj ; as last. Dose, f 3ss to 
f 3iss ; in gout, &c. 

Wine, Gentian. Syn. Bitter Wine. Vinum 
Amara. Vinum Gentiance, (P. E.) Prep. Gen- 
tian in coarse powder fss ; yellow bark (do.) ^j ; 
dried orange-peel 5ij ; canella in coarse powder 
3j ; proof spirit f f ivss ; digest for 24 hours, then 
add sherry 1 pint and f ^xvj, and further digest for 
7 days. Tonic and stomachic. Dose. ^ to 1 oz. 

Wine, Hellebore. Syn. Tincture of White 
Hellebore. T. Veratri Albi. Vinum Veratri, (P. 
L.) Prep. White hellebore, sliced, ^viij ; sherry^ 
wine 1 quart ; digest 14 days. Dose. 10 drops, 2 
or 3 times daily, gradually increased ; as a substi- 
tute for colchicum in gout and rheumatism. 

Wine, Hellebore, (Opiated.) Syn. Mr. 
Moore's Eau Medicinale. Prep. White hellebore 
wine oiij ; tincture of opium 3j ; mix. 

WtNE, Ipecacuanha. Syn. Vinum Ipecacu- 
anhcB, (P. L. E. Sc D.) Bruised ipecacuanha root 
fiiss ; sherry^ 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days. 
Dose. As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 40 
drops ; as an emetic f 3ij to ffss. 

Wine, Iron. Syn. Chalybeate Wine. Vinum 
Ferri. Prep.— I.' (P. L. 1809.) Iron filings ^ij ; 
sherrr 1 quart ; digest with frequent agitation for 
a month. — 2. (P. L. 1824.) Iron filings ^j ; cream 
of tartar 3vj ; water f §j ; mix, expose in an open 
vessel to the air for 6 weeks, adding water as re- 



quired, then dry, powder, dissolve in water f ^xxx 
and add proof spirit f^xx. Rejected from the P. 
L. 1836. A mild chalybeate tonic. Dose. 1 to 4 
drs. 

W^ixE OF Opium. Syn. Vinum Opii, (P. L. E. 
&, D.) Laudanum liquidum Sydenhami, (P. L. 
1720.) Tinctura Thebaica, (P. L. 1745.) Sy- 
denham^s liquid Laudanum. Prep. — 1. (P. L.) 
Extract of opium, P. L., §iiss ; cloves and cinna- 
mon 5iiss ; sherry 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days. 
— 2. (Wholesale.) Extract of opium 10 oz. ; oil of 
cassia 25 drops ; oil of cloves 20 drops ; rectified 
spirit Ij^ pints ; water G^ pints ; coloring q. s. ; di- 
gest with agitation till dissolved. Milder than the 
tincture. Dose. 10 to 60 drops as an anodyne and 
hypnotic. 

Wine of Opium, (Fermented.) Syn. Rous- 
seau's Laudanum. Black-drop. Vinum Opii 
Fermentatione Paratum. Prep. (P. Cod.) Opium 
5iv ; boiling water ^lx ; dissolve, add honey §xij ; 
yeast 3ij ; keep it at 86° F. for a month, or till 
the fermentation is complete ; press, filter, distQ 
off" §xvj, and evaporate the residue to §x ; distil 
the fx\-j of spirit obtained above, till fxij have 
passed over ; and from this, by a third distillation, 
obtain ^'vss, which add to the evaporated solution, 
(^x.) and filter. Considerably stronger than lau- 
danum. (See Black-drop.) 

Wine, Tobacco. Syn. Vinum Tabaci. Prep. 
(P. E.) Tobacco leaves §iiiss ; sherry 1 quart ; 
digest 7 days, strain with strong pressure, and fil- 
ter. Sedative and diuretic. Dose. 10 to 50 drops 
in dropsy, «Scc. 

Wine, Rhubarb. Syn. Vinum Rhcei, (P. E.) 
V. Rhcei Palmati. V. Rhabarbari. Tinctura 
Rhcei Vinosa. Prep. (P. E.) Rhubarb in coarse 
powder ^v ; canella (do.) 3ij ; proof spirit f^v; 
sherry f 5xxx"v ; macerate for 7 days, press, and 
filter. Dose. As a stomachic f 3j to f3iij : as a 
purgative ffss to f 5J. 

WINE TEST. Prep.—l. (Hahnemann's.) 
Quicklime §j, flowers of sulphur §iss ; heat in a 
covered crucible for 5 or 6 minutes ; of this take 
3ij, tartaric acid 3ij ; powder, mix, and shake in a 
stopped bottle with a pint of water ; let it settle, 
pour off" the clear, and add tartaric acid §iss. — 2. 
(Dr. Paris's.) Expose equal parts of sulphur and 
powdered oyster shells to a white heat for 15 min- 
utes, and when cold, add an equal quantity of 
cream of tartar ; these are to be put into a strong 
bottle, with common water, to boil for an hour, and 
the solution is afterwards to be decanted into ounce 
vials, adding twenty drops of muriatic acid to each. 
Both the above tests will throw down the least 
quantity of lead from wines, as a very sensible 
black precipitate. As iron might be accidentally 
contained in the wine, the muriatic acid is atided 
to the last test to prevent the precipitation of that 
metal. 

WOAD. Syn. GL.4STUM. Isatis Tinctoria. 
Vouede ; Pastel, (Fr.) Waid, (Ger.) From 
woad leaves, by grinding them to a paste, of which 
balls are made, placed in heaps, and occasionally 
sprinkled with water to promote the fermentation • 
when this is finished, the woad is allowed to fall 
down into large liunps. On diluting the powdei 
with boiling water, and, after standing for some 
hours in a close vessel, adding about one-twentieth 
its weight of lime newly slaked, digesting in a 



WRI 



572 



XAN 



gentle warmth, and stirring the whole together 
every 3 or 4 hours, a new fermentation begins ; a 
blue froth rises to the surface, and the liquor, 
though it appears itself of a reddish coior, dyes 
woollen of a green ; which, like the green from 
indigo, changes in the air to a blue. This is one 
of the nicest processes in the art of dyeing, and does 
not well succeed in the way of a small experiment 
Used to dye blue, but mostly in combination with 
indigo. Both dye-stuffs are employed in the same 
way. 50 lbs. of woad are reckoned equal to 1 lb. 
of indigo. 

WOOD is polished by carefully rubbing down 
the grain with fine glass-paper, or pumice-stone, 
and then rubbing it, first with finely-powdered 
pumice-stone and water, and afterwards with tri- 
poli and linseed oil, till a proper surface is at- 
tained. 

Wood is stained by the application of any of the 
ordinary liquid dyes employed for wool or cotton. 
They sink deeper into the wood when they are 
applied hot. When the surface is properly stained 
and dried, it is commonly cleaned with a rag dipped 
in oil of turpentine or boiled oil, after which it is 
varnished or polished. Musical instruments, arti- 
cles of the toilette, ^c, are usually treated in this 
way. (See Dyes for Bone and Ivory.) 

WOOL, SPANISH. Syn. Bezetta 'rubra, 
B. Di Levante. Prep. Separate the coloring mat- 
ter from safflower, as in making rouge ; using 
white crape to take the color from the second so- 
lution in subcarbonate of soda-water. Used to 
color the cheeks by rubbing the wool upon them. 

WORM CAKES. 1. (Storey's.) Prep. Calo- 
mel 9j ; jalap 3j , ginger 9ij ; white sugar 1 oz. ; 
vermilion to color ; all in powder ; beat to a mass 
with simple sirup, and divide into 20 cakes. Each 
cake contains 1 gr. of calomel. Dose. 2 to 4 
early in the morning, fasting. — 2. Scammony 2 
oz. ; calomel 1 oz. ; white sugar 2 lbs. ; mucilage 
of tragacanth made with rose-water, q. s. to make 
a mass ; divide into 1960 lozenges. Each lozenge 
weighs about 8 grs., and contains ^ gr. of calomel 
and i gr. of scammony. — 3. As the last, but sub- 
stitute resin of jalap for scammony, and divide 
into only 980 lozenges. Each lozenge contains ^ 
gr. of calomel, and 1 gr. of resin of jalap. 

WORM DRENCHES. Prep. 1. Common 
salt i lb. ; aloes ^ oz. ; boiling water 1 quart ; dis- 
solve. — 2. Oil of turpentine 4 oz. ; gruel 1^ pint ; 
mix. — 3. Oil of turpentine 4 oz. ; linseed oil 8 oz. ; 
thick gruel ^ a pint ; mix well. Used by farriers 
for horses. 

WORMWOOD, (Swiss Extract of.) Syn. 
Extract d' Absinthe de Suisse. Prep. Tops of 
absinthium majus 4 lbs. ; do. absinthium minus 2 
lbs. ; angelica root, calamus aromaticus, seeds of 
anisum chinae, leaves of the dittany of Crete, of 
each 15 grs. ; alcohol at 20° B. 4 gallons ; mace- 
rate for 10 days, then add water 1 gallon, and 
distil 3 gallons by a gentle heat. Tonic and 
stomachic. Served round at some tables after 
wine has been taken freely, to recruit the stomach, 
and enable it to bear more. 

WRITING FLUIDS. Prep. I. (Black.)— a. 
Caustic soda 3j ; water 1 pint ; dissolve, a: d add 
Indian ink, scraped fine, q. s. to give a proper 
degree of blackness. Permanent, incorrodible, and 
flows well from steel pens. — b. Shellac 4 oz. ; 



borax 2 oz. ; water 1 quart ; boil till dissolved, add 
gum arable, dissolved, 2 oz. ; boil, strain, and fur- 
ther add enough of a mixture of equal parts of 
calcined lamp-black and indigo previously tritura- 
ted to an impalpable fineness, to produce a proper 
color ; agitate well, let it stand 2 or 3 hours to 
deposite the coarser portion of the powder, and bot- 
tle for use. Incorrodible, and indestructible when 
dry. It resists the action of water, oil, turpentine, 
alcohol, the dilute acids, chlorine, alkalis, or other 
reagents, unless when so concentrated as to de- 
stroy the paper. It flows easier when the gum is 
omitted. 

JI. (Blue.) a. Dissolve ceruleo-sulphate of po- 
tassa or ammonia in hot water, and when cold 
decant the clear. It is an intense blue, and dries 
nearly black ; is perfectly incorrosive, and very 
permanent and easy flowing. It may be thicken- 
ed with gum water, or diluted with pure rain wa- 
ter, as required. — b. Dissolve blue carmine or sol- 
uble indigo in distilled w»ter, as above. Resembles 
the last, but is scarcely equal to it. — c. Dissolve 
basic or soluble Prussian blue in pure water. This 
is the most permanent and beautiful ink known. 
It is not affected by the addition of alcohol, but is 
immediately precipitated by saline matter. The 
precipitate, however, still possesses the property of 
dissolving in pure water. — d. Dissolve the soluble 
ferrocyanide of potassium and iron in pure water, 
as before. Resembles the last, but is precipitated 
from its solution by alcohol. Either of the prece- 
ding blue fluids may be used as indelible ink to 
mark linen, and will be found very permanent, 
provided the part be first moistened with alum wa- 
ter and dried. 

*^* Soluble Prussian Blue (Basic do. Basic 
sesquiferrocyanide of iron) is obtained by adding 
a solution of protosulphate of iron to a solution of 
ferrocyanide of potassium, (Prussiate of potash.) 
A bluish-white precipitate, turning dark blue by 
exposure, is formed, which is washed till it begins 
to dissolve in the water, and color it blue, when it 
is either collected and dried, or at once dissolved 
in pure water. — Soluble Ferrocyanide of Po- 
tassium AND Iron is made by precipitating a solu- 
tion of a persalt of iron (as the persulphate, perni- 
trate, peracetate, or sesquichloride) by a stronger 
solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, so that the 
latter may be in considerable excess. A blue pre- 
cipitate is formed, which must be treated as be- 
fore. • 



XANTHIC ACID. Syn. Hydroxanthic 
Acid. Bisulphocarbonate of oxide of etiiule. 
(From ^avdbs, yellow, and yevvdoi, I genejate.) A 
peculiar acid, composed of sulphur, carbon, hydro- 
gen, and oxygen, discovered by Zeise. Prep. Dry 
xanthate of potassa is mixed with dilute sulphuric 
or muriatic acid. After a time a milky liquid is 
formed, from which, by the addition of more wa- 
ter, a heavy oily substance is deposited, which 
must be quickly washed with water, and dried by 
standing over chloride of calcium. This is hy- 
drated xanthic acid. *^* A nearly colorless, iii- 
flamniable, oily liquid, having a bitter taste and a 
peculiar, penetrating, disagreeable odor. It is de- 
composed at a temperature above 75° F. The 
compounds of xanthic acid are mostly of a yellow 



YEA 



673 



YEA 



eolor ; hence its name. — Xanthate of Potassa, 
(Bisulphocarbonate of oxide of ethule and Po- 
tassa, Liebig,) is obtiiined by addinor bisulphuret 
of carbon to a saturated solution of fused caustic 
potassa in absolute alcohol, as long as it is dissolv- 
ed. By cooling the solution to 32°, it forms a 
semi-solid mass of crystals, which, after being 
washed with ether, and pressed between bibulous 
paper, must be dried out of contact with the air. 
•Soluble in water and alcohol. 

XANTHINE. This name has been given by 
Kuhlman to the yellow coloring matter of madder. 



YEAST. Syn. Barm. Zumin. Fermentum, (Lot, 
from ferveo, to ferment.) The froth of ferment- 
ing worts. According to Liebig, yeast is a sub- 
stance in a state of putrefaction or fermentation, 
the atoms of which are in a continual motion, and 
this condition it communicates by contact, to fer- 
mentable substances. (See Fermentation.) 

YEAST or BARM, (ARTIFICIAL.) Prep. 
I. Method of preparing Yeast without a Fer- 
ment. — a. It has long been considered a desidera- 
tum to obtain a method of making yeast directly 
and without the aid of any portion of that sub- 
stance. Mr. Fownes has published in the 'Trans- 
actions of the Chemical Society,' a method which, 
although he seems to regard it as new, is to be 
found in the Chemistry of Boerhaave. Neveorthe- 
less it seems to have been long lost sight of, and 
Berzelius, as quoted by Mr. Fownes, states, " that 
although the conversion of a small into a large 
quantity of yeast is a very easy thing, yet to pro- 
duce that substance from the beginning is very 
difficult." The plan of Mr. Fownes, whioh is 
substantially the same- as that of Boerhaave, is as 
follows : — Common wheat flour is to be mixed 
with water into a thick paste, and kept, slightly 
covered, in a moderately warm place, for some 
time. About the third day, it begins to emit a 
little gas, and to exhale a disagreeable, sour odor, 
hke stale milk ; after the lapse of a few days, that 
is, about the sixth or seventh day, the smell 
changes, much gas is evolved, accompanied by a 
distinct and agreeable vinous odor, and it is then 
in a state to excite the vinous fermentation. A 
quantity of wort is next to be prepared, and boiled 
with hops, in the same manner as in the brewing 
of beer, and when cooled to 90° or 100°, the de- 
composed dough, thoroughly mixed with tepid wa- 
ter, is to be added, and the whole is to be kept in 
a warm situation. After the lapse of a few hours, 
active fermentation takes place, carbonic acid is 
disengaged, and when the action is complete, and 
the liquor clear, a large quantity of yeast, of ex*- 
cellent quality, is found at the bottom of the 
v'essel. In one experiment, the following mate- 
rials were used: — A small handful of ordinary 
wheat flour was made into a paste with cold wa- 
ter, covered with paper, and left seven days on the 
mantel-shelf of a room where a fire was kept all 
day, being occasionally stirred ; at the end of that 
period three quarts of malt were mashed in two 
gallons of water, the infusion boiled with the prop- 
er quantity of hops, and, when sufficiently cooled, 
the ferment added. The result was a quantity of 
beer, not very strong, but of an agreeable flavor, 
and a pint of thick yeast, perfectly good for ma- | 



king bread. This must be valuable to colonists and 
residents in the country. Malt is easily made, 
and hops may be omitted, or superseded by some 
other bitter. (Lancet.) 

h. Honey 5 oz. ; powdered tartar 1 oz. ; malt 1 
lb. ; water at 122° F. 3 pints, or q. s. ; stir well 
together, and allow the whole to rest for 2 or 3 
hours, or till the temperature sinks to about 65°, 
at which it must be kept, covered over, when 
yeast will be eliminated. 

c. Boil malt, a quarter of a peck, in 3 pints of 
water ; pour off" 2 pints, and keep it in a warm 
place for 30 hours ; add 4 pints of a similar decoc- 
tion, stir it well in, again ferment, and repeat this 
addition of 4 pints wntil a sufficient quantity of 
yeast is obtained: 10 pints will yield yeast suffi- 
cient for a brewing of 40 gallons ; it is preferable 
to brewers' yeast, particularly when used for rais- 
ing dough. 

II. With a Ferment. — a. (Ure.) Bean flour 
\ lb. ; water 6 quarts ; boil for i rn hour, pour 
the decoction into any suitable vessel, add wheat 
flour 3^ lbs. ; stir well together, and when the 
temperature reaches 55°, add beer yeast 2 quarts ; 
mix well, and keep the mixture in a situation 
where it will not be chilled. In 24 hours after the 
commencement of the fermentation add barley or 
bean flour 7 lbs., make a uniform dough by thor- 
ough kneading, roll it out as thin as a dollar, and 
cut it with a wine-glass into small cakes, which 
must be placed on sieves or laths, and dried in the 
sun, and then preserved in a dry siti ation. For 
use, one of these discs is to be broker into pieces, 
laid in warm water, and set in a warm place 
during 12 hours, when the soft mf ss will serve 
the purpose of beer yeast. 

b. Mix 2 quarts of water with v heat flour, to 
the consistence of thick gruel, bo; . it gently for 
half an hour, and when almost c( id, stir into it ^ 
lb. of sugar, and four spoonfuls of / ood yeast. Put 
the whole in a large jug or earthei vessel, with a 
narrow top, and place it before tf.e fire, so that it 
may, by a moderate heat, fermer /. The fermenta- 
tion will throw up a thin liquor, \ hich pour off" and 
throw away ; keep the remaindf r for use (in a cool 
place) in a bottle, or jug tied over. The same 
quantity of this, as of common yeast, will suffice to 
bake or brew with. Four spoonfuls of this yeast 
will make a fresh quantity as before, and the stock 
may be always kept up, by fermenting the new 
with the remainder of the former quantity. 

Remarks. The preparation of substitutes for 
yeast, has long engaged the attention both of the 
scientific chemist and the practical tradesman. 
The periodicals at one time literally teemed with 
these formulae, and even at the present day some 
of the minor publications amuse their readers in 
the same way. The above processes are the best 
known, and if well managed will prove all that 
can be desired. It were easy to multiply receipts 
on this subject, were they to be indiscriminately 
selected, but the mass of those published are either 
mere trash, or repetitions of others long known. 
Not more than one in a thousand answers when 
tried. *^* Ordinary beer yeast may be kept fresh 
and fit for use for several months, by placing it in 
a close canvass bag, and gently squeezing out the 
moisture in a screw press till the remaining mat- 
ter becomes as stiff" as clay, in which state it must 



YTT 



574 



ZIN 



be preserved in close vessels. This method is gen- 
erally adopted by the brewers in Flanders. An- 
other method is to well whisk the yeast till it forms 
a uniform liquid mass, and then to lay it with a 
soft paint-brush evenly and thinly on dishes, or 
any convenient surface, on which it can be exposed 
to the sun or air ; and the operation must be re- 
peated as soon as the first coat is sufficiently solid, 
and so on, till the layers acquire a proper thick- 
ness, when it must be detached and preserved as 
before. If rendered quite dry, its power of exci- 
ting fermentation will be destroyed. 

YELLOW DYE. Syn. Teinture Jaune, (Fr.) 
The following substances impart a yellow to goods, 
either at once, or after they have been mordanted 
with alumina or tin : — annotto, dyer^s hroom, fus- 
tic, fustet, French berries, quercitron hark, tur- 
meric, barberry root. Goods mordanted with ace- 
tate of lead, and afterwards passed through a bath 
of chromate of potash, acquire a brilliant chrome 
yellow color; solution of sulphate or acetate of 
iron, followed by immersion in potash or lime- 
water, gives a yellow, huff, or orange, — orpiment 
dissolved in ammonia imparts a golden yellow. 

YELLOW, NAPLES. Syn. Jaune Mineral, 
(Fr.) Giallolino, {Ital.) Prep. I. Metallic an- 
timony 12 lbs. ; red lead 8 lbs. ; oxide of zinc 4 
lbs. ; mix, calcine, triturate well together, and fuse 
in a crucible ; the fused mass must be ground and 
elutriated to a fine powder. 

II. Lead 3 lbs. ; common antimony 2 lbs. ; alum 
and common salt 2 oz. ; calcined together. 

III. Flake white 1^ lbs.; diaphoretic antimony 
\ lb. ; calcined alum 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac 2 oz. ; 
calcine in a covered crucible with a moderate heat 
for 3 hours, so that at the end of it, it may be bare- 
ly red hot. More antimony and sal ammoniac 
turns it on the gold color. Used in oil and in por- 
celain painting and enamelling. 

YELLOW, PATENT. Syn. Montpellier 
Yellow. Oxichloride of Lead. Submuriate 
OF do. Prep. I. Common salt 1 cwt. and litharge 
4 cwt., are ground together with water, and kept 
for some time in a gentle heat, water being added 
to supply the loss by evaporation ; the carbonate 
of soda is then washed out with more water, and 
the white residuum heated till it acquires a fine 
yellow color. Used as a paint. 

II. Dry chloride of lead 14 oz. ; pure carbonate 
of lead 13^ oz. ; grind together, fuse and powder. 
Used as a paint. 

YELLOW, WELD. Prep. Fine whiting 4 
lbs. ; water 4 pints ; boil together into a smooth 
paste, and add, gradually, alum ^ oz. in fine pow- 
der. Boil weld in water for a quarter of an hour, 
strain, and add the liquor to the pap of whiting 
and alum until the desired shade of color is obtain- 
ed ; pour into earthen pans, and dry on chalk. 
Used by the paper-hanging makers. 

YTTRIA. Syn. Oxide of Yttrium. A white 
earth discovered by Gadolin in 1794, in a mineral 
from Yttcrby in Sweden, since called Gadolinite. 
Its sp. gr. is 4-812 ; its salts have in general a 
sweetish taste, and the sulphate and several othens 
an amethyst color. Its solutions are preci[)itated 
by pure alkalis, but alkaline carbonates, especially 
carbonate of ammonia, dissolve it in the cold. It 
is distinguished fron) glucina by the color of its sul- 
phate, by being insoluble in pure alkalis, and by 



yielding a white precipitate with prussiate of pot- 
ash. Yttria may be obtained by a similar process 
from Gadolinite to that by which glucina is ex- 
tracted from the beryl. 

YTTRIUM. The metallic base of Yttria. It 
may be obtained in a similar way to that described 
under glucinium. It .is brittle, and has a dark 
gray color. 

ZAFFRE. Syn. Saffra. Safflor. Roasted 
cobalt ore reduced to a very fine powder and 
ground with 2 or 3 parts of very pure quartzose or 
silicious sand. Used as a blue color by enamellers 
and painters on porcelain and glass. Chiefly im- 
ported from Saxony. Zafl^re fused in an earthen 
crucible with about half its weight of potash, and 
the melted mass poured into water and afterwards 
ground into an impalpable powder, forms the beau- 
tiful azure pigment called smalts. 

ZEINE. A name given by Gorham to a yellow 
waxy substance, obtained by treating the portion of 
maize or Indian corn, insoluble in water, with alco- 
hol, and evaporating the solution. 

ZIMOME. (From ^u//)?, ferment.) A name 
given by Taddei to the portion of wheat gluten in- 
soluble in alcohol. (See Gluten.) 

ZINC. Syn. Spelter. Zinc, {Fr. ^ Sp.) Zink, 
{Ger., Dut., Swed., <^ Dan.) Zinco, (Ital.) Zin- 
cuM, (Lat.) This metal was first mentioned by 
Paracelsus in the 16th century, who called it 
zinetum. Its ores must, however, have been pre- 
viously known, as the ancients were acquainted 
with the manufacture of brass. The zinc of com- 
merce is obtained from the native sulphuret {zinc 
blende) or carbonate, {calamine,) by roasting 
those ores, and distilling them along with carbon- 
aceous matter in a covered earthen crucible, hav- 
ing its bottom connected with an iron tube which 
terminates over a vessel of water situated beneath 
the furnace. The first portion that passes over 
contains cadmium and arsenic, and is indicated by 
what is technically called the " brown blaze ;^' bul 
when the metallic vapor begins to burn with a 
bluish white flame, or the " blue blaze" com- 
mences, the volatilized metal is collected. 

Pur. Commercial zinc is never pure. Accord 
ing to the London Ph. its sp. gr. is 6*86, and it is 
almost entirely soluble in diluted sulphuric acid, 
forming a colorless solution. When tested in a 
Marsh's apparatus it should yield no trace of ar- 
senic. The following method, by which several 
pounds of chemically pure zinc may be obtained in 
about \ of an hour, will be found very useful : — 
Melt the zinc of commerce in a common crucible, 
and throw it into a tolerably deep vessel of water, 
taking care that the metal be very hot at the mo- 
ment of rnnning. This operation is not without its 
use, for the more granulated the zinc, the easier it 
is purified. Dry the grains, and dispose them by 
layers in a Hessian crucible with one-fourth of 
their weight of nitrate of potash, using the precau- 
tion to place a slight excess at the top and at the 
bottom. Cover the crucible, and secure the lid, 
then apply heat: a vivid deflagration takes place 
with great disengagement of light, after which re- 
move the crucible from the fire, separate the dross 
with a tube, and lastly, run the ziuc into an ingot 
mould. This zinc, submitted to Marsh's apparatus 
during entire days, has never given any stain, and 



ZIN 



575 



ZIN 



in solution the most sensible reactives — such as 
hydro-siilphocyanic acid — have never indicated 
the least atom of iron. (Journ. de Phurm.) 

Props., Uses, ^c. Zinc is a bluish white metal, 
having the sp. gr. 6-8 to 7-2 ; tough when cold, 
ductile and m.alleable at from 212° to 300°, brittle, 
and easily pulverized at 400° ; fuses at 773°, 
(Daniell,) and sublimes unchanged at a white heat, 
in close vessels. It is scarcely affected by expo- 
sure to air and moisture ; hence its general use in 
the arts for the manufacture of vessels of capacity, 
tubing, «&c., that require lightness and durability. 
Heated to whiteness, (941° Daniell,) in contact 
with the air, it burns with great brilliancy, and is 
converted into oxide, ('flowers of zinc.) It is very 
soluble in dilute sulphuric and muriatic acid, with 
the evolution of hydrogen gas. Zinc is used to 
form galvanic plates ; in fireworks, and in medi- 
cine. 

Tests. 1. The solutions of zinc are precipitated 
white by the pure alkalis and carbonate of am- 
monia, but are completely redissolved by excess of 
the precipitant. — 2. The carbonates of potassa 
and soda give a permanent ichite precipitate of 
carbonate of zinc. — 3. Hydrosulphuret of am- 
monia also gives a white precipitate, and so does 
sulphureted hydrogen when the solution is quite 
neutral. — 4. Prussiate of potash gives a gelatinous 
white, or bluish white precipitate. 

ZINC, ACETATE OF. Syn. Zinci Aortas. 
Prep. — 1. Dissolve oxide of zinc in acetic acid, 
evaporate and crystallize. — 2. Crystallized sul- 
phate of zinc 143 parts ; cr}^stallized acetate of 
lead 190 do. ; dissolve each separately in water, 
mix, filter, evaporate, and crystallize. .Tonic, 
antispasmodic, and emetic. Dose. 1 to 2 grs. ; 
as an emetic 10 to 20 grs. ; externally, 2 or 3 
grs. to water 1 oz., as an astringent lotion or in- 
jection. 

ZINC, BROMIDE OF. Syn. Zixci Bro- 
MiDU.Ai. Prepared like the corresponding salt of 
iron. 

ZINC, CARBONATE OF. Syn. Zmci 
Carbonas. Prep. Add a solution of carbonate 
of soda to another of pure sulphate of zinc ; 
wash iand dry the precipitate. For the impure or 
native carbonate of zinc, {calamina, carhonas zinci 
impura, P. L.,) see Calamine. 

ZINC, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Muriate 
OF Zinc. Butter of do. Zinci Chloridum. 
Do. Murias. Prep. — 1. Evaporate the muriatic 
solution of zinc to dryness, and transmit dry 
muriatic acid gas over the residuum, heated in a 
tube. When pure, colorless, melts at 212°, de- 
liquescent, volatilized at a red heat, soft, like 
butter. — 2. (P. Cod.) Zinc ^xx ; muriatic acid 
q. s. ; dissolve, add nitric acid §j, evaporate to 
dryness, dissolve in water, and add chalk §j ; in 
24 hours filter, and evaporate to dryness. Dose. 
1 to 2 grs. in scrofula, epilepsy, &c. ; and ex- 
ternally as a caustic, or as an astringent lotion, 
(2 grs. to water f f j.) 

ZINC, CYANIDE OF. Syn. Hydrocyan- 
ATE OF Zinc. Cyanuret of do. Zinci Cyani- 
DUM. Do. Cyanuretum. Prep. (M. Heniy.) 
Add a solution of cyanide of potassium to another 
of pure sulphate of zinc ; wash and dry the pre- 
cipitate. Dose. ^ to 1 gr. twice a day, in epilepsy, 
hysteria, and other nervous affections, heartburn, 



worms, &c., and as a substitute for prussic 
acid. 

ZINC, FLUORIDE OF. A white com- 
pound, scarcely soluble in water, obtained by 
acting on oxide of zinc with liquid hydrofluoric 
acid. 

ZINC, IODIDE OF. Syn. Hydriodate op 
Zinc. Zinci Iodidum. Do. Hydriodas. Prep. 
(Duflos.) Iodine 2 parts ; granulated zinc 1 do. ; 
water 4 do. ; proceed as for iodide of iron, only 
employing a glass or porcelain vessel. De- 
liquescent. 15 grs. to water f^vj ; used as a 
coUyrium in scrofulous inflammation of the eye, 
(Poulet ;) 3j to lard §j, as a powerful resolvent to 
scrofulous and other glandular swellings ; rubbed 
on the part twice a day. (Ure.) 

ZINC, OXIDE OF. Syn. Zinci Oxydum, 
(P. L. E. & D.) Zinci Calcinatum. Nihil 
Album. Lana Philosophica. Pompholyx. Flow- 
ers OF Zinc. Calx of do. Flores Zinci. Calx 
DO. Prep. (P. L.) Sulphate of zinc (pure) 
lb. j ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia §viss ; dissolve 
each separately in 6 quarts of water, filter, mix, 
well wash the precipitate with water, and calcine 
it for 2 hours in a strong fire. " White, tasteless, 
entirely soluble in diluted nitric acid without ef- 
fervescence ; and this solution is not affected by 
nitrate of baryta, but yields a white precipitate 
with ammonia, entirely soluble in excess of the 
precipitant." (P. L) Dose. 5 to 10 grs., as an 
antispasmodic ; in epilepsy, &c. Used also as a 
dusting powder, and to make an ointment. It 
has been proposed as a substitute for white lead 
in painting, than which it covers better, but dries 
slower ; requires the addition of dried white 
vitriol. *j^* The last eight synonymes are usual- 
ly applied to the oxide procured by heating the 
metal in contact with air, but its composition, 
properties, and uses are the same as those of the 
oxide, P. L. See Flowers of Zinc. 

ZINC, SULPHATE OF. Syn. Zinci Sul- 
PHAs. Prep. I. (P. L.) Granulated zinc §v ; 
diluted sulphuric acid 1 quart ; dissolve, filter, 
evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside to crys- 
tallize. 

II. The common sulphate of zinc of commerce 
frequently contains copper, cadmium, lead, iron, 
and manganese. By digesting its concentrated 
solution for some time with metallic zinc, it may 
be freed from copper, lead, and cadmium, for 
these metals are all reduced and precipitated in a 
metallic state ; or the acid solution may be treated 
with sulphureted hydrogen as long as any pre- 
cipitate forms. In order to separate the iron, 
chlorine gas is passed into the solution, by which 
the iron is converted into the . protochloride ; if 
this solution be exposed to the air for a length of 
time, it absorbs oxygen, and oxide of iron (basic 
salt?) is deposited as a yellow powder, from which 
the solution must be filtered. If the sulphate 
contain manganese, which is not very often the 
case, the solution must be boiled up a few times 
with purified charcoal, filtered and evaporated. 
(Jour, fur prakt. Chem.) 

Remarks. Pure sulphate of zinc must alone be 
used in medicine. The commercial sulphate 
{white copperas, ichite vitriol, salt of vitriol, 
vitriolum album, sal vitrioli, zincum vitriolatum, 
^c.,) is prepared by roasting native sulphuret.of 



Zli] 



576 



ZUM 



inc {blende) in a reverberatory furnace, lixiviating 
he calcined mass, and evaporating till the liquid 
"orms a white seniicrystalline mass on cooling. 
The pure sulphate is " totally dissolved by water, 
and the white precipitate formed by ammonia is 
redissolved when the ammonia is added in ex- 
cess." (P. L.) " When a solution in 6 waters is 
boiled with a little nitric acid, and a solution of 
ammonia is then added till the oxide of zinc at 
first precipitated is all redissolved, no yellow pre- 
cipitate remains, or a trace only, and the solution 
is colorless." (P. E.) Dose. As an antispasmodic, 
tonic, or expectorant, 1 to 5 grs. ; as an emetic, 
10 to 20 grs. 

ZINKING. Copper and brass vessels may be 
covered with a firmly adherent layer of pure 
zinc, by boiling them in contact with a solution of 
chloride of zinc ; pure zinc turnings being at the 
same time present in considerable excess. The 
same object may be obtained by means of zinc, 
and a solution of sal ammoniac, or caustic potassa. 
(Boettger's Beitrage.) 

ZIRCONIA. Syn. Oxide op Zirconium. 
A white pulverulent earth discovered in the 
jargon, or zircon, of Ceylon, by Klaproth, in 
1789, and it has since been found in the jacinth. 
To obtain it the stone should be calcined and 
thrown into cold water, to render it friable, and 
then powdered in an agate mortar. Mix the 
powder with nine parts of pure potash, and pro- 
ject the mixture by spoonfuls into a red-hot cruci- 
ble, taking care that each portion is fused before 
another is added. Keep the whole in fusion, with 
an increased heat, for an hour and a half. When 
cold, break the crucible, separate its contents. 



powder, and boil in water, to dissolve the alkali. 
Wash the insoluble part; dissolve in muriatic 
acid ; heat the solution, that the silex may fall 
down ; and precipitate the zirconia by caustic 
fixed alkali. Or the zirconia may be precipitated 
by carbonate of soda, and the carbonic acid ex- 
pelled by heat. Zirconia has neither taste nor 
odor, is insoluble in water, and forms salts with 
the acids. It is distinguished from all the other 
earths, except thorina, by being precipitated when 
any of its neutral salts are boiled with a saturated 
solution of sulphate of potassa. It is distinguished 
from alumina and glucina by its salts being pre- 
cipitated by all the pure alkalis, and- by being in- 
soluble when they are added in excess. The pre- 
cipitated hydrate and carbonate are readily solu- 
ble in acids. 

ZIRCONIUM. The metallic base of zirconia. 
It is obtained by heating in a glass tube with a 
spirit lamp, a mixture of potassium, and the 
double fluoride of zirconium and potassium, care- 
fully dried. The product must be washed with 
water, and digested for some time in dilute mu- 
riatic acid. (Berzelius.) The resulting black 
powder is zirconium. It has been but veiy im- 
perfectly examined. 

ZOONIC ACID. A name given by Berthol- 
let to the acid liquid procured by distillation from 
animal substances. It has been shown by 
Thenard to be merely acetic acid. 

ZOOTIC ACID. (See Prussic Acid.) 

ZUMIC ACID. (From k^t^v, leaven.) The 
acid formed in bread, and in sume other vegeta- 
ble substances, which have undergone the acetous 
fermentation. 



THE END, 



H 124 si; 



'4^^ 




h." ^ <^' *'^' PreservationTechnologies £ 



^-^^ " / A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

" '' 111 Thomson Part< Diive 



<> *'7r.' ,0 



.s ^^^ .v^ 



CranberiY Township. PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



o V 






c° .- 



^ \/^-^\/ V^^'.o'' X'^^\/ V' 
•..,.i:-/^. .^\^:;^^.\. .*^^'A•i!..'>.. ..v^\,;^..*o. 




■^-./ • 















N. MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA 46962 







* ..0^ 



